WEEK 11 : POLITICAL AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURE

Discussion 1
Social and Political Structures
Social and political structures are both constructs formed as a result of large-scale ties and
relations in society.

In a general sense, social structure refers to patterned institutions or groups in society

where people work, act, and live together (Sepillo, n.d.).

Examples: Social class and social institutions like the government and legal community,
LGBT community, and professional community

On the other hand, the political structure is used to call on the institutions and political
entity organized in agreement with regulations, laws, and norms of society or of the entity itself.
Thus, a society based on the political structure may follow totalitarianism, authoritarianism, or
democracy.

State Versus Stateless

The state is a community of persons more or less Stateless are not considered nationals by any
numerous, permanently occupying a definite State under the operation of its law (Being
portion of territory, having a government of their Invisible: Children Living in Statelessness, n.d.).
own to which the great body of inhabitant render
obedience, and enjoying freedom from external
control.

Political Organization
Political institutions are defined as the norms, values, and roles responsible for
maintaining social order. These are also a universal institution.

Creating Formal Forms

It is the political institution that has created formal norms or laws that guide our behavior.
a. Constitutional laws – these are the formalized norms that emerge in the constitution, the
written plan of any government.
b. Statutory laws – these are laws that have been enacted by a legislative body of the
government like congress and City Councils.
c. Common laws are unwritten laws built over a century on local custom and precedent and
further developed by judicial decisions.
Applying Sanctions
A political institution has the responsibility to apply sanctions to those who disobey
and not follow certain norms. The degree of the sanction depends on the significance of the
law being violated (CourseHero, n.d.).

Another responsibility of political institutions is settling disputes among individuals.

Some types of disputes may include the following:
a. Inheritances
b. Divorce
c. Property rights
d. Personal liability
e. Bankruptcy
(CourseHero, n.d.)

Settling disputes between nations

Political institutions try to resolve disputes between the nation as well. This is to
avoid wars from happening between nations.

Representatives from both nations will meet and settle the problem peacefully, but
sometimes no agreement is reached. Failure to settle their dispute, both nation or any one
of them may bring the case to an international body.

Four types of Political Structures

Band

 Is a kin-based society where all members are related through blood or marriage.
 The least complex form of political arrangement.
 It is characterized by small, nomadic populations of food collectors.
 Most bands number between 30 and 50 people.
 Bands are most often made up of hunter-gatherers.
 Minor role specialization and highly egalitarian.
(Diversity Research Paper, n.d.)

Tribes

 A tribe is somewhat more complex than a band.

 Found most often among food producers.
 Tend to have populations that are larger, denser, and somewhat more sedentary.
  Leadership is informal and not vested in centralized authority.
(CourseHero, n.d.)

Chiefdoms

 Political authority is likely to reside with a single individual, acting alone or in

conjunction with an advisory council.
 Integrate several local communities formally and permanently.
 They made up local communities that differ from one another in terms of rank and status.
 Chief ships are hereditary, and the chief and immediate kin are social.
(CourseHero, n.d.)

States

 They began as chiefdoms and then evolved into a more centralized, authoritarian
kingdom when their populations grew into ten thousand people.
 The most formal and complex form of political organization.
 The Authority of the state rests on two crucial foundations.
1. The state holds the exclusive right to use force and physical coercion.
2. The state maintains authority using ideology.
(CourseHero, n.d.)

Authority
Authority refers to accepted power—that is, the power that people agree to follow.
People listen to authority figures because they feel that these individuals are worthy of
respect.

Three Types of Authority

According to the sociologist Max Weber, there is a category of how authority is
legitimated as a belief system. These are traditional, charismatic, and rational.

TRADITIONAL CHARISMATIC RATIONAL - LEGAL

Based on a system in which Based on the unique qualities of Based on a system of rules that
authority is legitimate because it the leader, who shows that he or is applied administratively and
“has always existed.” she possesses the right to lead judicially per known principles.
People in power usually enjoy it by magical powers, properties,
because they have inherited it. heroism, etc.
(The Three Types of Legitimate Rule, n.d.)

Sample Illustration
 TRADITIONAL CHARISMATIC RATIONAL - LEGAL
Examples Britain’s Queen Examples include Jesus, Examples of this type of
Elizabeth, for instance, occupies Napoleon, and Hitler. authority are officials elected by
a position that she inherited voters; Rational-legal authority
based on the traditional rules of is built on bureaucracy (Dalby,
succession for the monarchy. 2021).
(The Three Types of Legitimate Rule, n.d.)

Legitimacy
Legitimacy gives form to the authority. Together with power, legitimacy dresses authority.
It is a symbol or representation–like professionals having their licenses, employees wearing their
uniforms, and laws being written as formal documents.

In the most basic sense, a state is legitimate if it exists and operates according to the law. If
a government is legitimate, then in some way, the fact that it has power is justified. If so, then we
can argue that we ought to obey it. On the other hand, if power is objectionable, then we do not
tend to have an obligation to follow it (Authority and Legitimacy, 2015).

Legitimacy is a belief that a rule, institution, or leader has the right to govern. Legitimacy is
the force that makes an action of a governing body necessary.

WEEK 12 : NON STATE INSTITUTIONS

Discussion 1

Non-state institutions
These are groups and organizations which operate outside the support of any state or
government. They are referred to as 'stateless' since they are considered independent of any state,
although they usually collaborate with the government to implement projects. Non-state
institutions assume different functions and focus on a specific objective. In general, they develop
certain services needed by members of society for their progress.
(Module 1: Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions, 2018)

These are the different non-state institutions that operate in society:

Banks
The term 'bank' has no single definition. For uniformity, we define a bank as a financial
institution licensed to provide several financial services to different customer types. Banks are in
operation mainly for their deposit and lending functions. Customers are given the ability to
deposit money to different banks and have the chance to have it grow interest (Module 1:
Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions, 2018)

The most common types of banks are as follows;

 Retail bank - is a type of bank that focuses on consumers or the general public. One's
bank account, like a checking and savings account, is usually in a retail bank.

 Commercial bank - also provides the same services as a retail bank; however, it focuses
on businesses and businessmen as its main customers. In addition, commercial banks
provide short-term loans for businessmen to be used for investment purposes.

 Investment or an industrial bank - provides medium and long-term loans and deposits to
business industries.

 As the name suggests, agricultural banks cater to the financial needs of farmers and the
farming industry. Here, they provide either short-term or long-term loans for agricultural
activities. Loans from this type of bank are used for buying seeds, fertilizers, land, or any
materials needed for farming.
(Module 1: Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions, 2018)

Corporation
is an organization created by a group of people known as shareholders, which is
legally recognized as a single person in carrying out specific goals and objectives. As a
'legal person,' a corporation is mandated to enjoy the rights, privileges, and
responsibilities. Using its name, a corporation has the right to enter into contracts, hire
employees, and loan and borrow money. It is also authorized to have its assets.

Different types of corporations are classified based on specific factors like the corporation's
purpose, manner of taxation, and the number of shareholders.
 Non-profit corporation - is established to serve the public rather than pursue profits.
 C – corporation - whose income is taxed through the corporation itself.
 S-corporation - is taxed through its shareholders. An S-corporation can only have less
than 100 shareholders, unlike a C-corporation, which can have an unlimited number of
 shareholders.
(Module 1: Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions, 2018)

Cooperatives
A cooperative is “an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet
their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations, through a jointly-
owned and democratically-controlled enterprise." Members of a cooperative usually join
together to achieve a specific objective, an objective that usually benefits the organization's
members. (Module 1: Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions, 2018)

Types of Cooperatives
 Credit cooperative - provides financial services to its members, including securing
savings and creating funds to be used for issuing loans.

 Consumer cooperative - operates mainly to obtain and distribute products and

commodities to its customers, both members and non-members.

 Producer cooperatives - a subtype of a producer cooperative is agricultural cooperatives

that help producers or farmers in marketing their crops and purchasing supplies needed
for further production.

 Service cooperative - (or a worker cooperative) concentrates on helping workers in

service-oriented occupations (i.e., health care, transportation, labor) by creating
employment opportunities and other benefits to its members.

 Multi-purpose cooperative - undertakes two or more functions of different cooperatives.

For example, a multi-purpose cooperative could act as a consumer cooperative and
establish a supermarket.
(Module 1: Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions, 2018)

Trade Unions
It is within the universal human rights that people have the ability to form and
organize instritutions or groups that would protect their rights as workets. Therefore, a
trade union or labor union is an organization with a membership composed of workers or
employees from related fields, which aim to represent the interests and rights of its
members, both in the workplace and in society.
There are different types of trade unions according to their members.
 General union - represents workers with a range of jobs and skills from different
industries and companies. An example of this type of union is a trade union of drivers,
janitors, and office workers.

 Industrial unions - are composed of workers from one particular industry across different
levels of the hierarchy. For example, a trade union of all employees who work in the
mining industry (with different levels and positions) is an example of an industrial union.

 Craft union - represents skilled workers doing the same work who may be employed in
different industries. A craft union of carpenters is one example.

 White-collar union - is composed of professionals doing similar jobs across different

industries. For example, a trade union of teachers and professors is an example of a
white-collar union.
(Module 1: Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions, 2018)

Transnational advocacy group

Transnational advocacy groups focus on a thriving and often ethically inspired
literature that sets out to study the origins, strength, influence, and long-term implications
of their activities on the broader development of a world-level political system.

Development Agency
A development agency is an organization, local or international, committed to
pursuing specific developmental agendas of a state.
WEEK 13 : EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Concept of Education

Education is a discipline that concerns with methods of teaching and learning in schools
or school-like environments as opposed to various non-formal and informal means of
socialization (Education, n.d.).

Functions of Education
 Conservation and promotion culture
 All-round development of the individual
 Development of higher values of life
 Development of social responsibility
 Citizenship training
 Adjustability in society
 Vocational training

Types of Education
  Formal Education
 Informal Education
 Non-formal Education

Formal education refers to teaching in a formal setting. This begins in elementary school
and continues to middle school, high school, college, masters, and so on. The most common
formal setting is a classroom.

On the other hand, Informal education refers to any education that doesn't use a formal
learning and teaching method.

Non-formal Education is one would think that non-formal education would be similar to
informal education based on its name. Still, it has more in common with formal education in that
it often involves instruction from a teacher (Vanetik, 2019).

Examples of Formal Education

 Learning in a classroom
 School grading or certification, college and university degrees
 Planned education of different subjects having a proper syllabus acquired by attending
the institution.

Examples of Informal Education

 Teaching the child some basics such as numbers, writing, and such
 Someone learning their mother tongue
 A spontaneous type of learning, “if a person standing in a bank learns about opening and
maintaining the account at the bank from someone.”

Examples of Non-formal Education

 Boy Scouts and Girls Guides develop some sports programs such as swimming comes
under non-formal education.
 Fitness programs.
  Community-based adult education courses.

Educational as Human Rights

Every individual deserves the right to have access to proper education; it is not a privilege.

Education as a human right means:

 Every individual is legally guaranteed the right to education without any discrimination
 States must protect, respect, and fulfill every individual’s right to education
 States must hold institutionals accountable such as giving proper violations or
deprivations of the right to education

Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

 Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary
education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made
generally available, and higher education shall be equally accessible to all based on merit.
 Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the
strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Furthermore, it
shall promote understanding, tolerance, and friendship among all nations, racial or
religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance
of peace.
 Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their
children.
(The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, n.d.)

Education in the Philippines

As of 2013, The Philippine Statistic Authority shows that 96.5 percent of 74 million
Filipinos 10 years old and over were literate. In addition, the proportion of basically literate
females was higher (97.0%) than their male counterparts (96.1%).
 In 2018, PSA had a press release showing indicators that depriving Filipino families of
education. Among the 13 indicators, educational attainment consistently had the highest
incidence of deprivation among families for 2016 and 2017 at 59.3 percent and 49.4 percent,
respectively.

WEEK 14 : SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social Stratification

Social stratification organization of society into different strata, which implies a difference
in the wealth, prestige, and power of individuals belonging to a social stratum (CourseHero,
n.d.).

Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. Social
stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic
tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.

Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All societies arrange their
members in terms of superiority, inferiority, and equality. Stratification is a process of interaction
or differentiation whereby some people rank higher than others (Mondal, n.d.).

In a word, when individuals and groups are ranked according to some commonly accepted
basis of valuation in a hierarchy of status levels based upon the inequality of social positions,
social stratification occurs. Social stratification means the division of society into different strata
or layers. It involves a hierarchy of social groups. Members of a particular layer have a common
identity. They have a similar lifestyle (Mondal, n.d.).
Social Status

Social status is the position held by individuals in society. Each status has respective social
roles and reach to resources. This creates a hierarchy among social statuses in society. The
unequal access to resources that create stratification in society comes in wealth, prestige, and
power. These resources are also called social desirables (CourseHero, n.d.).

Social desirables are resources in society that are the basis of social stratification.

Wealth - is material assets in society. This is the easiest to measure among the three social
desirables due to its material and tangible form. Money and all the things it can buy are the
simplest examples of wealth. This includes cars, mansions, and gadgets. However, economic
wealth in present society could now be in intangible forms like stocks and investments.
(CourseHero, n.d.)

Prestige - is the respect and admiration given by society to a particular social position.
Different social statuses have unequal prestige. There are occupations known as prestigious jobs
like being a doctor, lawyer, or teacher. Society differentiates blue-collar from white-collar jobs
and skilled labor to professional ones. Although there are jobs with the same salary, different
levels of prestige are awarded to individuals. For instance, working as a full-time teacher and
working as a private tutor in the Philippines yield similarly-rated salaries; however, seemingly
more admiration is given to teachers because of their passion for engaging in a more physically
and mentally demanding job.

Power - is defined by Max Weber as the ability to command others despite resistance.
There is an unequal distribution of power in every social relationship, although it may not be as
direct as the power of government leaders and politicians. For instance, the parents have greater
power in the household over their children. Weber goes as much as tracing the ideal types of the
three bases of legitimacy or the adequate exercise of power agreed upon in society such as
traditional, charisma, and rational-legal.
 Weber viewed the legal system's legitimacy as central to the meaning and force of the rule
of law. Legitimacy, or "belief in the existence of a legitimate order," entails for Weber "the
prestige of being considered binding" and has the consequence that those who accept the
legitimacy of their legal system will view its rules as valid.

Types of Authority or Legitimacy

Traditional Authority - This is the type of authority where the traditional rights of a
powerful and dominant individual or group are accepted, or at least not challenged, by
subordinate individuals. These could be (i) religious, sacred, or spiritual forms, (ii) well-
established and slowly changing culture, or (iii) tribal, family, or clan-type structures. For
example, the dominant individual could be a priest, clan leader, family head, or some other
patriarch, or dominant elite might govern. In many cases, traditional authority is bolstered by
cultures such as myths or connection to the sacred, symbols such as a cross or flag, and
structures and institutions that perpetuate this traditional authority (Sociology 250, 1999).

Charismatic Authority - Weber defines charismatic authority as "resting on devotion to the

exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of a person, and of the normative patterns
or order revealed or ordained by him" (Weber, p. 215). Thus, charisma is a quality of an
individual personality that is considered extraordinary, and followers may consider this quality to
be endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or exceptional powers or qualities. Whether such
powers exist or not is irrelevant – the fact that followers believe that such powers exist is
important (Sociology 250, 1999).

Weber considers charisma to be a driving and creative force which surges through
traditional authority and established rules. The sole basis of charismatic authority is the
recognition or acceptance of the leader's claims by the followers. While it is irrational, it is not
calculable or systematic; it can be revolutionary, breaking a traditional rule and challenging legal
authority. (Giddens, pp. 160-161) (Sociology 250, 1999).
 Legal or Rational Authority - This is an authority or legitimate domination resting on
"rational grounds – resting on a belief in the legality of enacted rules and the right of those
elevated to authority under such rules to issues commands" (Weber, p. 215). There are various
ways that legal authority could develop. Systems of convention, laws, and regulation develop in
many societies, and there are many different principles of legality that occur. The development
of law in the West leads to the establishment of a legal system, such that there is the rule of law,
written legal codes, legal rights and rules, and the "professionalized administration of justice by
persons who have received their legal training formally and systematically." (Ritzer, p. 129).
(Idea of Hope: Presidential Politics, n.d.)
WEEK 16: SYSTEM STRATIFICATION

There are several stratification characteristics; firstly, stratification creates beliefs that reflect
the social structure, which formed the second character. The beliefs access to the society like
institutions and political groups. Lastly, stratification divides people as groups and puts the same
expectation on the group. Unfortunately, the effects of stratification are not so positive. In
contrast, it enhances social inequality.

Systems of Stratification

There are two types of stratification. First is the Closed systems where is there is little to no
change in social position. Here, shifting to different levels or social position is not allowed,
including having social relationships with other levels. Open systems, which are based on
achievement, allow movement and interaction between layers and classes. Different systems
reflect, emphasize, and foster specific cultural values and shape individual beliefs. Stratification
systems include class systems and caste systems, and meritocracy

The Caste System

Caste systems are closed stratification systems in which people can do little or nothing to
change their social standing. A caste system is one in which people are born into their social
standing and will remain their whole lives. People in this system are randomly designated
occupations regardless of their skills or potentials. It is impossible for people to improve or
increase their level
In the Hindu caste tradition, people were expected to work in their caste occupation and
enter into marriage according to their caste. Accepting this social standing was considered a
moral duty. Cultural values reinforced the system. Caste systems promote beliefs in fate, destiny,
and the will of a higher power, rather than promoting individual freedom as a value. A person
who lived in a caste society was socialized to accept his or her social standing
Though the Indian caste system has been overthrown, there remains some residue that still
exist in the modern society. Here, rural areas usually have the highest chance of retaining the
traditional culture compared to urban. In fact, in India's larger cities, people now have more
opportunities to choose their career paths and marriage partners. As a global center of
employment, corporations have introduced merit-based hiring and employment to the nation
The Class System
A class system is based on both social factors and individual achievement. A class consists
of people who share similar status about factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation.
Unlike caste systems, class systems are open. People are free to gain a different level of
education or employment than their parents. They can also socialize with and marry members of
other classes, which allows people to move from one class to another
In a class system, occupation is not fixed at birth. Though family and other societal models
help guide a person toward a career, personal choice plays a role
In class systems, people can form exogamous marriages, unions of spouses from different
social categories. Marriage in these circumstances is based on love and compatibility rather than
on social standing or economics. Though social conformities still exist that encourage people to
choose partners within their class, people are not as pressured to choose marriage partners based
solely on those elements. Marriage to a partner from the same social background is an
endogamous union
The Estate system
It provides another system of stratification that gave much emphasis to birth and wealth,
and possessions. Each estate had a state.

The Slavery system

Slavery had an economic basis. In slavery, every slave had his master to whom he was
subjected. The master's power over the slave was unlimited (Social Stratification: meanings,
types, and characteristics, n.d.).

Meritocracy
Meritocracy is an ideal system based on the belief that social stratification results from
personal effort—or merit—that determine social standing. High levels of effort will lead to a
high social position and vice versa. The concept of meritocracy is ideal—because society has
never existed where social rank was based purely on merit.

Because of the complex structure of societies, processes like socialization, and the realities
of economic systems, social standing is influenced by multiple factors—not merit alone.
Inheritance and pressure to conform to norms, for instance, disrupt the notion of a pure
meritocracy. While a meritocracy has never existed, sociologists see aspects of meritocracies in
modern societies when they study the role of academic and job performance and the systems in
place for evaluating and rewarding achievement in these areas.
Status Consistency
Social stratification systems determine social position based on factors like income,
education, and occupation. Sociologists use the term status consistency to describe the
consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual’s rank across these factors. Caste systems correlate
with high-status consistency, whereas the more flexible class system has lower status consistency
Characteristics of Social Stratification:
Based on the analysis of the different definitions given by eminent scholars, social
stratification may have the following characteristics.
 Social stratification is universal
No society in this world is free from stratification. Modern stratification differs from the
stratification of primitive societies. It is a worldwide phenomenon. According to Sorokin, "all
permanently organized groups are stratified."
 Stratification is social
Indeed, physical qualities do not determine one's superiority and inferiority. Factors like age, sex,
intelligence, and strength often contribute as the basis on which statues are distinguished. But
one's education, property, power, experience, character, personality, etc., are more critical than
physical qualities. Hence, stratification is social by nature.
 It is ancient
The stratification system is ancient. It was present even in the small wondering bonds. In
almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the rich and poor, humble and
powerful, existed. During the period of Plato and Kautilya, even emphasis was given to political,
social, and economic inequalities.
 It is in diverse forms
The forms of stratification are not uniform in all societies. In the modern world-class, caste
and estate are the general forms of stratification. In India, a particular type of stratification in the
form of caste is found. The ancient Aryans were divided into four varnas: the Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras. The ancient Greeks were divided into freemen and slaves, and
the ancient Romans were divided into the patricians and the plebians. So, every society, past or
present, big or small, is characterized by diverse forms of social stratification.
 Social stratification is Consequential
Social stratification has two significant consequences: "life chances" and the other is
"lifestyle." A class system affects not only the "life- chances" but also their "lifestyle."

WEEK 17: SOCIAL INEQUALITIES

Social Inequalities
Social inequality is the state of unequal distribution of valued goods and opportunities. All
societies today have social inequality. Examining social stratification requires a macro-
sociological perspective to view societal systems that make inequalities visible. Although
individuals may support or fight inequalities, social stratification is created and supported by
society as a whole through values and norms and consistently durable systems of stratification.
Social inequality is characterized by unequal opportunities and rewards for different social
positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains structured and recurrent unequal
distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments.
Inequality undermines social justice and human rights, and the interconnectedness of
inequalities means some groups have consistently worse opportunities than those of their fellow
citizens (UNDP, 2013; World Bank, 2006). Among the most common group, identities resulting
in exclusion are gender, race, caste, ethnicity, religion, region, and disability status, although
more evidence is needed (Social Inclusion in Africa, 2017).
Social Variations and Differences
Sex and Gender
Sex refers to biological differences that distinguish humans and other animals into two
main categories: male and female. Biological differences between males and females include
variation in (a) chromosomal structure, XX for female and XY for male; (b) hormone
production, generally more testosterone production for males and more estrogen production in
females, which facilitate the development of secondary sex characteristics (e.g., lower voice for
males, wider hips for females); and (c) internal and external reproductive organs (penis and
testes for males, and vagina and ovaries for females). Sex, in summary, is in-born and is purely
biological.
Gender encompasses all the social, cultural, psychological characteristics that a culture
assigns to males and females. It categorizes whether which behaviors and traits are appropriate
for men and women. There are two main types of gender: masculine and feminine. Each gender
has its gender role, which is defined as culturally assigned tasks and activities to sexes. For
example, in many societies, one gender role of males is to handle physically demanding
activities, such as construction work, while females are tasked to handle domestic activities, like
child-rearing and house chores.
Socioeconomic Class
Socioeconomic class refers to a category that groups people with similar economic, social,
cultural, and political statuses.

Social Classes in the Philippines

1. UPPER CLASS - They are considered the most productive in terms of resource
generation and often very successful in their respective fields of interest and endeavors.
2. MIDDLE CLASS - It comprises small business and industry operators, primarily owners
and managers, professionals, office workers, and farm owners with sufficient income to
provide a comfortable and decent living.
 3. LOWER CLASS - Farms employees, skilled and unskilled artisans, service workers, and
people who may be unemployed or underemployed or those who belong to indigent
families or informal sectors fall on this class.
Ethnicity and Religion
An ethnic group refers to a specific group of people with certain characteristics and
distinct cultural identities, which distinguishes them from other groups in the community or
society. Tagalog, Ilocano, Ifugao, and Kapampangan are all examples of ethnic groups. While
ethnic group refers directly to a category or collection of people, the term ethnicity is used to
denote the shared culture of these groups, which includes cultural heritage, language or dialect,
religion, traditions and rituals, norms, values, beliefs, and other practices.
Race is a socially constructed category attributed to people who share the same biological
traits or attributes. People's race classifications are usually based on physical characteristics like
skin color, facial features, and hair texture and color. Some of the commonly known racial
attributes are black, white, or Asian. It is important to remember that even though race is based
on biological characteristics, the concept is still socially constructed.
Religion is a set of beliefs and ritual practices related to symbols, which are considered as
sacred. Ethnic groups may have different symbols, which they consider sacred. The differences
of these symbols also entail differences in how these symbols are expressed in a cultural group's
belief system and rituals.
Exceptionality and Non-exceptionality
Disability is a term that refers to a condition wherein the loss of physical functioning (e.g.,
hearing and vision) or impairments in intellectual, social, and mental processes hinder the
average growth and development of an individual.
Exceptionality is a concept that describes how an individual's specific abilities and
functioning—physical, intellectual, or behavioral— are different from the established average or
typical qualities.
The concept of non-exceptionality is only used to differentiate between the exceptional
ones and those considered normal or 'non-exceptional.
Nationality
Nationality may be defined as a person's belonging to a specific nation or nation-state. Two
nationality laws can be implemented by states: jus sanguinis and jus soli. In jus sanguinis
(translated as "right of blood"), nationality and citizenship are determined by the parent’s
nationality. The Philippines implements this nationality law in determining its citizens. One other
nationality law that is commonly used by many states is just soli. In jus soli (translated as “right
of soil”), one’s nationality is determined by the territory or land in which the child is born.
Minority groups are groups composed of less-dominant classifications that experience
disproportionately lower opportunities than their dominant counterparts. Minority groups are
characterized by distinguishing physical or cultural traits, unequal social treatment, subordination
in society, and a high level of group solidarity.
Ethnic Minorities
 Because some minorities live traditionalistic lives far away from the city and technology,
and some may appear differently than usual. They have been consistently labeled and
treated as people with minimal knowledge and capabilities.
 Lack of resources readily available for many are not utilized within their group and thus
receive negative attention from the dominant public.
Other Minorities

 This may include people with disabilities or people with religions that are less prevalent
in society.

Gender Inequality
 In some country’s women are paid relatively lower than men due to their sexuality and
biological differences.
 The LGBT community has always been treated indifferently and discriminatively
because they do not fall within a biologically defined gender group.