Republic of the Philippines

MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY-SULU

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Capitol Site, Jolo, Sulu

MODULE
IN
SSC001
PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE

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TABLE OF CONTENT TOPIC # IV

TOPIC # I SOIL DEVELOPMENTS

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE 1. Soil forming rocks

2. Weathering process
1. Definition of soil science
3. General stages of weathering
2. Approaches of soil science
4. The Soil profile
3. Self-check I
5. Self-check IV
TOPIC # II TOPIC # V
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL
SOIL PROPERTIES
1. Definition of soil
1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
2. Phases of soil
- Soil composition
3. Component of soil
- Soil texture
4. Self-check II
Soil texture‟s sizes and its characteristics
TOPIC # III Generalized characteristics associated with
the soil separates
SOIL GENESIS Soil textural groups and class
- Soil structure
1. Definition of soil genesis
- Soil consistency
2. Processes of soil formation - Soil color
- Soil density
3. Formation of soil horizons - Soil porosity
4. Factors of soil formation - Soil water
2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
5. Self-check III - Properties of colloids.
- Ion exchange in the soil

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 - Nutrient supply and availability - Classes of inorganic fertilizer
- Soil pH - Fertilizer application
3. BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL - Three methods of fertilizer application
- The biological processes in soils; - Proper placement of fertilizers
- Microorganisms in the soil - Self- check VI
- The soil organic matter
- Function of organic matter in the soil;
TOPIC # VII
- Self-check V
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
TOPIC # VI
1. Purposes of soil classification
SOIL FERTILITY AND MANAGEMENTS
2. Two major feature of soil taxonomy
1. Factors of soil fertility
2. Criteria of essentiality of plant nutrient 3. Soil temperature regime
elements
4. Soil moisture regime
3. Physiological functions of nutrient elements
in plants 5. Soil diagnostic horizon
4. Processes by which nutrients are added in
the soil. 6. Soil orders
5. Mechanisms of nutrient uptake
7.Self-check VII
6. Mechanism of nutrient movement in soil to
plant roots ion absorption by plants
7. Nutrient mobility in the plant
8. Nutrient uptake mechanism
9. Factors affecting nutrient uptake
10. Soil management practices
11. Fertilizer
- Types of fertilizer

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Introduction:

Agriculture is the science, art and occupation TOPIC # I

of cultivating soil Producing Crops and raising
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE
Livestock. Soil Science is important to agriculture
because without Soil, Plant cannot grow well. Soil a. What is soil science?
science deals with the study of Soil.
Soil science is a body of knowledge evolve
This Module covers the topic on Soil genesis, from the study of soil through application of
Soil composition, Soil development, Soil properties, Chemistry, Physics, Biology and Geology.
Soil Fertility and management and Soil
Classification and Soil survey.

Learning objectives: b. Approaches of soil science.

a. To know the importance of soil to living There are two approaches in soil science, the
things and to agriculture. Pedological approaches and edaphological
b. Identify the properties, origin, and approach.
classification of soil and how it will affect
the production of crop
Pedological approach is an approach of soil
Course outline:
science which deals with the study of soil, and puts
a. Introduction to soil science. more emphasis on its origin, characteristics,
b. Introduction to soil and its function. classification and description.
c. Soil Genesis,
The origins of the soils, its classification and
d. Soil development.
its description are evolved in Pedology. Pedologist
e. Soil properties.
considers soil as the natural body and does not
f. Soil Fertility and Management.
focus primary on the soil‟s immediate practical
g. Soil classification and survey.
utilization. Pedologist studies, examines and

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classifies soil as they occur in the natural TOPIC # II
environment.
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL AND ITS FUNCTION
Edapological approach an approach which
a. What is Soil?
is more concerned on practical utilization of soil
and its principles of maintaining its fertility. Soil is a natural body comprised of solids
(minerals and organic matter) liquid, and gases that
It is the study of soil from the stand points of
occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and
higher plants. It considers various properties of soil
characterized by one or both of the following
as they relate to plant production. The edaphologist
horizon or layers that are distinguishable from the
is practical, having the production of food and fiber
initial material as the result of additions, losses,
as ultimate goals. Simultaneously, the edaphologist
transfers, and transformation of the energy and
must be scientist to determine the reasons for
matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a
variation in the soil productivity, and to find means
natural environment.
of conserving and improving soil productivity.
The upper limit of soil is the boundary
between soil and air, shallow water live plants, the
Self-check I. materials that have not begun to decompose.

1. Explain what is soil science? The lower boundary that separates soil from
2. Differentiate the word Pedology to soil from the non-soil underneath is most difficult
edaphology. to define. Soil consist of horizons near the earth‟s
3. Why do we need to study soil science? surface that, in contrast to the underlying parent
materials, have been altered by the interaction of
climate, relief, and living organisms over time.
Commonly, soil grades at its lower boundary to
hard rock or to earthy materials virtually devoid of
animals, roots, or other marks of biological activity.

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 It contains minerals and gravel from the
chemical and physical weathering of rocks,
decaying organic matter (humus), microorganism,
insects, nutrients, water, and air. Soils differ
according to the climate, geological structure, and
rainfall of the area and are constantly being formed
and removed by natural, animal, and human
activity.
Soil is the outer covering of the earth. It is n
of the most important natural resources. Soil is
necessary for plant to grow. It provides food for
plants which in turn furnish food for human and
animals.
b. The phases of soil.
Soil is a complex system, made of solid, liquid
and gaseous materials.
Soil is the three phases or polyphonic system
comprising of the foolowing:
 Solid phase.
 Liquid phase.
 Gaseous phase.
SOLID PHASE
The solid phase is made of minerals, organic
matter, and various chemical compounds. The
mineral particles are the chief component of soils.
The organic fraction consist of both plants and
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animal matter in two phases either alive or
indifferent stages of decomposition. The chemical
component of soil these are any substance
composed of identical molecules consisting of atoms
of two or more chemical elements.
LIQUID PHASE
The liquid phase of soil consists of water,
dissolved minerals and soluble organic matter. This
is known as soil water, which is stored in the space.
This pore space is the most important physical
structure and play vital role in irrigation studies.
Plant absorbs water from the pore spaces and
hence this water must be replenish by rain or
irrigation water for the successful growth of crops.
Hence soil serves as reservoir for moisture.
GASEOUS PHASE
The space between the soil particles are
not only filled with water, but some spaces are
occupied with air. The soil air differ from
atmospheric air in its composition.
c. What are the components of Soil?
Soil is comprised of minerals, soil organic
matter, water and air. The mineral and SOM make
up the solid fraction whereas air and water
comprise the pore space.

Physically, soil consist of stone, large pebbles,
dead plant twigs, roots, leaves, and other parts of
the plants, fine sand, silt, clay and humus derived
from the decomposition of organic matter. In the
organic matter portion of the soil about half of the
organic matter comprised of the dead remains of
the soil life in all stages of decomposition and the
remaining half of the organic matter in the soil is
alive. The living part of the organic matter consist of
plant roots, bacteria, earthworms, algae, fungi,
nematodes actinomycetes and many other living
organisms.
d. Function of Soil.
- Soil is a medium for plant growth.
- Soil is a natural filter, buffer and regulator.
- Soil is a habitat for soil organisms
- Soil is an engineering medium and
foundation
Self-check II
1. Explain briefly what is soil?
2. Enumerate the phases of soil.
3. What are the components of soil?
4. Give the function of soil.
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TOPIC # III
SOIL GENESIS
a. Soil Genesis
Soil genesis refers to the formation of soil
from parent rocks through soil forming process and
as affected by the factors of soil formation.
b. Processes of soil formation
 Transformation- soil constituents are
changed, destroyed, or synthesi.
 Translocation- movement of soil materials
from one part of the soil profile to another
mainly due to water movement.
 Addition- inputs of materials from the
atmosphere and vegetation.
 Losses- losses of materials from the profile by
leaching erosion.
c. Formation of soil horizons.
Soil formations stimulated by climate and
living organisms over period of time under
modifying influence of topography.
d. Factors of soil formation
Soil formation is affected by the following
factors like, Parent materials, climate, living
organisms, Topography and time.
 1. PARENT MATERIALS
It is the geologic or organic precursor to the
soil brought to the earth‟s surface by a variety of
the geologic processes: greatly affect the properties
of the soil especially at the later stage of soil
development.
Classification of parent materials
1. A. Residual –formed by weathering of in place
(not moved).
2. B. Transported- moved by wind, water, ice
or gravity.
o Colluvial - poorly sorted mostly
angular rock fragments moved by
gravity.
o Alluvial – deposited by rivers in
floodplains, alluvial fans and river
deltas.
o Marine- deposited by oceans, many are
rich in sulfur which may lead to severe
acidification.
o Lacustrine- deposited by lakes, well-
sorted material.
o Glacial till- material \s deposited
directly by ice.
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o Eolian- deposited by wind which
includes dune sand, loess and aerosolic
dust.
C. Organic – accumulated plant debris
collectively called peat.
o Fibric – the plant residues are intact
and can be identified.
o Muck or supric- most materials have
been decomposed (not identifiable).
2. CLIMATE
Probably the most influential factor since it
determines the nature and intensity of weathering
over large geographic areas. The principal variable
are rainfall and temperature.
3. LIVING ORGANISMS.
Functions of living organism in soil formation
are;
o Organic matter accumulation.
o Biochemical weathering.
o Bioturbation
o Nutrient cycling.
o Structure formation.
o Reduction of soil erosion.
 4. TOPOGRAPHY OR RELIEF- TOPIC # IV

The configuration of the land surface and is SOIL DEVELOPMENT

described in tern of differences in elevation, slope
All soil begins with solid rocks since the
and landscape.
beginning of earth .wind, running, water, rain,
5. TIME. earthquake, landslide and other forces of nature
have change rocks into soils
Self-check III
a. Soil forming rocks.
1. Define what soil genesis is?
2. What are the processes of soil formation?
1. Igneous rocks – these are called as the
3. Explain how does the soil horizon formed? ancestor of all rocks, where one hot molten
4. Enumerates the factors that affect soil
liquid mass called magma which
formation and explain each. subsequently cooled into firm hard rocks.
Crystallization- the process by which
magma solidifies.

Examples are: Granite, Diorite, Rhyolite,

gabbro, andesite, basalt obsidian and
volcanic tuff.
2. Sedimentary rocks- are consolidated
fragments of igneous and metamorphic rock.

Examples are sandstones, siltstone, mudstone

or clay stone, limestone, gypsum.

3. Metamorphic rocks- a product of the

reaction of very high temperature and
pressure on sedimentary and igneous rocks.

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 Examples Chemical weathering- rocks are broken-
down by chemical means, it t tends to weaken
Pre-existing rocks Metamorphic rocks
rocks thereby making it easier to break.
1. Granite ---------------------- Gneiss
STAGES OF WEATHERING
2. Basalt -------------------------- Schist
1. Early stage- easily weatherable minerals like
3. Sandstones ---------------------- quartzite olivine, amphibole, gypsum and calcite are
altered or dissolved.
4. Limestone --------- ---------- marble 2. Middle stage- there is intensification of
weathering and it has reached an advanced
5. Shale ------ ------------- Slate.
stage.
3. Late stage- only the resistant minerals
remain.
B.Weathering process

Weathering is the process by which rocks are b. The Soil profile

broken into smaller pieces. Weathering of rocks has
three types, the physical weathering, chemical
weathering, and mechanical weathering.
Physical weathering- rocks set down into
smaller pieces but its chemical composition remain
unchanged.
-Mechanical weathering- the rocks are
broken-down into smaller pieces by mechanical
means and its composition remains unchanged.
Soil profile is a vertical section showing
sequence of horizon, it is also the arrangement and
properties of soil layers. The five master horizon are
recognized (O, A, E, B and C)
O Horizon- organic horizon above the mineral
horizon.
A horizon- top most mineral horizon: high in OM.
E Horizon- zone of maximum leaching or eluviation
of clay & iron making the layer rich I sand silt and
bleached.

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B Horizon- Form below an O, A, or E and have TOPIC # V
undergone sufficient changes during soil genesis.
SOIL PROPERTIES
C Horizon- the unconsolidated materials
Soils have many different properties,
underlying the solum.
including texture, Structure or architecture, water
R Horizon- the consolidated rock. holding capacity and pH . These properties combine
to make soils useful for a wide range of purposes.
Self-check IV
Soil properties govern what type of plants grows in
1. How does a soil begin? a soil or what particular crop grows in a region.
2. What are the soil- forming rocks?
Some properties of soil given are physical
3. Give the types of weathering process. properties, chemical properties and biological
4. What are the general stages of weathering?
properties.
5. Define what is soil profile?
a. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL.

The physical properties of a soil are those

characteristics which can be seen with the eye
or felt between the thumb and fingers.They are the
result of soil parent materials being acted upon by :
climatic factors (such as rainfall and
temperature), affected by topography (slope
and direction, or aspect) and life forms (kind and
amount, such as forest, grass, or soil animals) over
a period of time. The soil physical properties are
SOIL COMPOSITION, SOIL STRUCTURE, SOIL
COLOR, SOIL COSISTENCY, SOIL TEXTURE,
SOIL DENSITY, SOIL POROSITY AND SOIL
WATER.

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 SOIL COMPOSITION Soil Texture depends on the relative amounts
of sand, silt, and clay.In each texture class, there is
The soil components are mineral matter, organic
a range in the amount of sand, silt, and clay that
matter, air and water. class contains. Classification of Soil Particles are;
- The mineral matter is composed of weathered Sand, Silt and Clay.
rocks and minerals.

- The organic matter of decayed plant and Soil Separates And Its Characteristics
animal bodies.
Diameter
- The gasses are found in the pores and are range (mm)
composed of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide Soil
separate USDA : ISSS Characteristics and FEEL
and other gasses.

- The water is also in the pores that contain 2- 2- Coarse, and gritty,
0.O5 0.02
dissolved gases and nutrients. SAND

SOIL TEXTURE 0.02-

SILT 0.05- 0.002
The relative amounts of differently sized soil 0.002
Smooth and powdery
particles, or the fineness/ coarseness of the mineral
particles in the soil.
CLAY < <
The term Soil Texture, Carries both 0.002 0.002 Sticky and plastic when
qualitative (the „feel”) and quantitative (the moist
measured distribution or proportions of the particle
sizes).

Soil texture development is a pedogenic

process wherein there is a change in particle size
from a huge rock to a particulate of 2 mm or less.

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Generalized characteristics associated with the changes
soil separates

Total surface low Medium high

SILT CLAY area
SAND
Water-
holding Low medium to high
capacity high
Soil textural groups and class

Good Moderate poor

Aeration Textural Group Textural Classes

Sand
Coarse Loamy Sand
Drainage High Slow to Very
rate medium slow Sandy

Moderately Course Sandy Loam

Low Medium high
Compactibiliy
Loamy Loam
Silt Loam
Medium Silt
Ability to Poor Medium to high Clay Loam
store plant high Moderately Fine Sandy Clay Loam
nutrients Silty Clay Loam

Sandy Clay
Resistance Low Medium high Silty Clay
Clayey Fine Clay
to pH

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Loam is a soil texture wherein the characteristics Blocky: Irregular blocks that are usually 1.5 - 5.0
and properties of sand, silt and clay are manifested cm in diameter
in the soil in almost equal proportion.

SOIL STRUCTURE

Soil structure is defined as the shape and

arrangement of soil particles with respect to each Prismatic: Vertical columns of soil that might be
other in a soil mass or block. It is the arrangement a number of cm long. Usually found in lower
of individual particles and their aggregates into horizons.
certain distinct or clear patterns.

Soil structures are;

Granular: Resembles cookie crumbs and is

usually less than 0.5 cm in diameter. Commonly
found in surface horizons where roots have been
growing.
Columnar: Vertical columns of soil that have
a salt "cap" at the top. Found in soils of arid
climates.

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 Platy: Thin, flat plates of soil that lie SOIL CONSISTENCY
horizontally. Usually found in compacted soil.
Soil Consistency refers to the manifestation
of physical forces of cohesion and adhesion acting
within the soil at various moisture contents.

Forms of Soil Consistency:

Sticky - the property of stickiness or adherence to

Single Grained: Soil is broken into individual various objects.
particles that do not stick together. Always
accompanies a loose consistence. Commonly found Plastic - properties of toughness and the capacity
in sandy soils. to be puddled.

Soft - characterized by friability.

Harsh - characterized by hardness.

SOIL COLOR

Soil color is one of the most important soil

Massive: Soil has no visible structure, is characteristics for identification, especially if
hard to break apart and appears in very large clods combined with structure. Munsell color chart is
the standard color comparison chart.

The soil descriptions are;

Hue- the dominant of spectral color.

Value- the darkness or lightness of a color in soil.

Chroma- a gradation of purity of color or the

intensity or brightness of color.

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 The soil colors are; 1. Texture and structure – sandy soils have
higher bulk density because particles lie close
Black soil – generally caused by the presence
together. Fine textured soils (silt loam, clay
of organic matter. loam) due to their granulation usually
Red soil –varies from very red to dark because of generally high organic matter have
reddish, brown, light brown and yellow large pore spaces and hence low bulk density
brown. This soil contains plenty of iron and with
2. OM – the higher the OM, the lower the BD.
good drainage and organic matter.
OM has low weight and also promotes
Gray soil- the color is due to poor organic granulation.
matter or very low iron content, gray soil is either
3. Profile depth – deeper horizon has higher
low in fertility or poor drainage or both.
bulk density due to lower OM, less
White soil- poor in organic matter or very low aggregation, less root penetration and
in iron. compaction due to weight of overlying layers.

Factors affecting particle density

SOIL DENSITY 1. Mineralogy – when heavy minerals, e.g.

magnetite, epidote, garnet zinc on,
There are two types of soil density, the bulk tourmaline, hornblende are dominant, the PD
density and particle density. may exceed 2.75 gm. /cc. In typical soils,
quartz and feldspar prevail and PD ranges
Bulk density is mass (weight) per unit
2.60-2.75.
volume of dry soil. Volume includes solids and pore
spaces.Particle Density is weight per unit volume 2. Organic matter – high OM, lower PD
of soil solids. because PD of OM is 1.2-1.5 gm. /cc. Thus,
surface soils usually have lower PD.
Factors affecting bulk density.

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 SOIL POROSITY - It is the reactant in many important
chemical reactions like hydrolysis and
Soil porosity is the air or water filled spaces
hydration.
between particles, coarse textured soil have many
larges pores because of the loose arrangement of of - It facilitates tillage operation acting as
larger particles with another, while as fine- textured lubricant which makes plowing easy.
soil are more tightly arranged and have more small
The water cycle;
pores.
Global stocks of water are from oceans
Porosity the amount of pore space between the
(97%), ice(2%), ground water(0.7%) and all other
soil particles and between the peds, which is the
water (< 0.05%).
measure of the soil to hold water and air
Hydrologic cycle- the cycling of water from
Porosity and structure are not constant and can
the earth‟s surface to the atmosphere and back
be altered by management, water and chemical
again (driven by solar energy).
process.
Forces holding water in the soil
SOIL WATER
- Cohesion- attraction of water molecules for
Soil Water = Soil Moisture = Soil Solution
each other.
Importance of soil water;
- Adhesion – attraction of water molecules
- Large amount of water is required by the for solid surfaces.
plants for transpiration.

- Water is a reactant in photosynthesis.

Free energy- the summation of all forms of
- Water is a universal solvent. energy, used of characterized the energy status of
soil water.

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 Factors affecting the free energy of soil
water.
- Matric force- due to the attraction of soil
solids for water, lower free energy.
- Osmotic force- attraction of ions and other
solutes for water, lower free energy.
- Gravitational water- pulls down ward;
causes water to flow.
Soil Moisture Constants
1. Maximum retentive capacity- all soil pores
are filled with water from rainfall or irrigation.
Gravitational water– water in the largest
pores that percolate downward under the
influence of gravity
2. Field capacity (FC) - the percentage of water
remaining in the soil two to three days after it
has been saturated with water.
Importance of FC is;
- Soil is holding the maximal amount of water
useful to plants.
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- Soil is near its plastic limit( optimum
moisture for tillage)
- Aeration at Fc is optimal for biological
activity.
3. Permanent wilting point (PWP)- the
moisture content of the soil at which plants
wilt and fail to recover their turgidly when
placed in a dark humid atmosphere.
4. Hydroscopic coefficient- the amount of
moisture in a dry soil; water is tightly held
being adsorbed by soil colloids.
Movements of soil water
1. Saturated flow- occurs when all pores are
filled with water.
2. Unsaturated flow – occurs when macro pores
is filled with air and the fine pores are filled
with water.
 b. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
THE COLLOIDAL FRACTION OF THE SOIL.
Colloids are substances whose particle is
about 1 to 1000nm or less than 1 micron when
they are mixed with another substance, usually air
or water.
Properties of colloids.
Size, they are extremely small; can only be
seen with an electron microscope.
Surface area, they expose a large external
surface per unit mass. Some, however, have
extensive internal surface.
Surface charges, soil colloidal surfaces, both
external and internal, carry negative and/ or
positive charges. The presence and internal of
particle charges influence the attraction and
repulsion of the particles toward each other,
thereby influencing both physical and chemical
properties.
Adsorption of cations and water, the
negative and positive charges of the soil colloidal
particles attracts cations (positively charge ions)
and /or anions (negatively charged ions). The
cations/ anions are held or adsorbed on the particle
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surfaces. Together with these ions, the colloidal
particles ar also attracts water molecules which
play a critical role in determining both the physical
and chemical properties of soils.
Soil colloidal fraction in the soils includes;
Humus this represents the organic colloidal
fraction and Clays this represent the inorganic
fraction of the soils.
ION EXCHANGE IN THE SOIL
This is the process whereby ions adsorbed on
the surface of colloids are exchanged for ion in the
soil solution or in the medium that comes in
contact with the colloids. This occurs because of
the presence of the charges in the soil.
Cation exchange in the soils, the attraction
of positively charge ions on the surface of the
colloids and exchanged for ions in the soil solution.
Cation exchange capacity, ability or
capacity of the soil colloid to holds cations. It also
refers to the amount of exchangeable cations per
unit weight of soil (dry basis).
NUTRIENT SUPPLY AND AVAILABILITY
Essential nutrient elements. Criteria of
essentiality of plant nutrient elements, Plant cannot
complete their life cycle in the absence or lack of
any one of the nutrient elements, The nutrient is an
integral part of the plant structure and/or
participates in one or more metabolic processes in
the plant; and No other element can substitute for
the element if it is absent or lacking in supply. Its
deficiency can be corrected by addition of those
elements.
General functions of essential elements.
Structural component, carbohydrates the
structure of plants; also as source of metabolic
energy. Approximately 45, 6 and 46% of a plant
biomass is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
respectively. Enzyme activation, most of the
micronutrients are essential mainly because they
activate enzymes, Regulation of osmotic
potential, all elements in soluble form (free or
bound structurally to essential compounds) aid
buildup of turgor pressure necessary to maintain
form, speed growth, allow certain pressure-
dependent movements (e.g. stomatal opening), and
“sleep” movements of leaves.
Elements Required in Plant Nutrition. Major,
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium. Minor,
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulfur, Calcium,
Magnesium, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum,
Copper, Boron, Zinc, Chlorine and Nickel.
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Types of elements. Basic element,(C,H,O),
Macronutrient (N, P,K,Ca,S Mg), Micronutrient (B,
Cl, Mn, Cu, Mo, Ni).
The total supply of nutrient in soil. The
following are some properties affecting supply and
availability of nutrient in the soil.
a. Kind of minerals present in the soil. e.
Cation exchange capacity
b. Soil texture f. Soil
pH
c. Soil moisture and aeration g.
Organic matter
d. Bulk density h. C/N ratio
SOIL pH
The degree of acidity or alkalinity is a master
variable that affect all soil properties (physical,
chemical, and biological) expressed as the soil pH,
this variable largely control plant nutrient
availability and microbial reaction in soil.
Soil pH is the measure of relative acidity and
alkalinity of soil. The alkalinity an acidity scales
range from 0-14, within this range soil classified as
being acidic (pH<7), neutral (pH=7) and alkaline
(pH >7). The most mineral soil have a pH range
from 5.5 to 7.5.
An agricultural limestone is the most
commonly used to increase soil pH, and Sulfur is
normally used to lower the soil pH.
c. BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
THE BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
SOILS;
Soils are alive. Population of roots, microbes
and animals are part of real soil and carry out
many of its essential processes; consuming and
destroying organic matter, making humus and
recycling nutrients. Soil-organisms vary in kind and
size, the small creature are the most numerous in
fact that their total biomass can add up to many
tons per hectare of land. Their favor habitats are
the soil water and the surfaces of litter, plants and
minerals especially in the soil‟s upper horizons.
MICROORGANISMS IN THE SOIL
Heterotrophic/ heterotrophs are organism
which almost always obtain energy from reactions
involving organic substances. The main substrates
21 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
are organic substances such as sugar from which
energy is released by respiration or fermentation.
Autotrophic /autotrophs are organisms that
do not need organic energy substrates; they derive
energy from light (photosynthesis) or from inorganic
oxidation reaction. Most assimilate carbon as
carbon dioxide from air or water.
THE MICRO ANIMAL
Nematodes are commonly called as
IN threadworms or eelworms, unsegment
roundworms, mostly presents in moist, sandy soils
they have large pores to accommodate the
swimming activities of these highly mobile
creatures in the soil.
Protozoa are mobile, single-celled creatures
that capture and engulf their food. They include
amoebas (which move by extending and contracting
pseudopodia), ciliates (which move by waving hair-
like structure) and flagellates (which move by
moving whip-like appendages called flagellum).
THE MICRO PLANTS
Algae it consist of eukaryotic cells; those
with nuclei organized inside a nuclear membrane.
They are considered photoautotrophs because they
also need light to carry out photosynthesis; however
THE SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
some species can function in the dark heterotrophs.
They have chlorophyll like higher plants. This refers to the organic fraction of the soil
that includes plants and animal residues at various
Fungi are eukaryotes with a nuclear
stages of decomposition, cells and tissues of soil
membrane and cell walls. They are heterotrophs;
organisms and substances synthesis by the soil
hence, they depend only on living or dead organic
population. Carbon is considered the element of all
materials for both their carbon and energy. An
life.
aerobic organism but others can tolerate very low
oxygen concentration and high levels of carbon Organic compounds in plants residues are;
dioxide. It composed of YEAST (a single-celled
organism living principally in waterlogged, Carbohydrates, a range of complexity from
anaerobic soils. MOLDS and MUSHROOMS (a simple sugar and starches to cellulose are usually
filamentous fungi; characterized by long, thread the most plentiful of plant organic compound.
branching chain of cells).
Lignin, a complex compounds with multiple
Bacteria a single-celled prokaryotic ring type or phenol structure, are compound of
organisms having no distinct nucleus, they vary in plant cell walls.
shape as; Coccus (nearly rounded), bacillus (rod-
Protein, it contain about 16% nitrogen and
like; predominates in soil), spirillum (spiral), they
smaller amounts of other essential elements.
could either be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
Simple proteins decompose and release their
Actenomycetes a prokaryotic; hence, have nitrogen easily, while complex crude proteins are
no nuclear membrane; they produce several more resistant to breakdown.
antibiotic compound that kill other
Fats, Waxes and Resin are the resistant
microorganisms. Examples are actinomycin,
organic compounds that contribute P and S to the
streptomycin and neomycin.
soil.

Function of organic matter in the soil;

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 - Contributes to the dark coloration of the
soil.
- Improves the physical properties of the soil
by encouraging granulation.
- Provide essential nutrients to plants.
- Increases cation exchange capacity of the
soil.
- Provides carbon and energy source to soil
microorganisms.
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SELF-CHECK V
1. What are the three properties of soil?
2. Enumerate the physical properties of
soil?
3. Explain what are the soil compositions?
4. What is soil texture?
5. Differentiate sand and clay particles.
6. Define what soil structure is and give the
soil structure?
7. What is soil consistency and what are the
forms of soil consistency?
8. Enumerate the soil color description.
9. What are the type of soil density and
gives the factors that affect the types?
10. Explain what is soil porosity?
11. Give the importance of soil water?
12. What are the properties of colloids?
13. Explain the word ION?
14. What are the types of elements and give
example of each?
15. What is soil pH?
16. Explain the biological process in soils?
17. What are the microorganisms in the
soil?
18. Explain what is soil organic matter?
19. What are the functions of organic
matter in the soil?
 TOPIC # VI
SOIL FERTILITY AND MANAGEMENTS
• Soil fertility – defined as the quality that
enables a soil to provide the proper
compounds in the proper amounts and the
proper proportions, for the proper growth of
specified kind of plants when all factors are
favorable for growth. This differs from soil
productivity.
• Soil productivity – the capability of the soil
to produce a specified system of
management. For a soil to be productive, it
must of necessity be fertile. It does not
follow, however, that a fertile soil is
productive. For instance, many fertile soils
exist in arid region, but under systems of
management which do not include irrigation,
they cannot be productive for corn or rice.
a. FACTORS OF SOIL FERTILITY
1. Favorable physical properties (Good
aeration and Proper moisture-holding
capacity)
2. Favorable chemical properties (Optimal
reaction (pH), High buffer capacity,
High nutrient holding capacity (CEC),
24 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
and Absence of toxic materials (salinity,
toxic organic and inorganic
compounds)).
3. Favorable microbiological properties
(Active functioning of beneficial
organisms and Suppressed activity of
harmful organisms)
4. Abundant and well balanced nutrient
supply{ Macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca,
Mg, S) and Micronutrients (Zn, Cu,
Mo, Mn, Fe, Cl, B)}
b. CRITERIA OF ESSENTIALITY OF PLANT
NUTRIENT ELEMENTS
1. Plant cannot complete their life cycle in
the absence or lack of any one of the
nutrient elements.
2. The nutrient is an integral part of the
plant structure and/or participates in
one or more metabolic processes in the
plant; and
3. No other element can substitute for the
element if it is absent or lacking in
supply. Its deficiency can be corrected
by addition of those elements.
 c. PROCESSES BY WHICH NUTRIENTS ARE e. MECHANISM OF NUTRIENT MOVEMENT IN
ADDED IN THE SOIL. SOIL TO PLANT ROOTS ION ABSORPTION
BY PLANTS
- Fertilizers (organic and inorganic)
1. Mass flow – process whereby nutrients
- Animal manures and plant residues
are carried by mass movement of
addition
water, as water is absorbed by the
- Weathering of primary minerals roots.

- Rain – it brings down NO3- from the - The amount of nutrients absorbed by plants
atmosphere approximately 10 kg N/ha/year depends on the amount and the rate of flow
in the tropics. It also brings down the of the roots and the concentration of
nitrogen fixed from lightning discharges. nutrients in the water.

- Biological fixation (symbiotic or non- - It is believed that mass flow is the major
symbiotic ) avenue by which plants absorb calcium,
magnesium, zinc, copper, boron, and iron.
d. MECHANISMS OF NUTRIENT UPTAKE
- As nutrients are absorbed by plants
- Through leaves from atmosphere concentration in the root vicinity decreases
and creates a concentration gradient
- Soil solution through roots
causing diffusion of solute towards the
- Exchangeable ions on the surface of clay roots.
and humus particles through the roots
2. Diffusion – movement of ions from
- From readily decomposable minerals zone of high concentration to a zone of
through the roots low concentration.

3. Contact exchange (interception) - is

the direct exchange of ions between the

25 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
 roots and soil colloids as roots come in transpiration creates the force necessary for
contact with the colloid. the ascent of sap.

f. NUTRIENT MOBILITY IN THE PLANT 2. Active – ions cross the plasma lemma with
the involvement of metabolic energy from
Nutrient mobility in the plant can be
ATP and ions from a region of lower
categorized as follows:
concentration to a region of higher
1. Very mobile nutrients: symptoms concentration.
appear mainly on older tissue
(Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium,
Magnesium, Chlorine and Sulfur h. FACTORS AFFECTING NUTRIENT UPTAKE
(for some plants))
1. Availability of nutrients – this is
2. Immobile nutrients: symptoms partly determined by the pH of the
appear mainly on younger solution of the solution; some nutrients
tissue(Copper, Iron, Manganese, are chemically bound at low or high pH
Molybdenum, Zinc and Sulfur (for some forming insoluble compounds.
plants))
2. Stage of growth and development –
3. Very immobile nutrients: symptoms uptake varies depending on the
appear on growing tips and fruits demand which is determined by growth
(Boron and Calcium) rate; at late stage of development, the
uptake of nutrients declines due to the
g. NUTRIENT UPTAKE MECHANISM
declining demand and also due to
1. Passive – ions move with water without remobilization of certain elements, e.g.
metabolic involvement; the characteristics of nitrogen, potassium, etc.
the apoplast (non-living) path determine the
rate of passive uptake of nutrients;

26 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
 i. SOIL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES.
1. Maintenance Of Soil Fertility
- Fertilizer application (organic and inorganic)
- Use of nitrogen- fixing trees.
- Good soil and crop management practices.(
using land within its capability and using
cropping systems that conserved soil water).
2. Evaluation of soil fertility.
This is the process by which nutritional
problems are diagnosed and fertilizer
recommendations are made.
a. Soil chemical analysis/ test it is a
method of soil fertility evaluation
whereby soil nutritional status are
known.
b. Plant analysis this method measures
the amount of nutrients that are
absorbed by the plants, this method
integrates the effects of soil, plants,
climates and management variables.
27 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
Types of plant analysis are;
- Diagnostic (troubleshooting which
undertaken to diagnose the cause of poor crop
vigour or to confirm a diagnosis made on the basis
of plant symptoms or soil test).
- Monitoring (to assess the adequacy of
current fertilizer practices related management
factors).
- Predictive or prognostic (used to predict
the likelihood of nutrient deficiencies that occurred
before reaching crop maturity).
c. observation of nutrient deficiency
and toxicity
Plants exhibits symptoms of deficiencies and
toxicities, hence can be used to assess the needs of
plants for nutrients. This has an advantage because
the plants act as integrator of all growth factors and
are products of interest to the grower.
d. Field fertilizer experiment
This is usually done in farmer‟s field to
assess the effect of the fertilizers and their
interaction with all existing factors of growth and
development in any given location.
 j. FERTILIZER
Fertilizers are any materials of natural or
synthetic in origin which when added to the soil
supply nutrients to growing plants.
Fertilizer materials are a carrier that
contains at least one plant- nutrient elements.
Fertilizer grade is the minimum guarantee
of plant-nutrient contents in a fertilizer material in
term of percent total N, available P2O5 and
available K2O in that order.
Conventional grades it includes all inorganic
fertilizer in solid or liquid forms which are highly
soluble, proven effective for specified crops by field
experiments for at least two years.
New grades it includes locally formulated or
imported fertilizers with no previous registration.
Specialty grades it include finished products
recommended to overcome a specific problem or
supply the nutrient needs of a specific ornamental,
indoor plant, lawn grasses or for any purpose other
than agricultural food, feed, fiber and other
industrial crops.
28 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
Types of fertilizer
ORGANIC FERTILIZER
Organic fertilizers are usually recycled
plant or animal- derived matter. It is also called as
natural fertilizer.
Organic fertilizers are produced from animal
manure and crop residues. Organic fertilizers have
low nutrient composition and are bulky, but
improve the physical, chemical and microbiological
status of soils. The animal manure and crop
residues as materials for organic fertilizers have to
undergo decomposition through biological, chemical
and/or any other processes as long as the original
materials are no longer recognizable , free from
plant or animal pathogen, soil-like in texture
contain not less than 20%organic matter oven-dry
basis, and can supply nutrient to plants.
Application of organic fertilizers is one of the
favored methods of rejuvenating depleted soils and
sustaining fertility levels. In mature soils, crops
respond more to the addition of organic fertilizers
than of chemical fertilizers.
INORGANIC FERTILIZER
Organic fertilizer are sometimes called as
synthetic fertilizers various chemical treatments are
required for their manufacture.
Classes of inorganic fertilizer
• Single or straight fertilizer a fertilizer
that supply primary nutrient.
• Multinutrient fertilizer a fertilizer
containing two primary nutrients.
• Complete fertilizer a fertilizer containing
the three primary nutrients.
FERTILIZER APPLICATION
1. Broadcast method – fertilizer is applied
uniformly over the entire area before
planting or while the crops are already
growing.
- Basal or pre-planting – fertilizer is
broadcasted over the entire area followed
by cultivation to mix the fertilizer with the
soil. Shallow plowing or harrowing is done
two or three times to ensure even
distribution of the fertilizer applied.
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- Top-dressing – fertilizer is
applied overhead on already growing
seedlings. This should be followed by
overhead watering to remove fertilizer
lodging on the leaves.
2. Localized – fertilizer is applied on a
specific area near the seed or plant either in
bands, in rows or by hole method.
- Banding – fertilizer is applied in
bands or strips on one or, both sides of
the rows of drilled seeds on growing
plants.
- Row application – a mould
board plow is passed between rows of
plants to make the deepest portion of
the furrow where fertilizer should be
applied, the plow is again passed about
three inches away to cover the fertilizer
and at the same time hill up the soil to
the plants.
-Hole method – applicable on
bigger crops and sloping areas, this
system makes use of a pointed stake to
make several pegholes around the
plant or along the rows of crops.
 3. Side Dressing - fertilizer is applied between
the rows close to the plants,
simultaneous without cultivation this is very
effective during the developing stage of the plant
when they feed on nutrients very rapidly.
4. Foliar Spray – fertilizer is applied on the
upper portion of the plant particularly the
leaves, this method is done by dissolving the
fertilizer first in water as prescribed and then
sprayed on the plants.
5.Tank System (Fertigation) – knowing how
much water is needed to irrigate a given area,
the fertilizer applied is dissolved and mixed in
tank, as irrigation water passes through the
tank, it is fed either into pipes or pressurized
sprinklers, through the canals through flooding,
or through subterranean system.
THREE METHODS OF FERTILIZER
APPLICATION
• Uniform distribution over the whole area
(broadcasting).
• Localization.
• Spraying the plants with fertilizers solutions
(spraying solution)
30 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
The first method (Broadcasting) is
mostly employed in the following cases:
• Crop of dense stand and not arranged in
rows.
• Crops that roots penetrate the whole soil.
• On highly fertile soils.
• In large dressing of fertilizers
• When there is readily soluble nitrogenous
fertilizer.
• With potash which are used in light soils.
• With phosphatic fertilizer which is insoluble
in water (e.g. basic slag)
The Second Method ( Band
placement ) is used in this cases.
• Application of small quantities of fertilizers.
• Application of phosphatic and potash
fertilizers.
• When there is danger in fixation.
• When large spaces are present in the between
the plants.
The Third Method (spraying) is used in
the following cases.
 • When nutrients are absorbed with difficulty TOPIC # VII
by way of the soil and roots (Mg and other
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
trace elements)
• When nutrients are required in the smallest
PURPOSES OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION
quantity (trace elements)
• When used as a supplementary treatment
Soils are classified as natural bodies on
with Nitrogen and Potash on tall growth of
the basis of their profile characteristics and
plants (e.g. sugarcane)
not morely on their suitability for a particular
• On crops which must be sprayed at regular
use.
intervals with plant protection materials (e.g.
The soil properties are the result of soil
urea)
forming processes as affected by the factors
• PROPER PLACEMENT OF FERTILIZERS
such as climate, topography and others. The
following are the purposes;
• Surface application -
Nutritional spray
• To organize our knowledge about top soils to
• Furrow application
avoid chaos and confusion among soil user.
• Subsoil placement
• To serve as common language to foster global
• Soil injection
communication about soils among soil
• Girth injection of trace element solution
scientists and all people concerned with the
soil.
• To assist in the retention of useful knowledge
collected in the past and in other places.
• To enable he best use and management of the
soil resources.

One difficulty in soil classification is

that soils for continuum and thus there are
no sharp boundaries between soils. There is

31 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
 only a gradual change in soil properties from
one into another.to simplify soil classification Categories of soil taxonomy
the concept of pedon was introduced.

Orders 12
Pedon- the smallest volume that can be called soil.
It is the smallest sampling units that display the Suborder 63
range of properties of particular soil. It is a three
Great group 250
dimensional units.
Subgroup 1,400
Polypedon- a group of similar pedon that is closely
associated in the field
Family 5,000

SOIL TAXONOMY SOIL TEMPERATURE REGIME

The soil taxonomy provides a hierarchical grouping Soil temperature regime is the mean annual
of soils. temperature measured at 50cm from the surface.

Two major feature of soil taxonomy are;
1. The system is based on toil properties that can
be observed or measured.
2. The nomenclatures employed give a definite
connotation of the major characteristics of the
soil in question.
Mean annual temperature is the totality of
temperature in a particular area within one year.
1. Pergelic – the mean annual temperature is
<0*c.
2. Cryic – the MAT is 0*c – 8* c.
3. Frigid – the MAT is <8*c.
4. Mesic - the MAT is 8*c – 15*c.
5. Thermic – the MAT is 15*c – 22*c.
6. Hyper thermic –the MAT is >22*c.

32 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
SOIL MOISTURE REGIME
Soil moisture regime it refers to the presence
or absence of either water in saturated condition or
plant available water.
1. Aquic moisture regime- is saturated an no
desolved oxygen
2. Aridic moisture regime- soil is dry for < 3
months.
3. Torric moisture regime- soil is moist for <3
months.
4. Ustic moisture regime- if the soil is
continuously dry after summer for at least 3
months. Or if the soil is continuously wet
after summer for at least 3 months.
5. Xeric moisture regime- if soil is
continuously dry 45 days after summer or
continuously wet 45 days after winter.
SOIL DIAGNOSTIC HORIZON
a. Surface diagnostic horizon (epepedons)
1. Mollic- soil is thick, dark, soft surface layer
(mineral soil).
2. Umbric – like mollic but low based
saturation.
33 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
3. Histic – soil is saturated with water and has
a great percent of organic matter (organic
soil).
4. Ochric – soil is thin, light- colored surface
layer that do not fit any of the above.
b. Sub surface diagnostic horizon.
1. Argillic- illuvial horizon of clay
accumulation.
2. Natric – same as argillic but with
exchangeable sodium.
3. Spodic – illuvial accumulation of Aluminium
oxide and iron oxide and it contain organic
matter.
4. Oxic- very weathered layer of only Fe and Al
oxides and 1:1 clay mineral , low pH and not
very fertile.
5. Cambic – slightly altered layer , not weather
enough to be argellic.
SOIL ORDERS
Soil orders is the highest and most general
soil classification.
1. Gelisols- soil with permafrost within 2meter
from the surface. Soil formed in cool climate
with pergellic STR and it is rhe new soil order
as of 1998.
2. Histosols – organic soil , highly decomposed
and rich in organic matter.
3. Andisol – soil is formed from volcanic ashesb
and othr volcanic ejecta and have andic
properties.
Andic properties it is the unique chemical
and physical properties of soil that include
high water holding capacity and ability to fix
large amount of phosphorous and make
available to plants.
4. Spodosols- acid soil characterized by a
subsurface accumulation of humus.
5. Oxisols- intensely weathered soil of tropicsl
and sub-tropical environment. (low pH and
acids soil.)
6. Verisols- clayey soils with hugh shrink and
swell capacity.
7. Aridisols- CaCO3 – containing soils of arid
environment with sub surface horizon
development.
34 | s s c 0 0 1 M O D U L E ( J N J A D J A I E )
8. Ultisols – strongly leached soil with a sub-
surface zone of clay accumulation and <35%
based saturation.
9. Mollisols – grassland soil with high based
status. ( mineral soil).
10. Alfisols – moderately leached soil with
a sub- surface zone of clay accumulation and
>35% base saturation.
11. Inceptisols- soil with weakly developed
sub surface horizon.
12. Entisols – soil with the little or no
morphological.
SELF-CHECK VII
1. What is soil classification?
2. What are the purposes of soil classification?
3. What are the features of soil taxonomy?
4. What are the soil temperature regimes?
5. What are the soil moisture regimes ?
6. Enumerates the soil diagnostic horizons?
7. List down the 12 soil order and define each.
References Green empire reviewer 2015(soilscience),
.SoilScience Reviewer UPLB, Agriculture book ED2000,
Soil Science laboratory Manual 2011 UPLB