COURSE TITLE SOIL SCIENCE

COURSE CODE SOIL SCI1 NUMBER OF UNITS 3 UNITS

COURSE PRE-REQUISITE/S NONE
MODULE TITLE PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE
CONTACT INFORMATION JAKE L. PASCUAL
OF THE INSTRUCTOR Contact number: 09095041916
FB account: Jake Pascual
Email: pascualjake28@gmail.com

I. COURSE DESCRIPTION
The basic principles of plant growth, including human and environmental influences
and the theoretical and practical application of agronomic principles to crop
production. Includes the historical and economic importance of crop plants for food,
feed, and fiber; origin, classification, and geographic distribution of field crops;
environmental factors and agronomic problems; crop plant breeding, growth,
development, and physiology; cropping systems and practices; seedbed preparation,
tillage, and crop establishment; pests and control; and harvesting, storing, and
marketing practices.

II. COURSE OUTCOME

At the end of the course, given the relevant situations/conditions, the learners will be able to:
 - Determine the importance of soil on crop production

III. MODULE INTRODUCTION

 Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth
including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical,
biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to
the use and management of soils.

IV.LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this module, the learner will be able to:

LO1: Understand the basic definition of soil

LO2: Identify different soil components which affects plant growth and development
LO3: Acknowledge the effect of weathering on the nutrient availability of the soil.
LO4: Identify and recognize the importance of different minerals present in the soil.
LO5: Determine the physical properties of soil
LO6: Understand the textural triangle
LO7: Understand the chemical properties of soil
LO8: Understand the principles and management of soil fertility
LO9: Determine the 17 essential elements
LO10: Distinguish macronutrients from micronutrients
LO11: Interpret the result of soil sampling
LO12: Calculate the fertilizer computation and recommendation

V. COURSE POLICIES
a. The mode of delivery for this subject will be a combination of offline (modules) and
online. The course package contains necessary information needed in this subject. To
enhance further your learning, there will be pre-recorded lectures uploaded in our virtual
classroom;
b. You must follow the study schedule set for this subject for you to be properly guided and
to maintain your progress;
c. You are allowed to have your own pacing in reading the module and other reading
materials but please be reminded that there are some activities that requires you to meet
deadlines and submit your home-based tasks on time;
d. You are free to utilize reading materials online or printed books to enhance your learning;
e. You are advised to frequently check on the virtual classroom and to the group chat for any
update on learning activities given by the instructor;
f. A learning package containing the Course guide, study guide, assignment/activity
 guides, & assessment guide will be uploaded in the virtual classroom and will also be
given in printed forms/digital format
g. Make-up exams will only be given for excused absences (Doctor’s excuse, obituary, etc.)
deemed valid at my discretion. Make-up exams will not be given without written can
send via online notification prior to the exam by the student and approval from the
instructor. I am under no obligation to provide the student with the opportunity to make-
up exams due to unexcused absences. Make-up exams will not be the same exam given to
the rest of the class.
h. Lecture Exams/Final: There will be two exams during the semester (100 points each). The
second will occur during your scheduled final time. Exams will assess your understanding
of the factual material as well as your ability to understand meaning and context and to
synthesize information from more than one lecture. Exams will typically (but not always)
consist of definitions and concepts, short answer and two major essays. Please note, you
will only have the regularly scheduled class time to complete exams. This may apply to all
learners
i. Lab Quizzes: There will be a total of several lab quizzes throughout the semester. Each
quiz will be in practical form where you will be asked to identify specimens. They are
worth 50 points each. The lowest score will be dropped. Spelling will count. If I cannot
understand your answer for any reason, points will be deducted even if you believe it is
correct. You are permitted to write whatever you want in your field guide but you ONLY
permitted to use that guide during the quiz. There will be NO MAKE-UP quizzes given,
even upon presentation of a valid excuse. If you miss the quiz, you will receive zero credit
for that quiz.
j. All assignments and other requirements MUST be submitted ON TIME. Late submissions
will still be admitted provided that the learner will give acceptable/justifiable reason, but
will have a corresponding point deduction;
k. All tasks requiring an individual output MUST be done INDIVIDUALLY;
l. For group projects, it is the responsibility of each learner to get in touch with their
groupmates;
m. Each of you must respect the views and opinions of everyone and practice proper
netiquettes;
n. CHEATING is considered a MORTAL SIN. Any form of cheating will not be tolerated.
Copy-pasted works without proper citation of the author will be rejected. You will be
given only 1 chance to redo your output, otherwise you will be marked failed for that
activity;
o. Learners who failed to submit requirements on time will be marked INCOMPLETE for
the final grade, but will be given a chance to submit their lacking within 1 semester only.
Failure to do so will make them failed from the class;
p. Learners who were able to submit all requirements and taken all the quizzes and exams
but still did not gain a passing grade are marked CONDITIONAL and will be given a
requirement/task to complete to determine if she/he will be able to pass the course;
Consultation time with your instructor is strictly done during working hours only,
8am to 5pm from Monday to Friday. Queries and other matters that concerns the
subject will only be entertained during the specified time and day.
VI. OUTLINE OF TOPICS
Information sheet 1: Soil
Information sheet 2: Approaches in the Study of Soil
Information sheet 3: Fields in the Study of Soil
Information sheet 4: Different Components of Soil

VII. STUDY SCHEDULE

TIME FRAME OUTLINE OF TOPICS
MODULE 1: CONCEPT OF SOIL
I. Soil
Week 1 – 2 II. Approaches in the Study of Soil
III. Fields in the Study of Soil Science
IV. Different Components of a Soil

MODULE 2: WEATHERING AND SOIL FORMATION

I. 3 General Classification of Rocks
II. 8 Most Abundant Elements in Earth Crust
III. Mineral
Week 3-5
IV. 2 General Classification of Minerals
V. 2 Types of Weathering
VI. Factors of Soil Formation
VII. Soil Profile
VIII. Soil Horizon

MODULE 3: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

I. Soil Texture
II. Soil Separates and their Characteristics
III. The Textural Triangle
Week 6-7 IV. The 12 Textural Classification
V. Soil Texture Determination
VI. Soil Structure
VII. Soil Pore Spaces
VIII. Bulk Density
IX. Factors Affecting Bulk Density
X. Particle Density
XI. Porosity

Week 8-10 MODULE 4: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

I. Chemical Nature of Soil Constituents

II. Soil Colloids
 III. Organic Colloids
IV. Inorganic Colloids
V. Ion Exchange
VI. Cation Exchange Capacity
VII. Soil ph
VIII. Soil ph and Nutrient AvailabilitY
IX. Liming
Week 11-13 MODULE 5: SOIL ORGANISM AND ORGANIC MATTER
I. Earthworm
II. Protozoa
III. Bacteria
IV. Fungi
V. Actinomycetes
VI. Algae
VII. Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
VIII. Effects of Organic Matter to Soil Properties
IX. SOM Decomposition
X. Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio
XI. Microbial Transformations of N
XII.
Week 14-16 MODULE 6: PRINCIPLES AND MANAGEMENT OF SOIL
FERTILITY

I. Soil Fertility
II. Soil Productivity
III. Plant Nutrition
IV. Nutrients
V. Metabolic Process
VI. 17 Essential Elements
VII. Macronutrients
VIII. Micronutrients
IX. Mobile Nutrients
X. Immobile Nutrients
XI. Soil Analysis
XII. Soil Sampling
XIII. Fertilizer Computation and Recommendation
XIV.

VIII. STUDY GUIDE

To guide the learners to go along the course package, these icons were used to
represent learning activities that goes along the learning process:

 this icon represents a quiz/exam/guide questions that the learner needed to answer;
 this icon represents the references made used for the contents of this course package;

 this icon represents an information sheet containing the

topic/lesson that the learner must study;

 this icon represents important information the learners have to take note of;

 t h i s i c o n
do;

 t h i s i c o n r e p r
requirement;

 this icon represents the learning objectives for the content/s of the
course package;

 this icon represents the study schedule recommended for the

content/s of this course package including all the learning activities
embedded in each information sheet;

 t h i s i c o n i s u
assessment guides, study guides) that shall help them accomplish
this course package;

 this icon is used to represent the MODULE

INFORMATION
 Information sheet 1:
“WEATHERING AND SOIL FORMATION”

LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. Read and understand information sheet 1 containing the 3 general

classification of rocks;

“3 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS”

I. 3 General classification of Rocks

ROCK: The rocks are generally composed of two or more minerals or an aggregate
of one or more minerals. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical
composition and the way in which it is formed. Rocks are classified according to
characteristics such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability, texture of
the constituent particles, and particle size. These physical properties are the result of
the processes that formed the rocks. Over the course of time, rocks can be
transformed from one type into another, as described by a geological model called
the rock cycle. This transformation produces three general classes of
rock: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
 Petrology ( Greek, Petra means rock, logos means science) deals with science
of rocks.
 Petrography which deals with description of rocks )
 Petrogenesis which is the study of the origin of rocks.
Geologists have classified rocks into three major groups: Igneous, Sedimentary
and Metamorphic.
Igneous Rocks
o originated from magma, a hot fluid mass or rock melt.
Examples of Igneous Rocks
1. Granite: quartz, K-feldspar, biotite
2. Diorite: plagioclase, amphibole, quartz
3. Rhyolite: K-feldspar, quartz, biotite
4. Gabbro: pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
5. Andesite: plagioclase, amphibole, quartz
6. Basalt: pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
7. Obsidian: volcanic glass
8. Volcanic tuff: fragmental volcanic rocks

 Granite and diorite are lighter in color due to the high proportion of light-colored
minerals such as feldspar and muscovite
 Gabbro is dark in color due to the predominance of dark-colored minerals such
as biotite, hornblende, and augite
 Granite is acidic while basalt is basic
 Basalt and andesite are among the dominant soil- forming rocks in the
Philippines. Examples are the soil series of Adtuyon, Antipolo, Guimbalaon, and
Jasaan .
2 modes of igneous rock formation

 Extrusive- happens when the magma is ejected out of the earth’s crust
through volcanic eruption and solidifies on the surface; are fine-grained
and have smaller crystals.
Ex. basalt
 Intrusive- happens when magma solidifies within the earth’s crust.
Ex. Granite
Sedimentary Rocks

 Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the accumulation

and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms or
as chemical precipitates and organic growths in water.
 Consolidated fragments of igneous and/or metamorphic rock.
 Formed from other existing rocks through fragmentation, transport (by
water) and re-cementation
Examples of Sedimentary Rocks
1. Sandstone
2. Siltstone
3. Shale (claystone)
4. Conglomerate
5. Limestone (CaCO3)
6. Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H20)
7. Chert (SiO.quartz)

 Limestone is made up chiefly of the carbonate mineral, calcite or CaCO3

 Dolomite is also a carbonated material composed of calcium magnesium
carbonate CaMg(CO3)2
 Sandstone is composed of cemented sand grains.
 Shale is made up of fine particles of clay which become consolidated after
deposition in bodies of water
 Soils derived from shale/ sandstone are soil series of Alaminos, Bantay, Bauang,
Lugo and Ubay
 Soils derived from limestone are soil series of Faraon, Bolinao, Binangonan, and
Alimodian which are the soils in Cebu and Bohol.
  Metamorphic Rocks
 formed from other existing rocks through the processes or remelting and
recrystallization under very high temperature and pressure.
Examples of metamorphic rocks
Pre-existing rock Metamorphic Rock Equivalent
1.Granite- Gneiss
2.Basalt - Schists
3.Sandstone - Quartzite
4.Limestone - Marble
5.Shale - Slate
6.Conglomerate- Meta-conglomerate

Information sheet 2:
“8 MOST ABUNDANT ELEMENT IN THE EARTH CRUST”

LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. Read and understand information sheet 2 containing the 8 most abundant

element in the earth crust.

“8 MOST ABUNDANT ELEMENT IN THE EARTH CRUST”

II. 8 most Abundant Element in the Earth Crust
1. Oxygen
2. Silicon
3. Aluminum
4. Iron
5. Magnesium
6. Calcium
7. Sodium
8. Potassium

a. Oxygen, O2, is by far the most abundant element in earth's crust

at 46.6 percent, nearly half of the mass of the crust. Oxygen is a
highly reactive element capable of combining with many other
elements to form compounds. It readily combines with silicon (Si)
to form silicate minerals or with iron (Fe) to form various iron ore
compounds.
b. Silicon, Si, is a metalloid, the second most abundant element in
the Earth's crust and accounts for 28 percent of the crust’s
mass. Combined with oxygen, it forms silicate materials, such as
silicon dioxide, SiO 2. Sand consists mostly of silicon dioxide, and
quartz and other crystalline rocks are formed from other silicate
materials. Silicon is also an essential material in the manufacture
of electronics and computer chips.
c. Aluminum, Al, is the third most common element in the Earth's
crust with 8.1 percent of the crust’s mass. All the earth's
aluminum is combined with other elements to form compounds,
and it is never found as a lone element. Aluminum oxide (Al 2O3),
aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH) 3) and potassium aluminum sulfate
(KAl(SO4)2) are common aluminum compounds. Aluminum and
aluminum alloys have a variety of uses from kitchen foil to rocket
manufacturing.
d. Iron, Fe, is the fourth most common element in the Earth’s crust,
accounting for over 5 percent of the crust’s mass. Iron is mostly
obtained from the minerals hematite and magnetite. Of all the
metal refined currently, 90 percent is iron, mostly to make steel,
an alloy of carbon and iron. Iron is also an important nutrient in
the human body.
e. Calcium, Ca, is the most abundant alkaline earth element in the
Earth's crust and makes up approximately 3.6 percent of the
earth’s crust. This fifth most abundant element in the earth’s
crust is a reactive element that readily forms compounds with
oxygen and water and is not found free in nature. Manufacturers
 use calcium compounds in many applications including gypsum
board (drywall), chalk and toothpaste.
f. Sodium, Na, is the most abundant alkali metal in earth’s crust
and composes 2.8 percent of the earth’s crust. The sixth most
abundant element is best known as part of the compound that
makes table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl). Sodium is highly
reactive and not found as a lone element. It is an ingredient in
many useful compounds such as baking soda, caustic soda and
borax. Sodium lamps produce a bright yellow-orange light and are
widely used to light roads and parking lots.
g. Potassium, K, makes up about 2.6 percent of the Earth's crust
and is the seventh most common element. This extremely reactive
element is never found free in nature and forms numerous
compounds. Some of potassium’s compounds are used in the
manufacture of fertilizer, soaps, detergents, and some types of
glass.
h. Magnesium, the eighth most abundant element in the earth’s
crust, comprises approximately 2.1 percent of the crust’s mass.
In nature, magnesium is only found in compounds and not as a
lone element. Magnesium has many applications: In the home, it
may be used as an antacid and laxative, and it is the essential
ingredient of Epsom salts. In industry, magnesium-aluminum
alloy is used in the construction of aircraft and other applications
where strong, light metals are required.

Information sheet 3:
“MINERAL”
 LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. Read and understand information sheet 3 containing the concept of

minerals and the 2 general classification of minerals.

“MINERAL”
Mineral

 Naturally occurring chemical element or compound formed as a

product of inorganic processes.
 Serves as building block of rocks
 The minerals may be defined as naturally occurring, homogeneous
element or inorganic compound having definite chemical composition.
 More than 90 percent of all the minerals in the earth’s crust are
made up of compounds containing Silicon and Oxygen.
 There are over 2500 minerals on earth. Only 30 minerals are
commonly found on the earth’s surface and in surface rocks.
 Most minerals are made from nonliving substances. Many have
crystal shapes. These are three dimensional and hence easy to
recognize

All plants require 17 elements to complete their life cycle, and an additional
four elements have been identified as essential for some plants (Havlin et
al. 2005). With the exception of C, H, and O, which plants obtain from air and
water, plants derive the remaining 14 elements from the soil or through
fertilizers, manures, and amendments (Parikh & James 2012). The bulk of the
soil solid fraction is constituted by soil minerals, which exert significant direct
and indirect influences on the supply and availability of most nutrient
elements. The main processes involved in the release and fixation of nutrient
elements in soils include dissolution-precipitation and adsorption-desorption.

2 General Classification of Minerals

1. Primary Minerals
o Sedimentary rock covers 75-80% of the Earth's crust, and it forms
parent materials for a large majority of soils. Soil parent material
has a significant direct influence on the nutrient element contents
of the soil; this influence is more pronounced in young soils and
diminishes somewhat with increasing soil age and soil weathering.
In order to better understand the effect of soil parent materials on
the soil elemental composition, it is useful to review the
mineralogical composition of common rocks that make up the soil
parent material.
o A primary minerals are formed at temperatures and or pressure
higher than that normally encountered at the earth’s surface.
Primary minerals form at elevated temperatures from cooling
magma during the original solidification of rock or during
metamorphism, and they are usually derived from igneous and
metamorphic rocks in soil (Lapidus 1987). In most soils, feldspars,
micas, and quartz are the main primary mineral constituents, and
pyroxenes and hornblendes are present in smaller amounts.
 e.g. quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, apatite, olivine,
components of igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Primary minerals — including K-feldspars (orthoclase, sanidine,

and microcline), micas (muscovite, biotite, and phlogopite), and
clay-size micas (illite) — are widely distributed in most soil types,
except in highly weathered and sandy soils. These primary
minerals act as an important reservoir for K, with over 90% of K in
soils existing in the structure of these minerals. Significant
amounts of Ca, Na, and Si and smaller amounts of Cu and Mn are
also present in the feldspars. Micas and illite are the most
important source of K in many soils, and they also contain Mg, Fe,
Ca, Na, Si, and a number of micronutrients. Amphiboles and
pyroxenes are vital reservoirs of Mg, Fe, Ca, Si, and most of the
micronutrients. Carbonate minerals, including those derived from
soil parent material and those formed in soil through pedogenic
processes, serve as both a source and a sink for Ca and Mg in
soils.

The physical, chemical, and biological weathering of primary

minerals releases a number of nutrient elements into the soil
solution. Weathering rates and pathways of primary minerals are
highly variable and depend on several factors, including mineral
 properties and climatic conditions. Although the weathering rates
of primary minerals for certain elements may not be fast enough to
meet plant nutrient requirements on a short-term basis,
particularly in managed cropping systems, mineral weathering is
an important and long-term source of several geochemically
derived nutrients. The nutrient supply capacity of a soil through
weathering of primary minerals diminishes as the extent of soil
weathering increases.

2. Secondary Minerals
o form under conditions of temperature and pressure found at the
earth’s surface by the weathering of preexisting minerals.

o Secondary minerals are formed as byproducts of weathering at the

Earth's surface. Usually the formation of secondary minerals
begins near the site where primary minerals are being attacked,
perhaps even originating as coatings on the crystal surfaces (Casey
et al., 1993; Nugent et al., 1998). Although weathering leads to the
loss of Si as a dissolved constituent in stream water . Some Si is
often retained in the formation of secondary minerals.
o Many types of secondary minerals can form in soils
during chemical weathering. The secondary minerals in temperate
forest soils are often dominated by layered silicate or “clay”
minerals. These exist as small (< 0.002-mm) particles that control
the structural and chemical properties of soils. In general, two
types of layers characterize the crystalline structure of
secondary, aluminosilicate clay minerals—Si layers and layers
dominated by Al, Fe, and Mg. These layers are held together by
shared oxygen atoms. Clay minerals and the size of their crystal
units are recognized by the number, order, and ratio of these
layers (Birkeland, 1984). Moderately weathered soils are often
dominated by secondary minerals such
as montmorillonite and illite, which have a 2:1 ratio of Si- to Al-
dominated layers. More strongly weathered soils, such as in the
southeastern United States, are dominated by kaolinite clays with
a 1:1 ratio of layers, reflecting a greater loss of Si.
o Because secondary minerals may incorporate elements important
to biochemistry, one cannot assume that the release of those
elements from primary minerals by weathering leads to an
immediate increase in the pool of ions available for uptake by
 plants. Magnesium is often fixed in the crystal lattice of
montmorillonite, whereas illite contains K (Martin and Sparks,
1985; Harris et al., 1988). These are common secondary minerals
in temperate soils. Similarly, although little nitrogen is contained
in primary minerals, some 2:1 clay minerals incorporate N as
ammonium (NH4) in their crystal lattice (Holloway and Dahlgren,
2002). Ammonium contained in clay minerals can represent more
than 10% of the total N in some soils. The weathering of
sedimentary rocks containing ancient clay minerals with “fixed”
ammonium can release large quantities of nitrogen to stream
waters (Holloway et al., 1998). Recognizing the widespread nitrogen
limitation on land, the release of nitrogen from rock weathering
may play an important role in determining the availability of N for
plant growth in some regions (Baethgen and Alley, 1987; Morford
et al., 2011; Houlton et al., 2018)
 e.g. clay minerals, limonite, gibbsite, calcite, dolomite, gypsum,
rock phosphate.

Information sheet 4:
“WEATHERING”

LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. Read and understand information sheet 4 containing the concept of

weathering.

“WEATHERING”
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks and minerals into soils. Rocks are
broken into three major groups: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. The
rock cycle illustrates how these different types of rocks form.  Weathering is an
integral part of soil development. Depending on the soil-forming factors in an
area, weathering may proceed rapidly over a decade or slowly over millions of
years.
Two Types of Weathering
Physical Weathering
Rocks get broken into pieces but its chemical composition remains unchanged.
This can happen through exfoliation, freeze-thaw cycles, abrasion, root
expansion, and wet-dry cycles.
Types of Physical Weathering
Exfoliation: When temperature of rocks rapidly changes that can expand or
crack rocks. This especially happens with granitic rocks as they were cooling.

Freeze-thaw: When water freezes, it expands. If moisture seeps into cracks

before winter, it can then freeze, driving the rocks apart.
Abrasion: When the wind blows, it can pick up sand and silt, and literally
sandblast rocks into pieces. 
Root Expansion: Like freeze thaw, roots grow bigger every year. These roots
can drive the roots apart.
Chemical Weathering
Chemicals react in the environment all the time, and these cause chemical
weathering. Major chemical reactions include carbonation, dissolution,
hydration, hydrolysis, and oxidation-reduction reaction. All of these reactions
have water involved with them.

Carbonation: When water reacts with carbon dioxide, it creates carbonic acid,

which can dissolve softer rocks.

Dissolution: Limestone and rocks high in salt dissolve when exposed to water.

The water carries away the ions. 

Hydrolysis: Minerals in the rock react with water and surrounding acids. The
hydrogen atoms replace other cations. Feldspar hydrate to clay. 

Oxidation-Reduction: Water and rock particles react with oxygen. This causes

the minerals and materials to rust and turn red. 
Types of Chemical Weathering

Geochemical weathering: takes below the solum Example: oxidation,

reduction, hydration, hydrolysis, dissolution.

Pedochemical weathering: occurs within the solum. Example: redox

reactions, acid weathering of layer silicates, K removal from micas,
carbonation, chelation.

Information sheet 5:
“FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION”

LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. Read and understand information sheet 5 containing the Factors of soil

formation.

“FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION”

Parent material

 The parent material determines the mineralogy and hence the

nutrition status of the soil.
 Soil parent materials can include all different types of bedrock and
any type of unconsolidated sediments, such as glacial deposits and
stream deposits.
 Parent materials influence soil formation through their
mineralogical composition, their texture, and their stratification
(occurrence in layers).
 Transported Parent Material
1. Alluvium – deposited by rivers/streams
2. Colluvium – deposited by gravity in low-lying areas
3. Eolian – deposited by wind in a location
4. Lacustrine – lake deposits
5. Marine – deposits at the bottom of the sea that are exposed to soil
forming factors via climate change or geologic processes
6. Glacial drift – transported by ice
A. Climate
 Affects the amount of leaching that takes place in the soil and the
speed with which soil horizon develop.
1. Temperature
 Influences the rate of reactions – as mean annual temperature
increases, the weathering of rocks and minerals will be faster.
2. Rainfall
 More rainfall- greater weathering.
 Water is necessary in chemical reactions that leads to the degradation
of the parent material
 Leaching occurs when the water moves through the soil and removes
the soluble constituents.
 Water is an agent of soil erosion and deposition of soil materials.
3. Living Organism
 Biotic agents have greatly affected the soil formation process. These
include organisms that live in the soil, such as bacteria and gophers,
and vegetation growing on the surface. Organisms such as earthworm
live in the soil. They churn their way through it by eating it. This
results in the production of nutrient-rich manure in the form of their
excreta. Their movement in the soil helps in its mixing and aeration.
Organisms in the soil can speed up or slow down soil formation.
 Soils formed under forests tend to be more weathered (older in soil
terms) because forests grow in higher rainfall areas. There’s more
 water movement in the root zone and a smaller amount of organic
matter forms.
4. Topography
 Topography, when considered as a soil-forming factor, includes the
following: the geologic structural characteristics of elevation above
mean sea level, aspect (the compass orientation of a landform), slope
configuration (i.e., either convex or concave), and relative position on
a slope (that is, from the toe to the summit). Topography influences
the way the hydrologic cycle affects earth material, principally with
respect to runoff processes and evapotranspiration.
 Slope- refers to steepness (in degrees or percent) from horizontal,
which affects how much soil material is deposited or eroded. Level
soil is the most developed, as it doesn’t lose or gain material. It’s
the change in material that slows the soil-forming process.
 Aspect- is the direction the slope faces relative to the sun (compass
direction), which affects the amount of water that moves through
the soil.
 Soil erosion by water or wind removes A horizons and
exposes B horizons to weathering. Major portions of entire soil profiles
can move downslope suddenly by the combined action of water and
gravity. Catastrophic natural events, such as volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, and devastating storms, can have obvious consequences
for the instability of geomorphologic patterns.
5. Time
 Even under ideal conditions, the soil takes thousands of years to
develop. The soil-forming factors of parent material and topography
are largely site-related (attributes of the terrain), whereas those of
climate and organisms are largely flux-related (inputs from the
surroundings). The degree of aging depends on the intensity of the
other four soil-forming factors.

Factors that slow Soil Formation

 High lime content in the parent material.

 High quartz content in the parent material.
 High clay content in the parent material.
 Hard rock parent material (resistant to weathering).
 Low rainfall.
 Low humidity.
 Cold temperature.
 Steep slopes.
  High water table.
 Severe erosion.
 Constant deposition, accumulations, and mixing by animals or man

In general the following happens with time for a soil

• Thicker horizons that sink deeper into the parent material
• Increased iron content
• Increased clay content
• Increased acidity
• Leaching of nutrients
Four Basic Processes of Soil Formation
1. Transformation
 Soil constituent are chemically or physically modified or destroyed
and others are synthesized from precursor materials
 changes to soil structure, development of clay minerals, weathering of
minerals to elements
2. Translocation
 movement of organic and inorganic materials horizontally or vertically
across a pedon
 movement from one horizon to another of organic matter, clay, water,
iron and nutrients in colloidal size
 clay films on peds are evidence of translocation
3. Addition
 inputs of materials from outside sources (i.e. plant litter, water,
organic matter, air, soil particles, salt)
4. Losses
 materials that are removed from the soil profile by leaching or erosion

“Information sheet 6”
 “Soil Profile and Soil Horizon”

LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. Read and understand information sheet 6 containing the concept of soil profile
and soil horizon.

“Soil Profile and Soil Horizon”

Soil Profile

The soil profile is defined as a vertical section of the soil from the ground
surface downwards to where the soil meets the underlying rock. The soil profile
can be as little as 10 cm thick in immature soils and as deep as several meters
in tropical areas where the climate is conducive to rapid alteration of the
underlying rock to form soil. In temperate areas, the soil profile is often around
a meter deep and in arid areas somewhat shallower than this.

The soil profile is an important tool in nutrient management. By examining a

soil profile, we can gain valuable insight into soil fertility. As the soil weathers
and/or organic matter decomposes, the profile of the soil changes. For
instance, a highly weathered, infertile soil usually contains a light-colored layer
in the subsurface soil from which nutrients have leached away. On the other
hand, a highly fertile soil often has a deep surface layer that contains high
amounts of organic matter. With clues provided by soil profile, we can begin to
predict how a soil will perform under certain nutrient management conditions.

The world’s soils are like blankets that cover most of the earth’s land surfaces.
We could not survive without it since most crops would not be able to grow in
the dense rock that lies underneath. There is no uniform depth to our earth’s
soils. While it can be absent in places of exposed bedrock, soil may extend up
to tens of meters into the earth’s surface. Although this may not seem
insignificant when compared to the depth to the core of the earth, the soil
profile can be very intricate and diverse. In fact, the soil profile is made up of
distinct layers, known as horizons. The five most common horizons are
collectively known as the master horizons. Figure 5 below depicts a road cut in
Maui which shows the multitude of layers that can exist in soil. Though the
soil profiles in Figure 6 belong to two very different soils, both contain distinct
surface and subsurface soil layers.

Scientists have developed methods to describe the various components and

characteristics of the soil profile. By using common terminology, soil profile
descriptions are valuable for deciding how the soil might be used and/or
predicting how the soil might react to its intended use. Technical descriptions
of the soil are not only useful for farmers, but for scientists, ecologists, soil
engineers, hydrologists and land use planners.

A soil horizon makes up a distinct layer of soil. The horizon runs roughly

parallel to the soil surface and has different properties and characteristics than
the adjacent layers above and below. The soil profile is a vertical section of the
soil that depicts all of its horizons. The soil profile extends from the soil surface
to the parent rock material.

The regolith includes all of the weathered material within the profile. The

regolith has two components: the solum and the saprolite. The solum includes
the upper horizons with the most weathered portion of the profile. The saprolite
is the least weathered portion that lies directly above the solid, consolidated
bedrock but beneath the regolith.

O= ORGANIC
A=MINERAL

E=ILLUVIAL

( LEACHED)
B=ILLUVIAL

C=LITTELE
ALTERATION

R=HARD BEDROCK
.

A Surface Horizon
 O Horizon. The O horizon is the upper layer of the topsoil which is
mainly composed of organic materials such as dried leaves, grasses, dead
leaves, small rocks, twigs, surface organisms, fallen trees, and other
 decomposed organic matter. This horizon of soil is often black brown or
dark brown in colour and this is mainly because of the presence of
organic content.
 i subscript – undecomposed plant parts
 e subscript – moderate decomposition
 a subscript - almost completely decomposed
 A Horizon/Topsoil. This layer is rich in organic material and is known as
the humus layer. This layer consists of both organic matter and other
decomposed materials. The topsoil is soft and porous to hold enough air
and water.
B. Subsurface Horizon
 E Horizon. This layer is composed of nutrients leached from the O and A
horizons. This layer is more common in forested areas and has lower clay
content.
 Not all soils have E Horizon
 B Horizon. It is the subsurface horizon, present just below the topsoil
and above the bedrock. It is comparatively harder and compact than
topsoil. It contains less humus, soluble minerals, and organic matter. It
is a site of deposition of certain minerals and metal salts such as iron
oxide.
 Zone of illuviation or accumulations
 Bt- zone of illuviation of clay particles
 Bh- accumulation of humus
 Bs – accumulation of iron
 Bk – accumulation of calcium carbonate
 Bw – color development where illuvial material is absent.
 C Horizon. This layer is devoid of any organic matter and is made up of
broken bedrock. This layer is also known as saprolite. The geological
material present in this zone is cemented.
 Referred to as parent material of the soil
 Little altered by the soil forming processes
 R Horizon. It is a compacted and cemented layer. Different types of rocks
such as granite, basalt and limestone are found here.

IX. ACTIVITY GUIDE

(instructions/guidelines/procedures in performing each learning activity intended to
assess learning of all students are completely explained in this area)
1. DISCUSSION FORUM GUIDE
GUIDELINES:
discussion forum is an electronic message boards for asynchronous communication
regarding the concepts being tackled in our class. You are expected to post your
thoughts in a conversational tone.
 I will be posting guide questions for discussion in our virtual classroom. You are
expected to post at least twice to thrice on each forum. Your first post will an
answer for the guide question, and you are also encouraged to respond or react to
the postings of your classmates;
 Discussion forums are intended for conversations about our topic, you are
expected to be at your modest when interacting with each other. Postings that are
out of the topics gives the learner a deduction point;
 Remember that when you post your comments/reactions, you must respect the
opinions of your classmates and to always have proper netiquette when
conversing with each other;
 Please refrain from copy-pasting works of others. You can use them as your
reference then summarize the idea/thought but make sure to properly cite your
sources;
 Be guided by the rubric to be uploaded in the virtual classroom for the assessment
of your participation.

2. VIDEO RECORDED DEMONSTRATION GUIDE and NARRATIVE

REPORT:
(Not Applicable for this Chapter)
3. Activity Guide
i. Your activity/assessment test on this chapter will be uploaded at our
google classroom.
ii. The activity/assessment test will be posted at google classroom 2 days
before the end of your scheduled time of chapter discussion or reading,
(ex. The chapter will be 2 weeks scheduled( sept. 27- oct. 8)
iii. the activity/ assessment test will be posted on oct. 7 at 8:00 am and it
will be scheduled to closed automatically t oct. 8 at 11:59 pm.

CRITERIA 4 3 2 1

X. ASSESSMENT GUIDE
(Performance of learners will be graded as the following assessment percentage
presented below)
LECTURE CLASS STANDING 60%
 DISCUSSION FORUM-
  JOURNAL-
 NARRATIVE REPORT –
CHAPTER EVALUATION 40%
 ASSESSMENT TEST
 PERFORMANCE TEST
 QUIZ
 EXAMINATION
LABORATORY
LABORATORY PERFORMANCE 60%
 VIDEO RECORDED DEMONSTRATION
LABORATORY ASSESSMENT 40%
 NARRATIVE REPORT
 LABORATORY EXAM
 LABOATORY QUIZ

GRADING SYSTEM:
a. MIDTERM GRADE:
Class standings = 60%
Major Exam = 40%

q. TENTATIVE FINAL GRADE:

Class standings = 60%
Major Exam = 40%

*** FINAL GRADE =mid. Grade (40%) + tentative Final grade(60%)

XI. REFERENCES
(the following materials are used as references in creating the content of these course
package)
TEXTBOOKS GREEN EMPIRE REVIEWER
Soil microbiology
Article By:
Norton, Jeanette 
EBOOKS Soil Management and Conservation: An Approach to Mitigate
and Ameliorate Soil Contamination
By Oluwatosin Ayobami Ogunsola, Odunayo David Adeniyi and
Victoria Abimbola Adedokun

WEB/INTERNE https://www.iaea.org/topics/improving-soil-fertility
T SITE
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil
https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/farm-
management/soil/what-is-soil
https://www.iaea.org/topics/improving-soil-fertility

YOUTUBE
VIDEO
XII. THE INSTRUCTOR
JAKE L. PASCUAL, RA