Political Science Ballb

Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies
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School of Law
An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Quality Institute
(Recognized by Govt. of NCT of Delhi, Affiliated to GGS Indraprastha University, Delhi)
Class : BALLB III A, B, C
Paper Code : BALLB 209
Subject : POLITICAL SCIENCE-II
Unit 1: TYPES OF GOVERNMENT
Government is institutionalized authority, organized to direct the larger society

towards goals devised by the political actors. Accordingly, there are various forms
of governments, which have played vital roles in their existence.
A) DEMOCRACY
Democracy has directly originated from the French democratic, but its real origin
is Greek. In Greek there are two words—demos and kratos. The former means
people while the latter rule and what we mean by democracy in English is rule of
the people.
David Held, a renowned authority on the concept, defines the term as “Democracy
means a form of government in which, in contradistinction monarchies and
aristocracies, the people rule. Democracy entails a political community in which
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there is some form of political equality among the people”. Precisely stated,
democracy is the rule by the people. Of all the definitions of democracy perhaps
the best and most popular definition is the following: It is called “the government
of the people, by the people and for the people”.
The former U.S. President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) is the author of this
definition. Lincoln uttered this definition in his Gettysburg Address delivered in
1864. The sixties of the nineteenth century witnessed the height of the American
Civil War between the Northern and Southern states. However, all the definitions
have been found to contain the following Elements:
1. Democracy is a form of government in which people’s participation is of

primary importance.
2. People may participate either directly or indirectly.
3. It is a form of government in which people have equal opportunity and this type
of government is based on individual merit and no place of hereditary privilege is
to be found in democracy.
4. Distribution of opportunities is adopted for reduction or removal of inequalities.
5. Democracy recognises that all the sections of the community will receive their
due shares.
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6. Interests of the minorities will be duly protected and state makes arrangements
for that.
7. All the public offices and opportunities are opened to everyone and to fill the
posts public examinations are held. There is also open competition on in which
every eligible citizen has the right to participate.
8. It is a system of government which does not make any discrimination on the

basis of caste, religion, sex, birth etc.
9. In democracy all must have the scope to govern or to be a member of

government.
10. Rulers are to be accountable to the ruled and forms of accountability are many.
11. Rules are to be chosen by the ruled.
12. People shall have the right to decide who would rule them.
Types of Democracy
Following are two types of democracy
1. Direct Democracy
Under this system the people take direct in the affairs of the state. The people
themselves are the rulers and they are the ruled at the same time. They themselves
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make the laws, enforce them and decide cases according to these laws. Such a
democracy existed in City States of ancient Greece and Rome. Some practices of
direct democracy are still observed in Switzerland and in some states of the USA.
2. Indirect or Representative Democracy
After the creation of large nation states, it became impossible for all the people
directly to participate in the affairs of the state. Under this form of government the
people elect a small number of representatives or delegation and give them the
authority to run the government. Since the people rule through these
representatives, we give the system the name of indirect or representative
democracy. Today in almost all the countries of the world there is indirect or
representative democracy.
B) Federal form of Government
A federal government is a system of dividing up power between a central national

government and local state governments that are connected to one another by the
national government.
A federal system of government is one that divides the powers of government

between the national (federal) government and state and local governments. The
Constitution of the United States established the federal system, also known as
federalism. Under federalism, each level of government has sovereignty in some
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areas and shares powers in other areas. For example: both the federal and state
governments have the power to tax. Only the federal government can declare war.
Features of Federal Government

Fedralism has the following characteristics of its own ans these characteristics
distinguish it form Unitarianism.
a) In a federal state there are two sets of governments, one is called federal or
central government, the other is provincial or Unit governments.The union of these
two sets of governments makes what is called federation.Each governments is
independent of the other in its own jurisdiction.The central and unit governments
are constitutionaly equal in status and position:non s superior to other.
b) In a federation governmental powers are essentially distributed by the

constitution between the Central government on the one hand and the unit
government on the other.The details of division vary in different federations.But
the principle folllowed in the division is that all matters which are primarily of
common interest and require uniformity of regulation throughout the country such
as foreign affairs,defence,currency and coinage are placed under the central
government, and the resr is left to the Unit governments.
c) Federal system essentially implies the supremacy of constitution.A federal state

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derives its existence from the constitution;powers of both central and unit
governments are delegated by the constitution.Wvery power whether of central or
Unit governments is subordinate to, and controlled by, the constitution.For
instance, in the united states neither the president nor the Congress nor the
governer of New yorknor its legislature can legally exercise a single power which
is inconsistent with the articles of the constitution.Every legislature existing under
a federal constitution is merely a subordinate law-making body, whose laws are
valid while within authority conferred on it by the constitution, invalid if they go
beyond the limits of such authority.
d) To maintain in practice the supremacy of the constitution every federal state

must have a supreme courrt.It interprets the constitution, decides disputes between
center and province or provinces, or between different organs of government.It
puts them in check, keeps them within their constitutional limits.
e) The federal constitution being a complicated contract and the supreme law of the
land is essentially a written and rigid one.
f) In a federal state there exists some sort of double citizenship and allegiance.This
means that a citizen has to show alllegiance both to the provincial and federal
governments,
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g) The central legislature under federal system is generally found bicameral on the
age old ground that the lower house enshrines the national idea and represents the
nation as a whole and the upper house is enshrine federal idea and to represent the
units as such.
Merits
(1) Reconciliation of local autonomy with national unity:
The main advantage of a federal government is that in a country where there are
many diversities and the establishment of a unitary government is not possible, a
political organisation can be established through this form of Government. In this
type of government, local self-government, regional autonomy and national unity
are possible.
Moreover, in this type of government some rights are given to the central
government and the rest to the states or the provinces. In this way cultural and
administrative autonomy is given to different nationalities and regions and matters
like Defence, Foreign Affairs, Communication, etc., are given to the centre.
(2) Division of powers between the Centre and States leads to administrative
efficiency:
With the division of powers, the burden of work on the centre is lessened and the
centre has not to bother about the problems of a purely local nature. It can devote
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its full attention to the problems of national importance. Because of provincial or

regional autonomy, the administration of these areas becomes very efficient.
(3) People take more interest in local and regional affairs:
In a federal government the provinces, regions or the states enjoy separate rights
and they have separate cabinets and legislatures. Local governments have also
separate rights and the councils elected by the people run the local administration.
When elections to the provincial legislatures and local bodies take place, and when
the representatives of the people run the local and provincial administration, people
take keen interest in the administration.
(4) It gives rise to big states:
Fifty states of America could not have become so powerful if they had not joined
the American Federation. They could also not have enjoyed that prestige in
international field, which they enjoy now as a strong nation.
Similarly several Indian princely states could not get any importance in the
international field, if they had not joined the Indian Union. They occupy a position
of prestige in the international field only because of their partnership in the Indian
Union. This is also applicable to the Soviet Union, Brazil, Australia and West
Germany.
(5) This system is more advantageous to the smaller states:
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This system is more advantageous to smaller states, because they cannot defend
themselves independently and establish diplomatic relations with other countries,
which entails a lot of expenditure. The expenditure that they incur on their defence
is also reduced, if they join together. Fifty states of America could not defend
themselves individually. Similar is the case with India and other countries.
States or provinces in India could neither defend themselves against expansionist

China and aggressor Pakistan, nor could they establish their political and cultural
relations with other countries of the world, in their individual capacity, as every
state had lacked ample economic resources to meet all the expenses.
(6) Citizenship of Federal Government is more dignified than that of its units:
The citizenship of a federation is more dignified. If we declare ourselves as

citizens of Assam, Bengal or the Punjab in foreign countries, it will not be as
dignified as is in declaring ourselves the citizens of India. Similarly, the citizenship
of New York or Texas is not as dignified as that of the United States of America.
(7) Distribution of powers checks the despotism of the Central Government:
Division of powers between the states and the centre checks despotism, because
the centralization of powers lead to dictatorship. This is the position in India, West
Germany, Austria, the United States of America, Australia, Brazil and Canada.
(8) More suitable for the bigger countries:
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In countries where there are diversities of culture, religion, language and race and
which have a large size, unitary government is not suitable. In such countries only
federal government is possible, because this system brings unity in diversity; the
separate authority of the provinces is recognised and they are made autonomous. If
unitary government is established in countries like India and the United States of
America, all powers will be concentrated in the central government and there will
be a possibility of its becoming despotic.
(9) It is a model for the world state:
The world-known politicians are of the belief that world’s government is the only
solution to the problem of world peace. The structure of the world state cannot be
unitary; it can only be federal.
(10) It is good for economic and cultural progress:
Federal government is not only useful from the defence point of view, but it is also
good for economic and cultural progress. In a federation the centre looks after
many common subjects, and the states have not to incur expenditure on them. With
the establishment of federation, inter-state commerce and industry are encouraged.
The regular supply of necessities is ensured in scarcity areas without much
expenditure.
The economic sources of the country are increased in a federation and the country
can face droughts, famines and other natural calamities without much difficulty.
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The country can formulate a sound economic policy; it can build big dams and
establish industries for its prosperity.
For economic prosperity many plans have been executed in India. In big countries,
there are diverse nationalities, races, religions and cultures and federal government
gives them special facilities and safeguards, which help them in making a rapid
progress.
Administrative and cultural autonomy has been given to different nationalities in

the Soviet Union. For the uplift of Harijans and tribal people and the protection of
linguistic and religious minorities, special step have been taken in India.
Demerits
Sharing of power between the Center and the states includes both advantages and
disadvantages of federation. Sometimes there can be overlapping of work and
subsequent confusion regarding who is responsible for what. For example, when
typhoon Katrina hit Greater New Orleans, USA, in 2005, there was delay in the
rescue work as there was confusion between the state governments and the federal
government on who is responsible for which disaster management work. This
resulted in the loss of many lives.
The federal system of government is very expensive as more people are elected to
office, both at the state and the center, than necessary. Thus, it is often said that
only rich countries can afford it. Too many elected representatives with
overlapping roles may also lead to corruption.
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Other than that, it leads to unnecessary competition between different regions.

There can be a rebellion by a regional government against the national government
too. Both scenarios pose a threat to the countries' integrity.
It is also promotes regional inequalities. Natural resources, industries, employment

opportunities differ from region to region. Hence earnings and wealth are unevenly
distributed. Rich states offer more opportunities and benefits to its citizens than
poor states can. Thus, the gap between rich and poor states widens.
It also can make the state governments selfish and concerned only about their own
region's progress. They can formulate policies which might be detrimental to other
regions. For example, pollution from a province which is promoting
industrialization in a big way can affect another region which depends solely on
agriculture and cause crop damage.
Finally, it does not eliminate poverty. Even in New York, there are poor
neighborhoods like Harlem with a majority of black population. The reason for this
may be that during policy framing, it is the intellectuals and not the masses who
are invited by the local government.
Thus, It can be concluded as,:
1. It is inefficient because of diversity of law and administration.
2. There is always a tug-of- war between national and local interests.
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3. It is highly expensive.
C) Confederal & Quassi-Federal Form Of Government
Confederalism is a system of government in which sovereign power is held by the

regional governments, to which the national government is accountable. The
member states are independent and separate, but give certain powers to a central
authority for reasons of mutual security, convenience and efficiency. Member
states are the ones that appoints the central authority, which can make rules that
will pass as laws only after all constituent states have passed them.
The basic difference is that confederalism is a system where the central

government is always quite weak, whereas in federalism the central government
can be quite a bit stronger.
In, Confederalism, the lower level of Governments (example, states) have all the
powers. They give whatever power they like to the National Government. The
example for this is UN, where UN has only those powers which are given to it by
its members.
Quasi federalism is a form of government which is federal in structure but unitary

in spirit. For Example,India and Canada. These countries although have clear
division of power between states and center but major control lies in hand of
central government in the form of residual powers. Although India claims to be a
Federal government but nowhere in the constitution is it mentioned as federal of
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states but as a union of states, while there is clear demarcation of powers between
states and center on the other hand. This clearly proves India is quasi Federal in
nature.
In the words of Professor KC Wheare “Indian Constitution is a quasi-federation.”

To understand what is a quasi federation we must first understand what is a
federation.
1. It is a group of regions or states united with a central government or a

federal Government.
2. A federation has well-established dual polity or dual form of government i.e.
the fields of governance are clearly divided between the centre and the
federating units.
3. Therefore, existence of co-coordinating authorities independent of each
other is the gist of a federal government.
The following are few pointers, which reflect India in federal features:
a) A perusal of the provisions of the Constitution reveals that the political

system introduced by it, possesses all the aforesaid essentials of a federal
polity.
b) Weighted Centre Weak States: In the Indian Polity, central government has
been given more powers as compared to states. In USA & Australia for
example, their states have Laws which are equally powerful as the central
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laws but in India it isn’t the case. There are certain limitations as to on what
can the centre legislate and on what can the state legislate.
c) India follows Single Citizenship unlike USA and Australia
d) States in India don’t enjoy the right to territorial integrity. I.e. Parliament can
alter the territorial boundary of any state without the consent of the
concerned state. (Art-3)
e) Emergency provisions In case of proclamation of emergency under Art 352
Parliament can legislate on topics mention in State List as well. Financial
provision to states can be suspended at the sole discretion of the central
government. In case financial emergency is proclaimed under Art 360, the
Money Bills presented by states are subject to central scrutiny and control.
f) Appointment of Governor, under Art 155 Governor of a state is appointed by
the President and the same is not answerable to the State Legislature. Thus
indirectly centre enjoys control over the appointing authority of a Chief
Minister of a state.
g) Under Art 256, centre can give administrative directions to states, which are
binding on the latter. Along with the directions, the Constitution also
provides measures to be adopted by the centre to ensure such compliance.
h) Appointments in Central Services under Art 312, I.A.S, I.P.S and I.F.S
(forest) - are appointed by the centre, but are paid and controlled by the
state. However, in case of any irregularities by the officer, states cannot
initiate any disciplinary action except suspending him/her.
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i) Judges of the High Courts are appointed by the President in consultation

with the Chief Justice of India, Chief Justice of concerned state and
Governor of the concerned state. States do not play any role in it.
j) Therefore, we conclude Indian Constitution is a flexible federation - a
federation of its own kind. Thus, Indian Federation is also called federation
sui-generis or a quasi-federation.
Professor KC Wheare further remarked Indian Union is ‘a unitary state with

subsidiary federal features rather than a federal state with subsidiary unitary
features.’
To understand the term Quasi-Federalism one must first understand what

federalism actually is?
The very soul of federalism lies in the division of power between the center and the
states (or provinces). The center and states have different areas of operation (by
area of operation, I mean the subjects they can frame a rule on) i.e, no one
interferes in the working of other. They are more like supplementary to each other.
The states are not bound to give answers, to the center, for their actions. Moreover,
their areas of operation are clearly mentioned in the constitution. Also, irrespective
of the land area or the population, each state gets equal representation in the
parliament. A perfect example of a federal government exists in the USA.
Whereas, unlike the USA, in India the states can be asked for an answers regarding
their actions in certain areas. States are not even financially independent of the
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center. In a single sentence, the constitution is slightly aligned towards the center
in India. So, it can be said that although, India incorporates most of the features of
federalism, it is not actually federal.
The experts, thus, came up with few creative words for the governments in
countries like India- The Quasi- Federal Government or The Semi- Federal
Government.
D) The Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government
Parliamentary Form of Government
Parliamentary government is a democratic form of government in which the

political party that wins the most seats in the legislature or parliament during the
federal election forms the government. This majority party chooses a leader to be
the Prime Minister or Chancellor, and other high-ranking members of the party
make up the cabinet. The minority party forms the opposition, and its job is to
challenge the majority party. If no party is able to win a majority in the election, a
coalition government will be formed with a few political parties cooperating
together.
It's called 'parliamentary government' because all of the power is vested in the
parliament. In a presidential system like the United States, the executive branch is
separate, and the president is popularly elected by the citizens of the nation. In a
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parliamentary system, the head of the government is chosen from the parliament,
and is often one of the most senior members or ministers in parliament, which is
where we get the term 'Prime Minister.' Often in a parliamentary system, the
country will have a Head of State, who is a ceremonial figure like the Queen, but
does not engage in legislating or politics.
In a Parliamentary form of government, the head of the state is usually a different

person than the head of the government. A Monarch or a President is usually the
head of the state. However, he or she is the head of state, but not the head of
government. The functions of the head of the state is chiefly formal or ceremonial.
The council of ministers or the cabinet exercises the real executive powers and
authority to run the Government. In many countries, the Prime Minister is the head
of the council of ministers.
The Parliamentary or the Cabinet system originated in England. This form of

government exists in countries like Britain, India and Canada. This Parliamentary
form of government is also called Responsible government.
Features
The features of Parliamentary form of Government have been discussed below:
1. Existence of a Titular or Constitutional Ruler: The first characteristic feature

of the parliamentary system is the existence of a Titular of Constitutional Ruler.
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Legally the administration of all the affairs of the state is conducted by the head of
the state. In reality, however, the administration is carried by the Council of
Ministers. The Monarch or the President, as the case may be, is the head of the
state, but not the head of the government.
2. Absence of Separation of Powers: In the parliamentary system the principle of

separation of powers is not adopted. Here the three departments of government
work in close, intimate contact, sharing some of the powers and functions of one
another.
3. Main Role of the Lower House in Ministry-formation: In the parliamentary

government the lower house of the legislature, i.e., the popular chamber plays a
vital role in the formation of the ministry. The leader of the party or alliance which
wins the majority in this house is appointed the Prime Minister or Chancellor. The
constitutional ruler appoints the other members of the ministry on his advice.
4. Responsibility to the Legislature: In such a system the Cabinet or Ministry

has to remain responsible to the legislature for all its activities and policies. In
countries having bi-cameral legislatures, the Cabinet remains responsible to the
lower house composed of the people’s representatives.
5. Collective Responsibility: The ministerial responsibility to the legislature may

again be of two kinds:
a) Individual responsibility, and
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b) Collective responsibility.
Individual responsibility means that the minister in charge of a department must be

answerable for the activities of his department. But when the ministers remain
jointly or collectively responsible to the legislature for the policies and activities of
the government, it is called ‘collective responsibility’. Since no individual minister
can unilaterally perform any business of government without the consent of the
Cabinet, the entire Ministry or Cabinet has to remain accountable for the errors of
the minister concerned.
6. Intimate relationship between the Legislature and the Executive: In the

parliamentary system an intimate relationship exists between the executive and the
legislative departments. So they can easily control each other. The leaders of the
majority party or alliance in the legislature become the members of the Cabinet or
Ministry. Naturally, the ministers can easily extend their influence on the
legislature. Consequently, the programs and policies of the Cabinet are backed by a
majority inside the legislature.
7. Leadership of the Prime Minister: The leadership of the Prime Minister is

another major feature of the parliamentary system. The leader of the majority party
in the legislature becomes the Prime Minister. Though, in theory, he is ‘primus
inter pares’, i.e. ‘first among equals’, in reality, he possesses much greater power
and status than the other ministers. As the undisputed leader of the majority party
or alliance in the legislature he plays the most vital role in the determination and
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execution of government policies. Indeed, the success of parliamentary democracy

depends, to a great extent, on the personality, efficiency and charisma of the Prime
Minister.
8. Existence of a Strong Opposition: The existence of one or more strong and

well-organized opposition party or parties is the hall-mark of the parliamentary
system. By criticizing the errors of the government, the opposition can compel it to
adopt welfare measures and prevent it from becoming despotic. Judged from this
angle, the opposition can be called the life-force of parliamentary democracy.
9. Cabinet Dictatorship: In the parliamentary system of government the cabinet

has to perform manifold functions. It is the Cabinet which:
a) formulates well-considered policies of the Government after reviewing both

the national and international issues,
b) takes necessary, arrangements for passing laws to implement the policies
formulated by it,
c) determines the matters to be included in the agenda of the central legislature,
d) controls and directs the administrative departments so that laws,
Government orders, etc. are to be implemented properly,
e) co-ordinates the activities of different departments of the Government,
f) prepares the draft budget in consultation with the Prime Minister and takes
necessary initiative to get it passed in the legislature,
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g) formulates economic policies and takes necessary steps for implementing the
same,
h) Advice’s the constitutional head to take necessary action during emergency
or unforeseen situation, etc.
Hence, the Cabinet acts as ‘the keystone of the political arch’ or has become the
‘steering wheel of the ship of the state’. In fact, in the parliamentary system of
government as the cabinet members are the leaders of the majority party or alliance
in the legislature. Some critics think that the Parliament is controlled by the
Cabinet under the leadership of the Prime Minister giving rise to some sort of
“Cabinet dictatorship”.
Presidential Form of Government
The presidential system is a form of government in which the president is the chief
executive and is elected directly by the people. In this system all three branches –
executive, legislative, and judiciary – are constitutionally independent of each
other, and no branch can dismiss or dissolve any other. The president is
responsible for enforcing laws, the legislature for making them, and the courts for
judging. Each is given specific powers to check and balance the others.
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In a presidential system, the President (who is the chief executive as well as the
symbolic head of government) is chosen by a separate election from that of the
legislature. The President is elected directly by the people and is answerable to the
voters. The President then appoints his or her cabinet of ministers (or "secretaries"
in US parlance). Ministers/Secretaries usually are not simultaneously members of
the legislature, although their appointment may require the advice and consent of
the legislative branch. Because the senior officials of the executive branch are
separately elected or appointed, the presidential political system is characterised by
a separation of powers, wherein the executive and legislative branches are
independent of one another. Presidents have great control over their cabinet
appointees who serve at the President’s pleasure, and who are usually selected for
reasons other than the extent of their congressional support (as in parliamentary
systems). In contrast, the British Prime Minister is more constrained to represent
his/her parliamentary party in the Cabinet.
The US represents the strongest form of presidentialism, in the sense that the
powers of the executive and legislative branches are separate, and legislatures
often have significant powers.
In a presidential system, in line with the notion of a separation of powers,

presidents and members of the legislature are separately elected for a given length
of time. Presidents have no authority to remove members of the legislature.
Premature removal of either legislative members or the President can only be
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initiated by a vote in the lower legislative chamber and under particular conditions.
Thus, under normal circumstances, even if the political party that the President
represents becomes a minority in either or both houses of the legislature, the
President will remain in his position for the full term for which he was elected.
In such systems, the legislature formulates its own agenda and passes its own bills.
The legislature typically formulates and introduces legislation. The legislature can
and often work closely with the executive branch in formulating legislation,
particularly when the same party is in power in both branches. The executive can
draft laws, but members of the legislature must introduce them on the floor. Some
presidential systems, however, limit the legislature’s power to amend the proposed
executive budget, and a president may force the legislature to act on legislation
within a certain period. Some characteristics of a legislative function in a
presidential system or governance are as follows:
The legislature tends to have broad powers to amend any legislation. However,
lack of resources and other factors may act to blunt this power. In some countries,
like Mexico during the period of one-party domination, the President effectively
controlled the Congress’ lawmaking function.
The potential for legislative assertiveness is greater in presidential systems, but the
actual realization depends on the presence of other conditions.
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Legislatures in presidential systems are more likely to have specialized and

permanent standing committees and subcommittees with a number of professional
staff to help draft, review and amend legislation. Large congressional staffs in the
United States came about in the post World War II (WWII) years, with the greatest
growth in the sixties and seventies. Staff and other resources are typically much
greater in the U.S. presidential system than in the Latin American or other
presidential models.
Via the committee system, the legislature has extensive powers to call expert
witnesses, members of the cabinet, presidential advisors, etc. for public or private
hearings before the legislature.
The President can veto legislation, which can only be overridden by a two-third
vote in the legislature.
Parties in presidential systems tend to be less structured than parties in

parliamentary systems. Failure to vote with one’s party does not threaten to bring
the government down. Therefore, members of the legislature are freer to identify
with regional, ethnic, economic or other divisions when considering policy issues.
Because they are usually directly elected and identifiable with particular districts or
regions, many members see a duty to their constituents (in a district or state) as the
first priority, with allegiance to a party and its platform as secondary. While the
legislators are under some pressure to vote with their party, particularly on
important votes, the consequences of not doing so are not as serious to the
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individual legislator and to the system. Legislatures and executives are elected
separately and often for different terms, it is therefore not uncommon for them to
be controlled by different parties.
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Unit II:Key Concepts in International Relations
A) POWER (National Power)
National Power of a nation is dependent upon several factors which are together
called the components or elements or determinants of national power. Frankel calls
these as capabilities or capability factors. Several other scholars prefer to use the
name ‘Determinants of National Power.’ However, more and more scholars now
prefer to use the name Factors/Elements of National Power because no single
factor or element is a determinant of National Power.
Elements of National Power:

There are a number of elements of National Power. Several political scientists have
attempted to classify these. Whereas Morgenthau has classified these into two
parts— permanent and temporary elements, Organski has preferred to classify
these into the natural and social determinants—the former including geography,
resources and population and the latter economic development, political structures
and national morale.
Palmer and Perkins, Charles O. Lerche, Abdul Said, Theodore A, Couloumbis and
James H. Wolfe have classified these elements into two parts; Tangible and
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Intangible Elements— the former category includes those elements which can be
assessed in quantitative terms and latter
Geography, raw material, natural resources, population and technology are the
tangible elements, whereas ideology, morale, leadership, personality,
organisational efficiency and quality of diplomacy are the intangible elements.
In a simple way we can discuss the following seven elements of National

Power:
1. Geography
2. Natural Resources
(a) Raw Materials
(b) Food
TANGIBLE
ELEMENTS
3. Population
4. Economic Development and Industrial Capacity
5. Technology
6. Military Preparedness
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7. Ideology
8. Leadership
INTANGIBLE
9. Organisation and Quality of Government ELEMENTS
10. National Character and Morale
11. Diplomacy
1. Geography
Amongst the elements of National Power, geography is the most stable, tangible,
permanent and natural element. Its importance as a factor of national power can be
judged from the fact that Geo-political scientists, like Moodie, Spykman,
Haushofer, Mackinder and others, regard Geography as the determinant of
international politics.
While describing the importance of geography in international relations Napoleon,

observed. “The foreign policy of a country is determined by its geography.”
Geography is, however neither an independent determinant of national power nor
of foreign policy. It is just an element of National Power.
Nature and Role of Geography as an Element of National Power:

(i) Maps:
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Maps are always geographical in nature. These are sometimes used by nations to
justify a particular course of policy or action as well as to reject the views of other
nations.
“Observers of international relations always need an atlas showing population, raw

materials, communication routes and other data and the ability to interpret maps.”
—Padelford and Lincoln
The Sino-Indian dispute has been a dispute of maps regarding McMahon Line.
Maps are used as instruments for justifying a particular demand or action of a
nation. These are used to influence decisions in ones favour.
(ii) Size:
Size is another geographical element of national power. The large size of a country
can accommodate a large population, offer better natural resources and raw
materials, and can be more helpful in the defence of the country. A large size can
help the country to defend by retreat in the event of an attack. It is definitely more,
rather very difficult for a state to defeat a big country. It was also the large size of
the erstwhile Soviet Union that helped it to defeat the forces of Hitler.
Large area also makes it possible for a country to establish vital industrial
complexes far away from the borders and thereby, to organdie effective defense.
Thus size is a component of national power. A united Germany as a big state is
bound to be a new powerful state in the world politics of 21st century.
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However, size can be both a helping as well as a hindering factor. A large size with
inadequate natural resources, inaccessible mountains and forests, unhealthy climate
and topography can be a hindrance in the way of national power. It can also pose a
defense problem.
The Himalayas in the North and a long sea-coast in the South have made the
defense of India a complex and difficult problem. Moreover, the existence of some
other factors can help even the small sized states to develop a large amount of
national power. The location of England and the rapid industrial development that
it could achieve after the Industrial Revolution helped it to establish and maintain a
big empire and be a virtual ruler of the seas till 1945.
Japan, even with its small size, scored a victory over Russia in 1905. The USA has
a relatively smaller territory than Russia yet it has more power than the latter.
Israel offers another striking example of a small sized country that has a
disproportionately large amount of power.
On the other hand, some large sized countries such as, Brazil, Canada, Zaire,
Australia and Sudan, and now Russia are not as powerful as their sizes might
indicate. In spite of these exceptions, it cannot be denied that a large territory
generally creates the possibility of a great power, or, conversely, small states are
normally not expected to be great powers.
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(iii) Location:
Location of a nation can be as helping as well as a hindering factor for its national
power. It determines whether a nation can be a sea-power or not. England could
become a big naval power and thereby an imperial power because of its location.
The location of Japan has helped it to be a major ship- building nation. Location of
Germany in the heart of Europe has been a source of strength for it.
The location of the USA helped it to adopt (1823-1945) and follow the policy of
isolationism. Further, its location, being relative to land as well as seas, has helped
it to be a both land and sea power. The location of Switzerland has been
instrumental in securing for it the status of a permanently neutralized state.
Middle East and Continental Europe have been the potential zones of power rivalry
because of their geographic and strategic locations. Location of Canada has
hindered its emergence as a great power. Hence, a favorable geographical location
among other things can help a nation to be powerful and an unfavorable location
can limit the national power.
(iv) Climate:
No one can deny the importance of climate in the context of National Power.
Climate determines the food production, economy and even the culture of a nation.
It can be a source of big limitation or help for the human capabilities. The cold
climate of Arctic zone and Antarctic and the excessive heat of the Tropical zone,
and Sahara have kept the development of life backward in these areas.
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Extreme heat or cold are unfavorable conditions for national power. The prosperity
of India stands inseparably conditioned by Monsoons. A failure of Monsoons
weakens India and likewise timely and good Monsoon rains help India to be self-
sufficient and even surplus in food production.
It is a well-known fact that the great centers of power have so far emerged only in
the moderate temperate zone, between 20 and 60 degrees north. A helpful climate
can be a source of power and an unkind climate can be a source of weakness.
(v) Topography:
The nature of terrain, together with other geographical elements, is an important
factor of national power. Terrain can influence the power of a state and its potential
for offence, defence and growth. A nation with plane and artificial boundaries can
be an easy victim of expansionism on the part of a powerful nation.
Natural boundaries with strategic advantages are always a source of strength for a
nation. It is terrain which determines decisions concerning physical security of the
state. The English Channel has remained a source of defense and some security for
England. The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans have provided strength to the security of
the United States.
Since mid-1950s, defense of the Himalayas has been a source of limitation on

India’s power. The lack of a good number of natural harbors along the sea coast
has hindered the development of economic and trade relations of India with other
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countries. All these examples highlight the role of topography in determining the
national power of a state.
(vi) Boundaries:
Boundary is also a geographic factor of national power. Settled and natural
boundaries are always a source of friendly and cooperative relations among the
nations of a region. Undefined and disputed boundaries are potent sources of
conflict which weakens national power e.g. the boundary disputes between India
and China, Israel and Arab states can be quoted as examples. Natural boundaries
are helpful to national power and conversely artificial boundaries are a source of
weakness and conflict.
Everyone accepts that Geography is an important element of National Power.

However, its role can be both helpful and hindering. Ideal geographical conditions
can be a source of strength and negative and hindering geographical factors can be
a source of weakness for the national power.
Further, role of geography as an element of national power is linked with several

other elements, like population, level of scientific and industrial development
means of transport and communication, and the like. In fact, scientific inventions
and technological innovations have made it possible for man to adjust with and
overcome geographical problems and hindrances. Geography is an element but not
an independent determinant of national power. The Geo-political scientists over-
rate its importance.
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2. Natural Resources
No nation can hope to be a powerful nation if its territory is not adequately graced
by natural resources. Natural resources are indeed “gifts of nature of established
utility.” The industrial and military capabilities of a nation as well as its economic
well-being are dependent upon the existence of natural resources.
Self-sufficiency in certain key resources can be a big source of power of a nation.

The USA has been in a position to be a super power in the world mainly due to its
near self-sufficiency in respect of several key natural resources. No nation can be
powerful without becoming a developed industrialized nation and the chances of
becoming an industrialized nation are basically linked with the possession of
natural resources, particularly industrial raw materials and minerals. Natural
resources, in the form of minerals, fertile soil, flora and fauna, through planned
exploitation and use always make a nation powerful.
In analyzing the role of National Resources as a factor of National Power

Morgenthau discuss it in two parts:
1. Raw Materials and
2. Food.
1. Raw Materials:
Raw materials can be further sub-divided into three categories:
(i) Minerals— Coal, Petrol, Iron, Copper, Zinc, Tin, Manganese, Uranium etc.,
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(ii) Natural Products— Rubber, Jute, Bamboo, Medicinal Plants, Wood Pulp,
Wood, Plants, Colors ,Varnishes, Forest Products etc., and
(iii) Animal Products—Milk, Eggs, Meat, Wool, Hides, Feathers, Silk etc.
It is impossible to develop power in modern times without industrialization and it

is very difficult, if not impossible, for a nation to get industrialized without
adequate possession of key raw materials. Raw materials influence national power,
national policies and international trade of the nation.
The United States has been nearly self-sufficient in respect of key minerals and this
fact has largely contributed to its industrial and military strength. The
interdependence among nations stands largely constituted by the necessities of
trade relations in respect of minerals and raw materials for their industrial needs.
A nation cannot hope to be a big military, industrial and economic power without
the possession of adequate quantities of raw- materials. The importance of oil as
the key source of energy is a well known fact of present day international relations.
Oil diplomacy in world politics of our times solely depends upon the fact that the
OPEC countries monopolies world crude production and have vast oil reserves.
Oil has tremendous importance, both for industrial production and military strength
and mobility. Clemenceau’s observation; “One drop of oil is worth one drop of
blood of our soldiers”, is true even today. The importance of uranium as a source
of atomic power is well known. Adequate means of energy security contribute to
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the national power of a nation. As such, raw materials constitute an important

element of national power.
However, merely the existence of raw materials cannot be automatically a source

of power. The ability to exploit and utilize the raw- materials is a factor almost as
important as the existence of raw-materials. This ability is directly linked with the
level of scientific, technological and industrial advancement.
2. Food:
Food indeed is an important element of national power. Food determines policies.
The existence of large stocks of food grains and surplus food production can be a
source of vital strength of a nation. A nation deficient in food production can rarely
become a major power.
“Nations self-sufficient in food are better placed than nations which import food.”
—Morgenthau
The food shortage in India was a highly limiting factor of the Indian foreign policy
during 1950s and 60s. Food shortage leads to power shortage. Acute food problem
is a big source of weakness for all the developing countries. It is keeping them
dependent upon developed states who have surplus food productions. The Green
Revolution of 1970s enabled India not only to sustain its economy but also to
preserve and develop its national power.
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The military preparedness of a nation is dependent upon adequate supplies of food.

A popular valid saying has been; “Armies travel on their stomach.”
However, the food factor is also inseparably linked up with other factors
particularly with population, science and technology. Food production is dependent
upon agricultural technology and industrial capacity. Man-power is vitally
important for food production. Production of food can be stepped up by human
efforts and the application of advanced agricultural technology.
The ability to utilize sea food resources can help a nation to overcome its food
problem. This ability is dependent upon science and technology. As such food is
again an element of national power. However its role as a factor of National Power
has to be evaluated along with other factors, population, climate, and level of
scientific and technological development of a nation.
3. Population:
Another basic element which affects national power is population. “As long as men
are needed for production and fighting, other elements being equal, the state with a
large number of men and women to perform such tasks shall be more capable of
becoming a major power.” Manpower continues to be a key factor which
determines the industrial and military capacities of a nation and its status as a
power in international relations.
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In this age of science, machines have come to perform a large number of functions
which were previously being performed by men. Yet machines have failed to
completely replace men. Even today men behind the machines continue to be more
important than the machines.
Manpower alone can exploit the natural resources and utilize these for the
satisfaction of national needs. Geographical hindrances can be overcome by men.
Scientific and industrial development cannot be accomplished without men.
Men are needed to fight. Voltaire’s observation: “God is always on the side of the
biggest battalions” holds good even today. The mechanization of warfare has not
seriously limited the importance of man as the soldier. Manpower alone can
register a military victory.
Hence, population is a source of power. The major powers of our times are states
with fairly large populations. Large concentration of man-power in Asia,
particularly China and India, has been an important factor of the power structure in
international politics. Human Power resulting from the presence of a large class of
skilled workforce has been a source for the emerging power of India in the world.
Thus, it can be observed that:

1. Population is an important element of military power.
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2. Man power is needed for fully exploiting the resources of the state. Industrial
production depends upon man-power as well as machines.
3. Population factor determines both national needs as well as policies designed to

serve these needs.
4. Population is an important human element of National Power.
However, it is not merely the large number of people that determines the power of
a nation. Britain, with a very small population, was in a position to rule many
countries, even heavily populated countries like India. Israel with a small
population has been demonstrating a larger amount of power than Arab countries.
4. Economic Development and Industrial Capacity:

A. Economic Development:
Economic power is a vitally important part of national power of a nation because it
is the means for military power and the basis for welfare, prosperity and
development of its people. A nation with developed, healthy and growing economy
alone can be a great power in world politics. Effective economic organisation and
planning are essential qualities of a powerful nation. Poverty is always a source of
limitation of power. It is this factor which has been largely forcing most of the
developing countries of the Third World to live with neo-colonialism.
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The increased importance of economic instruments of foreign policy is a

recognized fact of present day international relations. Only nations with developed
economies can use the economic instruments—aid, loan, rewards, trade, grants and
denial of rewards or punishment, for securing their desired goals in international
relations. By using economic means a nation tries to exercise its national power in
a productive and useful way. The level of economic well-being determines the
power of a nation.
B. Industrial Capacity:
The economic factor is intimately linked up with industrial capacity of a nation. In
this age of science, industrialisation and technology developed industrial capacity
alone can be a source of enduring and effective economic development. Only
industrially advanced nations can become great powers. Today, the United States,
the United Kingdom, France, Japan and Germany are powerful nations because of
their huge industrial capacities. They have the ability to process raw materials, and
thereby are in a position to control international economy. India is now emerging
as an industrial power.
Industrial capacity of a nation is thus an important factor of national power.

Industrial backwardness, despite the possession of raw materials, can be a source
of weakness for any nation. The USA, Russia and India have almost equal coal and
iron resources, but some weakness industrial capacity in India has been responsible
for her comparatively less powerful position. Since her independence, India has
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been trying conceitedly to develop her industrial capacity and technology for
increasing her power and role in international relations.
The modern warfare has made industrial capacity a significant factor of military
power of a nation. The agricultural production of a country can be increased only
through industrialized farming. Increased industrial capacity increases the
agricultural capacity and the power of a nation.
Thus, economic development and industrial capacity are important elements of

national power. However, like other elements these two are also closely related to
other elements, particularly, raw materials, technology, skilled human power,
scientific talent and research, economic resources and the like. Their role as
elements of power has to be analyzed in relation with other factors and not
independently.
5. Technology
Technology is the application of knowledge of science for promoting human
welfare. It is the ability to use scientific inventions for the promotion of human
welfare. Progress in engineering and industrial production is directly related to the
nature and level of technology. It has been the advanced technological ability that
has largely contributed to the prosperity and power of the developed countries.
In fact the level of technological advancement determines the power-status of a

nation. A nation backed by highly developed and advanced technology alone can
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be recognized as a developed nation. The USA and other developed countries are
technologically advanced nations and this fact has been a major source of their
power. Now nuclear technology has emerged as an important source of power and
influence in international relations.
Initially, monopoly over atomic secret was sought to be used by the USA for
maintaining her power superiority in relation with the erstwhile USSR. The
success in acquiring the nuclear technology in early 1950s, however, made it
possible for the erstwhile USSR to successfully compete with the US power in
international relations.
The overkill capacity achieved by the nuclear powers, resulting from the huge
stockpiling of nuclear weapons of mass destruction, has been a source of limitation
for other nations. The nuclear technology, missile technology, space technology
and information technology have given a big boost to the power of some of the
states. It has decidedly been a source of power for India.
The capacity of a nation to develop is greatly related to the capacity for

technological advancement. Industrial development, development of means of
transport and communication, military preparedness and all-round economic and
social development can be really possible only when a nation has access to
advanced technology.
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The ability to achieve this through self-efforts is a bigger source of strength than
the capacity to import know-how. The inability to register self-development makes
a nation dependent upon technologically advanced nations and hence it limits its
national power.
The technological development secured by the Indian scientists in various spheres

has been a source of power for India. However, the continued dependence upon
advanced nations for the import of highly advanced technology in respect of
certain vital spheres has been acting as a source of limitation on India’s national
power. Many developing or lowly developed countries have not been in a position
to fully use their natural resources because of the low levels of their technological
development.
The role of technology as a factor of national power can be judged from the fact
that today technological aid or assistance, weapon-technology, nuclear technology,
information technology, communication technology, dual use technology, and
space technology are elements of international relations and all these have been
influencing the foreign policies of both the developed and under-developed
countries.
However, here again it must be pointed out that the importance of this factor stands
linked up with several other factors, like scientific and industrial capacity, raw
materials, government policies and educational facilities.
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6. Military Preparedness
Military power is a vitally important part of national power of a state. The
importance of military factor as an element of national power can be judged from
the fact that many persons regard these synonymous. Military power is not national
power, nevertheless it is an important part of national power which contributes to
its strength and effectiveness.
Military preparedness is a background factor for the success of a foreign policy and
it is a tangible factor capable of supporting the foreign policy and promoting
national interest.” It influences the level of success of foreign policy. The super
powers and other major powers of our times have been big military powers. By
virtue of being a major military power, India, besides other factors, is considered to
be a major power having a potential to be a super power in the next 20 years or so.
While evaluating military preparedness as a factor of national power, we have

to take into account three factors:
(i) War technology or technological innovations,
(ii) Military leadership, and
(iii) Quantity and Quality of soldiers.
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(a) War Technology:

War technology refers to the nature and type of weapon system that is available
with the army of the state. Modern warfare is a sophisticated technological
warfare. The quantity and technical quality of weapons and military equipment is a
major factor that determines the level of military power of a nation. Advanced
military technology is always a source of strength and strategic advantage.
(b) Quality of Military Leadership:

War technology is an important factor but it can be fruitful only when backed by
efficient planning and systematic and effective use. This brings into focus the role
of military leadership. Military planning is a valuable factor of military action in a
war. Skilled, trained, experienced, dedicated, energetic and disciplined military
leadership alone can make the best use of available weapons, equipment and
manpower. A war victory can be possible only under effective and efficient
military leadership.
(c) Quantity and Quality of Soldiers:

In a war weapons and equipment play a key role but their role and effectiveness is
dependent upon the quantity and quality of soldiers. Military equipment and
weapon-system is important, but not as much as the soldiers who actually use these
weapons and equipment. The number, skill, training, discipline, dedication and
morale of the soldiers are essential factors which can make possible an effective
and successful use of military weapons and machines.
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Pakistan had a superior weapon system, tanks and aircrafts in both the 1965 and
1971 wars with India. However, it failed to use this to its advantage because of
inadequately trained and less skilled men behind these machines. Indian soldiers
could provide a decisive and befitting answer to Pakistani aggressions because of
their superior qualities. Kargil Victory was also the outcome of the qualities of
discipline, training and dedication of Indians Officers and Jawans.
We have to take into account these three factors for judging the level of military
preparedness as an element of national power. However, military preparedness is
directly dependent upon such factors as technology, industrial capacity, economic
development, state of economy, policies of the government, and strategic factors.
Hence it is not an independent determinant of national power.
B) Limitations on National Power

Exercise of national power by every nation is an accepted reality of international
relations. Power and its individual distribution is one of the major determinants of
the behaviour of a state in international relations. However, an unlimited use of
power by the states can be a source of war, anarchy and chaos in international
relations.
The humankind fully realizes the dangers of an unregulated use of national power
by each state. The states now themselves realize their increased international
interdependence and the need for exercising restraint in the use of power.
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In this nuclear age, the danger resulting from an unlimited use of power involves
the possibility of a total destruction of the humankind by a nuclear war. The new
need for sustainable all round development has again compelled all nations to
accept the need for controlling and regulating the use of power by all states in the
interest of preventing war and anarchy in the international relations. This objective
is sought to be realized with the help of several devices which act as limitations on
national power.
The major limitations on national power of each state can be discussed as under:
1. International Law:
International Law is the body of rules that the nation-states accept as binding upon
them, and which regulates their behavior in international relations. It is an
important limitation on the power of a nation. It directs and controls the behaviour
of the nations engaged in international relations.
International law constitutes a legal framework for the orderly conduct of

international relations both in times of peace and war. Backed by common consent,
natural law, international morality, world public opinion and its utility,
International law acts as a major limitation on the misuse of power by the states. It
enunciates the do’s and don’ts for the states.
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It declares war as an illegal means for the promotion of interests. It lays down rules
for the establishment and conduct of diplomatic relations. Violations of
International Law can invoke sanctions against the violating states.
However, International Law is a weak law. It is not backed by force. It is also

subject to different interpretations. It often fails to meet the pressure exerted by a
powerful nation pursuing aggressive nationalism. Its objective is to secure
international peace, security and development, by securing orderly international
relations through the prevention of use of force, war and violence. However, its
weakness as a law, rather half- law, and half-morality, tends to limit its role as a
limiting factor of national power.
2. International Morality:
Just as human behavior in a society is regulated by a set of moral norms or rules,
likewise behavior of states in the international environment is limited by
International Morality. International community accepts certain values—peace,
order, equality, goodness, mutual help, respect for life and liberty of all, and
respect for Human Rights of all, as right and good values which must be accepted
and followed by all states.
International Morality is “a generally accepted moral code of conduct which

nations usually follow in international relations”. It acts as a limitation on the
national power of each state. It has played a role in strengthening human
consciousness against war i.e. against misuse of national power.
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3. World Public Opinion:

The democratization of foreign policy and the coming of communications and IT
revolutions have together made possible the rise of organized and strong World
Public Opinion in contemporary international relations.
It has emerged as an important factor of international relations. The presence of

strong global peace movements, strong movements in favor of Nuclear Arms
Control and Disarmament, a very strong and healthy global movement for the
preservation of Earth’s ecological balance, the environment protection movements,
Human Rights protection movements and several other such movements clearly
show the presence of a strong World Public Opinion.
It is now fast emerging as a big limitation on national power. Fear of adverse world
public opinion often forces a nation either not to follow a particular policy or to
take a decision or even to pursue a particular goal or decision. Strong world public
opinion in favor of Arms Control and Disarmament has been a factor behind the
INF Treaty, the START-I, START-II, the Chemical Weapons Elimination Treaty
and the continued talks on the issue of disarmament, nuclear disarmament and
arms control in international relations.
Moreover, in contemporary times, the widespread support of World Public

Opinion for the protection of Human Rights and Freedoms of all by all the
countries has been a source or big influence on the role of national power in
international relations. However, World Public Opinion is a limiting factor in
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itself. It often fails to neutralize or forcefully control strong and aggressive

nationalism. It has failed to prevent the US war against Iraq.
C) BALANCE OF POWER
It is indeed very difficult to define Balance of Power. It has been defined it

differently by different scholars.
The trouble with Balance of Power is not that it has no meaning, but that it has too
many meanings.” —Innis L. Claude Jr.
Some writers define it in terms of equilibrium where as others in terms of

“preponderance” or “disequilibrium”. Some define it as a principle of action while
others define it as a policy or system.
Some Popular Definitions of Balance of Power:

(1) “Balance of Power is such a ‘just equilibrium’ in power among the members of
the family of nations as will prevent any one of them from becoming sufficiently
strong to enforce its will upon others.” —Sidney B. Fay
(2) “Balance of Power is an equilibrium or a certain amount of stability in power

relations that under favourable conditions is produced by an alliance of states or by
other devices.” —George Schwarzenberger
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(3) “Balance of Power is such a system in which some nations regulate their power
relations without any interference by any big power. As such it is a decentralized
system in which power and policies remain in the hands of constituting units.” —
Inis Claude
(4) Balance of Power means “the maintenance of such a just equilibrium between
the members of the family of nations as should prevent any one of them from
becoming sufficiently strong to impose its will upon the rest.” —Lord Castlereagh
(5) “Whenever the term Balance of Power is used without qualification, it refers to
an actual state of affairs in which power is distributed among nations with
approximately equality.” —Hans. J. Morgenthau
All these definitions clearly reflect that Balance of Power is defined differently by
different scholars. It is very difficult to give or select a uniformly acceptable
definition. This difficultly makes it essential for us to study the features of
Balance of Power.
Nature of Balance of Power

Palmer and Perkins describe several major features of Balance of Power (BOP):
1. Some Sort of Equilibrium in Power Relations:

The term Balance of Power suggests ‘equilibrium which is subject to constant,
ceaseless change. In short, though it stands for equilibrium, it also involves some
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disequilibrium. That is why scholars define it as a just equilibriums or some sort

of equilibrium in power relations.
2. Temporary and Unstable:

In practice a balance of power always proves to be temporary and unstable. A
particular balance of power survives only for a short time.
3. To be actively achieved:
The balance of power has to be achieved by the active intervention of men. It is
not a gift of God. States cannot afford to wait until it “happens”. They have to
secure it through their efforts.
4. Favours Status quo:

Balance of power favours status quo in power positions of major powers. It seeks
to maintain a balance in their power relations. However, in order to be effective, a
foreign policy of balance of power must be changing and dynamic.
5. The Test of BOP is War:

A real balance of power seldom exists. The only test of a balance is war and when
war breaks out the balance comes to an end. War is a situation which balance of
power seeks to prevent and when it breaks out, balance power comes to an end.
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6. Not a Device of Peace:

Balance of Power is not a primary device of peace because it admits war as a
means for maintaining balance.
7. Big Powers as Actors of BOP:

In a balance of power system, the big states or powerful states are the players. The
small states or less powerful states are either spectators or the victims of the game.
8. Multiplicity of States as an Essential Condition:

Balance of Power system operates when there are present a number of major
powers, each of which is determined to maintain a particular balance or
equilibrium in their power relations.
9. National Interest is its Basis:

Balance of Power is a policy that can be adopted by any state. The real basis that
leads to this policy is national interest in a given environment.
Underlying Principal Assumptions and Postulates of Balance of Power:

The Balance of Power rests upon several fundamental postulates and assumptions.
(a) Five Principal Assumptions:

(1) Firstly, Balance of Power assumes that states are determined to protect their
vital rights and interests by all means, including war.
(2) Secondly, vital interests of the states are threatened.

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(3) The relative power position of states can be measured with a degree of
accuracy.
(4) Balance of Power assumes that “balance” will either deter the threatening state
from launching an attack or permit the victim to avoid defeat if an attack should
occur.
(5) The statesmen can, and they do make foreign policy decisions intelligently on
basis of power considerations.
(b) Major Postulates of Balance of Power:

(1) A nation following balance of power is prepared to change its alliances or
treaties if the circumstances may so demand.
(2) When a nation finds that a particular preponderance of power is increasing

menacingly, it gets prepared to go to war for maintaining the balance.
(3) Balance of Power postulates that no nation is to be totally eliminated in war.

War is aimed only at the weakening of power of the violator of the balance. After
war a new balance of power system is achieved. The basic principle of Balance of
Power is that excessive power anywhere in the system is a threat to the existence of
others and that the most effective antidote to power is power.
From the above discussion of the features, assumptions, postulates and purposes of
Balance of Power, it becomes clear that Balance of power is a device of power
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management which is used by several major powers for maintaining a balance in

their power relations.
In this process they maintain a sort of equilibrium in their power relations and do
not permit any state to violate the Balance. In case any state tries to disturb or
violate the balance of power, the other states individually or collectively or is a
group can take action, including war, for weakening the power of the violator as
well as for restoring the balance.
Methods of Balance of Power:

Balance of Power is not automatic; it has to be secured by the states following this
policy. In fact, there are several methods by which states try to secure and maintain
balance of power. “Balance of Power is a game which is played by actors with the
help of several devices.”
Major Methods of Balance of Power:

I. Compensation:
It is also known as territorial compensation. It usually entails the annexation or
division of the territory of the state whose power is considered dangerous for the
balance. In the 17th and 18th centuries this device was regularly used for
maintaining a balance of power which used to get disturbed by the territorial
acquisitions of any nation.
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For examples the three partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795 were based
upon the principle of compensation. Austria, Prussia and Russia agreed to divide
Polish territory in such a way that the distribution of power among them would be
approximately the same.
In the latter part of the 19th century, and after each of the two world wars of the
20th century, territorial compensation was used as a device for weakening the
powers of the states whose actions had led to a violation of the balance. It was
applied by the colonial powers for justifying their actions aimed at maintaining
their imperial possessions.
II. Alliances and Counter Alliances:

Alliance-making is regarded as a principal method of balance of power. Alliance is
a device by which a combination of nations creates a favorable balance of power
by entering into military or security pacts aimed at augmenting their own strength
vis-a-vis the power of their opponents. However, an alliance among a group of
nations, almost always, leads to the establishment of a counter alliance by the
opponents. History is full of examples of such alliances and counter alliances.
Whenever any nation threatened the balance of Europe, other states formed
alliances against it and were usually able to curb the power of the over- ambitious
state. After the Triple Alliance of 1882, a rival alliance—The Triple Entente, was
slowly formed through bilateral agreements over a period of 17 years (1891-1907).
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In post-1945 period, alliances like NATO, SEATO, and Warsaw Pact emerged as
devices of Balance of Power. The first two were established by the USA and the
third one was organized by the erstwhile USSR for strengthening their respective
power positions in the era of cold war.
III. Intervention and Non-intervention:

“Intervention is a dictatorial interference in the internal affairs of another
state/states with a view to change or maintain a particular desired situation which is
considered to be harmful or useful to the competing opponents. Some times during
a war between two states no attempt is made by other states to intervene. This is
done for making the two warring states weaker.
As such intervention and non-intervention are used as devices of Balance of

Power. Mostly it is used by a major power for regaining an old ally or for picking
up a new ally or for imposing a desired situation on other states. British
intervention in Greece, the US intervention is Grenada, Nicaragua, Cuba, Korea,
Vietnam, and (Erstwhile) USSR’s interventions in Poland, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, and Afghanistan can be quoted as examples of interventions carried out
by the big powers.
IV. Divide and Rule:

The policy of divide and rule has also been a method of balance of power. It has
been a time honored policy of weakening the opponents. It is resorted to be all
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such nations who try to make or keep their competitors weak by keeping them
divided or by dividing them.
The French policy towards Germany and the British policy towards the European
continent can be cited as the outstanding examples. The rich and powerful states
now do not refrain from using divide and rule for controlling the policies of the
new states of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
V. Buffer States or Zones:

Another method of balance of power is to set up a buffer state between two rivals
or opponents. Buffers, observes V.V. Dyke, “are areas which are weak, which
possess considerable strategic importance to two or more strong powers, Buffer is
a small state created or maintained as a separating state i.e. as a buffer state for
keeping two competing states physically separate each stronger power then tries to
bring the buffer within its sphere of influence but regards it as important, if not
vital, that no other strong power be permitted to do so.
The major function of a buffer is to keep the two powerful nations apart and thus
minimize the chances of clash and hence to help the maintenance of balance.”
VI. Armaments and Disarmaments:

All nations, particularly very powerful nations, place great emphasis on armaments
as the means for maintaining or securing a favorable position in power relations in
the world. It is also used as a means to keep away a possible aggressor or enemy.
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However, armament race between two competitors or opponents can lead to a

highly dangerous situation which cans accidently cause a war. In this way
armament race can act as a danger to world peace and security. Consequently,
now-a-days, Disarmaments and Arms Control are regarded as better devices for
maintaining and strengthening world peace and security. A comprehensive
disarmament plan/exercise involving nuclear disarmament can go a long way in
strengthening the balance (peace) that exists in international relations.
VII. The Holder of the Balance or the Balancer:

The system of balance of power may consist of two scales plus a third element
‘holder’ of the balance or the balancer. The balancer is a nation or a group of
nations, which remains aloof from the policies of the two rivals or opponents and
plays the role of, “the laughing third party.”
It poses temptations to both parties to the balance, and each contending party tries
to win over the support of the laughing third party—the balancer. Normally, the
balancer remains away from both the parties but if any party to the balance
becomes unduly weak resulting into a threat to the balance, the balancer joins it
and helps the restoration of balance.
After that the balancer again becomes aloof. Traditionally Britain used to play the
role of a balancer in Europe. However in the era cold war no state could perform
the role of a balancer in international relations.
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The rise of unipolarity after 1991, involving the presence of only one super power
has now further reduced the chances for the emergence of a balancer in
international relations. These are the seven major methods or devices of Balance of
Power. These have been traditionally used by nations pursuing the policy of a
balance of power.
Critical Evaluation of Balance of Power:

Balance of Power has been strongly praised as well as severely criticized.
Some Scholars observe:

“Balance of Power is nearly a fundamental law of politics as is possible to find,”
—Martin Wright
“Balance of Power is a basic principle of international relations.” —Palmer and

Perkins
As against this several others like Richard Cobden criticize it as unreal, inadequate
and uncertain system. They hold that Balance of Power admits war in the have
balance and makes the nations power hungry. The supporters of Balance of Power
advance a number of arguments in favour and give example of the 1815-1914
period of history to prove the effectiveness of balance of power as a device of
power management.
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Balance of Power: Arguments in Favor:

(1) A Source of Stability in International Relations:
Balance of Power provides stability to international relations. It is a device of
effective power management and peace. During the past 400 years it was
successful, at most of the times, in preserving peace.
“Balance of Power has many a times prevented war. War breaks out only when any
state assumes excessive power.” —Fredric Geniz
(2) It suits the real nature of International Relations:

Balance of Power is in tune with the dynamic nature of international relations. It
helps continuous adjustments and readjustments in relations without any grave risk
of war among states.
(3) Ensures Multiplicity of States:

Since Balance of Power postulates the presence of a number of major international
actors (7 or 8 even more), it ensures multiplicity of nations and their active
participation in preserving balance in international relations.
(4) Guarantees the Freedom of Small States:

Balance of Power ensures the preservation of small and weak states. Its rule that no
nation is to be completely eliminated, favors the continued existence of all states.
Each state feels secure about its security in the balance of power system.
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(5) Balance of Power Discourages War:

Balance of Power discourages war because each state knows that any attempt to
become unduly powerful shall invoke an action, even war, by all other states and
hence, it keeps its ambitions under control.
(6) A Source of Peace in International Relations:

Finally, Balance of Power is always a source of peace and order in international
relations. It supports status quo in relations. Between 1815-1914 it successfully
prevented war.
Balance of Power: Arguments Against:

(1) Balance of Power cannot ensure Peace:
Balance of Power does not necessarily bring peace. Even during its golden days, it
failed to prevent the domination of small states by the big states. It was not
successful in preserving the security of small states. In fact, in the past, wars have
been fought in the name of preservation of Balance of Power.
The three periods of stability—one starting from 1648, the second from 1815 and
the third from Treaty of Versailles (1918), were preceded by continuous warfare
and by the wholesale elimination of small states starting with the destruction of
Poland, and followed by a large number of isolated acts of a similar nature. The
tragedy is that all these acts were accomplished in the name of balance of power.
Balance of Power cannot really secure peace and freedom of the nations.
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(2) States are not Static Units:

Each state always tries to secure more and more national power. It does not really
belong to any balance of power system. Another point that must be raised about the
balance of power is that nations are not static units.
They increase their power through military aggressions, seizure of territory and
alliances. They can change their power from within by improving social
organisation, by industrializing and by mobilizing internal resources. So the
traditional mechanism of the balance of power is not the only cause responsible for
an increase of power.
(3) Preponderance of One State in the world can also secure Peace:
A preponderance of power in the hands of one state or group of states does not
necessarily threaten world peace or the independence of any nation. The
unipolarism resulting from the collapse of one super power (USSR) and the
continued presence of the other super power (USA) has not in any way disturbed
international peace and security or power balance. In contemporary times the
preponderance of one state is a reality and yet there is peace and peaceful
coexistence.
(4) Narrow Basis:

The concept of Balance of Power is based upon a narrow view of international
relations. It regards power-relations as the whole of international relations. It gives
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near total importance to preservation of self and national-interest as the motives of

all state actions. It fails to give proper weight age to other ends—social, economic,
cultural and moral, that provide strong motives to international relations.
(5) A Mechanical view of Peace:

Balance of Power wrongly takes a mechanistic view of world peace as a situation
of balance or equilibrium in power relations. Peace does not depend upon balance
in power relations. It really depends upon international consciousness and
morality.
(6) Equality of a number of States is a Myth:

Balance of Power presupposes the existence of a number of equally powerful
states. In practice no two states have or can have equal power. It involves the
conception of equilibrium which is in fact disequilibrium and is subject to
continuous change.
(7) Nations are not free to break Alliances:

The theory of the balance of power can also be criticized on the ground that it
wrongly assumes that nations are free to make or break alliances as and when they
may desire for the main consideration of balance of power.
(8) Uncertainty of Balance of Power:

Morgenthau criticizes Balance of Power for its uncertainty. Balance of Power is
uncertain because its operation depends upon an evaluation of power of various
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nations. In practice it is not possible to have an absolutely correct evaluation of

power of a state.
(9) Balance of Power is Unreal:

Since the evaluation of the national power of a nation is always uncertain, no
nation can afford dependence upon the balance of power. Each nation always
keeps a secret about its power. Since all nations keep safe margins, the balance of
power at a particular time is always unreal.
(10) Inadequacy of Balance of Power:

Balance of Power in itself is an inadequate device of international peace and
security. It even accepts war as a means for maintaining a balance. Fear cannot be
a real basis of international relations.
(11) Balance of Power has now lost its Relevance:

Finally, the critics argue that now Balance of Power it is not a relevant principle of
international relations. The big changes in the international system as well as in the
balance of power system have made it almost an obsolete system. On the basis of
above arguments, the critics of Balance of Power advocate its total rejection.
Undoubtedly, in contemporary times the balance of power has lost its utility and
much of its importance due to changes in the international system. However it
cannot be denied that it continues to be an important factor in the regional power
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relations among the states of a region. It is used by nations for assessing the nature
of power relations at the regional level.
Role and Relevance of Balance of Power in International Relations:

“As long as the nation-state system is the prevailing pattern of international
society, balance of power policies will be followed in practice, and in all
probability, they will continue to operate, even if effective supranational groupings
on a regional or world level are formed” —Palmer and Perkins.
In contemporary times, Balance of Power has lost much of its utility due to several
changes in the international relations. The following changes in the international
relations as well as in the traditional balance of power system have adversely
affected the role and relevance of Balance of Power as a device of power
management in International politics.
(1) End of the era of European Domination and the dawn of era of Global
Politics:
The structure of international politics has undergone a radical change from the
classical period. From a narrow European dominated international system it has
come to be a truly global system in which Asian, African and Latin American
states enjoy a new and added importance. Today Europe is no longer the centre of
world politics. European politics constitutes only one small segment of
international politics. This changes has considerably reduced the operation ability
of balance of power.
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(2) Changes in Psychological Environment:

The characteristic moral and intellectual consensus that characterised European
nations during the classical period of Balance of Power (1815-1914) has ceased to
exist. Each major power now seeks to protect its interests as universal interests and
hence tries to impose these upon others. The use of propaganda and ideology as
instruments of national policy has increased manifold. This development has
further checked the importance of balance of power.
(3) Rise of Propaganda, Psychological and Political Warfare as instruments of

National Policy:
Previously, diplomacy and war used to be the chief means of conducting foreign
policies. The decline of diplomacy, rise of new diplomacy and the new fear of war
as a means, have brought into operation two new devices- Propaganda and Political
warfare, as the instruments of national policy. These have in turn reduced the
popularity and role of balance of power principle in international relations.
(4) Emergence of Ideology as a Factor of International Relations:

The new importance of ideology and other less tangible but, nevertheless,
important elements of national power have further created unfavorable conditions
for the operation of balance of power.
(5) Reduction in the Number of Major Powers:

The most obvious structural change that has seriously limited the role of balance of
power has been the numerical reduction of the players of power-politics game. For
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its operation, Balance of Power needs the presence of a number of major power
actors. The presence of two superpowers during 1945-91 discouraged the operation
of balance of power and now there is present only one super power in the world.
(6) The Bipolarity of Cold War period and the new era of Unipolarity:
The bipolarity (presence of two super powers and their blocs) that emerged in the
cold war period reduced the flexibility of the international system. It reduced the
chances of balance of power whose working requires the existence of flexibility in
power relations, alliances and treaties. Presently unipolarity characterizes the
international system.
(7) The End of the Era of Colonialism and Imperialism:

Another big change in the structure of balance of power has been the
disappearance of imperialism and colonialism: It has limited the scope for the
exercise of power by the European powers, who in the past always worked as the
key players of the principle Balance of Power.
(8) Disappearance of the “Balancer”:

The rise of two super powers the disappearance of the “holder of balance” or the
“balancer” considerably reduced the chances of balance of power politics during
1945-91. Traditionally, Britain used to play such a role in Europe. The sharp and
big decline in the power of Britain in the post-war period compelled it to abandon
its role of balancer between the two super powers. No other nation or even a group
of nations was successful in acting as a balancer between the USA and the
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(erstwhile) USSR. The absence of a balancer further reduced the role of balance of
power in post-war international relations.
(9) Change of Concept of War into Total War:

The emergence of nuclear weapons and other revolutionary developments in war
technology has produced a big in change the nature of war. The replacement of war
by Total War has made war the most dreaded situation in international relations.
This has forced nations to reject war as an instrument of balance of power which
rests upon the assumption that nations can even go to war for preserving or
restoring the balance.
(10) The Emergence of Global Actors:

The rise of the United Nations and several other international and regional actors in
international relations has given a new looked to the international relations of our
times. The presence of the UN has made a big change in the structure and
functioning of the international system. With a provision for collective security of
international peace and security, the United Nations constitutes a better source of
peace. Due to all these changes in international relations, Balance of Power has
come to suffer a big decline. It has definitely lost much of its relevance.
In contemporary times, Balance of Power has ceased to be a fully relevant and

credible principle of international relations. However, it still retains a presence in
international relations, more particularly, in the sphere of regional relations among
states.
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Some scholars observe:

“The idea of balance of power is still the central theoretical concept in international
relation.” —Snyder
“The Structural changes in international politics of post-war period have not

greatly affected the principle of Balance of Power. It still holds good in respect of
regional relations among nations.” —Arnold Wolfers
Although Balance of Power has lost must of its relevance as a global level device
of power management, it is still being used by the states of a region to maintain a
balance in their power positions.
Several scholars admit its continued presence:

“As long as the nation-state system is the prevailing pattern of international
society, balance of power policies will be followed in practice, and in all
probability, they will continue to operate, even if effective supranational groupings
on a regional or world level are formed.” —Palmer and Perkins
Indeed the concept of Balance of Power is bound to continue so long as the

struggle for power among nations continues to characterize international relations.
Even the staunch critics of Balance of Power like, Martin Wright and Friendrich
admit that Balance of Power is still a basic element in international relations.
Balance of power is neither totally obsolete nor dead. Its role, however, has
changed from a global device to a regional device of power management.
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Unit III:United Nations and International Relations
A) Diplomacy
The term Diplomacy is used in a variety of ways. Sometimes it is described as “the

art of telling lies on behalf of the nation”, or “as instrument for employing deceit
and duplicity in international relations.”
Definitions:
(1) “Diplomacy is the process of representation and negotiation by which states
customarily deal with one another in times of peace.” —Padelford and Lincoln
(2) “Diplomacy is the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official
relations between governments of independent states.” —Sir Ernest Satow
On the basis of these definitions, it can be said that, Diplomacy is the mechanism
for the promotion of national interest of the nation that it represents. It is done by
means of negotiations and conduct of relations with other nations. Diplomacy is
always guided and conditioned by the foreign policy of the nation that it
represents.
Nature of Diplomacy:
(1) Diplomacy is not immoral:
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Diplomacy is neither the art of deceit nor mere lies or propaganda, and nor even
something immoral.
(2) Diplomacy is a means of International Relations:

Diplomacy is a normal means of conducting relations. It consists of techniques and
procedures for conducting relations among nations.
(3) Diplomacy is machinery for action:

In itself diplomacy is recognized as official machinery for the conduct of relations
among nations.
(4) Diplomacy acts through Settled Procedures:

Diplomacy functions through a network of foreign offices, embassies, legations,
consulates, and special missions all over the world. It always works according to
definite and settled procedures and protocol.
(5) Bilateral as well as Multilateral in Form:

Diplomacy is commonly bilateral in character. However as a result of the growing
importance of international conferences, international organisations, regional
negotiations, it has now also developed a plural character. It is concerned with all
issues and problems among nations.
(6) Diplomacy handles all types of Matters:
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Diplomacy may embrace a multitude of interests—from the simplest issues to vital

issues to that of war and peace.
(7) Breakdown of Diplomacy always leads to Crisis:

When diplomacy breaks down, the danger of war, or at least of a major crisis
develops.
(8) Diplomacy operates both in times of Peace as well as War:

Some writers hold that diplomacy operates only in times of peace and when war
breaks out diplomacy comes to an end. However, this is not a correct view.
Diplomacy continues to operate even when war breaks out. Of course, during war
its nature undergoes a change; from peace diplomacy it takes the form of war
diplomacy.
(9) Diplomacy works in an environment characterised both by Conflict and

Cooperation:
Diplomacy works in a situation involving both cooperation and conflict. A certain
degree of cooperation among nations is essential for the working of diplomacy
because in its absence, diplomatic relations cannot be maintained. Similarly when
there is no conflict diplomacy becomes superfluous because there is no need for
negotiations. Thus existence of cooperation as well as conflict is essential for the
working of diplomacy.
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(10) Diplomacy always works for securing national interests of the nation it
represents:
The purpose of diplomacy is to secure the goals of national interest as defined and
specified by the foreign policy of the nation. Diplomacy always works for the
nation it represents.
(11) Diplomacy is backed by National Power. Diplomacy is backed by national

power:
A strong diplomacy means a diplomacy backed by a strong national power.
Diplomacy uses persuasion and influence as the means for exercising power in
international relations. It cannot use force and violence. However, it can issue
warnings, give ultimatums, promise rewards and threaten punishment, but beyond
this it cannot directly exercise force. “Diplomacy is the promotion of national
interest by peaceful means.”
(12) Test of Success of Diplomacy:

Success in Diplomacy is measured in terms of the amount of success achieved
towards the fulfillment of the goals of national interest in international relations.
All these characteristics highlight the nature of Diplomacy. One can describe
Diplomacy as an instrument of national interest and a tool of foreign policy.
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Objectives of Diplomacy:
Broadly speaking, Diplomacy seeks to secure two types of primary objectives
for the nation it represents. These are:
(i) Political Objectives, and
(ii) Non-political Objectives.
(1) Political Objectives of Diplomacy:

Diplomacy always works to secure the goals of national interest as defined by the
foreign policy. It always works for increasing the influence of the state over other
states. It uses persuasion, promises of rewards and other such means for this
purpose. Through rational negotiations, it seeks to justify the objectives of the
foreign policy of the nation. It seeks to promote friendship and cooperation with
other nations.
(2) Non-political Objectives of Diplomacy:

The interdependence among nations is the most important and valuable fact of
international living. Each nation depends upon others for economic and industrial
links and trade. Diplomacy always seeks to promote the economic, commercial and
cultural links of the nation with other nations. Diplomacy depends upon peaceful
means, persuasive methods for promoting the interests of the nation and this is
indeed an important non-political objective of Diplomacy.
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Means of Diplomacy:
For securing its objectives, Diplomacy depends upon three major means:
persuasion, compromise and threat of use of force. Diplomacy has to depend upon
several tactics or techniques. The chances of the success of diplomacy are directly
related to the ability of using appropriate means through appropriate tactics. In the
main diplomacy uses six technique, which have been defined by the Hostile? A
selection of a method or means is done on the basis of the time and circumstances
of the situation. Any wrong decision in this respect can lead to a failure.
Functions and Role of Diplomacy:

In performing its tasks and securing its national objectives, Diplomacy has to
undertake a number of functions.
Major Functions:
(1) Ceremonial/Symbolic Functions:
The diplomats of a nation are the symbolic representatives of the state and they
represent their state and government in all official ceremonies and functions as
well as in non-official, social and cultural functions held in the place of their
postings.
(2) Representation:
A diplomat formally represents his country in a foreign state. He is the normal
agent of communication between his home office and that of the state to which he
is accredited. His representation is legal and political. He can vote in the name of
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his government. Of course, in doing so he is totally bound by the directions of his

home office and the foreign Policy of the nation.
(3) Negotiations:
To conduct negotiations with other states is a substantive function of diplomacy.
Diplomats, observe Palmer and Perkins are by definition negotiators. They are the
channels of communication which handle the transmission of messages between
the foreign ministries of the parent state and the host state. Along with the nature
of the message, the manner and style of delivering the message greatly influences
the course of negotiations. It is mainly through negotiations that a diplomat seeks
to secure agreements and compromises over various conflictual issues and
problems among states.
The role of diplomacy in conducting negotiations has, however, declined in our

times because of the emergence of multilateral diplomacy, personal diplomacy
political diplomacy, summit diplomacy and the direct communication links among
the world leaders and top statesmen. The diplomats today do not play as great a
role in international negotiations as used to be previously played by them.
Nevertheless, they continue to be the legal and formal channels of negotiations in
international relations.
(4) Reporting:
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Reporting involves the observation of the political, economic, military and social
conditions of the host country and the accurate transmission of the findings of the
diplomat to his home country. The political reporting involves a report about the
assessment of the roles of various political parties in the politics of the host
country. It seeks to assess the friendliness or hostility of the various political
groupings towards the home state, and the power potential of each party or
organisation.
Economic reporting involves sending of reports to the home office containing

general information about the economic health and trade potential of the host
country. Military reporting involves an assessment of the military might, intentions
and capabilities, and the strategic importance of the host country.
The level of social and cultural conflicts among the people of the host country and
the level of social harmony and cohesion are assessed for determining the level of
stability of the host country. Thus reporting is an important and valuable function
of diplomacy.
(5) Protection of Interests:

Diplomacy is always at work for protecting and promoting the interests of the
nation and its people living abroad. Protection of interests is the “bedrock of the
practice of diplomacy.” It works to secure compatibility out of incompatibility
through accommodation, reconciliation and goodwill.
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A diplomat always attempts to prevent or change practices which he feels are

discriminatory to the interests of his country. It is his responsibility to protect the
persons, property and interests of such citizens of his country as are living in the
territory of the state to which he stands posted.
Through all these functions, diplomacy plays an important role in international

relations.
Change in the Character of Diplomacy: From Old Diplomacy to New

Diplomacy:
In contemporary times the nature of Diplomacy has undergone a big change. From
its traditional dress (Old Diplomacy) it has come to acquire several new features.
This change has earned for it the name New Diplomacy.
Old Diplomacy:
Diplomacy in its traditional form is known as Old Diplomacy and its main
features have been:
(i) European Diplomacy:
Old Diplomacy was primarily confined to Europe. Being an imperial continent
which controlled and ruled the continents of Asia and Africa, Europe was the
centre of all international activities. Old Diplomacy had its origin in Europe and
continued, till 1914, to handle the relations among the European states.
(ii) Aristocratic:
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In Old Diplomacy, the conduct of foreign relations was considered to be the

prerogatives of the kings or rulers and their trusted ambassadors. The diplomats
used to be selected by the monarchs and were responsible to their ‘lords’.
Diplomacy was conducted by a class of professional diplomats and was
characterised by an air of aristocracy, nobility and class consciousness. It was both
formal and elitist in nature and approach.
(iii) Special Emphasis upon Virtues:

The Old Diplomacy was aristocratic and hence regarded several well defined and
accepted principles as cardinal principles or virtues of diplomats. Honesty,
integrity, truthfulness, politeness, fairness, strict conformity to protocol, secrecy
and total commitment to national interests were considered to be the essential
qualities of diplomats. However in actual operation, the Old Diplomacy was
characterised by ‘honest lies,’ integrity in appearance, qualified truthfulness,
outward politeness, self- satisfying fairness and strict observance of protocol and
secrecy.
(iv) Secrecy:
Secrecy was considered to be the hallmark of Old Diplomacy. Complete secrecy in
respect of the negotiations as well as about the outcome of these negotiations was
considered to be a vitally important condition of old diplomacy. Diplomats
communicated only with their counterparts in other countries. Secret negotiations
leading to secret undertakings, agreements or treaties or alliances were considered
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to be the ideal ways of conducting relations for the preservation of peace and
problem solving.
(v) Freedom of Action for the Ambassadors:

Within the broad limits of agreed policy, the diplomats handling diplomatic
negotiations used to enjoy freedom of action. During the era of Old Diplomacy, the
ambassadors enjoyed considerable freedom in matters of negotiations. Lack of
speedy and continuous means of communications made it essential for the state to
give wide powers to its diplomats.
The inability to maintain continuous speedy communications with the ambassadors

made it essential for the ruler of the state to give freedom of action and full power
to his ambassadors. Ambassadors always used their authority freely without much
fear of the ‘home office.’
Old Diplomacy continued to remain in operation till the middle of the 20th
century. Thereafter, it had to change due to several big changes in the international
system as well as because of the development of fast and comprehensive means of
transport and communications. It now came to be a New Diplomacy.
New Diplomacy and Distinction with Old Diplomacy:

New Diplomacy has the following salient features which have been totally
different from the features of Old Diplomacy.
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(i) New Diplomacy is Global, Old Diplomacy was mainly European:

The New Diplomacy is truly global in nature and scope. The rise of Asia, Africa
and Latin America and the emergence of a large number of sovereign independent
states changed the character of post-war international relations. From mostly
European relations these came to be truly international relations involving all the
sovereign states. Consequently, diplomacy had to abandon its European character
and to become truly global in nature and approach.
(ii) New Diplomacy is mostly Multilateral, whereas Old Diplomacy was mostly
Bilateral:
Multilateral negotiations in international conferences, institutionalized diplomacy
at the United Nations and the emergence of direct personal contacts among the
statesmen and leaders of various states, have all combined to give a new look and
content to New Diplomacy. Old Diplomacy was mostly bilateral and limited; the
New Diplomacy is mostly multilateral and global.
(iii) New Diplomacy is less formal than Old Diplomacy:

New Diplomacy is not as much formal and rigid in respect of rules or procedures
as was the case with the Old Diplomacy. Presently, there exist quite informal and
direct contacts among the leaders and diplomats of various states.
(iv) New Diplomacy is mostly open and Old Diplomacy was mostly secret:
In New Diplomacy the negotiations are open and the results are, invariably always,
made public soon after the reaching of agreements or treaties or alliances or
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settlements. Diplomatic negotiations are given full coverage over the Radio, Press,
Television and other means of mass-media. Old Diplomacy favoured secrecy as its
governing principle.
(v) Democratic Nature of New Diplomacy versus Aristocratic nature of Old

Diplomacy:
The New Diplomacy is democratic, whereas Old Diplomacy was aristocratic in
nature. In the era of the latter, a special elitist class of diplomats, who were
professionals to the core, used to conduct diplomatic negotiations and relations.
However, at present the increased influence of public opinion, political parties,

pressure groups, world public opinion, the rise of a more democratic and less
aristocratic class of civil servants, have all given a new dimension and look to
diplomacy. Modern ambassadors and consoler’s are democratic in their outlook
towards diplomacy. A degree of informality has come to characterize their
functioning in international relations.
(vi) New Diplomacy depends more on Propaganda than Old Diplomacy:

The use of propaganda/publicity as an important instrument of political warfare in
international relations is accepted and used by New Diplomacy as a means for
securing the goals of national interest that it represents. Old Diplomacy was mostly
secret and hence avoided propaganda. It concentrated upon legal and formal
communications as the means for conveying its wishes, desires and objectives.
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(vii) Under New Diplomacy, the role of a Diplomat has suffered a Decline:
In the era of New Diplomacy, the role of diplomat has suffered a decline. Due to
the development of speedy means of transport and communications, it has become
possible for the political leaders of the states to develop and maintain direct,
continuous and active contacts with one another.
This development has reduced the role of an ambassador as a link between his
home state and the host state. In Old Diplomacy, diplomats were regarded as the
most important vital links among the states and were full representatives of their
nations in international relations.
They enjoyed a lot of discretion and freedom of action. New Diplomacy has
reduced the role of diplomats to glorified representatives who really act as highly
dignified messengers and actors with the responsibility of faithfully carrying out
the instructions of the foreign office and political leadership of their states. The
control of the foreign office over the diplomats has considerably increased in this
real of New Diplomacy.
Thus, the features of New Diplomacy are almost entirely different from the
features of Old Diplomacy.
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B) UN Principal Organs
The United Nations Organisation (UNO) is the global international organisation of

sovereign independent states. It was established on 24 October 1945. The
destruction caused by the Second World War compelled the people to establish an
international organisation for keeping the world away from war and in favour of
friendship and cooperation among all the nations. The UNO was designed to save
the future generations from the scourage of war by promoting International peace
and security.
After the end of the Second World War, the United States, the United Kingdom,
the Soviet Union (Former USSR) some other states held several meetings and
planned to establish an organisation for preserving peace and promoting social,
economic and political co-operation among all nations. As a result of their efforts,
the United Nations Organisation came into existence in 1945 when the
representatives of 51 nations signed the Charter of the UNO at San Francisco.
Principles of the UN:
The principles are the means to achieve the objectives of the UN.
These are contained in Article 2 of the UN Charter:

1. All the member states are equal.
2. The member states shall fulfill their obligations to the UN honestly.
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3. The member states shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means.
4. The member states shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or
use of force against any other state.
5. The member states shall give to the UN every assistance in any action it takes in
accordance with the UN Charter.
6. The states which are not members of the UN, should also act in accordance with
these principles for the maintenance of international peace and security.
7. No member state shall interfere in the internal affairs of any other state.
UN Organs and their roles:

The Charter of UN establishes six principle UN organs.
1. The UN General Assembly:

The General Assembly is the highest deliberative organ of the UN. It is also called
the World Parliament of Nations. Each member state sends five representatives to
it but each state has only one vote. The session of the General Assembly is
convened on third Tuesday in the month of September every year.
The opening day of the session stands designated as the International Day of
Peace. The UN General Assembly holds deliberations on all issues which are
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related to the Charter of the United Nations. It also approves the annual budget of
the UN. It’s headquarter is located at New York (the USA).
2. The UN Security Council:

The Security Council is the executive body of the UN. It is called “the Power
House” of the UN. It is made up of 15 members out of whom 5 are permanent
members, each with a veto power. These are the USA, Russia, China, France and
United Kingdom. Remaining 10 are non-permanent members who are elected by
the General Assembly by a 2/3 majority for a term of two years.
The decisions of the Security Council are taken by a majority and vote but each of
its five permanent members has the right to veto its decisions. Under the “uniting
for peace resolution” adopted in November 1950, the UN General Assembly can
direct the Security Council to act for meeting any threat to international peace by
taking collective security action against aggression. The Security Council is a
powerful organ of the UN. It’s headquarter is located at New York in USA. India
now wants to become a permanent member of the UN Security Council.
3. The Economic and Social Council:

The Economic and Social Council has 54 members, they are elected by the UN
General Assembly for a term of three years. One-third members (18) out of these
retire every year and in their place new members are elected. This Council helps
the UN in solving the economic and social problems of the world. It also
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supervises the work of some other UN bodies. It’s headquarter is located at New
York in the USA.
4. The Trusteeship Council:

The Trusteeship Council supervises the administration of those backward and
disputed territories, the responsibility for the development of which has been taken
over by the UNO. Apart from the permanent members of the Security Council, the
administering countries of the trust territories are its members. These are elected
for three years by the UN General Assembly the Trusteeship Council monitors the
development of trust territories.
5. The International Court of Justice (ICJ):

It is the chief judicial body of the UN. It is also called “the World Court.” It
consists of 15 judges who are elected by the General Assembly on the
recommendations of the UN Security Council; each judge of ICJ holds tenure of 9
years. It’s one third judges retire after three years and in their place new judges are
elected.
The International Court of Justice gives its verdict on such disputes/cases which
are brought to it by the concerned states by their mutual consent. It gives advisory
opinion on legal matters to the organs and special agencies of the UN when
solicited. It’s headquarter is located at The Hague (Netherlands).
6. The UN Secretariat:
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Secretariat is the administrative organ of the UN. It implements the policies and
decisions taken up by organs of the UN. It consists of international civil servants
who, while serving the UN, must forget their national loyalties and work for
securing the interests of the UN. There are about 4000 employees of the UN
Secretariat.
Their salaries are paid by the UN. The Secretariat General is the head of the
Secretariat. He is called the “Watchdog of the UN”. He is appointed for a term of 5
year by the UN General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
At present. Mr. Ban Ki Moon is the UN Secretary General.
C) Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
For the settlement of an international dispute there are following amicable means:
1. Negotiation: – The settlement of the international disputes by the disputant

states themselves by negotiation is said to be settlement of the disputes by
negotiation. In other words when there a dispute arises between two or more
states then to avoid the chances of war or violence they tends to conduct
negotiation for the matters to be settled. The negotiation is to be taken by the
political representatives of the disputant countries, without involving any
third or non-concerned country.
2. Good-offices: – The act or arrangements taken by a third party to bring

disputant parties for negotiation or to settle dispute between them by any
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peaceful means is said to be Good-offices. In case of Good-offices the third

merely renders services to bring the disputant parties to peace full means of
settlement of disputes. Here the third party does not give any suggestions or
take part in the meetings as to be held between the disputant parties. Shortly
speaking, in case of good offices whenever the parties to dispute come to
peace full of settlement of dispute the duty of the third party finishes.
3. Mediation: – The act of participating and in the discussions and giving

suggestions to settle a dispute between two parties by a third party is said to
Mediation. In other words, mediation is the method to settle a dispute where
any third party actively takes part in the sessions of dialogues or negotiations
held between disputant party as to resolve the dispute. In case of mediation
the mediator should consider the matter of compromise between the parties
rather to encourage the strict letter of law.
4. Inquiry: – The process to ascertain the facts of disputes by a commission of

imperial investigators is said to inquiry. This mean is intended to find out the
questions of law and mixed questions of law and fact involved in a dispute.
The only function of the commission is to bring in light those facts, which
are the root cause for the alleged dispute, and to investigate the question of
law and mixed questions of law and fact.
5. Conciliation: – The process of referring a dispute to a commission; for the

purpose of finding out facts and to prepare a report containing proposals for
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the settlement of that dispute, is called conciliation. In case of conciliation

the commission is to take two tasks, at first, it shall ascertain the facts of the
dispute and secondly, it shall prepare a report which shall reveal that the
possible measures to settle the dispute. But the proposals prepared by the
commission have no binding force upon the parties. The parties can disagree
with the proposals.
6. Arbitration: – The process of referring the dispute; by the mutual consent

of the parties to a body of persons or to a tribunal for a legal decision is
called as arbitration. The essential ingredient of arbitration is the consent of
disputant parties to the dispute. In other words, the referring of the dispute to
a Court of Arbitration is dependent on the sweet-well of the parties.
International law recognizes a court for arbitration known as Permanent
Court of Arbitration. But in fact it is neither permanent nor a court.
7. Judicial Settlement: – The process of settling a dispute; by the

International Tribunal in the light of the provisions of International Law, is
said to be Judicial Settlement. For Judicial Settlement there is a judicial
organ in international law, known as International Court of Justice. Both the
award given by the arbitration tribunal and decision given by the
International Court of Justice are comes in the ambit of Judicial Settlement.
Like in arbitration, in case of referring the dispute to the International Court
of Justice the consent of both the parties are necessary to be given.
International Court of Justice shall take its proceeding in the light of the
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rules of International law, and its procedure is governed by a statute known

as the Statute of International Court of Justice. International Court of Justice
plays a very important rule in the settlement of international disputes.
8. Security Council: – A dispute may be settled by a principal organ of the

United Nations, known as Security Council. The Council is consisted of
fifteen members. Five members are permanent while the remaining ten
members are non-permanent members. Wide powers have been entrusted to
the Council for the settlement of the disputes, which tend to endanger world
peace and security. There is a number of measures to be taken by the
Council for the settlement of the disputes.
9. General Assembly: – General Assembly is another principal organ of the

United Nations. The Assembly has no specific means to settle the dispute,
rather it has general powers to settle the international dispute. It has the
power to discuss and to suggest better means for the peaceful settlement of
the disputes.
Conclusion: –
Briefly speaking, International Law intends to overcome the chances of war and
violence, and believe to solve the disputes on the merits of political, diplomatic and
judicial bases. To avoid the chances of breaking out of wars it provides certain
measures and means. Among which above are the amicable means to settle the
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disputes. But international law also recognizes certain coercive or compulsive

means to settle the disputes in extra-ordinary cases where the International peace
and security has been endangered.
D) Collective Security Mechanism
Collective Security is a device of crisis management which postulates a

commitment on the part of all the nations to collectively meet an aggression that
may be committed by any state against another. War or aggression is viewed as a
breach of international peace and security and collective security stands for
collective action by all the nations in defence of peace. Collective security stands
for meeting any war or aggression by the creation of a global preponderance of
power of all nations against the aggression.
Collective Security is also regarded as a deterrent against aggression in so far as it

lays down that the collective power of all nations will be used to repel aggression
or war against any state. It is based on the principle, ‘Aggression against any one
member of the international community is an aggression against international
peace and security. As such it has to be met by the collective efforts of all the
nations’
Definition of Collective Security:

(1) “Collective Security is machinery for joint action in order to prevent or counter
any attack against an established international order.” —George Schwarzenberger
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(2) “Collective Security clearly implies collective measures for dealing with threats
to peace.” —Palmer and Perkins
(3) “In essence, Collective Security is an arrangement among states in which all
promise, in the event any member of the system engages in certain prohibited acts
(war and aggression) against another member, to come to latter’s assistance.” —
Schleicher
In simple words, Collective Security system guarantees the security of each state of
the world against any war or aggression which may be committed by any state
against any other state. It is like an insurance system in which all the nations are
bound to protect the victim of an aggression or war by neutralizing the aggression
or war against the victim.
Main Features/Characteristics of Collective Security:

(1) A Device of Power Management:
Collective Security is a device of power management or crisis management. It
seeks to preserve international peace through crisis management in the event of
any war or aggression in the world.
(2) It accepts Universality of Aggression:

Collective Security accepts that violations of the security of a nation are bound to
occur and that wars and aggressions cannot be totally eliminated from international
relations.
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(3) All Nations are committed to pool their power for ending Aggression:
Collective Security believes that in the event of a violation of international peace
by any aggression in any part of the world, all the nations are committed to pool
their power and resources for taking effective steps against every aggression for
restoring international peace.
(4) Global Preponderance of Power:

Collective Security stands for the creation of a universal or global preponderance
of power involving all the nations for the maintenance of international peace and
security. Under it all the nations are ready to defend international peace and
security through collective military action against aggression.
(5) Admits the presence of an International Organisation:

Collective Security presupposes the existence of an international organisation
under whose flag a global preponderance of power is created for ending the
aggression.
(6) Collective Security System is a Deterrent against War:

Collective Security can be an effective deterrent against a state with aggressive
designs. Under this system each nation knows that any aggression against another
nation shall be met by the collective power of all other nations. As such no nation
tries to commit aggression and war because it knows that such an action will invite
collective security action against it. This realization acts as a deterrent against any
war or aggression.
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(7) Aggression/war is the enemy and not the State which commits it:
Finally, Collective Security regards ‘aggression’ or ‘war’ as the enemy and not the
state which may resort to war or aggression. A collective security action is limited
to the elimination of war, aggression or threat of war or aggression. It does not
stand for the elimination of the state which commits aggression. Its sole concern is
to get the aggression vacated, to prevent the aggressor to gain out of its aggression,
to restore the health of the victim of aggression, and to restore international peace
and security.
Criticism Against Collective Security:

1. It is Idealistic in Nature and Scope:
The concept of Collective Security is based upon certain idealistic assumptions
which make its operationalization difficult.
For example:
(1) It assumes that there can be a complete international understanding regarding
the nature of all threats or aggressions against international peace and security.
(2) It is assumed that all nations could and would come forward to name the
aggressor and to take up collective security actions against the aggressor.
(3) The concept of “collectivity” meaning, “All acting for one and all” is basically
an idealistic concept since it ignores the fact; all nations are not active in
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international relations. Nor can all the nations be expected to join a collective
security action.
2. At times it is not possible to identify the Aggressor:

Another major defect of the Collective Security system is that it wrongly assumes
that in the event of an aggression against any nation, the aggressor and the nature
of its aggression can be really and easily identified. In practice, it is very difficult
to determine and name the aggressor as well as to identify the nature of aggression.
Often the aggressor acts in the name of self-defence and justifies its aggression as a
defensive action.
3. Admits War as a means:

Collective Security is self-negating in so far as it first denounces war or aggression
as an illegal activity and then indirectly accepts that wars and aggressions are
bound to remain present in international relations. It wrongly believes the most
effective way to deal with such situations is to undertake a collective security war.
4. Rules out ‘Neutrality’ in times of War:

The concept of Collective Security makes it an international obligation of all the
nations to pool their resources and undertake collective action in the event of an
aggression. It, as such, rules out neutrality. Many nations often prefer to remain
away from war. It makes Collective Security war an international obligation and
wrongly assumes that all nations are willing to participate in such a war.
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5. A Limited Concept:
The concept of Collective Security, as laid down in the U.N. Charter, has two
inherent limitations. It accepts the right of the states to undertake war as a measure
of self-defence against any aggression. In practice this provision gives a legal basis
to an aggression or war in the name of action in self-defence.
Secondly, it admits the right of the nations to establish regional defence pacts and
organisations for protecting their security. It admits regional security systems as
devices for preserving peace and security. The working of regional security
systems has in-fact been a source of strain upon international peace and security.
6. Absence of a Permanent International Peace Keeping Force:

Another major limitation of the Collective Security system is the absence of a
permanent peace keeping force. It is only after a decision of the Security Council
to take military action against an aggressor is taken that the constitution of a
collective security military force in initiated. This process is so slow and difficult
that it takes a long time to raise the force and press it into service. The time-gap
between the date of aggression and the date on which the United Nations is
actually able to send its peace keeping force for restoring peace is very big, and the
aggressor gets all the time needed for reaping the fruits of aggression.
7. Lack of provisions for the termination of Collective Security Action:
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Another drawback of the U.N. Collective Security System is that whereas elaborate
provisions have been laid down for implementing the system, no provision has
been made regarding the method of terminating the Collective Security action.
8. Dependence on Powerful States:

One of the basic principles of Collective Security is that all the states should have
an equal say in arriving at collective security decisions. In actual operation, it fails
to work on the principle of equality. Powerful states always dominate collective
security decisions and actions. In fact, only the powerful states can play an
effective role in executing a collective security action. At times the powerful state
is reluctant to put their power behind a collective security action which does not
strictly conform to their national interests.
9. Dangerous:
Some critics hold the view the Collective Security system is a dangerous system as
it can transform a local war into a global war involving all the nations. On the basis
of these points critics describe the collective security system as an idealistic and
limited system.
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Unit 4
Critical Global Concerns
A. Cold War: Causes, Phases and Case Studies (Korean Crisis, Vietnam
Crisis, Cuban Crisis and Gulf War)
Cold War can be defined as a state of intense unhealthy competition— political,

economic and ideological—which falls short of an armed conflict between the
states.
As a concept in international relations, it denotes a state of constant conflict,

strains, tensions and strife maintained and perpetuated by political and
psychological warfare but without a direct war between the opposing sides.
The peace that came after the end of Second World War was neither a healthy nor
an enduringly effective peace. The possibilities of outbreak of a Third World War
were keeping the world under grave stress and strain. Peace in 1945 was a peace
under the shadow of war-like tensions and strains because of the emergence of a
dangerous cold war between the USA and the USSR.
Causes for the Emergence Cold War:

General Grievances of the USA i.e. the West against the USSR:
1. Western fear of growing Soviet Power:
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Anglo-American nations were dissatisfied with several Soviet decisions during the
course of the Second World War. The growing strength of the USSR and the
demonstration of its power in the Second World War made the Western powers
apprehensive about the growing ‘communist menace’ in international relations.
The war time cooperation between the East and West was a necessary evil and
hence, after the war, it was quite natural for the Western powers to work for
containing the growing power of the USSR.
2. The Ideological Conflict—Communism Vs. Capitalism:

The communist thesis of the inevitability of conflict between socialism and
capitalism, and the final triumph of socialism also made the democratic western
states highly apprehensive of the growing strength of the Soviet Union and its
policy of exporting socialism to other countries. The differences between the
Soviet Union and the Western democracies were the direct product of contradicting
ideologies of communism and capitalism.
3. Western Fears of growing Socialist Movement:

After the coming of Socialist Revolution (1917) in the Russia, labour movements
became very popular and powerful in almost all the states of Europe. The
emergence of socialist parties in various states of Europe and elsewhere greatly
alarmed the capitalist states. They felt that socialist movements were really
subversive movements as these were guided by the ideology that class interests
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were stronger than national interests and that workers of the world had no country
of their own.
Various Phases of the Cold War:

The Cold War did not occur in a day. It passed through several phases.
First Phase (1946-1949):

In this phase America and Soviet Russia disbelieved each other. America always
tried to control the Red Regime in Russia. Without any hesitation Soviet Russia
established Communism by destroying democracy in the Poland, Bulgaria,
Rumania, Hungery, Yugoslavia and other Eastern European Countries.
In order to reduce Russia’s hegemony, America helped Greece and Turkey by

following Truman Doctrine which came into force on 12 March 1947. According
to Marshall Plan which was declared on 5 June, 1947 America gave financial
assistance to Western European Countries.
In this phase, non withdrawal of army from Iran by Soviet Russia, Berlin
blaockade etc. made the cold was more furious. After the formation of NATO in
1949, the Cold War took a halt.
Second Phase (1949-1953):

In this phase a treaty was signed between Australia, New Zeland and America in
September, 1957 which was known as ANZUS. America also signed a treaty with
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Japan on 8 September, 1951. At that time by taking armaments from Russia and
army from China, North Korea declared war against South Korea.
Third Phase (1953-1957):

Now United States of America formed SEATO in 1954 in order to reduce Soviet
Russia’s influence. In 1955 America formed MEDO in Middle East. Within a short
span of time, America gave military assistance to 43 countries and formed 3300
military bases around Soviet Russia. At that time, the Vietnamese War started on
1955.
To reduce the American Power, Russia signed WARSAW PACT in 1955. Russia
also signed a defence pact with 12 Countries. Germany was divided into Federal
Republic of Germany which was under the American control where as German
Democratic Republic was under Soviet Russia. In 1957 Soviet Russia included
Sphutnick in her defence programme.
Fourth Phase (1957-1962):

In 1959 the Russian President Khrushchev went on a historical tour to America.
Both the countries were annoyed for U-2 accident and for Berlin Crisis. In 13
August 1961, Soviet Russia made a Berlin Wall of 25 Kilometres in order to check
the immigration from eastern Berlin to Western Berlin. In 1962, Cuba’s Missile
Crisis contributed a lot to the cold war.
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This incident created an atmosphere of conversation between American President

Kenedy and Russian President Khrushchev. America assured Russia that she
would not attack Cuba and Russia also withdrew missile station from Cuba.
Fifth Phase (1962-1969):

The Fifth Phase which began from 1962 also marked a mutual suspicion between
USA and USSR. There was a worldwide concern demanding ban on nuclear
weapons. In this period Hot Line was established between the White House and
Kremlin. This compelled both the parties to refrain from nuclear war. Inspite of
that the Vietnam problem and the Problem in Germany kept Cold War between
USA and USSR in fact.
Sixth Phase (1969-1978):

This phase commencing from 1969 was marked by DETENTE between USA and
USSR- the American President Nixon and Russian President Brezhnev played a
vital role for putting an end to the Cold War. The SALT of 1972, the summit
Conference on Security’ of 1975 in Helsinki and Belgrade Conference of 1978
brought America and Russia closer.
.Last Phase (1979-1987):
In this phase certain changes were noticed in the Cold War. That is why historians
call this phase as New Cold War. In 1979, the American President Carter and
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Russian President Brezhnev signed SALT II. But in 1979 the prospects of
mitigating Cold War were marred by sudden development in Afghanistan.
CASE STUDY:
Korean Crisis and Cold War:

World War II divided Korea into a Communist, northern half and an American-
occupied southern half, divided at the 38th parallel. The Korean War (1950-1953)
began when the North Korean Communist army crossed the 38th Parallel and
invaded non-Communist South Korea. As Kim Il-sung's North Korean army,
armed with Soviet tanks, quickly overran South Korea, the United States came to
South Korea's aid. General Douglas MacArthur, who had been overseeing the post-
WWII occupation of Japan, commanded the US forces which now began to hold
off the North Koreans at Pusan, at the southernmost tip of Korea. Although Korea
was not strategically essential to the United States, the political environment at this
stage of the Cold War was such that policymakers did not want to appear "soft on
Communism." Nominally, the US intervened as part of a "police action" run by a
UN (United Nations) international peacekeeping force; in actuality, the UN was
simply being manipulated by US and NATO anti-Communist interests.
With the US, UN, and South Korean (ROK) forces pinned against the sea at Pusan,
MacArthur orchestrated a daring amphibious assault on Inchon, a port on the
western coast of Korea. Having made this landing, MacArthur crushed the North
Korean army in a pincer movement and recaptured Seoul, the capital of South
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Korea. Instead of being satisfied with his rapid reconquest of South Korea,
MacArthur crossed the 38TH Parallel and pursued the North Korean army all the
way to the northernmost provinces of North Korea. Afraid that the US was
interested in taking North Korea as a base for operations against Manchuria, the
People's Republic of China secretly sent an army across the Yalu River. This
Chinese army attacked the US/UN/ROK forces. Only after the appointment of Lt.
General Matthew Ridgway as commander of ground forces did American morale
improve and the initiative begins to swing against the Chinese Communists.
Although President Truman hoped to end the war quickly and pressed MacArthur
to be more tactful, the brilliant strategist went against presidential orders and
continued spouting incendiary lines about his hopes to reunify Korea. After
gaining the support of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), Truman relieved MacArthur
of command. The move was extremely unpopular in America; MacArthur was
perceived as a popular war hero. Only the support of the JCS saved Truman from
impeachment after the firing.
Ridgway took MacArthur's command and held off the Communists with strong
fortifications and entrenchments just north of the 38TH Parallel, sending
occasional offensives against the Iron Triangle, the Communists staging area for
attacks into South Korea. Peace negotiations dragged on at Kaesong, then moved
and continued to drag at Panmunjom through 1951 and 1952. The US tried using
strategic bombing to intimidate the Communists into negotiating a peace treaty, but
they wouldn't budge, particularly on the issue of POW (Prisoner of War)
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repatriation. Neither side wanted to appear weak, and so the talks went on,
occasionally breaking down for months. Only after Eisenhower, who was a war
hero and was unafraid of Republican criticism (since he himself was a
Republican), became President, could the US make substantial concessions to the
Communists. In 1953 a peace treaty was signed at Panmunjom that ended the
Korean War, returning Korea to a divided status essentially the same as before the
war. Neither the war nor its outcome did much to lessen the era's Cold War
tension.
In 1950, the Korean War provided the ground for the pursuance of cold war
politics-in Far East. The situation created by the North Korean aggression against
South Korea provided the U.S.A. and the Western powers an opportunity to
attempt containment of communism by helping democratic South Korea against
communist North Korea.
In the Korean war, North Korea was supported by the U.S.S.R. and Communist
China, whereas South Korea was supported by the U.S.A. and other western
countries. American success in making the U.N. Security Council agree upon the
need to enforce collective security system in the Korean war was strongly opposed
by the Soviet Union.
The differences between the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. over the issue of peace in
Korea sharply divided the U.N. Security Council and consequently, it failed to
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perform its responsibility of preserving international peace and security against

aggression.
VIETNAM CRISIS and Cold War
The Vietnam War is the commonly used name for the Second Indochina War,
1954–1975. Usually it refers to the period when the United States and other
members of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) joined the forces
with the Republic of South Vietnam to contest communist forces, comprised of
South Vietnamese guerrillas and regular-force units, generally known as Viet Cong
(VC), and the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). The U.S., possessing the largest
foreign military presence, essentially directed the war from 1965 to 1968. For this
reason, in Vietnam today it is known as the American War. It was a direct result of
the First Indochina War (1946–1954) between France, which claimed Vietnam as a
colony, and the communist forces then known as Viet Minh. In 1973 a “third”
Vietnam war began—a continuation, actually—between North and South Vietnam
but without significant U.S. involvement. It ended with communist victory in April
1975.
The Vietnam War was the longest in U.S. history until the Afghanistan War (2002-
2014). The war was extremely divisive in the U.S., Europe, Australia, and
elsewhere. Because the U.S. failed to achieve a military victory and the Republic
of South Vietnam was ultimately taken over by North Vietnam, the Vietnam
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experience became known as “the only war America ever lost.” It remains a very
controversial topic that continues to affect political and military decisions today.
The United States’ Cold War foreign policy began to play a major part in Vietnam.
U.S. policy at the time was dominated by the Domino Theory, which believed that
the “fall” of North Vietnam to Communism might trigger all of Southeast Asia to
fall, setting off a sort of Communist chain reaction. Within a year of the Geneva
Accords, the United States therefore began to offer support to the anti-Communist
politician Ngo Dinh Diem. With U.S. assistance, Diem took control of the South
Vietnamese government in 1955, declared the Republic Of Vietnam,and promptly
canceled the elections that had been scheduled for 1956.
Cold War towards Hot War—Cuban Missile Crisis 1962:

In October 1962, the Cuban Missile crisis, came to be developed between the USA
& USSR. It brought them the threshold of a war. The USSR’s decision to establish
a missile base in Cuba was strongly opposed by the USA. When the Soviet missile
carrying ships were on their way to Cuba, the USA, in order to prevent their entry
into Cuba, ordered the blockade of Cuba.
The American government declared that it would regard any missile launched from
Cuba against any nation as an attack by the USSR on the USA requiring a full
retaliatory response. On 23 October, 1962, the U.S.A. decided to take all necessary
steps for ending the threat to peace and security of the American continent.
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On 24 October 1962, the U.S. Blockade of Cuban ports became effective. The war
between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. became a distinct possibility. The U.N.
Secretary General tried to prevail upon the U.S.A. to suspend the blockade and
also asked the USSR to halt shipments to Cuba, but failed.
The USSR demanded the withdrawal of the U.S. rockets from Turkey as a
precondition for stopping installation of missiles in Cuba. This demand was
rejected by the U.S.A. ultimately, after some very anxious days; the Soviet Union
agreed to divert her missile carrying ships and to dismantle the Cuban missile sites.
Thus, ended the dreaded Cuban Missile Crisis.
Gulf War
The Gulf War started on August 2, 1990 when the forces of Iraqi
dictator Saddam Hussein invaded oil-rich Kuwait. Hussein hoped that Kuwait's
oil reserves would help to pay off the massive debt Iraq had accrued in its recent
war with Iran, as well as give Iraq significant bargaining power as the gatekeeper
to Middle Eastern oil.
US officials worried that the invasion of Kuwait might be Iraq's first step in a
larger effort to consolidate its power over other nations in the Middle East, such as
Saudi Arabia. With about one million soldiers in its armed forces, the Iraq Army
was the world’s fourth largest military force—in part, ironically, because the
United States had furnished weapons to Iraq to aid in its fight against Iran.
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Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait posed a geopolitical oil crisis. If Saddam Hussein

gained control of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, he would have control over twenty
percent of world oil reserves and become the world’s dominant oil power. As
President George H.W. Bush explained, ''Our jobs, our way of life, our own
freedom and the freedom of friendly countries around the world would all suffer if
control of the world's great oil reserves fell into the hands of Saddam Hussein.
The United States and United Nations Security Council immediately condemned
the invasion. The Security Council passed resolutions placing economic sanctions
on Iraq and set a deadline of January 15, 1991 for Iraq to withdraw forces from
Kuwait.
The response to the invasion of Kuwait took place in two stages:
Operation Desert Shield (August 1990 - January 17, 1991)
Five days after Iraq invaded Kuwait, President Bush commenced Operation Desert
Shield. Building a 34-nation coalition in the United Nations and enhancing US
troop strength in the region to more than 500,000, the president explained
Operation Desert Shield as “a line in the sand”—both to protect Saudi Arabia and
liberate Kuwait.
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Operation Desert Storm (January 17 - February 28, 1991)
Operation Desert Storm was the combat phase of the conflict. It began with a five-
week bombing campaign of some 2,000 sorties a day that employed "smart
bombs"—bombs able to find their target with pinpoint accuracy—against a broad
range of strategic Iraqi targets. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General
Colin Powell, and General Norman Schwarzkopf orchestrated the US-led attack.
B) POST COLD WAR
IRAQ WAR
Iraq War, also called Second Persian Gulf War, (2003–11), conflict in Iraq that
consisted of two phases. The first of these was a brief, conventionally fought war
in March–April 2003, in which a combined force of troops from the United
States and Great Britain (with smaller contingents from several other countries)
invaded Iraq and rapidly defeated Iraqi military and paramilitary forces. It was
followed by a longer second phase in which a U.S.-led occupation of Iraq was
opposed by an insurgency. After violence began to decline in 2007, the United
States gradually reduced its military presence in Iraq, formally completing its
withdrawal in December 2011.
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Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990 ended in Iraq’s defeat by a U.S.-led coalition in

the Persian Gulf War (1990–91). However, the Iraqi branch of the Baʿth Party,
headed by Ṣaddām Ḥussein, managed to retain power by harshly suppressing
uprisings of the country’s minority Kurds and its majority Shiete Arabs. To stem
the exodus of Kurds from Iraq, the allies established a “safe haven” in northern
Iraq’s predominantly Kurdish regions, and allied warplanes patrolled “no-fly”
zones in northern and southern Iraq that were off-limits to Iraqi aircraft. Moreover,
to restrain future Iraqi aggression, the United
Nations (UN) implemented economic sanctions against Iraq in order to, among
other things, hinder the progress of its most lethal arms programs, including those
for the development of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. UN inspections
during the mid-1990s uncovered a variety of proscribed weapons and prohibited
technology throughout Iraq. That country’s continued flouting of the UN weapons
ban and its repeated interference with the inspections frustrated the
international community and led U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton in 1998 to order the
bombing of several Iraqi military installations (code-named Operation Desert Fox).
After the bombing, however, Iraq refused to allow inspectors to reenter the
country, and during the next several years the economic sanctions slowly began to
erode as neighboring countries sought to reopen trade with Iraq.
efforts by the Security Council futile, Bush declared an end to diplomacy and
issued an ultimatum to Ṣaddām, giving the Iraqi president 48 hours to leave Iraq.
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The leaders of France, Germany, Russia, and other countries objected to this
buildup toward war.
RISE OF CHINA AND JAPAN

In recent years, China’s rapid development has attracted worldwide attention. The
implications of various aspects of China’s rise, its expanding economic influence,
and its military muscle are being hotly debated in the international community.
Correctly understanding China’s achievements and its path towards greater
development is thus crucial. However, the international relations of the people’s
republic of China (PRC) are saga of isolation-alienation socialization of China’s
integration in international society since 1949.This is the year China emerged as a
communist country in Asia
Japan’s postwar economic recovery was nothing short of remarkable. New
technologies and manufacturing were undertaken with great success. A shrewed
trade policy (middlemanship) gave Japan larger shares in many Western markets,
an imbalance that caused some tensions with the U.S. The close involvement of
Japanese government in the country's banking and industry produced accusations
of protectionism. Yet economic growth continued through the 1970s and 1980s,
eventually making Japan the world's second-largest economy.
US HEGEMONY
The period of cold war from 1945-1989 characterized the pattern of international
politics in a bipolar world with two power blocs namely the United States and the
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Soviet Union balancing each other as well as providing relative stability in

international relations. However, the disintegration of Soviet Union and the victory
of capitalism over communism left the US as the only remaining superpower
dominating the international system and shaping the future of global politics. In
terms of its military and air force capabilities, the US can target any country in the
world as well as can deal with a conflict without deploying ground forces. For
instance, the air campaign in Kosovo after which the US was considered as “hyper
power” by the French foreign minister, Hubert Vedrine. Also, the progress in
global finance and marketing, the achievement of international institutions
envisioned by the US for peace-making and world democracy, advancement in
science and technology makes it unparalleled all around the world.
The capability of US was further accelerated with the advent of globalisation
which allowed its multinational corporations into every major market possible. It
enjoys a rich cultural heritage and has an incredible reach to the remotest corners
of the globe as its products can be found in every spot found on the world map.
Moreover, its rapid development in world communication that connects the farthest
regions more closely than ever before, have become important attributes of a
promising peaceful global order(Geir 1994).In the words of John Ikenberry, no
other great power ever enjoyed the privilege of having such advantages in political,
economic, cultural and technological spheres as the US does. He further argues
that “we live in a one-superpower world, and there is no serious competitor in
sight”. Today, the US hegemony is seen to extend well beyond the management of
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the international economy to include international security, rule making and

management in areas of international development, peacekeeping, nation-building,
democratic transition as well as human rights. The hegemonic character of the US
can be also perceived in the contents of countless regimes that regulate global
relations within several issues areas composing current political economy and
world politics. To those who perceive the world being managed today by the
hegemony of the world’s only remaining superpower understand global
organizations mainly functioning as creators, monitors as well as enforcers of
international regimes. Thus, the hegemony of US, both logically and practically
implies US domination of global organizations most notably the international
economic and financial institutions vis-à-vis the United Nations.
NATO
NATO has been a central element in the network of multilateral and bi-lateral
alliances of the western world. The United States is the strongest and the pivotal
power in the NATO system.
(A) The Formation of the NATO Alliance:

NATO came into being as a defence organisation against the (erstwhile) USSR.
France, U.K., Belgium, Netherland and Luxemburg. When the U.S.A. decided to
abandon the policy of isolationalism in favour of active involvement in Europe for
preventing the spread of Soviet communist influence, the stage was set for the
formulation of a comprehensive security system for Europe.
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The North Atlantic Treaty was signed on 4th April, 1949 between 12 States-The
U.S.A., Britain, France, Italy, Canada, Belgium, Denmark, Luxemburg, Norway,
Portugal, Iceland and Netherlands. In 1952, Greece and Turkey joint it, and in
1955, West Germany was admitted as a member of this treaty
On July 9, 1997, NATO took a historic step to invite Poland, Hungary and Czech
Republic to join the alliance in 1999. Which they really did. Even Russia became a
partner of NATO. The leader of this alliance, the USA was successful in expanding
this alliances in the post Cold War period. On November 21, 2002, NATO
members decided to add seven new members—Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. These state joined NATO in 2004.
With this the membership in NATO came to be 26 and it is prepared to expand
further. However, a further eastward expansion of NATO is not really appreciated
by Russia.
(B) The NATO Treaty:

The Treaty consists of 14 articles. Art 1 calls for the elimination of disputes among
the signatories and Art. 2 provides for the promotion of economic collaboration
among the members. Article 3 calls for self-help and mutual aid for developing the
capacity to resist armed attack against any one state.
The most important clause of the Treaty stands embodied in Article 5, by which
members have agreed that in the event of an armed attack against any one or more
of them, it shall be considered as an attack on all of ‘them and all the members
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shall take steps individually or collectively to restore peace and security. Further
that “any such action and all measures taken thereof shall by immediately reported
to the U.N. Security Council.” This provision clearly reflects the lack of faith in the
power of the U.N. Security Council to undertake collective security action. NATO
is a collective Defence System.
Purpose and Significance:

1. To serve as a deterrent against war or aggression against the members.
2. To provide a security umbrella to the European countries with a view to help

them proceed with their programmes for economic and military development.
3. To psychologically prepare the people, particularly of the U.S.A. for a possible

war.
In the era of Cold War, NATO’s chief aim was to strengthen the defence of
Europe.
However, in reality it added fuel to the cold war in Europe. The introduction of
nuclear armament race in Europe came as a direct consequence of NATO. Rather
than creating a sense of security, it increased the chances of war in Europe because
it greatly disturbed the East-West relations. Presently, it continues to be operative
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and the USA is determined to secure its expansion as well as to retain its character
as a western alliance against opponents.
In September 2001, the NATO expressed its full support and extended full help to
the USA in its war against terror (Taliban’s Afghanistan). It used its Article 5 for
the first time and declared that terrorist attacks against the USA constituted an act
of aggression and war against all the members of NATO and that NATO would
extend its full support and help to the US-led war against terrorism.It is expected
that the NATO members will take a similar view and support Great Britain in its
attempts to fight the menace of international terrorism particularly after the 7 and
21 July 2005 terrorist bomb blasts in London.
Non-Aligned Movement
What is not Non-alignment?
Before defining non-alignment, let us first know what is not non-alignment.
Initially several western scholars used such terms as “Neutrality” or “Neutralism”
or “Neutralisation” to define non-alignment. George Schwarzenberger referred to
six term—isolationalism, non-commitment, neutrality, neutralisation, unilateralism
and non-involvement, which were in some way similar to non-alignment but none
of which could be used for defining Non-alignment.
Isolationalism stands for policy of aloofness, but non-alignment stands for

aloofness only from military alliances and cold war and not from international
relations. Likewise, non-commitment refers to the politics of detachment from
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other powers in a multi-corner relationship; neutrality describes the political and

legal status of a state which decides to remain neutral in any war; neutralisation
means the permanent legal status of neutrality conferred on a state e.g.
Switzerland; unilateralism involves the policy of taking calculated unilateral risks
and decisions; and non-involvement stands for keeping away from the struggle
between the different ideologies and powers. These terms are nowhere near to the
Non-alignment. Non-alignment is neither a legal status nor a diplomatic means, nor
even a principle of aloofness and inaction.
Non-alignment simply denotes a foreign policy which opposes cold war, alliances
and aggressive power politics and which stands for independence in foreign
relations based on such principles as peace, friendship and cooperation with all.
Definition of Non-alignment:
“Non-alignment means attempt by a nation to keep itself aloof from military
blocs. It means trying to view the things as far as possible, not from military point
of view though that has to come in sometimes, but we must have independent view
point and must have friendly relations with all countries.” —Pt. J.L. Nehru
Nehru also described Non-alignment as the principle of Independent Foreign

Policy. In simple words, Non-alignment means a foreign policy which while
keeping herself free from cold war and military alliances, actively participates in
international relations, It means a foreign policy based on national interest as well
as on the demands of international objectives of peace and security. The term is
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commonly used to describe the foreign policies of those states which do not enter
into any security alliance with either the communist or the anti-communist states.
To sum up we can say that Non-alignment is the feature of a foreign policy which
is opposed to cold war and military alliances of the power blocs. It stands for the
policy of acting independently in international relations and taking all decisions on
the basis of national interests and an independent view of the world. It stands for
full participation in international relations. ,
Origin and Evolution of Non-Aligned Movement:

The rise and development of Non-aligned Movement has been a key development
that has changed the nature and character of contemporary international relations in
several important ways. It originated as an answer to the cold war and was
designed to serve both the interests of the new states as well as the objective of
securing international peace and security.
(A) Adoption of Non-aligned Foreign Policies by several States:

The first stage in the emergence of NAM came in the form of adoption of Non-
alignment as a fundamental principle of their foreign policies by several states,
particularly by India, Burma, Indonesia, Egypt, Yugoslavia and Ghana. These
countries became the torch bearers of Non-alignment. Their successful and fruitful
adherence to Non-alignment, despite stiff opposition from both the super powers
and their camp followers, gave a tremendous popularity to Non-alignment.
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(B) The attempts at the unity of the Non aligned Countries:

The second stage in the organisation of Non-aligned Movement came when some
of the leaders of the non-aligned countries decided to establish and develop
contacts and cooperation among the new states. The lead that India took in holding
the Asian Relations Conferences in New Delhi and the success with which the
prominent leaders of Asia and Africa could organize the Bandung Conference in
April 1955, went a long way in preparing the ground work for the emergence of
the movement of the Non-aligned in international relations.
The Bandung spirit and the ten principles which were adopted by this historic
conference provided the much needed solid ground to Non-aligned movement.
Many countries came forward to realize the justness and soundness of the concept
of Non-alignment. They adopted it and started taking keen interest in spreading
and strengthening it.
D. Supra-National Organizations:
EUROPEAN UNION
The European Union (EU) is supranational and intergovernmental union of 27

states in Europe. It was established in 1992 by the Treaty on European Union (The
Maastricht Treaty) and is the de facto successor to the six-member European
Economic Community founded in 1957.
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The EU is one of the largest economic and political entities in the world, with 494
million peoples and a combined nominal Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of £11.6
($14.5) trillion in 2006. The Union is the single market with a common trade
policy, a Common Agriculture/Fisheries Policy and a Regional Policy to assist
underdeveloped regions.
Organisational Structure of the European Union
I. The Commission:
It consists of 17 members appointed by the member states to serve for 4 years. The
President and the Vice- Presidents are appointed initially for 2 years but are
generally reappointed for the rest of their term. The Commission acts
independently of any country in the interests of the Community as a whole.
II. The Council of Ministers:

It consists of the foreign ministers of the governments of member states. It
represents the nations’ interests and not the community interests. It takes decisions
under the Treaties. Legally all decisions are to be made by majority. In actual
practice, the unanimity rule is followed.
The Council works through several special councils, e.g. the Agricultural Council,
for discussing matters related to individual policies. Since 1974, the Heads of
States and Governments have also been meeting three times a year at the European
Council for discussing the affairs of the Community as also matters connected with
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Foreign Policy. The term of the Presidency of the Council is 6 months and it
rotates among the member countries.
III. The European Parliament:

It consists of 518 members who are directly elected from all member countries.
France, Germany, Italy and the U.K. return 81 members each. Spain 60 the
Netherlands 25, Belgium, Greece and Portugal 24, Denmark 16, Ireland 15 and
Luxembourg 6. Several political parties- Socialists, European Peoples Party
(Christian Democratic Group), European Democrats (formerly European
Conservatives), Liberal Democrats and Reforms Group, Communists and Allies,
the Rainbow Group, the European Rights and Independents—contest these
elections in the member countries. The Parliament has the right to be consulted on
a wide range of legislative proposals. It forms one arm of the Community’s
Budgetary Authority.
IV. The Economic and Social Committee (ECSC):

It is an advisory institution. It consists of 189 representatives of employers, trade
unions, consumers etc. The ECSC has a separate consultative committee of the
members.
V. The European Court of Justice:

It consists of 13 judges and 6 advocate-generals. It is responsible for the
adjudication of disputes arising out of the application of the treaties. Their
judgments are enforceable in all member countries.
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VI. The Court of Auditors:
It was established by a treaty signed on 22nd July, 1975 and came into operation
on 1 June, 1977. It replaced the former Audit Board. It consists of 12 members. It
audits all income and current and past expenditure of the European countries.
VII. The European Investment Bank (EIB):

It was created by the EEC Treaty to which its statute stands annexed. Its governing
body is the Board of Governors consisting of ministers designated by member
states. Its main task is to contribute to the balanced development of the common
market in the interest of the community by financing projects; developing less-
developed regions, for modernizing or converting undertakings, developing new
activities, or those of common interest to several member states.
VIII. Community Law:

Provisions of the treaties and secondary legislation may be either directly
applicable in member states or only applicable after member states have enacted
their own implementing legislation. Secondary legislation consists of regulations,
which are of general application and binding in their entirety and directly
applicable in all member states; directives which are binding upon each member
state as to the result to be achieved within a given time, but leave the national
authority the choice of form and method of achieving this result; and decisions
which are binding in their entirety on their addresses. In addition the Council and
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the Commission can issue recommendations and opinions, which have no binding
force.
IX. Legislative Process of the Community:

It starts with a proposal from the Commission to the Council. The Council
generally seeks the views of the European Parliament on the proposal, and the
Parliament adopts a formal opinion after consideration of the matter by its
specialist committees. The Council may also consult the economic and social
committee, which similarly delivers an opinion.
X. Finances of the Community:

The resources of the community, levies and duties, have been surrendered to it by
the EC Treaty. The Budget is made by the Council and the Parliament acting
jointly as Budgetary Authority. The Parliament has control within a certain limit,
of non-obligatory expenditure i.e. expenditure where the amount to be spent is not
set out in the legislation concerned. It can also reject the budget totally; otherwise
the Council is the deciding body.
Organization of American States (OAS)
organization formed to promote economic, military, and cultural cooperation

among its members, which include almost all of the independent states of
the Western Hemisphere. The OAS’s main goals are to prevent any outside state’s
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intervention in the Western Hemisphere and to maintain peace between the various
states within the hemisphere.
STRUCTURE
The General Secretariat is the administrative backbone of the OAS and is headed
by a secretary-general elected to a five-year term. The chief policy-making body of
the OAS is the General Assembly, which holds annual meetings at which member
states are represented by their foreign ministers or chiefs of state. The General
Assembly controls the OAS’s budget and supervises various specialized
organizations. In case of attack or an act of aggression within or between member
states, the Permanent Council, composed of an ambassador from each member
state, acts as the provisional organ of consultation until all the member states’
ministers of foreign affairs can assemble. At this consultation meeting of foreign
ministers, collective action cannot be undertaken without the approval of two-
thirds of the foreign ministers present. The General Secretariat and the Permanent
Council are based in Washington, D.C.
AFRICAN UNION(AU)
As the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), founded in 1963, was established as
a loose association of African states with limited mechanisms for implementing
coordinated regional policies, managing conflicts and fostering continental peace
and security, Among these challenges – and arguably the most limiting challenge –
was the decision to maintain an inviolable respect for a Westphalian conception of
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state sovereignty. This essentially meant that in order for the OAU to function at
all it had to rely heavily on the political will of member states. The OAU’s limited
Charter, together with its failure to stem the tide of civil wars and emerging
dictatorships, eventually overburdened the institution, and in 2002 the African
Union (AU) was established as its successor. The AU, while retaining much of the
ideology of its predecessor, would be created with an eye to addressing
shortcomings of the OAU while still promoting continental unity and a united front
for Africa.
Structure: Organs of the AU
The Assembly, comprising of Heads of State and Government, acts as the supreme
organ of the AU and meets annually. The Assembly is responsible for determining
common policies, membership, and the establishment of institutions. The
responsibility of deciding on matters of intervention rests with the Assembly. In
comparison to the OAU, the AU Assembly possesses legal capacities to impose
sanctions on members who do not comply with AU policies.
Executive Council, comprised of foreign ministers, is tasked with determining

policies of common interest to member states such as trade, industry, resources,
infrastructure and science and technology. Decisions are taken through a two-
thirds member state majority.
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The AU Commission is the third organ of the AU, appointed by the AU Assembly
to act as a secretariat to the Assembly, preparing documents and agendas.
ECOSOCC the Economic, Social and Cultural Council, which consists of 150
representatives of social and professional civil society groups, is intended to
provide civil society with a voice to influence AU policymaking.
Permanent representatives of AU member states form the Permanent

Representatives’ Committee, which is responsible for preparing work of the
executive and acting as an advisory body. The Representatives also facilitate
dialogue between member state capitals and the AU Commission.
Technical Committees, The Technical Committees are comprised of seven

committees with unlimited membership, including committees on agriculture,
finance, trade and immigration, science and technology, transport and
infrastructure, health, and education.
Court of Justice, was adopted in 1998 and established via Article 1 of the Protocol
to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Establishment of an
African Court on Human and People’s rights.
ASEAN: Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
The Association of Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN) is an association of nations

dedicated to economic and political co-operation in Southeast Asia countries.
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ASEAN was established on 8th August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand with the
signing of the ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) by the Founding
Members of ASEAN, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand.
Brunei Darussalam then joined on 7 January 1984, Vietnam on 28 July 1995, Lao
PDR and Myanmar on 23 July 1997 and Cambodia on 30 April 1999 making up
what is today the ten Member States of ASEAN.
Objectives of Asean:
i. To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in
the region through joint endeavours.
ii. To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and
the rule of law.
iii. To encourage active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common

interest in Economic, Social, Cultural, Technical, Scientific and Administrative
fields.
iv. To provide assistance to each other in terms of training and research facilities in
the educational, professional, technical and administrative areas.
v. To work together for a greater utilisation of agriculture and industries in order to

expand the trade both locally and internationally.
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vi. To study the problems of international community trade, the improvement of

their transportation and communications facilities and the raising of the living
standards of the nations.
vii. To maintain close and positive co-operation with existing international and
regional organisations with similar aims and purposes.
E. INTERNATIONAL TERRORRISM
Meaning and Nature:

Terrorism has no precise definition. It is the incarnation of an organised violence
and an act of brutality leading to massive killing of innocent human beings. One
traditional definition of terrorism is, “the use of violence or threat to use of
violence inducing fear, for attaining certain political goals”. An act of violence and
a method of intimidation or coercing a Government or community by a person or
group of persons to achieve a political objective amounts to terrorism. Precisely
speaking, terrorism is an organised violence coupled with some specific demands,
mostly irrational.
Terrorism has also been described as a form of ‘politically motivated action’

based on two inter-related components, such as:
(a) Psychological (fear-inducing)
(b) Physical (violent action).

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It is mostly carried out by a small group of terrorists, who create an emotional

‘state of terror’ among specific groups and thereby, ultimately bringing about
general or specific changes in the social structure or governmental system. The US
Army Regulation defines terrorism as “use of violence or threat of violence to till
the Socio-economic and Political balance.”
Types of Terrorism:
Four types of terrorism have been identified by Chalmers Johnson and those
are:
(1) Ethnic
(2) Nationalist
(3) Ideological
(4) Pathological or Religious.
Other Forms of Terrorism:

Terrorism may also take several other forms, such as Bio- terrorism, Nuclear
terrorism Cyber terrorism, Gene terrorism. Bio-terrorism refers to the use of
biological weapons which are more fatal compared to other conventional weapons.
Bio- terrorism became a reality only after the September 11 incident with the
detection of Anthrax attack in the U.S. cities through postal mails. The main
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objective of the terrorists to resort to bio-terrorism is to create a panic among the

civilian population of the targeted country.
Nuclear Terrorism:
It relates to the secret use of Nuclear weapons by the terrorists. Its use was
confirmed when the Al-Qaeda documents and manuals were found in the city of
Kabul in Afghanistan by the North-Alliance army. These documents contained
research studies into the use of nuclear weapons and materials including U- 235.
This also included use of radioactive materials to incite panic acid terror among the
civilians.
Cyber Terrorism:
It is a 21st century threat. The goal of a cyber attack is to disable the enemy’s
defence system, scramble its logistics, and in fact the software’s. ‘Hacking’ is the
most commonly and easily used method to deface governmental Websites by
hackers. Security experts feel that this method is virtually untraceable as there is no
trail from sender to recipient. These terrorists exploit hi-tech graphic tools and the
Internet to send and receive coded messages.
134

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Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies

Class : BALLB III A, B, C

Paper Code : BALLB 209

Subject : POLITICAL SCIENCE-II

Unit 1: TYPES OF GOVERNMENT

Government is institutionalized authority, organized to direct the larger society

1. Democracy is a form of government in which people’s participation is of

2. People may participate either directly or indirectly.

4. Distribution of opportunities is adopted for reduction or removal of inequalities.

8. It is a system of government which does not make any discrimination on the

9. In democracy all must have the scope to govern or to be a member of

11. Rules are to be chosen by the ruled.

Following are two types of democracy

2. Indirect or Representative Democracy

B) Federal form of Government

A federal government is a system of dividing up power between a central national

A federal system of government is one that divides the powers of government

Features of Federal Government

b) In a federation governmental powers are essentially distributed by the

c) Federal system essentially implies the supremacy of constitution.A federal state

d) To maintain in practice the supremacy of the constitution every federal state

its full attention to the problems of national importance. Because of provincial or

(3) People take more interest in local and regional affairs:

(4) It gives rise to big states:

(5) This system is more advantageous to the smaller states:

States or provinces in India could neither defend themselves against expansionist

The citizenship of a federation is more dignified. If we declare ourselves as

(7) Distribution of powers checks the despotism of the Central Government:

(8) More suitable for the bigger countries:

(9) It is a model for the world state:

(10) It is good for economic and cultural progress:

Administrative and cultural autonomy has been given to different nationalities in

Other than that, it leads to unnecessary competition between different regions.

It is also promotes regional inequalities. Natural resources, industries, employment

Thus, It can be concluded as,:

1. It is inefficient because of diversity of law and administration.

2. There is always a tug-of- war between national and local interests.

C) Confederal & Quassi-Federal Form Of Government

Confederalism is a system of government in which sovereign power is held by the

The basic difference is that confederalism is a system where the central

Quasi federalism is a form of government which is federal in structure but unitary

In the words of Professor KC Wheare “Indian Constitution is a quasi-federation.”

1. It is a group of regions or states united with a central government or a

a) A perusal of the provisions of the Constitution reveals that the political

i) Judges of the High Courts are appointed by the President in consultation

Professor KC Wheare further remarked Indian Union is ‘a unitary state with

To understand the term Quasi-Federalism one must first understand what

D) The Parliamentary and Presidential Forms of Government

Parliamentary Form of Government

Parliamentary government is a democratic form of government in which the

In a Parliamentary form of government, the head of the state is usually a different

The Parliamentary or the Cabinet system originated in England. This form of

The features of Parliamentary form of Government have been discussed below:

1. Existence of a Titular or Constitutional Ruler: The first characteristic feature

2. Absence of Separation of Powers: In the parliamentary system the principle of

3. Main Role of the Lower House in Ministry-formation: In the parliamentary

4. Responsibility to the Legislature: In such a system the Cabinet or Ministry

5. Collective Responsibility: The ministerial responsibility to the legislature may

a) Individual responsibility, and

Individual responsibility means that the minister in charge of a department must be

6. Intimate relationship between the Legislature and the Executive: In the

7. Leadership of the Prime Minister: The leadership of the Prime Minister is