Edinburgh Journal Reports Scientific Progress 1825

THE
EDINBURGH
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL,
ExHIBITING A VIEW OF
THE PROGREss of DIscovery IN NATURAL PHILosophy,

cHEMISTRY, NATURAL HISTORY, compañATIVE ANATOMY,
PRACTICAL MECHANICS, GEOGRAPHY, NAVIGATION,
STATISTICS, AND THE FINE AND USEFUL ARTs,
APRIL 1. To OCTOBER 1. 1825.
CONDUCTED BY
ROBERT JAMESON,
REGIUs PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HIsToRy, LEcTURER on MINERALOGY, AND
KEEPER OF THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH ;
Fellow of the Royal, Antiquarian, and Wernerian Societies of Edinburgh;
Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, and of the Royal Dublin
Society; Fellow of the Linnean and Geological Societies of London; of
the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and of the Cambridge Philo
sophical Society; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, and Cork Institutions;
of the Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark; of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Berlin; of the Royal Academy of Naples; of the Imperial
Natural History Society of Moscow ; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical So
ciety of Petersburgh; the Natural History Society of Wetterau ; of the
Mineralogical Society of Jena; of the Royal Mineralogical Society of
Dresden; of the Natural History Society of Paris; of the Philomathic So
ciety of Paris; of the Natural History Society of Calvados; of the Senken
berg Society of Natural History; Honorary Member of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of New York; of the New York Historical Society;
of the American Antiquarian Society; of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, &c.
TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.
VOL. XIII.
EDINBURGH :
PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. EDINBURGH;
- AND HURST, Robinson & co. LoNDoN.
1825.
Annex
A 25
A .23
y, Z3
P. Neill, Printer, Edinburgh.

CONTENTS
OF
-*-*
-X^
No. XXV.
Page
ART. I. On the Construction of Oil and Coal Gas Burners, and
the circumstances that influence the Light emitted
by the Gases during their Combustion; with some
Observations on their relative Illuminating Power,
and on the different modes of ascertaining it. By
Robert CHRISTIson, M.D. F.R.S.E. Fellow of the
Royal College of Physicians, and Professor of Me
dical Jurisprudence and Police in the University of
Edinburgh; and Edward TURNER, M.D. F.R.S.E.
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and Lec
turer on Chemistry, Edinburgh, - -
II. A Table of the Geographical Positions of several

Places in India. By JAMES FRANKLIN, Captain of
the Bengal Cavalry, and late Assistant Quarter
Master General of the Bengal Army, - 39
III. An Essay on the Composition of the Ancient Earthen
Vases, commonly known by the name of Etruscan.
Read before the Royal Society of Göttingen. By
Professor HAUSMANN. Concluded from Vol. XII.
p. 368. - - - - -
45
IV. On two new Genera of Byssoideae, and a new Species
of Eurotium. By Robert KAYE GREville, LL.D.
F.R.S.E. (With a Plate), - -
63
V. On Unusual Atmospherical Refraction. By HENRY
HoME BLAck ADDER, Esq. Surgeon, Med. Staff H. P.
(With a Plate), - - - -
66
VI. Account of the Deleterious Effects produced by the
presence of the Larva of an Insect in the Human
Stomach, with Observations. By J. YULE, M.D.
F.R.S.E., Fellow of the Royal College of Physi
cians, M.W. S., &c. - - - 72
8', 335, 7
ii CONTENTS.
ART. VII. Account of a Fossil Crocodile recently discovered in

the Alum-Shale near Whitby. By the Reverend
GEoRGE YouNg, A. M. Member of the Wernerian
Natural History Society, Author of the Geologi
cal Survey of the Yorkshire Coast, &c. (With a
Plate), - - - - -
76
VIII. A short Narrative of Facts relative to the Invention
and Practice of Steam-Navigation by the late PA
TRIck MILLER, Esq. of Dalswinton. Drawn up
by his Eldest Son, PATRick Millen, Esq. 81
IX. Observations and Experiments on the Structure and

Functions of the Sponge. By Robert Edmond
GRANT, M.D. F.R.S.E. F.L.S. M.W. S., &c. 94
X. Sketch of the Geology of Sicily. By Charles DAU
BENY, M.D. F.R.S. Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Oxford. (With a Map), 107
XI. An Account of the Experiments of Mr BARLow of
the Royal Military Academy, and those of M.ARA
go, on the Magnetism induced or exhibited in
Iron, and in other Metals, by Rotation. By Mr
JAMES MARSH. Communicated by Professor BAR
LOW, - - - -
XII. Remarks upon Ground-Ice, or Ice formed at the

bottom of running Waters. By Professor ME
RIAN, - - - - -
XIII. Meteorological Table, shewing the state of the Baro

meter and Thermometer, at 9 o'clock in the morn
ing, in Dunfermline, for Twenty Years, 1805–
1824, both inclusive. By the Rev. Mr H. FER
GUS, - - - -
XIV. Synoptical Table of the Formations of the Crust of

the Earth, and of the Chief Subordinate Masses.
By AIME' Boue', M.D. Member of the Wernerian
Society, &c. - - -
130
XV. Account of the Ferry across the Tay at Dundee.

By Captain BASIL HALL, R.N. F.R.S.L. & E. 146
XVI. Account of a new and commodious method of re
gulating the Movements of Steam-Vessels. By
Messrs JAMEs and CHARLEs CARMichael of Dun
dee. Communicated in a Letter to Captain BASIL
HAll, R.N. (With a Plate), -
---
CONTENTS. 111
ART. XVII. On the Diurnal Variation of the Needle. By SA

MUEL HUNTER CHRISTIE, Esq. M.A. -
164
XVIII. Description of a new species of Pecten, from the
Outer Hebrides. By Mr W. MAcGIllivray,
Corresponding Member of the Wernerian Na
tural History Society, - -
166
XIX. Remarks on Professor Hansteen's Account of a
Shooting Star, seen in the Day-time. By Mr
THoMAs Dick of Perth, - - 167
XX. On the Value of Water as a Moving Power for Ma
chinery, illustrated in an Extract from a Report
in regard to the Water of Leith, by Professors
LESLIE and JAMEson, - - - 170
XXI. Extract of a Letter from Dr RICHARDson, on the
Progress of the Overland Arctic Expedition, to
Professor JAMEson, - - -
173
XXII. List of Rare Plants which have Flowered in the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, during the
last three months. Communicated by Professor
GRAHAM, - - - 174
XXIII. Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to October 1.
1825, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh,
Mean Time. By Mr GEoRGE INNEs, Aberdeen, 175
XXIV. Meteorological Observations made at Leith. By
Messrs Coldstream and Foggo, - . 177
XXV. Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History
Society. (Continued from Vol. XII. p. 402.), 181
XXVI. The Northern Institution, - * 184
XXVII. SciENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
METEOROLOGY. **
1. Hygrometer. 2. Meteoric appearance on Ben Lomond

and Loch Lomond. 3. Largest Mass of European Me
teoric Iron. 4. Meteoric Olivine of the Pallas Meteoric
Iron. 5. Meteoric Olivine of the Meteoric Iron of Olum
ba in South America. 6. Meteoric Olivine of the Me
teoric Iron of Grimma in Saxony, - 185–187
HYDROGRAPHY.
7. Extraordinary Rise of the Rio de la Plata, - 187

MINERALOGY.
8. Resiniform Hydrate of Alumina. 9. Native Seleniuret of

iv. CONTENTS.
Lead and Native Sulphuret of Selenium. 10. Sulphato

tri-carbonate of Lead. 11. Native Magnesia, or Hydrate
of Magnesia. 12. Magnesite from Salem in India. 13.
Olivine. 14. Crysolite, - 188–191
-
- GEOLOGY.
15. Evolution of Carbonic Acid Gas at the Lake of Laach,

and in the Volcanic district of the Eifel. 16. Brown
Hematitic Iron-ore found around Cast-iron Pipes, 191–193
- - BOTANY.
17. Presence of Oxalate of Lime in the Mineral Kingdom, and

the existence of the same Salt in great quantity in Lichens, 193
ZOOLOGY.
I 8. Rectification of some popular errors regarding the Shark.

19. Durability of Human Hair. 20. Fossil and Live
Shells of the same species differ, according to Locality,
Distance, &c. 21. The same Fossil Species of Shells are
associated with different suites of species in different loca
lities. 22. Greater constancy of character and association
in the Organic Remains in Old than in New Rocks, 194–197
comparative ANATOMY. -
23. Dr Grant on the existence of the Pancreas in some species

of the Cuttle-fish Tribe. 24. On the existence of a Pan
creas in the Doris Argo, - - - 197, 198
CHEMISTRY.
25. Iodine discovered in various marine productions, - 198

ARTS. -
26. Improved Cement for holding small Lenses whilst grind

ing and polishing them, - - - 199
POLITICAL ECONOMY.
27. Present Population of Ireland, as contrasted with that of

other Countries, - - - - ib.
HISTORY.
28. Burial Place of the Inventor of Logarithms, - 201

NEW PUBLICATIONS.
29. Mohs' System of Mineralogy, translated from the German

by Mr Haidinger. 30. Buchanan's Illustrations of Acous
tic Surgery. 31. An attempt to establish the First Prin
ciples of Chemistry by Experiments; by Dr Thomson,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow, 202
ART. XXVIII. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 7th
March to 25th May 1825, -203 -
THE
EDINBURGH
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.
ART. I.-On the Construction of Oil and Coal Gas Burners,

and the circumstances that influence the Light emitted by the
Gases during their Combustion; with some Observations on
their relative Illuminating Power, and on the different modes
of ascertaining it. By Robert CHRISTIson, M.D. F.R.S.E.
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence and Police in the University of Edin
burgh; and Edward TURNER, M. D. F. R. S. E. Fellow of
the Royal College of Physicians, and Lecturer on Chemistry,
Edinburgh.
THE following experiments were undertaken, in the first in
stance, as subordinate to an inquiry regarding the illuminating
power of Oil and Coal Gases. They were undertaken, not long
ago, at a time when the question of the illuminating power of
the gases excited an extraordinary interest in this city. The
projected establishment of an Oil-gas Company here, had led
several scientific gentlemen to attend to the subject; and a va
riety of statements were published as the result of their experi
ments. But these statements, instead of rendering the matter
clearer, and receiving the confidence of men of science and of the
public, differed so widely from what had been previously obtained
* Read before the Royal Society of Edinbnrgh 18th April and 2d May 1825.
vol. xiii. No. 25. JULY 1825. A.
2 Drs Christison and Turner on the Construction of
in London and elsewhere, that a necessity was generally felt for
farther and more varied experiments, before a question in which
such an immense capital was involved throughout the kingdom,
could be held as definitively settled.
A variety of circumstances, which it is not material to men
tion, having brought it under our consideration, we were natu
rally led to inquire, whence the singular discrepancies arose
among the statements made by various scientific men of emi
mence. Two causes at once presented themselves to our notice,
independently of a difference in the quality of the gases sub
jected to trial. On the one hand, it was probable that the means
resorted to for measuring the intensity of light were not always
sufficiently accurate; and, on the other hand, it was evident,
that the gases had been burnt by different experimenters under
circumstances so different and so unsettled, as rendered it impos
sible their results could harmonize with one another.
The former of these causes has been already made the sub
ject of public attention by a controversy, in which it has been
our misfortune to hold a small share. We shall have occasion
to allude to it in the course of the present paper; but we shall
be brief on the subject, as the form, which it has assumed in
the hands of some of our opponents, renders it quite unfit to be
brought before the Society.
The latter cause of discrepancy, however, or the unsettled
mode of burning the gases, soon appeared to us to be one of
much greater consequence; because, besides accounting for many
of the differences alluded to, its examination obviously led to a
practical result of no small moment, namely, the mode of burn
ing the gases, so as to give the greatest light with the least ex
penditure; in other words, the proper construction of oil and
coal gas burners.
It appeared to us not a little singular, considering the prodigious
amount of capital embarked in the gas-light companies (which,
in London alone, according to Sir W. Congreve's Report, drew,
in the year 1823, a nett annual revenue of L. 300,000, Ann.
Phil. vol. v. p. 412), that no pains had been taken by these
companies, or by scientific men, to determine the proper con
struction of the burners. In 1820, a few hints were thrown out
Gas-Burners, and on the Illuminating Power of the Gases. 3
by Mr Brande, tending rather to encourage farther investigation
than to arrive at the object in view. One or two observations
of the same tendency were published last October by Dr Fyfe,
after most of the experiments we are about to detail had been con
cluded. But this is all, so far as we know, that has yet been made
public. As to the rules followed by the several gas-light compa
nies, it was quite evident they could not have been founded on any
fixed or known principle. For the coal and oil gas burners of va
rious towns, such as London, Dublin, Edinburgh and Glasgow,
were found, on the slightest inspection, to differ materially in prin
ciple from one another, not only in different places, but even also
in the establishment of the same company; and, when subjected to
trial, the light given out in some of them, by equal expenditures
of gas, proved to differ in the extravagant ratio of 10 to 14 or
even 15. This fact alone would be enough to account for dis
crepancies regarding the illuminating power, even greater than
those which have actually occurred; and consequently showed
the necessity of settling the proper mode of constructing burners
for each gas, before any attempt could be made to estimate their
relative light.
In commencing that investigation, we were for some time em
barrassed by the multiplicity of points to be attended to in the
construction of the burners, and by their reciprocal influence on
each other. But at length a principle occurred to us, which ap
peared to regulate the influence of each point individually, and
of all conjunctly. The principle now alluded to is at variance
with that professedly acted on by the few who have turned their
thoughts to the subject of the construction of lamps, and whose
steps have seemingly been followed by the makers of gas-burners.
We were therefore led to examine it thoroughly in all its rela
tlOnS.
Having made these preliminary remarks, we shall proceed at

once to relate our experiments in the following order.
In the first place, we shall notice the instruments employed in
them; then the circumstances which affect the degree of light
emitted by the gases during combustion; and, lastly, the results
eventually obtained regarding their relative illuminating power.
A 2
4. Drs Christison and Turner on the Construction of
I.
The most essential instrument in experiments of the kind is the Photome
ter. Of these, two are well known to the scientific world, that of Professor
Leslie, and that of Count Rumford. -
As, in making a continuous train of experiments, it was of some moment

that they should be all susceptible of comparison, and therefore referrible to
some unvarying standard, it would have been very desirable if we could have
made use of the Photometer of Professor Leslie. The results he had obtained
with it, however, differed so much from those procured by all previous ob
servers, that it was necessary to ascertain, before confiding in it, whether its
indications were correct. It is unnecessary to enter now into a full detail of
our experiments on this head. They led to an investigation of some interest
regarding certain properties of Radiant Heat; but as that was foreign to our pri
mary object, and other occupations likewise withdrew us from it, we have been
compelled to leave it unfinished till a future opportunity, and are therefore
unwilling to enter into particulars at the present moment. It will be suffi
cient to state generally the reasons we found for not making use of the Ther
mometric Photometer.
In the first place, it was not delicate enough for our purpose. Some of the
lights we had to measure did not exceed the fourth part of that of a tallow
candle, a quantity which the thermometric photometer could not indicate,
unless it was either made of such proportions as would render it unfit for
grosser experiments, or was placed so very near the light, that the slightest
obliquity in its position must have caused material errors. Secondly, consi
dering the vast number of observations we should have to make, this instru
ment was ineligible, on account of the long time required for each. In our
hands, it takes nearly 40 minutes to attain its maximum, and return to its zero.
But, thirdly, its indications appeared to us fallacious; and, although subsequent
observation has led us to alter somewhat the views we formerly entertained
on this head, yet our experiments, confirmed by others proceeding from much
higher authority than ours, still bear us out in the opinion, that the thermo
metric photometer cannot measure correctly the illuminating power of various
kinds of lights.
For, first, it is affected by non-luminous heat. It has been assumed some
what hastily that the absorption of non-luminous calorific rays is influenced
by surface only, and not by colour, in other words, that differently-coloured
surfaces will, cateris paribus, absorb these rays equally well. This doctrine, so
essential to the principle on which the thermometric photometer is construct
ed, is upheld only by a single experiment of Count Rumford's, which he has
recorded in his paper on the Communication of Heat in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1804, and which he himself allows to be unsatisfactory. We
have made some experiments on this head, which promise results of interest,
and which we hope soon to lay before the Society. In the mean time, we may
mention, that whatever may be the fact as to the doctrine now alluded to,
there can be no doubt that Mr Leslie's photometer is affected by non-lumi-,
nous heat.
This has been denied by several of its defenders. Mr Buchanan, civil-engi
neer in this city, has denied it in a report published not long ago by the Coal-Gas
Company; and more lately his statements have been confirmed by Mr Ritchie
of Tain (Edin. Journ. of Science, v. ii. p. 323.); yet we repeat, that frequent trials
leave us no room to doubt, that non-luminous heat does affect it. A low tem
perature, indeed, will not affect it; and we must acknowledge, that some error
had crept into those experiments which formerly led us to believe that it was
influenced even by the heat of boiling water. For we have since found, that
the instrument remains stationary, not only before a vessel of boiling water,
but likewise when placed five inches from a gas-burner, which was covered
with a rough copper chimney, and radiated heat enough to raise a small mer
curial thermometer, at the same distance, five degrees of Fahrenheit. But
when the heat is more intense, it is decidedly acted on. Thus, at the dis
tance of 7% inches from an iron cylinder 7 inches by 2, heated short of be
ing luminous in the dark, and held perpendicularly, it fell 24 degrees, being
half a degree more than when placed at the same distance from the flame of a
good Argand oil-lamp. A small mercurial thermometer rose 14 degrees at the
distance of 7% inches from the cylinder.
Lest any error might arise from an accidental obliquity of position, which
it is very difficult to prevent when the hot body has a large surface, and is so
near the instrument, we repeated the experiment in the following manner.
A tolerably steady source of non-luminous heat was procured, by placing
it before a chamber fire well packed, burning clear without flame, and com
pletely skreened by a conical sheet-iron baquet, resting with its open end on
the ribs. The photometer being placed 3 inches from the bottom of the
baquet, and nearly parallel to its surface, fell 44 degrees; and when turned
on its centre, till the position of the balls was exactly transposed, it fell 15% de
grees. The mean of these observation is 10 degrees, which is the true effect
of the heat, when allowance is made for its unequal action on the two balls,
The heat in the place occupied by the photometer was pretty steadily 50°
Fahrenheit above that of the room.
This experiment was repeated before a Black's furnace, which had been
kindled for some time, and gave out heat enough to raise the thermometer, at
the distance of 4 inches, 50 or 55 degrees above the temperature of the apart
ment. In the first trial, the photometer indicated, at the distance of 4 inches,
— 1 in one position, and +22°.5 when turned half round, shewing the diffi
culty of placing it so as to expose it equably to so large a surface. When.
its original position was altered a little, it fell 5 degrees, the thermometer
standing 51% degrees above the temperature of the room; and when turned
half round, it fell 16 degrees, the thermometer standing 4 degrees higher than
before. The mean is 10% degrees, which corresponds nearly with the former
experiment, made at almost the same temperature.
So much for the effect of non-luminous heat on the Thermometric Photo
meter.
But, secondly, it is acted on by lights of different colours in a way that bears

no relation whatever to their illuminating power. For reasons formerly assigned, -
we shall not at present discuss this subject at large. It appears that lights of a
red colour, compared with white lights, have a heating power superior to their
illuminating power. Mr Powell has found, that, before an iron-ball, heated so as
to be faintly luminous, the thermometric photometer indicated 10 or 13 de
grees of light in half a minute, (Annals of Philosophy, vol. viii. p. 188. N. S.) Mr
Ritchie of Tain has observed that a ball of iron, heated so as to be faintly lu
minous in the dark, affected it considerably, (Edin. Journ. of Science, vol. ii.
p. 323.) Our own experiments are even more decisive. Before a chamber
fire in a state of vivid ignition, without flame, the photometer, at the distance
of 16 inches, fell 25 degrees in one position, and 17.5 inches when turned half
round. The true effect was therefore 21} degrees. Now, at the distance of
6% inches from a good Argand oil-lamp, its true indication was only 3 degrees.
Hence, if this instrument was to be relied on to the extent its inventor and
defenders allege, the fire gave 42 times as much light as the lamp. Neverthe !
less, according to a rough estimate, founded on the distance at which each of

us could make out a few words of a book printed in diamond type, and erring
greatly in favour of the fire, its illuminating power was only a sixteenth part
of that of the lamp.
While it is evident, therefore, that the photometer of Mr Leslie is affected
by non-luminous heat, and that it does not express accurately the illuminating
power of lights differing in colour, it must at the same time be allowed to give
indications not very wide of the truth, when their colour and the non-lumi
mous heat which accompanies their light are nearly the same. This will ap
pear from the following experiment. An oil-gas jet of 4 inches, burning with
perfect steadiness and uniformity, was placed on one limb of Count Rumford's
photometer, at the successive distances of 80,693, 56% and 40 inches; so that
its light on the field of the instrument was in the inverse ratio of 4, 3, 2, and 1.
On the opposite limb of the instrument, an Argand burner with 20 holes on a
circle of ºths of an inch in diameter, was placed at the distance of 1164 inches;
and Mr Leslie's photometer was carefully fixed four inches from the centre of
the burner. The gas being kindled, the flame was successively raised till its light
equalled that of the jet at the distances already mentioned; and no part of the
apparatus connected with the burner was moved from the beginning till the end
of the experiment, except, that, as the flame was successively raised, the bur
ner was depressed by weights, so that the photometer was always opposite the
middle of its flame. The lowest flame was 1 inch, the next 14, the next 13, and
the strongest 3 inches. The indications of the photometer, which were never
finally noted till it was stationary for two or three minutes, were 13, 184, 27,
573. The true numbers, assuming the first to be correct, and granting that
Rumford's photometer, as we shall soon prove, gives true indications, would
have been 13, 17, 26, and 52; or, supposing the third correct, 134, 18, 27,
and 54. The greatest error, therefore, is in the last observation. This pro
bably arose from the flame being taller than the glass properly admitted of, so
that it had a reddish-brown colour at top, and consequently a superior heating
power at that part.
Now, independently of what has just been mentioned, these flames differed
obviously in colour, the lowest being the whitest. Perhaps they differed near
ly as much in that respect, as the light of oil-gas differs from that of good coal
gas when consumed in proper burners; and hence the instrument might pro
bably be used for the special purpose of ascertaining their relative illumina
ting power. We shall afterwards state an experiment, which confirms that
opinion. At present we may observe, that it does not coincide at all with
the results obtained by Mr Leslie, (Coal-Gas Company's Report, 24th July
1824.) ... •
All the experiments hitherto related were performed with the photo
meter of the Astronomical Institution, which has the reputation of being
made by Mr Leslie's own hands, and which we procured, because Mr
Leslie had alleged that our own, not being made by himself, could not
be accurate. Our own instrument measures correctly the intensity of the
sun's light; at least it agrees in its indications with that of the Astronomical
Institution. We must admit, however, that it is of faulty construction in re
gard to the measurement of artificial light. But the fault, we conceive, is
one which exists, more or less, in every photometer made by Professor Leslie.
For, according to the information received from the instrument-maker who
made our own, and blows all those which are given out as made by Mr
Leslie, the black ball is always blown somewhat thicker than the other, in order
to secure its perfect opacity. This construction will not cause any appreciable
error, so far as concerns the original purpose of his photometer, if, as many be
lieve, the sun's rays are not accompanied with non-luminous heat. But it will
occasion a material error in the measurement of artificial light, which is always
accompanied by non-luminous heat. For the instrument, with one ball thicker
than the other, is not a strict differential thermometer, as it ought to be, and
as Mr Leslie intended it to be. Non-luminous rays of heat falling equally on
both balls from one side of them, must make the liquor move in a direction
away from the thinner of the two.
The first instrument with which we operated was more faulty in this re
spect than that of the Astronomical Institution; a circumstance which will ac
count sufficiently for several discrepancies between the present experiments
and those formerly published at the request of the Oil-Gas Company. We
may add, that it is exceedingly difficult to avoid the fault in question. In
fact, on this account, none of the differential thermometers we have exa
mined are really and strictly differential. It will at once be seen, however,
that the difficulty may be obviated by substituting for the glass-balls cylin
ders or balls of metal, which can be easily made quite uniform in thickness.
A plan of such an instrument was suggested to us last autumn by Professor
Wallace, and a photometer of the kind has been actually devised and con
structed by Mr Ritchie of Tain, as announced in a paper by that gentleman
lately read to this Society. (See Edin. Journ. of Science, vol. ii.)
The foregoing observations will explain sufficiently why the photometer
of Mr Leslie appeared to us inapplicable to our experiments on the proper con.
struction of gas-burners. We shall next mention our reasons for preferring
the method for measuring light, which was adopted and perfected by Count
Rumford.
The principle of construction of Count Rumford's photometer, namely, the
comparison of the intensity of shadows, is the basis of all the attempts (except
that of Mr Leslie) which have been lately made to determine the relative
light of the gases. Very few experimenters, however, have mentioned in
what way they applied the principle ; none, so far as is stated, nave used the
ingenious apparatus of Count Rumford; and we know that some, whose re
sults have been a good deal relied on, employed the crude and inaccurate me
thod of estimating the intensity of the shadows, as they were simply cast on a
white wall in an open room. It is not at all surprising, that experiments con
ducted in a manner so unscientific have disagreed with each other, and brought
discredit on the whole method of investigation. -
The remarks we have now to make, on the accuracy of the indications pro
cured by the comparison of shadows, must of course be understood to apply
only to experiments made with a due regard to every source of fallacy: in
short, to the photometer of Count Rumford. We need not describe this in
strument. It will be sufficient to mention, that the chief advantages of its
construction are, that it secures the uniform equality of the angles of the inci
dent rays, and protects the eye from every light except what illuminates the
shadows, and a very small space around them.
The objections that have been publicly made to this mode of experiment
ing are three in number.
First, it is said, that the eye cannot judge with adequate precision of the
relative depth of the shadows. This objection is a valid ome to the rough
method of experimenting adverted to above, especially when the observer
happens also to have an inaccurate eye. But it is quite inapplicable to
Count Rumford's apparatus, in the hands of a person with a tolerably cor
rect eye. We have found, that even those altogether unaccustomed to
scientific experiments could easily distinguish, after a few trials, a diffe
rence of a fiftieth part between two lights; and that, when one of us had
adjusted the lights to his satisfaction, every other person in the room (to the
amount sometimes of four or five), uniformly agreed with him as to the identity
of the shadows. On several occasions, too, more particular facts have occurred,
which prove, beyond a doubt, the extreme delicacy and correctness of the eye
in such experiments. Thus, on comparing two gas-jets of the same size with each
other, taking care to avoid all means of prejudging the distances, the result of
the calculation gave a ratio of 100 to 101.4. And, again, when the light of a
wax candle was twice compared with a gas-jet, of the same size, several days
having intervened betwixt the observations, and the distances being purpose
ly altered, the ratios were 58 and 58.7 to 100. Similar occurrences were com
mon. These statements accord very nearly with the experience of Mr
Nicholson, who found he could detect a difference of an 80th part between
two lights.
But it has also been objected, and with a greater shew of reason, that, al
though the method is accurate when applied to lights of the same nature, it is
not so when they differ much in colour; because the colours of the shadows differ,
and the eye cannot abstract the difference of colour from the difference of
shade,
Our experience on this point is, in our opinion, quite decisive. If the dif.
ference of colour is slight, it constitutes no impediment. If greater, it will
lead to a small error, unless the observer take care to try the effect of shift
ing the moveable light an inch or more on each side of the point at which he
supposes the shadows equal. But in this way he will at length hit on the ex
act distance. If the difference, however, is very great, little or no advantage
is gained by that precaution. It is hardly possible, for instance, to compare a
candle with an Argand's gas-burner, or a coal-gas jet with an oil-gas burner,
the differences in colour being so great. When the relation between two such
lights, therefore, must be determined, a double observation is necessary.
Thus, in the first example, the candle must be compared with a gas-jet,
and then the jet with an Argand's burner ; and, in the second example, the
coal-gas jet must be compared with an oil-gas jet, and that with an oil-gas
burner. In this way we have repeatedly procured very accurate results. Up
on the whole, the objection arising from difference in colour is valid only as
it constitutes an occasional impediment, not as necessarily leading to fallacy.
The third and last objection is contained in a paper by Mr Ritchie of Tain,
formerly alluded to, and applies to all the present methods of measuring light.
Mr Ritchie draws a distinction between quantity of light and illuminating power;
the former implying the number of particles discharged from a luminous body
in a given time, the latter the power which these particles have of rendering
objects visible. The quantity of light, and the illuminating power, he conti
nues, are not proportional, except in lights of the same colour; in the most
brilliant lights the illuminating power increases in a much greater ratio than
the quantity of light; and he maintains, that the photometers of Rumford
and Leslie, as well as the modification of the latter proposed by himself, are
defective, because they take cognisance of the quantity only, (Edin. Journ. of
Science, ii. 324.) In another paper he says, the photometers in question cannot
be used to ascertain the relative illuminating powers of oil and coal gas, as the
qualities of their light are essentially different, and the said instruments do
not take cognisance of the fine white colour of oil-gas, compared with the
more dusky tint of coal-gas, (Ibid. 341.) On this account, he conceives, that,
if the photometer indicates the relative quantities of the light of oil and coal
gas to be as 3 to 1, the real illuminating power, taking into account both quan
tity and quality together, may be so high as 5 to 1. These statements, if we
understand their import correctly, imply, that lights of superior brilliancy, or
whiteness, or, speaking more precisely, those which, for a given surface, have
the greatest intensity, besides giving most light, are also possessed of some
other quality, which renders them fittest for the purposes of vision, and which
the photometers do not appreciate. .
Mr Ritchie's views are novel, ingenious, and well deserving of attention,
but at the same time altogether hypothetical; nor is it easy to see by what
facts they can be either substantiated or disproved. In their present state,
therefore, they are perhaps hardly a fair object of criticism. -
There may be some particular purposes, for which a small intense light is
better fitted than another equal in quantity, but of inferior intensity. In re
gard to the photometer of Count Rumford, however, it may be well to remark,
that the principle by which the measurement is made, is precisely the principle
by means of which we take cognisance of most of the properties of external ob
jects, that are estimated through the medium of sight. Objects represented
on a plane surface are distinguished in part by the difference of their colour;
but if their colours are simply black and white, as in a printed book, they are
distinguished in reality by differences of shade. According as the light in
creases, whether in quantity or in intensity, or brilliancy, (to use Mr Ritchie's
own phrase), the black objects remain equally dark, while the white objects
become lighter and lighter, the contrast greater and greater, and the outlines
of objects consequently more distinct. And hence it appears, that the me
thod of measuring light by the comparative intensity of shadows is an exact
criterion of the relative fitness of different lights for such purposes as reading,
writing, sewing, pencil-drawing, &c. Farther, the eye likewise judges of the
forms of solid objects by the relative shades of their different surfaces. On this
account, too, the method of Count Rumford measures correctly the value of va
ºrious lights. In fact, of the purposes served by artificial light, there are few in
which the light does not act precisely according to the principle by which it af.
fects his photometer.
But there are some purposes served by lights generally, of their fitness for
which it is no criterion. We cannot tell by it, for example, the relative fitness
of several lights for distinguishing colours. Their fitness for that purpose will
depend partly on their own colours, partly on those to be distinguished by
them. It is certain, however, that colour generally is best appreciated with the
whitest light. Now, an increase in the intensity of a light always tends to in
crease the purity of its whiteness, while an increase in quantity has no such
effect; and consequently it appears, that, for the special purpose of appre
ciating colour, variations in brilliancy or intensity are more important than va
riations in quantity.
Some of the other more particular purposes of light, may perhaps be also
similarly circumstanced. And hence the objection of Mr Ritchie, that the
photometer is an incorrect measurer of light, because it takes into account the
quantity only, is probably, to a certain degree, well founded. But still, as
concerns the great uses of light, its indications are true. And it is worthy of
notice, that, in regard to artificial light, the indications are true for all its pur
poses, so far at least as we have now examined them; because artificial light
never has been, and, whatever may be its intensity, never can be much used
for distinguishing colours.
The photometer of Count Rumford, it is well known, can only determine
the relative illuminating power of two lights, not their actual quantity of
light in reference to a fixed standard. It has no fixed scale of degrees, no zero
to indicate total darkness, and no maximum to indicate the greatest illumina
tion. This is its great defect as a philosophical instrument, and its chief
inconvenience in experiments like those about to be related. The experi
menters who have preceded us have endeavoured to remedy it, by using a wax
or tallow candle of a given size for the standard light of comparison, and ex
pressing the results by corresponding numbers. A tallow-candle, so far as we
can judge, is altogether inapplicable to the purpose ; for the colour of its flame
is so dusky, that it cannot be easily compared even with a jet, much less with an
Argand burner. A wax-candle, therefore, is the only standard of the kind
which can be used at all. But, even them, it is impossible to compare together
experiments made in that way with different candles and by different per
sons. Nay, it is exceedingly questionable whether much reliance can be put
on such a standard, when the same candle is used by the same observer; and,
at all events, it is quite inapplicable to a train of experiments, each of which
must be compared with all the rest. Such was the opinion of Count Rum
ford himself; and he is abundantly borne out in it by the observation of
others.
We may refer, for example, to some experiments on the illuminating power

of oil and coal gas, contained in an elaborate and interesting paper by Dr Fyfe
of this city, (Edin. Phil. Journ. xi. 370.) They are the last that have been pub
lished, and almost the only ones of which the particulars are faithfully record
ed. There are five double observations, made on different days, with the
same burners, and the same gases. The burners employed were two of the
Edinburgh Coal-Gas Company, with 10 and 14 holes; one of the Glasgow
Company with 10 holes; and a 10-holed and 14-holed oil-gas burner. The
expressions procured for the light of a given quantity of gas, say a cubic foot,
in relation to that of a (short-six) candle, making its light equal to 10, and
neglecting decimals, are the following. For the
Edin. 10 holed coal-gas burner, 38 in one, and 40 in the other experiment.
--- - - - • 14 ... -- - - - - 66 ... ... 43 ... --- - --
Glasg. 10 ... - - - - -- 72 ... ... 59 ... --- -- -
Edin. 10 ... oil-gas burner, 68 ... ... 42 ... - - - - - -
....... 14 ... -- - --- 78 ... ... 56 ... --- ---
The first experiment is good. But, with that single exception, it seems quite
impossible to strike an average between observations so very discordant; and
there cannot be a doubt, that the discrepancy must have arisen in a great
measure from the impossibility of making the standard light burn uniformly.
It is not a little extraordinary that all, or almost all who have tried this me
thod of determining the relative light of the gases, have shewn so little regard
to the caution given by Count Rumford.
The standard we have invariably used for a train of comparative experi
ments, was a gas-jet of a certain length.-In order to preserve its length uni
form, we had a gasometer constructed, according to the principle described by
Biot, in his Traité de Physique, and originally conceived by Girard, for sup
plying a uniform current of oil to the wick of Argand’s lamps. By means of
the principle alluded to, water is made to drop in a steady stream from an up
per vessel into a lower one containing the gas.
In its simple state this apparatus was not quite fit for our purpose, because
the concussion caused in the lower vessel by the dropping of the water, and con
veyed along the exit-tube, produced a jumping or flickering flame, which ren
dered it impossible to compare the shadows with nicety. But the inconve
nience was remedied in the following manner. In the original instrument, the
end of the tube from which the water drops, is bent a little upwards, to prevent
the gas from ascending into the water-vessel. In our apparatus it was straight,
and terminated near the bottom of a little cup, from the middle of the side of
which a tube, somewhat wider than the other, proceeded downward, to open
near the bottom of the gasometer. By this contrivance, after the water rose
to the level of the lateral hole in the cup, all that entered flowed gently down
to the bottom. The gasometer held a cubic foot and a half; and the whole
apparatus was so accurately made, that a gas-jet of three or four inches burnt
from beginning to end without varying above a 20th part of an inch in its
length. In order to keep this flame steady, and detect any accidental varia
tion, it was surrounded by a glass-tube graduated to 10ths of an inch. As a
three-inch jet of good coal-gas burnt in this instrument about two hours and a
third, and one of oil-gas about four hours and a quarter, we could easily make,
with one charge of the gasometer, from six to twelve comparative experiments;
and we could also compare with each other those made on different days, pro
vided the gas was tolerably uniform in specific gravity.
Another gasometer, in every respect the same as that now described, was
used for supplying gas to the moveable light, whose power was to be ascer
tained.
In order to measure the consumption of the gas, a graduated glass tube

was attached to the side of each gasometer, communicating above and below
with its cavity. The degrees were 50ths of a cubic foot, measured with the
greatest care; and in our observations the time was generally counted for 4,
6, or 10 degrees. The measurements were so exact, even when the smallest
of these quantities was observed, that, on afterwards determining the expen
diture of various burners on the great scale, we had not to alter any of our
former results.
It is unnecessary to add any thing farther to the proofs formerly given of
the extreme accuracy ensured by this method of operating—Some may sug
gest, however, that what has just been said of the inadequacy of candles to
form a standard of comparison, is at variance with one of the facts regarding
their light formerly and now again appealed to in proof of the accuracy of this
mode of experimenting. In answer, we have to observe, that, independently
of the exact agreement between the two observations with the candle being per
haps to a certain degree accidental, the mode in which they were made is quite
incompatible with the idea of a standard. The candle, after burning some time,
was carefully snuffed; its light in relation to that of a gas-jet was repeatedly
compared, at intervals of a minute, till it began to fade; and the distance was
taken at the maximum. And to show how impossible it is to make use of a
candle for the standard, we need only add, that, however carefully the snuf
fing was performed, the light, in the experiment now mentioned, increased
after it was apparently at its brightest, in the ratio of five to six. To con
clude; the accuracy of our method has been shown to our satisfaction, not only
by the frequency of such coincidences as we have noticed, but likewise in a
less fallacious manner, by verifying by direct observation (as in trigonometri.
cal surveys), results deduced through a connected series of mixed observation
and calculation.
II.
We shall now proceed, in the second place, to detail our experiments rela
tive to the circumstances which affect the degree of light emitted by the gases
during their combustion. The consideration of these circumstances will lead
to the discovery of the principles on which burners ought to be constructed.
The object held in view, so far as we know, universally in burning the
gases for the purpose of illumination, has been to render the combustion as
vivid as possible. This principle has been followed most probably, because it
secures the complete combustion of the gas, and because, by increasing the vi
vidness of the combustion, the intensity and whiteness of the light are in
creased. -
Some accidental observations, however, led us to imagine, that, although

the intensity of a given surface is augmented, the increase in this respect is not
always equivalent to the loss sustained by the diminution of the surface.
That such is really the fact, will appear from the following experiments.
In order to augment the vividness of the combustion, various methods
have been tried for increasing the rapidity of the supply of air. This has been
effected with regard to Argand burners, either by increasing the diameter of
the central air-aperture, or by lessening the distance between the flame and
the glass chimney; in other words, by contracting the diameter of the chimney.
Let us therefore consider what will be the effect of the reverse alterations;
and, as the simplest mode of diminishing the supply of air, let the central air
aperture be contracted. This may be simply done, by bringing the finger
close under the burner. The flame is then elongated, and although the inten
sity of its light is diminished, yet the actual illuminating power is increased.
The exact increase is indicated by the photometer. But it may be right to
observe, that the fact is rendered obvious, without the aid of the photometer,
by the observer turning his back towards the light, and merely attending to
the difference in the general illumination of the apartment.
With the view, however, of ascertaining the exact amount of the effect,
we had little sliders adapted to the bottom of the burners, and graduated to
50ths of a square inch. If a coal-gas burner, such as is used in Edinburgh, be
fitted in that manner, and the gas burnt in it with a flame of two inches, it
will be found, that, as the aperture is diminished by the sliders, the flame be
comes taller and taller, and the light greater and greater, till at length the in
crease will actually amount to a fourth, a third, or even a half of the origi
mal light.
Thus, when a five-holed Edinburgh coal-gas burner, the air-aperture of
s an area of ºths of a square inch, was burnt with a 2-inch flame,
the light in relation to that of the standard, a jet of 3.2 inches, was as 206
t, when the aperture was lessened to ºths, the flame began to
d when only ºth was left, it was 3 inches long, and its light had
- by somewhat more than 3th–Again, a 2-inch flame in
a light, in proportion to that of the same standard,
as 452 to 100. When the air-aperture, which is ##ths of a square inch, was
contracted to ºths, the flame rose to 34 inches, and gave 583 of light, or bet
ter than a fifth more; and when the aperture was farther lessened to rāgths,
the flame was 5 inches long, and the light 665, or nearly a third greater than
at the beginning—These experiments were frequently repeated, and some
times the increase of the light was even greater.
If the flame of the burner was originally shorter than 2 inches, the gain
effected by lessening the supply of air was considerably greater; and, on the
other hand, if the flame was originally longer, the gain was less. In the last
mentioned burner, a flame of an inch and a half gave nearly double the light,
when it was lengthened by contracting the air-aperture to ºths of an inch;
while a flame originally 4 inches long does not gain at all by such a change.
**
As to the limit at which the light ceases to increase with the diminution
of the supply of air, we have invariably remarked, that nothing farther is
gained, after the flame begins to be tipped with brown. According as the
aperture is diminished, the flame loses its white colour, and gradually acquires
a yellow, and at length a brown tint. At first a great increase of light is
gained with very little sacrifice of the purity of the tint. In the second ex
periment mentioned above, the damped flame (if we may use the expression)
of 34 inches seemed almost as purely white as the original 2-inch flame. But,
beyond that point its lustre was considerably impaired, although its light was
still manifestly increased. Whenever it began to be tipped with brown, any
farther diminution of the air also diminished the light.
These facts lead to the conclusion, that, in order to obtain the greatest possible
light with any burner, the supply of air ought to be such as to burn the gas com.
pletely; but that, when it is burnt completely, nothing is gained, on the con
trary, much is lost, by supplying more air to render the combustion more vivid.
This is the principle to which we have several times alluded, as being the
guide we have followed, while endeavouring to determine the various points
in the construction of the burners. The combustion of the gas should not be
more vivid, than is sufficient to render it complete. -
The cause of the loss of light sustained by too free a supply of air will be
found, we apprehend, in the clear and ingenious explanation given by Sir
Humphrey Davy, of the source of the light of the gases. Sir Humphrey
supposes, that a white light is given out only by those gases which contain an
element of so fixed a nature, as not to be volatilizable by the heat caused
during the combustion of the gas; and that in coal-gas this fixed element is
charcoal, formed by the gas undergoing decomposition before it is burnt. The
white light is caused by the charcoal passing into a state, first of ignition, and
then of combustion. Consequently, no white light can be produced by coal or
oil gas, without previous decomposition of the gas.
That the gas undergoes decomposition before it burns, and that the carbo
naceous matter is burnt in the white part of the flame in the form of charcoal,
is shown by placing a piece of wire-gauze horizontally across the white part of
the flame, when a large quantity of charcoal will be seen to escape from it un
burnt. And, that this previous change is necessary to the production of a
brilliant white light, will appear, if we consider the kind of flame which is
produced when decomposition does not previously take place. For example,
if the gauze be brought down into the blue part, which always forms the base
of the flame, no charcoal will be found to escape. Or, if the gauze be held at
some distance above the burner, and the gas be kindled not below but above
it, by which arrangement the air and the gas are well mixed previous to com
bustion, the flame is blue, and gives hardly any light. The reason is obviously,
that, in both cases, the air is at once supplied in such quantity in proportion
to the gas, that the first effect of the heat is to burn the gas, not to decompose
it. (On the Safety-Lamp, p. 48. et seq). º
We must refer to the author's paper for the proofs adduced in support of
his doctrine.
A single step farther in the investigation of these curious phenomena,

would have led Sir Humphrey to remark a jurious fact soon to be mentioned,
namely, the proportionally superior light given out by the gases at high than
at low elevations of flame. The supply of air does not increase in proportion
to the height of the column of flame. On the one hand, its quantity is not
proportional; on the other, its quality is impaired as it rises along the flame;
and hence a larger proportion of gas undergoes decomposition before being
burnt.
If these views be entertained of the cause of the light of the gases, it will
be necessary to modify somewhat the principle laid down above, as to the most
economical mode of burning the gases for the purpose of illumination. We
have there said, that the intensity of the combustion should not be greater
than is necessary to its being complete. Now, charcoal always gives a strong
er white light, the greater the rapidity with which it is consumed. Hence it
would be advisable to enliven the combustion as much as possible, provided
the means employed for that end do not also cause the gas to be burnt with
out undergoing previous decomposition. So far as we have yet tried, how
ever, the same means which are useful on the former, are apt to be injurious
on the latter account, when the intensity of the combustion surpasses the li
mit above mentioned. Accordingly, when it is desired to increase the intensity
of a light, which can be done only by increasing the supply of air, means must
be taken to counteract its tendency to burn the gas before decomposition,
otherwise there will be a loss of light in relation to the expenditure. Thus,
as will afterwards be seen, when the central supply of air in a burner is in
creased, either by enlarging the central air-hole or contracting the diameter of
the chimney, the increased tendency of the gas to be consumed without de
composition must be prevented by multiplying the jet-holes.
The circumstances which, through the operation of the foregoing prin
ciple, affect the light given out by the gases, may be arranged under three
heads, as they respect the flame itself, the construction of the burner, and the
shape of the glass-chimney.
1. The only point relative to the flame itself which calls for consideration,
is its length. The relative length of the flame has a most important influence
on its light: For, as the flame is lengthened, its light increases in a much
greater ratio than the expenditure. The fact holds true both with regard to
single jets and Argand burners.
First, With regard to single jets, it is very well shown by the following
series of experiments, in which the standard of comparison was a 3-inch jet of
coal-gas (Spec. Grav. 602) and the varying jet, also of the same coal-gas, was
gradually lengthened from 2 to 6 inches. The light and expenditure of the
standard being each supposed equal to 100, the numbers for the different
lengths of flame were as follows,
2-inch. 3-inch. 4-inch. 5-inch. 6-inch.
Light, - - 55.6 100 150.6 197.8 247.4

Expenditure, - - 60.5 101.4 126.3 143.7 182.2
Consequently the light given out by equal expenditures for each length of
flame, is in the following proportions, neglecting decimals,
100 109 131 150 150
It appears, therefore, that the same quantity of coal-gas gives one-half more
light in a jet of 5 inches than in one of 2 only ; and that nothing is gained by
lengthening it beyond 5 inches.
The same fact is equally illustrated by the following series with oil-gas, in
which the standard was an oil-gas jet of 3 inches, and the varying light was
increased successively from 1 to 5 inchcs. The light and expenditure of the
standard being taken as formerly at 100, the numbers were,
1-inch. - 2-inch. 3-inch. 4-inch. 5-inch.
Light, - - 22 63.7 96.5 141 178

Expenditure, - - 33.1 78.5 90 * 113 153
By calculation from these numbers, the following proportions are procured

for the light of an equal quantity of gas at each elevation,
100 122 159 181 174
That is, the same quantity of gas in a 4-inch jet gives nearly twice as much
light as in a single-inch jet, and one-half more than in a jet of 2 inches (148
to 100). The increase appears therefore to be exactly the same as with coal
gas; but it ceases at an elevation of 4 inches. The specific gravity of this
gas was 910. -
Secondly, The augmentation of the light in a ratio greater than that of the
expenditure is much more remarkably exemplified in the case of Argand's
burners. Thus, the following results were obtained with coal-gas, by elevat
ing the flame of a 5-holed burner successively, from half an inch to 5 inches.
The standard was a 4-inch coal-gas jet, and, as before, its light and expen
diture are taken at 100. -
!-inch. 1-inch. 2-inch. 3-inch. 4-inch. 5-inch.
Light, - 18.4 92.55 259.9 308.9 332.4 425.7

Expenditure, - 83.7 148 203.3 241.4 - 265.7 318.1 ;
from which the following numbers may be derived, for the relative light of a
given quantity of gas in such a burner at various elevations, -
100 282 560 532 582 604 ,
That is, the light is increased six times, for the same expenditure, by
raising the flame from half an inch to 3 or 4 inches; but little or nothing is
gained by raising it higher in this description of burner. The specific gravity
of the gas was 605. -
With oil-gas, too, the gain is equally remarkable. A 3-inch jet being taken
for the standard, and the flame of a 15-holed (No. 1. Edinburgh Oil-Gas
Company) burner being raised successively from half an inch to 2% inches, be
yond which it could not be raised without smoking, the following data were
procured : . . * . . . - -
* This expenditure is somewhat less than that of the standard 3-inch jet,
because there was a slight leak in the standard gasometer. This cause of er.
ror, of course, does not affect the relation of the several. expenditures of the
moveable jet to each other. * * - - - - - - - -
§ inch. l inch. 14 inches. 2 inches. 2% inches.
Light, - 31.3 153 241 377 435
Expenditure, 97.4 173 216 255 288
From which we obtain, in the usual way, the following proportions for the
light of equal expenditures at each elevation,
100 276 347 460 472
Thus, by raising the flame from halfinch to 2% inches, the light for a given
Quantity of gas is progressively augmented nearly five times. Sp. gr. 910.
The explanation of the fact now substantiated will be obvious, if we hold
in view what has been stated of the most economical mode of burning the
gases. In Argand burners, when the flame is short, the supply of air is too
great for the quantity of gas, and consequently the combustion is too vivid,
and a less proportion of the gas undergoes previous decomposition. The same
principle, applied somewhat differently, will account for the differences in the
relative light and expenditure of jets at different elevations. For, as the jet
is lengthened it likewise expands, and, consequently, in proportion to the vo
lume of gas, less of it is exposed at one time to the action of the air.
It will be inferred from the foregoing remarks, that the length of the
flames will have an important influence on all experiments regarding the rela
tive light of oil and coal gas; and that no sound conclusion can be drawn from
any experiments in which this circumstance has been neglected. Let us sup
pose, for example, that the relation between the light of an oil-gas and a coal
gas jet, at their most favourable elevations (namely 4 inches for the former,
and 5 for the latter), is 2 to 1. If the experimenter reduce the oil-gas jet to
3inches, keeping the coal-gas jet at 5, the proportion, as calculated from the da
ta we have given (p. 15.), will turn out only 1% to 1. And, on the contrary,
if the oil-gas jet be kept at 4, and the coal-gas jet shortened to 3 inches, the
proportion, according to the data given above (p. 16.), will become 2# to 1.
Of course it is not surprising that errors of this kind have been actually com
mitted. Peckston suggests in his work on Gas-Lighting, that the easiest mode
to determine the illuminating power is to burn a candle against an Argand
burner, and to alter the flame of the latter by means of the stop-cock, till the
lights are equal, (p. 21.) A similar oversight will in part account for the very
low illuminating power assigned by Dr Fyfe to oil-gas. He has inferred from
the experiments formerly quoted, that the proportional light of oil and coal
gas is as 1.42 to 1, (Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. xi. p. 371.) But the coal-gas was
burnt in its burners with a 3-inch flame, which is very nearly the most favour
able elevation possible; while the oil-gas burners had a flame of 13 inch only,
being just two-thirds of the elevation most favourable to that gas. If, fol
lowing the data given above, the necessary correction be made for an eleva
tion of 24 inches, (which, however, is not even the most favourable for the
burners Dr Fyfe employed), the proportion becomes 1.66 to 1". The only
"We have no observation made at the height of 13; but we may safely
itake the mean between the results for 14 and 2, namely 403.
vol. XIII. No. 25. JULY 1825, B
I8 Drs Christison and Turner on the Construction of
experiments, so far as we know, yet published, which are obviously exempt
from this source of error, are those of Mr Brande. He has detailed the par
ticulars of them minutely, and expressly mentions that the flames were burnt
with their full intensity, short of the production of smoke. It will presently
be seen, however, that this was done without his being aware of its import
ance, (Phil. Trans. 1820, p. 22.)
Another inference that may be drawn from the effect of the length of the
flame upon its light, is, that the ordinary mode of altering the flame of gas
burners according to the quantity of light required, is very far from being eco
nomical. For each burner there is but one height of flame which is economi
cal; and if it be lessened by reducing the supply of gas, the saving is by no
means proportional to the diminution of the light. For example, if the flame of
a 5-holed coal-gas burner be reduced from its ordinary elevation of 3 inches to
half an inch, the light is diminished to a seventh part, but the expenditure to
a third only. In order, then, to have an economical expenditure, with diffe
rent quantities of light, which many consumers would desire, different burn
ers should be used, or the burner should be supplied with some simple piece
of mechanism, for cutting off the central supply of air as the flame is short
ened. It must be obvious, however, that the customers of a public company,
and even those who make gas for their own use on a small scale, cannot con
veniently burn it in any burner with the highest and most favourable eleva
tion of flame. For if that was done, a slight movement of the glass-chimney,
er agitation of the surrounding air, or increase in the flow of the gas, would
cause the flame to smoke.
2. We shall now pass to the consideration of the various points in the con
struction of the Burners, which influence the light given out by the gases.
And the first in order is the diameter of the jet-holes.
Reasoning from the principles formerly laid down regarding the most eco
nomical way of burning the gases, it will be inferred, that, in a single jet, the
diameter of its aperture ought to be such as to insure the complete combus
tion of the gas, but not to render it more vivid than is necessary for that ef
fect. If the hole is too large, the combustion will be incomplete, because the
flame will be wide, and the surface exposed to the air disproportionately small;
the charcoal proceeding from the decomposition of the gas will either not burn at
all, or burn faintly, and in consequence the jet will smoke or have a brown co
lour. If, on the contrary, the hole is very small, the flame, which corresponds
with it, will have a proportionally large surface exposed to the air, and, in
consequence, burn too vividly, and without previous decomposition of the gas.
Accordingly, if oil-gas is burnt through a coal-gas jet-burner, which is com
monly a 28th of an inch in diameter, its flame is brown, and light feeble; and
if coal-gas be burnt through an oil-gas jet, which varies in diameter from a
45th to a 60th, its flame, though very white about the middle, gives less light
than in its own jet, and has a long base of a blue colour, which is always pre
sent when the combustion is too vivid.
The diameter best fitted for single jet-burners appears to be about a 28th
of an inch for coal-gas, and a 45th for oil-gas. We have not yet made any
very accurate experiments on this point with respect to coal-gas : but, cer
tainly, with coal-gas, as now made here, the diameter cannot beadvantageously
made less than a 28th part of an inch. As to oil-gas, we have found, that, when
the specific gravity is 944, the proportional light given out by 3-inch flames
from jet-holes of a 60th, 50th, and 45th, was, for equal expenditure, 85, 97,
and 100. It is probable, therefore, that for good oil-gas, varying in specific
gravity from 900 to 1000, the best diameter for the hole of a jet-burner is a
45th. Jet-holes, so small as a 60th, are not only uneconomical, but have also the
additional disadvantage, that their flame is easily blown out.
The single jet-burners of the London Portable Gas-Company, of which a
branch has been lately established here, are constructed differently from those
now mentioned. The aperture is in the centre of a little circular plane, about
a sixth of an inch in diameter, and six shallow grooves are cut in the plane,
proceeding like radii from the aperture to the edge. The flame of this jet is
much broader than that of the common jet-burner; when 2% inches high, it is
apt to flicker like that of a candle; it is obviously more dusky and yellow than
a 3-inch flame in a jet of ordinary construction; and, altogther, it is very like
the flame of a tallow-candle. It cannot be raised above 2% inches without be
coming brown at top, and then gives about half the light of a 4-inch flame in
a common jet. For equal expenditures, the latter gives 9 per cent. more
light than the former. We question, therefore, whether this new burner is
any improvement on the old construction.
As to the diameter of the jet-holes for Argand burners, our experiments
shew, that it must decrease as the quality of the gas improves, and as the
holes are multiplied. The diameter which has appeared to answer best for
coal-gas, about 600 in specific gravity, and when the holes are ten on a
circle of fººths radius, has appeared to us to be about a 32d of an inch. This
is the drill used at present in Edinburgh and Glasgow. The proper diameter
for oil-gas will depend very much on the average we choose to assume for its
quality. When the number of holes on a circle of fººths radius is 15, which
we shall afterwards shew to be the most appropriate, the diameter for gas, va
rying betwixt 900 and 1000, should be a 50th. When the specific gravity was
680, the most economical diameter was about a 40th ; for if the diameter was in
creased to a 30th, there was a loss of 6 per cent of the light; if it was dimi
nished to a 50th, the loss amounted to 18 per cent. ; and when the diameter
was only a 60th, the loss was 39 per cent. When the specific gravity was 778,
nearly the same quantity of light was given with diameters of a 40th and a 50th;
but with a 30th for the diameter, there was a loss of 11 per cent; and with a
60th the loss was 20 per cent. Hence, for such gas, the proper diameter would
be about a 45th. We are therefore justified in assuming a 50th as the pro
per diameter of the jet-holes of Argand burners, for gas varying in specific
gravity from 900 to 1000. The foregoing data likewise shew, that much less
injury is done by making the apertures somewhat larger, than by making
them narrower than they ought to be. The diameter now assigned differs
from that generally recommended elsewhere. The burners used in this city
before the Oil-Gas Company commenced their operations, had their holes
drilled to the diameter of a 40th. This is too wide for good gas. On the
other hand, in the burners of Taylor and Martineau it is about a 60th ; and
in some of those used in Dublin, it is almost so small as a 70th. In both of
B 2
these the holes are too narrow; not only is there a positive loss of light, but
it is likewise exceedingly difficult to drill them uniformly.
This leads us to observe, that, next to the diameter of the holes, the most
important point to be attended to in drilling them, is their uniformity. When
ever some of the holes are wider than the rest, even though the difference be
ºvery trifling, the flame has a tendency to shoot out in points from the wide
ones; consequently, before the general flame can be raised to its favourable
elevation, these points become brown and smoke; and, therefore, if the flame
is turned down low enough to prevent smoking, it burns with a wasteful ex
penditure. An oil-gas burner should never be received from the tradesman,
unless its flame, at the height of 2% inches, is of nearly equal height on all
sides.
The next point in the construction of the burners, is the distance at which
the jet-holes should be placed from one another.
The first fact to be noticed under this head, is, that the light increases in
a greater ratio than the expenditure, when several jets are united together in
an Argand burner. Mr Brande has made the same observation in his paper
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1820. He remarks, that, while a single
jet of olefiant gas, giving a light equal to one wax-candle, consumed 640 cu
bic inches, an Argand burner with 12 holes, giving the light of ten candles,
consumed not 6400, but only 2600 cubic inches. In like manner, an oil-gas
jet, giving the light of one candle, consumed 800 cubic inches ; while, in a
12-holed burner, which gave the light of eight candles, the expenditure was
‘not 6400 but 3900 cubic inches. That is, for equal expenditures, the light of
the jet was to that of the burner as 100 to 246 in the case of olefiant, and as
100 to 164 in the case of oil-gas.
Both of these proportions, however, and especially that for the olefiant
gas, are stated too high. Mr Brande burnt the gas in the Argand burner
with the most favourable height of flame; but in the jets the flame “was re
gulated by means of the stop-cock, so as to produce a light equal to that of a
wax-candle burning with full brilliancy,” (p. 21.) Now, at its most faveur
able elevation in a jet, even oil-gas gives a light fully equal to two wax
candles; and olefiant gas will of course give more. Hence, when Mr Brande
‘made the light of the jet the same as that of the wax-candle, he must have re
duced it to a very unfavourable elevation; and, consequently, the expression
for the relative light of the Argand burners turns out proportionally high.
We have found, that, when oil-gas was burnt with the most favourable height
of flame, in jets and Argand burners of the best construction, the ratio of its
light, deduced from a great number of experiments, varied from 100: 140 to
100: 150. When coal-gas is burnt under favourable circumstances, the ra
tio is very nearly the same; and it thence appears that the gain, arising from
the use of Argand burners over jets, is about one-half per cent, for gas of every
quality.
The advantage derived from combining the jets together in the form of
an Argand burner is very different, according to the interval left between
them. When they are so distant that their flames do not meet, no advantage
is gained. This has been taken notice of by Mr Brande. But he seems to
hint, that every possible advantage is gained, if the flames simply meet, (Phil.
Trans. 1820, p. 24.) We have uniformly found, however, that there is a pro
gressive gain according as the jet-holes are made to approach nearer and nearer
each other. The following series of experiments with oil-gas will prove this
progressive gain, and settle the limit at which it stops. A burner, whose
circle of holes was ºths of an inch in diameter, being the size of No. 2. of the
Edinburgh Oil-Gas Company, was drilled with 8, 10, 15, 20, and 25 holes,
a 50th of an inch in diameter; and in each the gas was burnt with the most
favourable height of flame. The following were the results in relation to the
light and expenditure of a 4-inch jet, taken each at 100.
VIII. X. XV. XX. XXV.
Light, - 360 360 391 409 382

Expenditure, 367 3.18 296 289 275
from which the following proportions may be obtained for equal expenditures,
that of the jet being 100,
98 113 132 141 139
Hence it appears, that no advantage is gained by combining the jets in an Ar

gand burner of the size mentioned above, if the holes are only eight in num
ber; and that the gain does not increase after the number amounts to 20,
Results of the same nature were obtained with other oil-gas burners of various
sizes.
The most advantageous distance, therefore, for jet-holes a 50th of an inch

in diameter, is rāgths of an inch. We have remarked, that, at this distance,
however low the flame be made, even so as to be barely visible, the jets are
united into a uniform ring. Perhaps this rule may be adopted for the con
struction of all sorts of burners. It is necessary to observe, however, that,
for a great public company, burners with the distance so small are liable to a
material inconvenience, which we shall mention when we treat of the influ
ence of the glass-chimney on the light. On account of that inconvenience,
we should recommend a distance of ºths for public companies. The burner
used in the preceding series of experiments would then have fifteen holes.
The cause of the superiority of Argand burners over jets, is to be sought
for in the same principle, which has been already applied to explain the in
fluence of the length of flame, and of the diameter of jet-holes. Mr Brande has
followed the generally-received idea, that “it is owing to the combustion be
ing perfected in the Argand burner by the central current of air, rendered
more rapid by the glass-tube which surrounds the flame,” (Phil. Trans. 1820,
p. 22.) We have shewn, however, that the ratio of the light to the expendi
ture is by no means always increased by such means; and, on the whole, a cor
recter explanation will be, that the flames, being completely united from the
bottom, a less proportional surface is exposed to the action of the air, less air,
too, is mingled with the gas at its exit, and consequently less of the gas is
burnt without previous decomposition.
Any one may remark, on examining a good Argand burner, that the base
of blue light, which, we have said, arises from the gas being burnt at once in
the state of gas, is proportionally much shorter than in a jet; and that the
body of the flame has no blue margin like the jet-flame. The difference is
still more obvious on comparing together a good Argand burner with one of
which the holes are too far distant. In the former, the body of the flame is
of an unmingled white colour, and the blue base is short. In the latter, the
blue base is long, and a considerable part of the body of the flame consists of
blue and white streaks. The blue streaks diminish in length and breadth, ac
cording as the jet-holes are drilled nearer and nearer each other; and at
length they are shortened into a uniform ring at the bottom. That the blue
streaks exist in connection with the exposure of a proportionally large sur
face to the air, will appear, on taking into account the form of the flame as
seen by cutting it across the middle with a piece of wire-gauze. In this man
ner, if the holes are so near that the jets do not separate at the lowest possible
elevation, the cylinder of flame will be found to be perfectly even; but if
the flame is streaked with blue, and made up of jets imperfectly united, its
surface, both externally and internally, is fluted.
The distance we have assigned for the jet-holes differs considerably, so far
as we have hitherto examined, from that adopted in all the Argand burners
at present used for oil-gas. Those made by Taylor and Martineau, and gene
rally used by the oil-gas companies of London, are the most correct we have
seen ; and the distance in them seems to be regulated by some fixed prin
ciple, as it is the same in burners of all sizes. The distance in them is ſººths
of an inch. The operatives of this city have deviated from the rules followed
by the original makers, but for what reason it is not easy to conceive. The
distance adopted in Edinburgh, before the Oil-Gas Company commenced ope
rations, was fººths. By the alteration we propose, a saving of from 7 to 15
per cent. is effected over such burners. This alteration, too, besides adding
to the quantity of light, greatly improves the brilliancy of the flame; for in
the improved burners a flame of 2% inches gives fully as much light as one
of 3 inches in the old oil-gas burners, and consequently is whiter and more
brilliant. The burners of Dublin, of which a considerable variety was put in
to our hands by the Oil-Gas Company here, do not appear to be drilled on any
regular plan whatever. One of them has 5 holes at the distance of ºths,
another 8 at ºths, another 10 at 1%ths, another 12 at Fººths, another 14
at fººths, and another 17 at ºaths. The expenditure of the two first is ex
tremely wasteful, being, for the same light, nearly as great as that of single
jets; and even the two last, which are the best of them all, should have six or
eight holes more in the circle.
More attention seems to have been paid to the construction of coal-gas
burners. Peckston recommends, that the holes should be set at a distance of
rººths, which, for holes a 32d of an inch in diameter, is sufficiently near, (On
Gas-Lighting, 311.) The burners of the Glasgow Company are very nearly of
the same construction. One has 10 holes on a circle 1%ths of an inch in dia
meter, and another 14 on a circle of ºths; so that in each the distance of the
jet-holes is about '...ths.
It is not easy to conceive how the Coal-Gas Company of this city, when
they had such patterns before them, should have adopted and retained so long
the burners now used by their customers. The largest, with 10 holes, has the
same circle as that of Glasgow with 14 : and the smallest, with 5 holes, has
the same circle as that of Glasgow with twice the number. The distances are,
therefore, *.*,ths in the former, and "...ths in the latter. Both are very un
economical. In that with 5 holes, the expenditure for a given quantity of
light is nearly as great as in a single jet; and the Glasgow burner of the same
size and expenditure gives at least 20 per cent, more light. The 10-holed
burner is better; yet the addition of four or six holes to it would add to its
light, without increasing the expenditure.
Coal-gas burners do not require so many apertures as those for oil-gas, be
cause the greater width of the drill compensates for the diminution in number;
so that the jets still meet perfectly, and form a uniform cylinder of flame. But
if the holes are made of less diameter, they must be increased in number; and,
within certain limits, the compensation effected in this manner is complete. If
the diameter be much diminished, however, then there will be a loss, because
the column of gas becomes verythin, too large a surface is exposed to the air,
and it burns too vividly. The principle is here precisely the same as that which
eauses a loss when coal-gas is burnt through oil-gas jet burners, (see p. 18.) On
the other hand, good oil-gas will burn with a flame perfectly united and smooth,
though the holes are less than the number formerly mentioned, provided they
are larger. Thus, it burns with a smooth flame from a Glasgow coal-gas burner.
But then the flame is yellow"; for the column of gas is toothick, just as when
it is burnt through a coal-gas jet burner; and consequently, the charcoal result
ing from the decomposition of the gas, does not burn with sufficient intensity.
It has sometimes appeared to us, that, taking the expenditure into account,
£he yellow flame so formed, gives more light than the brighter white flame
produced by small and numerous apertures. This, however, we do not state
positively, as we have been unable to investigate the subject fully. But, at
all events, it will not on that account become a preferable light; for any small
saving it may effect, is more than counterbalanced by its comparatively dull
appearance.
The remaining points to be attended to in constructing burners are less im
portant, and more obvious. They are chiefly the size of the circle of holes,
—the length of the burner, the breadth of the rim, and the diameter of the
central air-hole.
The diameter of the circle of holes, or the size of the burner, will be regu
lated by the number o holes. Those used by the Oil-Gas Company of Edin
burgh have ten, fifteen, twenty and twenty-five holes; and, consequently, their
circles are ºths, ºths, ºths, and ºths in diameter.
The length is not very material. It only operates by affecting slightly the
central supply of air. Those of the Edinburgh Oil-Gas Company are an inch
and three quarters long.
The breadth of the rim should not be great, because in that case the air
falls at right angles on the column of gas, breaks it, and mixes with the gas;
and consequently, a greater proportion of the gas is burnt without previous
decomposition. In the burners we have recommended, the rim is ºths
broad. Perhaps it might be advantageously made narrower.
The diameter of the air-hole, if it is cylindrical, must be regulated by the
diameter of the circle of holes. But as the circle of holes increases, the sup
* we mean of course comparatively yellow; for it is still a bright, beauti

ful flame." -
24 Drs Christison and Turner on the Comstruction of x
ply of air increases in a greater ratio than the flow of gas. Thus, the expen
diture of the four burners mentioned above, is in the ratio of 100 to 177, 280,
and 366; while the supply of air is in the ratio of 100 to 255, 447, and 631.
Hence, for reasons formerly mentioned, it might be of advantage to lessen the
supply of air, by shaping the air-canal of the larger burners like an inverted
truncated cone. When they are to be used by the customers of a great com
pany, however, other circumstances, which must be also taken into account,
render it advisable to have the air-hole somewhat larger than is required for
complete combustion of the gas. These circumstances will be taken motice of
immediately, under the head which we shall now proceed to consider, namely,
the influence on the relation between the light and expenditure exercised by
the glass chimney. -
3. Two objects are served by the glass chimney. . It renders the flame
steady, and enlivens the combustion.
From what was formerly said concerning the effect of enlivening the com
bustion, there must evidently be a certain medium, beyond which its activity
cannot be increased, without loss of light. This medium is to be attained, by
adapting to each other the interval between the jet-holes, the diameter of the
air-aperture, and the form of the glass chimney; and, consequently, as none
of these can be made to vary, without necessitating some alteration in the rest,
no form or proportion of chimney can be pointed out, which will answer for
every kind of burner.
If the burner is so constructed, that the gas is perfectly consumed without
a glass at all, its light cannot be increased by any form of chimney. This is
the case with all burners of which the air-aperture is large, and the jet-holes
far apart. For example, the five-holed burner of Edinburgh gives as much
light with a naked flame as with any kind of chimney. Its holes are so far
apart, that the jets rise an inch or more before they meet, the air plays freely
round them, and is therefore supplied in sufficient quantity to burn the gas
thoroughly ; consequently, the only use of a glass chimney for such a burner
is to render the flame steady. In order to effect this, without rendering the
combustion too vivid, and causing a loss of light, the chimney must be very
wide. That, in common use, which is 6 inches long, and 1.6 in diameter, an
swers very well. If its diameter be diminished to 1.3 or 1.2, the flame be
comes shorter and more brilliant; but, at the same time, the light is diminish
ed in the ratio of 100 to 80 and 66.
The ten-holed gas-burner of Edinburgh is likewise so constructed as to give
nearly as much light without as with a chimney, and therefore it requires a
very wide one. That generally used, which is 1.9 or 2 inches in diameter, is
scarcely wide enough. If the light with this chimney be 100, it is diminished
to 81 with a chimney 1.6 wide, and to 66 when the diameter is l.3. But the
glass with which the greatest light and the steadiest flame are procured, is
one contracted to a narrow tube at the top of the flame, the lower cylinder
being 4 inches long, and 1.7 wide, the upper 3 by 1.1. With such a glass, the
light is increased to 115, and the flame is perfectly steady.
When the holes of a burner are increased in number, so that the jets unite
at the very bottom of the flame, and the air-aperture is at the same time small,
it will be observed, on kindling the gas, and gradually increasing its flow, with
out putting on the glass chimney, that the flame contracts by degrees at the
top, and at length almost meets about an inch above the centre of the burner.
In this state, the flame is yellow; and if made longer, by increasing the flow
of gas, it becomes brown, and smokes. The reason is obvious; because, though
the outer surface of the flame is properly burnt, the internal portion of the
gas, decomposed by the heat, is not consumed. The air cannot penetrate be
tween the jets from the outside to the inside of the flame, and the central cur
rent is too feeble. In such a burner, it is necessary to enliven the combus
tion, by increasing the central current of air; and this is done by means of the
glass chimney... Now, therapidity of the central current increases as the dis
-tance between the flame and the chimney, or, in other words, the diameter of
the chimney, diminishes. Accordingly, if the diameter be diminished by suc
cessive small portions, the brown smoking flame, described above, will increase
in brightness, and the point at which it contracts will rise higher and higher,
till at length the summit opens out, and the flame becomes quite cylindrical.
If the experiment be pursued farther, by applying glasses still less in diame
ter, the intensity of the light goes on increasing, but, at the same time, the
flame becomes shorter. Reasoning from the principles formerly laid down, we
should presume, that, in relation to the expenditure, the greatest light will be
emitted when the flame is fully opened out, and that the combustion cannot
be farther enlivened without loss. This conclusion is quite conformable with
the results of actual experiment.
As an example of the different forms of glasses required for different de
scriptions of burners, we may mention those we found best fitted for the
burners which were used in the series of experiments on the effect of approxi
mating the jet-holes, (p. 21.). The burner with 8 and that with 10 holes
gave most light with a glass an inch and a half in diameter. When the num
ber of holes was increased to 15, it was requisite to lessen the diameter to
an inch and two-tenths. The same glass answered pretty well when the holes
were twenty in number. But when the number was twenty-five, the most
favourable diameter was only an inch.
The height to which the flame may be raised without smoking, or the ele
vation at which it gives most light relatively to the expenditure, differs very
much in these different burners. In the burner with 8 holes, the maximum
of light is at 4 inches; in that with 10 holes, at 3% inches; in those with 15
and 20 at 24; and in that with 25, at 2 inches only. It is singular, that all
these flames emit nearly the same quantity of light, as may be seen by in
specting the numbers for each in the Table p. 21. Now, the flame of the last
burner has only half the surface of that of the first; and therefore, an equal
surface of it gives twice as much light. Accordingly, the difference between
them, asjudged of directly by the eye is most striking. The flame of the 8-holed
and 10-holed burner is streaked with blue, dull, and flickering. That of the
15-holed and 20-holed burner is steady, smooth, without blue streaks, and of a
peculiar sparkling star-like appearance. But that of the burner with 25 holes,
which, for equal surfaces, gives a fifth more light than the preceding, is by far
the most brilliant and beautiful light we have ever seen. It was formerly
proved to be likewise the most economical.
Having now examined the chief circumstances that affect the light given
out by coal and oil gas during their combustion, we shall conclude this part of
the subject by a short summary of what has been ascertained, with the view
of settling the precise construction of the burners.
When the diameter of the jet-holes is small, the flame is streaked with
blue; when great, with yellow. The diameter which answers best for coal
gas, supposing its specific gravity to vary from 550 to 650, is a 32d of an
inch; and for oil-gas, varying in specific gravity between 900 and 1000, a
50th of an inch.
If the distanee of the jet-holes from each other is too great, the jet flames
do not meet, and the light is streaked with blue; and the nearer they are to
each other, till they meet completely, the more is the flame bright and uni
form.
When the central air-aperture is small, the tendency of the flame is to
burn brown and imperfectly; when the aperture is great, the tendency of the
‘flame is, on the contrary, to burn bright, and with too great vivacity.
When the jet-holes are large, and near each other, and the central air
aperture is small, the glass chimney must be narrow, and vice versa.
Finally, the most brilliant, and at the same time the most economical light,
is procured when the jet-holes are very numerous, the air-aperture small, and
the chimney narrow.
If, in choosing a burner, therefore, it was requisite to consult only beauty
and economy, we should unquestionably recommend that they be constructed
on the principle of the 25-holed burner, described in the last page. But un
fortunately the glass is so very near the flame, that the slightest agitation of
the air, or motion of the glass, or increase in the flow of the gas, causes it to
smoke, and strike the chimney. For the latter reason, in particular, it can
never be used by the customers of a public company; because it would be ne
cessary for every one to reduce the flame of his burners whenever a few lights
were extinguished in his neighbourhood. In order to remedy this inconve
nience, the burners of a public company must always be so constructed as to
burn the gas at some loss; and on that account, we have recommended that
the number of holes on a circle of ºths in diameter, should not exceed 15.
The glass chimneys for the four sizes of burners formerly mentioned (p. 23.),
should be ºths, ##ths, ##ths, and ##ths; and their length should be about
6 inches. As the mouth of the first of these would be too much obstructed by
the cross-bars of the glass-holder, it should be enlarged a little at the bottom,
Hike those for Argand oil-lamps, the contraction being just at the beginning of
the flame.
III.
The last subject we have to consider, is the relative Illuminating power of
Oil and Coal Gas.
For ascertaining this point, various methods have been proposed, more
simple than actual measurement of the light. These methods have been all
deduced more or less directly from the elaborate papers of Dr Henry of Man
chester, on the composition of the Illuminating Gases. He found that they
all contain a dense gas, the olefiant, which burns with a clear white flame, and
-other gases, such as carbonic oxide, light carburetted hydrogen, and hydro
gen, which are most of them lighter than olefiant, and which give out very
little light during their combustion. And he showed, at the same time, that
the proportion of olefiant gas might be estimated, on the one hand, by the
quantity of oxygen required to consume the coal or oil gas by detonation, and,
on the other hand, by the diminution caused in the volume of the gas by the
action of chlorine in the dark.
Three methods of estimating the relative light of oil and coal gas, have
been deduced from these researches.
In the first place, as the specific gravity must always increase with the quan
tity of olefiant gas present in them, and as that gas was thought to be their sole
illuminating ingredient, it was inferred that the illuminating power and the spe
cific gravity follow a certain ratio to each other. What that ratio is, must be de
termined by careful comparison of the specific gravities with the results of actual
measurement of the light. The only attempt yet made to do this, has been by
Mr Leslie, who suppuses that the ratio is a simple arithmetical one; that the
illuminating power, in fact, is as the specific gravity of the gas. But his re
sults, as will soon be proved, are far from being correct, even according to the
indications of his own photometer. And, after all, it is quite possible that no
relation whatever exists between the two qualities, because the specific gravity
is liable to be increased by the presence of various gases, which lessen instead
of augmenting the illuminating power.
Secondly, Dr Fyfe of this city has supposed, that the olefiant is not only
the chief illuminating ingredient in oil and coal gas, but likewise expresses, by
its quantity, the exact relation of their illuminating power. He therefore
conceives the illuminating power may be estimated by the absorption caused by
chlorine in the dark. He has even compared results drawn in this way with
those procured by actual measurement of the light, and says he has found
them to correspond very closely.
It has been lately proved, however, by Mr Dalton, Dr Henry and others,
that, besides olefiant, another analogous gas must be present in oil-gas, and
probably in coal-gas also, which is superior to olefiant both in specific gravity
and in the quantity of carbon it contains, and therefore most certainly supe
rior also in illuminating power. We may add, that this opinion is effectually
substantiated, by our having procured an oil-gas, which, while it contained
but a small proportion of carbonic acid, not exceeding 3 per cent., was never
theless of higher specific gravity than olefiant, or even atmospherical air itself.
Now, this new gas, like the olefiant, is condensed by chlorime in the dark; and,
consequently, the condensation by chlorine cannot be always proportioned
to the illuminating power, unless the two illuminating ingredients are al
ways in the same proportion to one another, or unless there is but one illumi
nating ingredient, not the olefiant, but a per-carburetted hydrogen gas. Nei.
ther of these positions has been proved.
But, farther, the extraneous ingredients of oil and coal gas, if we may use
the expression, are, in all likelihood, not only negatively, but even positively
injurious; that is, the illuminating ingredients would give more light without
them. Nay, it is even probable, that the loss sustained differs with the rela
tive proportion of the extraneous gases to each other, some being more inju
rious than others; so that an increase in the quantity of the illuminating in
gredients would not only add to the light of that additional quantity, but like
wise diminish the loss occasioned by the contaminating gases.
These considerations led us to doubt strongly the accuracy of Dr Fyfe's
proposed method. But we have said that he found it to correspond in its re
sults with the inferences drawn from actual measurement of the light. For rea
sons formerly mentioned, however, his measurements appear to present intrin
sic evidence of their inaccuracy; and certainly our own trials, though they
have once or twice agreed with his, do not by any means show the uniform
correspondence for which he contends. On one occasion, when the loss by the
action of chlorine was 14 and 34, the illuminating power was as 100 to 233,
instead of 243. Here the agreement is tolerably close. But, on another oc
casion, when the relative condensation by chlorine was 16 and 46, the illumi
nating power was only as 100 to 250, instead of 287; and again, when the re
lative loss was 13 and 37, the relative illuminating power was only 100 to 225,
instead of 284.
There is still a third method, which was proposed by Dr Henry himself,

but which is even less accurate than the two foregoing, and has since been
abandoned, we believe, by its ingenious author. It consists in detonating the
gas with oxygen, and valuing its power of illumination by the relative quan
tity of oxygen that disappears. Several objections might be stated against
this plan; but it will be sufficient to mention one only. As in the case of the
specific gravity, a certain ratio may exist between the illuminating power and
the quantity of oxygen which disappears. But the ratio has not been deter
mined by actual measurement; and, at all events, it is not, as Dr Henry at
first supposed, a simple one. For, according to his own tables, the relative
light of two gases having the specific gravities of 620 and 906, is only 3 to 4;
while we have found that Count Rumford's photometer indicates a proportion
of 1 to 2.
At present, therefore, no method is known for ascertaining the relative
light of the gases, except by actual measurement of it. A plan, indeed,
has occurred to ourselves, which will have the peculiar advantage over
every other, of giving accurate indications even in the hands of a com
mon workman, and, consequently, of being fit for the every-day use of Gas
Companies. But we have not yet finished the observations on which the
scale must be constructed. It consists in simply burning a jet of a certain
length through an aperture of a given diameter, from a small gasometer of
perfectly steady pressure, and noting the expenditure. So far as we have
hitherto tried, the expenditure will be a very accurate criterion of the light.
But the ratio is not a simply inverse one. Thus, when a 4-inch jet requires
for its support twice as much of one gas as of another, the proportional light
is not as 1 to 2, but as 1 to 2% fully. In fact, the flames, though equal in size,
are very different in brilliancy. As the exact ratio, however, has not been
determined by an adequate variety of experiments, we shall confine our sub
sequent statements to the results drawn from direct photometrical measure
ments.
The discrepancy that exists among the opinions of various well known ex
perimenters, regarding the relative light of oil and coal gas, is at first sight
quite incomprehensible. We apprehend, however, that the facts mentioned
in the previous part of this paper, will account satisfactorily for most of them;
and we do not doubt they would have accounted equally well for all, had the
particulars of the experiments been uniformly detailed.
In addition to the remarks formerly made concerning the fallacies which
arise from the use of inaccurate photometers, and likewise from the gas being
burnt with various lengths of flame, in burners of various constructions, and
with glasses of various forms, we shall now add a few observations on those,
of equal importance, which proceed from varieties in the quality of the gases.
The quality of the gas procured from coal and oil varies greatly with the
material, with the mode of applying the heat, with the size and form of the
retorts, with the period of the process at which it is collected, and with other
circumstances, which it is unnecessary to enumerate.
The specific gravity of coal-gas, such as is actually made by public compa
nies, varies from a little above 400 to 700. That of London is of very infe
rior quality. The worst we remember to have read of as employed in the
streets, is that with which Mr Dewey made his experiments at Whitechapel,
(Annals of Philosophy, vol. vi. 404. N. S.) Its density was only 407. The gas
employed by Messrs Phillips and Faraday, was scarcely better, its density being
429 (Ib). The Westminster coal-gas, as related by Mr Brande, in the Bake
rian Lecture for 1820, had a specific gravity of 443, and even the best he ever
examined did not exceed 494. The worst coal-gas we ever examined at Edin
burgh was 510, and it very rarely fell short of 580. Dr Henry found, that
the gas prepared from the Wigan Cannel coal (which is nearly the same as that
used here), and drawn from the pipes after the retorts had been worked an
hour, varied from 620 to 650. The coal-gas of Edinburgh rarely exceeds 620;
but we once found it so high as 680. By far the greater number of specimens
of Edinburgh gas, therefore, will be found to have a specific gravity between
580 and 620. Its mean specific gravity, deduced from not less than twenty
trials, made last autumn, was exactly 600. The gas of Glasgow is generally
said to be at least equal to that of Edinburgh; but on what good authority we
have been unable to learn. Mr Anderson of Perth assures us, that the spe
cific gravity of the gas of that city is so high as 700.
There is evidently, therefore, a great difference in the quality of coal-gas
made in different places. But, if we may judge from our own trials with the
gas of Edinburgh, and from the data furnished by various experimenters re
garding the specific gravity of the London gas, the quality does not differ much
in the same place, or, at least, in the same establishment.
This fact must lead to the inference, that the process for the manufacture
of coal-gas is now so thoroughly understood, that the workmen can follow it
with perfect regularity. It is exceedingly probable, that the manufacture of
coal-gas is likewise nearly as perfect as it ever will be made. It is now many
years since it has been the object of attention among men of science, and since
numerous public companies have been stimulated by the spirit of commercial
rivalry to do their utmost for improving its quality. Many experiments have
therefore been made for that end, both by scientific and by practical men;
30 Drs Christison and Turner on the Construction of ,
and, in consequence, most of the particulars of its manufacture have been set
tled with great precision. The richest material, the proper form and size of
the retorts, the best method of applying the heat, the due degree of tempera
ture, the best construction of the apparatus for condensing the contaminating
ingredients, have been separately made the subject of long, frequent, and most
careful investigation; and little difference of opinion now exists on any of
them.
Very different is the case with oil-gas. An idea generally prevails, in
deed, among manufacturers, and has even been adopted by some men of science,
that the quality of oil-gas is not liable to the same variety as that of coal-gas.
This notion appears to have originated in the fact, that the material has been
always pretty nearly the same. The similarity of the material would natu
rally lead, cateris paribus, to a uniformity in the quality of the gas in different
places; and this consideration is an important one, in regard to the relative
economy of the two gases; because, on account of an unavoidable difference
of material, the quality of coal-gas, however well made, and however much
the mode of manufacture may be hereafter improved, must always continue
very different in different places.
But there is another cause of variety besides difference of material, name
ly, variations in the mode of manufacture; and, contrary to the general opi
nion, the mode of manufacture has appeared to us both more delicate, and less
perfectly understood in the case of oil-gas, than in that of coal-gas. That it
is less perfectly understood, will appear from the consideration, that no expe
riments sufficiently extensive and accurate have been hitherto published re
garding the circumstances in the manufacture of oil-gas, which alter its qua
lity, that almost every point to be attended to in its manufacture, continues
on that account unsettled,—and that great differences prevail among the pro
cesses followed in different places. While the method of making it continues
thus unsettled, the quality of the gas must be very precarious, and, conse
quently, the whole process will appear to be one of great nicety. Of this no
better proof can be furnished, than a fact which has come under our notice,
namely, that the gas made by the same workman, under circumstances to all
appearance the same, and generally of very high specific gravity, was once so
low as 778.
Besides these causes of variety in the quality of the gas, we believe we may
likewise add differences of material. This circumstance, indeed, has little in
fluence at present, and has perhaps even less than is generally imagined. Gas
of very different qualities has been made from whale-oil, cod-oil, palm-oil,
cocoa-nut-oil, and linseed-oil. But as these oils do not differ very materially
from one another in chemical composition, we suspect that the gas would be
nearly the same from all, if the process was properly adapted to each. And,
in point of fact, the differences observed among such gases are not nearly so
great as those which exist among different samples of gas made apparently
with great care from good whale-oil. It is very likely, however, that methods
may be discovered for improving the quality of oil-gas, by the addition of
other substances to the oil.
Whatever weight be attached to these explanations, there can be no doubt
of the fact, that the quality of oil-gas does vary most materially,–out of all
proportion, indeed, to the variations in that of coal-gas. This is evident from
the following table.
Gas made with great care by Dr Henry, - 464 • - -
Ditto, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... - - - - 590

Ditto, ... ... ... - • - - 758
Ditto, used by Mr Brande in his experiments, - - - - 769
Gas made at Mr Mylne's Brass-Foundry, Edinburgh, and used by Mr
Leslie in his experiments, - - - - - - 674
Ditto, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... --- - - - 810.
Ditto, ... ... .. - - - - 943
Ditto made from cod-oil, at Taylor and Martineau's, - - - 906
Ditto used by Mr Dewey in his experiments, - - - - 939
Ditto ... ... Messrs Phillips and Faraday, - - -- - 966
The worst oil-gas we have examined, * - - - 660
Gas made at Mr Mylne's from whale-oil, and used in some of our expe
riments, - - - - - - - 820
Ditto, ... ... ... ... ... ... - - - - 944
Gas made from whale-oil, at Mr Ranken's Glass Manufactory, Edin- .
burgh, and used in our experiments, 778 - • -
Ditto, ... ... ... ... ... ... - - - - 968

Ditto, ... ... . - - - 1110
The same gas, after standing a day over its own volume of fresh-water, 1050.
The last of these has a higher specific gravity than any oil-gas hitherto
noticed publicly. We may mention, that there is no reason for doubting the
accuracy of the observation, as it was quite conformable with the results ob.
tained respecting the expenditure of the gas, its illuminating power, and the
diminution it sustained from the action of chlorine *.
While the method of manufacturing coal-gas is so well understood, and the
process for making oil-gas so unsettled, while the quality of the former is so
uniform, and that of the latter so variable, we apprehend it is scarcely time to
say what is their relative illuminating power. Whatever we may now state,
therefore, on this subject, must be understood as applying only to gases of
certain specific gravities, not to oil and coal gas abstractly.
The following is a table of the chief results that have been hitherto ob
tained on this subject:
Mr Brande, - - 1 to 24 Mr Dewey, - - 1 to 34
Mr Nielson, - - 1 to 2, or 24 Dr Fyfe, - - 1 to 14
Messrs Herapath and Mr Leslie, - • 1 to 18
Rootsey, - - 1 to 2 Mr Dalton, - 1 to 24
Messrs Phillips and Mr Ricardo, - - -1 to 4
Faraday, - - 1 to 3% -
All of these proportions were procured by photometrical measurement,

with the exception of Ricardo's, which was derived from a comparison of the
quantity of each gas manufactured by the London Companies, with the num
ber of lights supplied by them. -
* It contained 46 per cent of gas condensible by chlorine.

No one who has paid attention to the statements contained in the fore
going parts of this paper, will have any difficulty in conceiving whence these
extraordinary discrepancies have originated.
The results of our experiments have differed, of course, with the quality
of the respective gases. When the oil-gas was of inferior, and the coal-gas of
superior quality, when, for example, the specific gravity of the former was
818, and that of the latter 653, the relative illuminating power, according to
some of our earliest experiments (on which, however, we do not place much
reliance), was only 100 to about 140. When the oil-gas was of the best, and
the coal-gas of average quality, the specific gravity being 605 and 1110, the
proportion was 100 to 260. If the same oil-gas was compared with bad coal
gas, such as that used by Mr Dewey, and by Messrs Phillips and Faraday,
the specific gravity of which did not much exceed 400, the proportion would
probably be so high as one to four.
The following is a detailed account of the experiments on which we are
disposed to place the greatest reliance. The first series was made a few weeks
ago, at a time when we were fully acquainted with all the circumstances which º
affect the light. A 5-inch jet of coal-gas burnt through an aperture a 28th of
an inch in diameter, was compared with a 4-inch jet of oil-gas, burnt through
an aperture of a 45th of an inch, the specific gravities being 578 and 910. In
one experiment, the distances on Count Rumford's photometer were 643 in
ches for the coal-gas, and 69 for the oil-gas; while the 10th part of a cubic
foot of the former was consumed in 367 scconds, and of the latter in 685. The
result gives a proportion of 100: 218.6. In another experiment, the distan
ces were 62% for the coal-gas, and 674 for the oil-gas, and the consumption 355
and 685, from which a proportion is procured of 100 to 2234.
The experiments were performed in like manner with Argand burners, that
for coal-gas having 14 holes a 32d of an inch in diameter", on a circle of ºth
radius, and that for oil-gas having 20 holes of a 50th on the same circle. The
coal-gas flame was fully 2% in height, the oil-gas flame 24, being the most favour
able elevations for such burners. In the first experiment, the distances were 62
for the coal-gas, and 76 for the oil-gas, and a 5th of a cubic foot of the former was
eonsumed in 212 seconds, and of the latter in 314. The proportional light, as
calculated from these numbers, is 100 to 223. This experiment was repeated
in the following manner. The former distances being preserved, and the lights
extinguished, the flame of the coal-gas burner was kindled again, and adjusted,
so that the expenditure was exactly the same as before, and the flame of the
oil-gas burner was then regulated, so that the shadows were alike. The re
spective elevations of the flames proved to be the same as before, and the ex
penditures were 212” and 307”. These data give a proportion of 100 to 217.
The mean of the four experiments is 100 to 220, or 1 to 24 nearly.
Professor Leslie's photometergave a proportion somewhat higher. In the first
experiment with the Argand burners, it fell 17 degrees at the distance of 64
inches from the centre of the coal-gas flame; and, in the second experiment with
the same burners, it fell 27 degrees at the same distance from the middle of the
* Glasgow Burner, No. 2.

oil-gas flame. Taking the mean relative expenditure 212 to 311, the propor
tional light by this method is 100 to 233. The proportion obtained by Pro
fessor Leslie (Coal-Gas Company's Report, 19th July 1824,) is only 100 to 150*.
As he has not given all the particulars of his experiments, it is impossible to
say precisely what is the cause of this low result. We have found, however, that
the burner he used in the first comparative experiment, while it is a very ex
cellent burner for coal-gas, burns good oil-gas at a loss of 13 per cent. of the
light. Farther, Mr Leslie mentions, that he procured oil-gas of three diffe
rent specific gravities, 674, 810, and 943; but he omits to state distinctly
which of them he used in the experiments he publishes. Now, in the afore
said burner, the expenditure with his gas was a foot in 38 minutes; while we
find that, when the specific gravity is 910, the expenditure with that burner
does not exceed a foot in 46 minutes. Nay, this is only when the flame is
nearly 3 inches tall, which is an elevation considerably greater than that univer
sally employed here at the time Mr Leslie made his experiments, and therefore
probably greater than he would think of using. Hence, the gas he employed
must have been of low specific gravity; most likely, indeed, it was that speci
men which had a specific gravity of 810. If we correct these probable errors,
the proportional illuminating power becomes, instead of 2 to 3, 15 to 29.7.
Again, if he really used an oil-gas of this low specific gravity, as appears to us
very likely, he must have found, that, with a gas of average quality, such as
* The instrument we used was that of the Astronomical Institution. As

the Report referred to in the text cannot now be easily procured, the follow
ing extracts are reprinted from it: -
“A small quantity of oil-gas, procured for the experiments, I found to

have the specific gravity of only 674, not greater indeed than that of your
coal-gas, when made from the best coal. The oil-gas, however, furnished by
Mr Mylne, manufactured on a small scale, and apparently with great care, at
his works, was materially denser, being as high as 943, though on a former
occasion I found
-
-
it to be
º
only *810.” * * º
“The illuminating powers of the two gases were measured with great accuracy,
by the application of my photometer, which I had somewhat modified, to ex
3. every irregular influence of heat. The indications were steady and easily
noted, nor could the judgment of the observer be liable, as in other cases, to
any sort of bias or indecision. It hence appears to be ascertained, that, with
the same burner, the powers of illumination of different gases, and of the same
gas in different states, are very nearly proportional to their densities. The
same weight of gas of any kind gives out the same quantity of light; but if
equal bulks be taken, the illuminating powers follow the ratio of their densi
ties. But the quantity of light emitted is not uniformly proportional to the
measure of the gas expended. A certain burner, for instance, was observed to
produce double the illuminating effect, though it consumed only one-half more
of either species of gas. With No. 1. of the oil-gas burner, the relative illumi
nating power of Mr Mylne's oil-gas to that of your coal-gas, was found to be as
6 to 5. But a cubic foot of the former lasted 38 minutes, while a cubic foot of
the coal-gas was spent in 30% minutes. The relative volumes consumed were,
hence, in the space of an hour, 1.58 and 1.97, or in the ratio of 4 to 5. Where
fore, while 5 cubic feet of coal-gas give 5 . of light, 4 cubic feet of the best
oil-gas give 6 degrees; that is, for equal volumes, the illuminating power of the
oil to the coal gas is as 3 to 2. The same conclusion was obtained on passin
those several gases successively through the Argand coal-gas burner, No. 2.”
“ Thus the illumination of oil-gas is actually less than one-half of what
has been currently asserted.”
vol. xIII. No. 25. JULY 1825. c
910, the actual light, compared with that of coal-gas, in the same way as in the
experiment alluded to, would have exceeded 6 to 5, which was the proportion
he procured. A very slight additional correction on this account, would give
exactly the proportion assigned by us above. * -- - -
. The condensation caused by chlorine in the coal and oil gas used in our last
experiments, was 13 and 37. This method of estimating the illuminating
power is therefore in the present instance erroneous.
The only other experiments we shall mention, were made last October, at
a time when we were not sufficiently acquainted with the circumstances which
modify the light of the gases. Although not strictly correct, therefore, in
some particulars, they will nevertheless give a good approximative result.
The specific gravities of the gases were 1110 and 605, and the condensation by
chlorine 46 and 16. A 5-holed coal-gas burner (Edin. No. 1.) with a 3-inch
flame, consuming a 10th of a cubic foot in 186 seconds, was compared with a 15
holed oil-gas burner, having a flame of 24 inches, and consuming a 10th of a
foot in 375 seconds. The distances were 56 for the coal-gas, and 61% for the
oil-gas. These data give a proportion of 100 to 243. A 10-holed coal-gas
burner (Edin. No. 2.) with a 3-inch flame, consuming a 10th of a foot in 120
seconds, was compared with a 20-holed oil-gas burner, having a flame of 24
inches, and consuming a 10th of a foot in 215 seconds. The distances were
56 and 67% ; and the proportional light is therefore 100 to 260. In these two
experiments, the coal-gas burners were not of the best construction; but, on
the other hand, the flames of the oil-gas burner were not at the most favour
able elevation. The mean of the two observations, or the proportion of 100
to 250, is probably very near, and certainly not beyond, the truth.
On the subject of comparative experiments regarding the illuminating
power of the gases, we have only farther to remark, that the easiest and most
correct mode of making them, is by using jets of a regulated length. It ap
pears from some of our experiments formerly noticed, that all illuminating
gases give nearly the same additional light, by combining their jets in proper
Argand burners. Consequently, the proportion that holds in the case of jets
will apply equally well to Argand burners. Now, experiments with the for
mer are not liable to so many fallacies as those made with the latter. In fact,
we have only to attend to the diameter of the holes, the length of the flames,
the steadiness of the pressure on the gasometer, and the accurate measurement
of the expenditure, and adjusting of the shadows.
* . * - - --
We have now concluded the account of our experiments, ac

cording to the plan laid down at the commencement of the pa
per. It was not originally our intention to make any remarks
on the relative advantages of the two gases, in a general point of
view. But as the subject has lately led to a long Parliamentary
investigation, and as very erroneous notions prevail on some
matters which have engaged a share of our attention, it may be
well to notice it briefly.
The question of the relative advantages of oil and coal gas re
Gas-burners, and on the Illuminating Power of the Gases. 35
solves itself into two: the first regards their relative economy;
the second their comparative utility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Before weican determine their relative economy, it is re
quisite to settle their average quality. Taking their specific
gravity as the ground of comparison, we apprehend that, in
small, towns, where the cannel coal can be had at a low price,
coal-gas companies may be able to manufacture a gas of the
density of 700. In larger cities, such as Glasgow' and Edin
burgh, where coal of every kind is dearer, and the cannel coal
cannot easily be procured in sufficient quantity, the average
specific gravity of the gas will not exceed 600. And, in such a
town as London, where the cannel coal can scarcely be procured
at all, the average specific gravity will not exceed 450. " ``
The average specific gravity of oil-gas should eventually be
the same every where. It is difficult to ascertain what the average
is at present, as made by large establishments; but there is no sub
stantial cause why it should fall short of 920. We have assigned
strong reasons, however,forbelieving that it must be soon improved
considerably. This improvement, indeed, may be no great gain;
for the question will; then oceur, whether: it can be effected
without diminishing the quantity of gas in the same proportion
with its increase in quality.” It is generally supposed, that an
improvement in the quality of oil-gas is necessarily attended by
a loss in quantity; but, so far as can be discovered, this idea
rests on experiments performed by operatives only, whose au
thority we are satisfied, from repeated observation, can by no
means be relied on. If charcoal is left in the retorts at the end
of each charge, it is clear that the gas may be improved by the
addition of all this charcoal, without any diminution in quantity;
for, if it be added to the light carburetted hydrogen, which gives
little light, so as to convert it into the olefiant gas, which is
powerfully illuminating, the change, it is well known, will take
place without any alteration in volume." On the other hand, if
good oil-gas be exposed to a high temperature, it is partly de
composed, and deposites some of its charcoal. Part of the ole
fiant gas becomes light carburetted hydrogen, and without any
increase involume; for the volume is not inereased unless it is
resolved into charcoal and hydrogen. Hence a bad gas may be
made from oil, which shall not exceed in quantity the good gas
of Taylor and Martineau. And, in point of fact, we have seve
c2
ral times found, when the retorts were choked with charcoal, and
the specific gravity of the gas was only 660, that the quantity fell
short of 100 cubic feet per gallon, which is said to be about the ave
rage produce when the gas is good. When oil-gas has a specific
gravity of 910, charcoal is still found in the retorts. It may
therefore be improved by the addition of all this charcoal, and
still retain its volume. Besides, it may be possible to improve it
by the addition of charcoal from other sources. Hence, while
we at present assign to oil-gas the average specific gravity of ,
920, we cannot help anticipating a considerable improvement,
and positive gain.
From what has been said of the average quality of coal-gas
in different quarters of the kingdom, it is clear that the question
of its economy, compared with oil-gas, can be only answered
relatively. In Edinburgh and Glasgow, where coal is mode
rately cheap, and coal-gas of good quality, oil-gas must be
somewhat dearer; in London, where the coal is dear, and the
gas bad, oil-gas should be positively cheaper; and in other
places the two will be nearly the same in price. This statement
is, of course, drawn from our own experiments on their illumi
nating power, coupled with the well-known computations of Ac
cum, Peckston, Ricardo, and others, regarding their relative cost.
The second element in the question of their relative advan
tages, is their comparative utility. It is certain that, whatever
difference may exist between them in this respect must be in fa
vour of oil-gas.
In the first place, the quality of the light is superior. It is
whiter, and has a peculiar sparkling appearance, superior to
that of coal-gas. It is therefore a more beautiful light, fitter
for the artificial illumination of colours, and not liable to give
the human countenance that unpleasant sallow appearance which
every one has observed to be caused by coal-gas.
An objection has been urged to the employment of gas in
general, that it has a disagreeable odour. This objection does
not apply at all, unless the gas is unconsumed; for neither oil
nor even coal gas, so far at least as our observation goes, emits
any odour, if properly burnt. But if they escape, and mix with
the air, their presence is then readily detected by the smell.
The odour of oil-gas is purely empyreumatic, but quite dis
tinct; we have possessed occasional specimens, which had a
faint smell, but we never found it altogether inodorous. The
best oil-gas appears to have the least smell. The odour of coal
gas is of a mixed kind, being in part empyreumatic like oil-gas,
and partly of an exceedingly offensive nature, like that of sul
phuretted hydrogen. In Edinburgh coal-gas we have generally
observed the empyreuma alone; but frequently the other is per
ceptible also, and sometimes it prevails to an insufferable degree.
The most serious objection to coal-gas arises from the pre
sence of impurities. These are, a black matter like tar, and
compounds of sulphur, all derived from the coal itself, and
therefore necessarily present originally in every description of
coal-gas. Without purification, therefore, coal-gas could scarcely
be used at all; and it becomes a question of importance to deter
mine, whether or not the noxious ingredients may be wholly re
moved from it. The greater part of the tar is deposited at the
works in the proper vessels, but a minute portion does common
ly pass over with the gas. It tends to clog the apertures of the
burner, and of course soils substances upon which it is deposited.
In common shops, where a free current of air is preserved, the
effect is hardly noticed; but we suspect that a part of the in
convenience found by jewellers to attend the use of coal-gas
arises from this cause.
The most formidable of the compounds of sulphur present in
coal-gas, is sulphuretted hydrogen. The presence of this gas is
hurtful in two ways. If it escape unburnt, it offends by
its insupportable odour, and attacks silver, and paint, with
great readiness. When consumed, it forms sulphurous and sul
phuric acids, which may injure the health, if habitually in
spired, and act chemically on various substances, as on iron and
steel. Hence the necessity of removing it entirely from coal gas.
On this subject two important questions naturally occur, to both
of which we can give a decisive answer. 1st, Can sulphuretted
hydrogen be wholly separated from coal-gas P and, 2dly, when it
is removed, Can coal-gas be regarded as perfectly free of sulphur P
We are satisfied that sulphuretted hydrogen may be wholly
removed; for we have repeatedly examined the Edinburgh coal
gas by the most delicate tests, without detecting a trace of it.
Of course we do not vouch that it is always equally pure, be
cause the least neglect, on the part of the workmen, must inevi
tably cause some sulphuretted hydrogen to escape into the pipes.
It is equally certain, however, that coal-gas, when completely
free of sulphuretted hydrogen, still contains sulphur. On burn
ing a small jet of coal gas, free from sulphuretted hydrogen, so
as to collect the fluid formed during the combustion, the pre
sence of sulphuric acid, was uniformly detected, demonstrating
the existence of some compound, of sulphur. What that com
pound is, has not yet. been ascertained; but from its peculiar
unpleasant, odour, and the circumstances under which it is ge
nerated, the sulphur is most probably in combination with car
bon, either in the form of the volatile liquid, sulphuret of car
bon, as Mr Brande conjectures, or, what is perhaps more likely,
as a gaseous compound, containing a less proportion of sulphur
than exists in that liquid. . . . . . . . .” - F - " " . .
In whatever state of combination the sulphur may be, it does
not affect the salts of lead like sulphuretted hydrogen; nor does
it act so readily, if at, all, on polished silver and gold, Hence
the gas, which contains only this impurity, will be less inju
rious, when any of it escapes unburnt, than such as contains
sulphuretted hydrogen; but since it uniformly yields acid va
pours during its combustion, one part of the objection remains
in full force. … . . . … ." " - ºn tº
tº '-º', ºn tº z
These various objections, whatever weight they may have, ap
ply to coal-gas only. . . . . .. .
- -
—s—, - - !. . . . .
APPENDIX.
In relating the experiment with fire-light on the photometer, the number
3° has been inadvertently substituted for 12°, the effect of an Argand oil-lamp
on the photometer at the distance of 6% inches; and, therefore, the light. of
the fire, according to the photometer, is only 11 times, instead of 40 times,
that of the lamp. ; :* * - - - -- -
... We may take this opportunity of mentioning, that we have lately per--
formed an experiment which strengthens still more what we have said regard
ing the impossibility of applying the thermometric photometer to the mea
surement of lights differing in colour. It is well known that coal and oil
gas burn with a blue flame when mingled with atmospherical air. We have
found, that a mixture of equal parts of air and gas, about 700 in specific gra
vity, will burn in the Glasgow burner, No. 2, with a flame of 2% inches, nearly
all blue, the tips only of the jets being white. At the distance of 6% inches from
this flame, the photometer of the Astronomical Institution indicated steadily
5°, while, at the same distance from a tallow candle, it indicated only 2°. Es
timating the real illuminating power as in the experiment with the fire-light,
the relative distances were 15 feet from the candle, and 24 at the utmost for
the blue flame. Hence the real light of the latter is only a 36th part of that
of the former; while, according to Professor Leslie's photometer, it is 24
times greater. - - ---
Nota—The reader will please correct, in the list of the illuminating powers of .
the gases, at the bottom of p. 31., that of Messrs Herapath and Rootsey, there
stated as 1 : 2; but which, from their printed evidence before the House of
Commons, just communicated to us, is 1:2.4. -
ART. II.-A Table of the Geographical Positions of several

Places in India. By JAMES FRANKLIN, Captain of the
Bengal Cavalry, and late Assistant Quarter-Master General
of the Bengal Army. -
THE following Table of geographical positions, consists prin

cipally of places situated in Bundelcund between the Jumna and
Nermadah Rivers. . . ."
The Latitudes were all obtained from actual observations

either of meridional altitudes of the sun, or, when that object
could not be observed, of one or more stars, taken by the me
thod of reflection with a sextant of nine inches radius; and it
was my practice always to use a chronometer in taking them,
with a view of obtaining as many altitudes as I could get on
both sides of the meridian within ten or twelve minutes of the time
of transit, noting the times of each; from which, the meridional al
titude being readily made out, I usually had a mean of several
to compare with the observed altitude; and if the calculated
and observed altitudes agreed within two or three seconds, which
was generally the case, I adopted a mean of the whole for the
meridional altitude. This measure, I am persuaded, contri
buted to accuracy, and was capable of being proved, because
the results formed a part of the probationary operations of an
extensive survey, the nature of which was fully adequate to the
detection of any sensible error. The refraction was invariably
reduced to the state of the atmosphere. -
The Longitudes, except in the instances of the chief points

which were essential to be ascertained with great accuracy, such
as Calpie, Keitch, &c. were taken from protraction, in prefe
rence to the approximations of actual observation; because, at the
places above mentioned, the actual observations were made with
scrupulous exactness, by multiplied observations of the eclipses
of Jupiter's first and second satellites, by the beginning and end
of a solar eclipse, by transits and meridional altitudes of the

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THE

THE PROGREss of DIscovery IN NATURAL PHILosophy,

APRIL 1. To OCTOBER 1. 1825.

P. Neill, Printer, Edinburgh.

II. A Table of the Geographical Positions of several

ART. VII. Account of a Fossil Crocodile recently discovered in

IX. Observations and Experiments on the Structure and

XII. Remarks upon Ground-Ice, or Ice formed at the

XIII. Meteorological Table, shewing the state of the Baro

XIV. Synoptical Table of the Formations of the Crust of

XV. Account of the Ferry across the Tay at Dundee.

ART. XVII. On the Diurnal Variation of the Needle. By SA

XXVI. The Northern Institution, - * 184

XXVII. SciENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Hygrometer. 2. Meteoric appearance on Ben Lomond

7. Extraordinary Rise of the Rio de la Plata, - 187

8. Resiniform Hydrate of Alumina. 9. Native Seleniuret of

Lead and Native Sulphuret of Selenium. 10. Sulphato

15. Evolution of Carbonic Acid Gas at the Lake of Laach,

17. Presence of Oxalate of Lime in the Mineral Kingdom, and

I 8. Rectification of some popular errors regarding the Shark.

23. Dr Grant on the existence of the Pancreas in some species

25. Iodine discovered in various marine productions, - 198

26. Improved Cement for holding small Lenses whilst grind

27. Present Population of Ireland, as contrasted with that of

28. Burial Place of the Inventor of Logarithms, - 201

29. Mohs' System of Mineralogy, translated from the German

ART. I.-On the Construction of Oil and Coal Gas Burners,

Having made these preliminary remarks, we shall proceed at

As, in making a continuous train of experiments, it was of some moment

But, secondly, it is acted on by lights of different colours in a way that bears

less, according to a rough estimate, founded on the distance at which each of

We may refer, for example, to some experiments on the illuminating power

Glasg. 10 ... - - - - -- 72 ... ... 59 ... --- -- -

Edin. 10 ... oil-gas burner, 68 ... ... 42 ... - - - - - -

....... 14 ... -- - --- 78 ... ... 56 ... --- ---

In order to measure the consumption of the gas, a graduated glass tube

Some accidental observations, however, led us to imagine, that, although

A single step farther in the investigation of these curious phenomena,

Light, - - 55.6 100 150.6 197.8 247.4

Light, - - 22 63.7 96.5 141 178

By calculation from these numbers, the following proportions are procured

!-inch. 1-inch. 2-inch. 3-inch. 4-inch. 5-inch.

Light, - 18.4 92.55 259.9 308.9 332.4 425.7

100 282 560 532 582 604 ,

Light, - 360 360 391 409 382

Hence it appears, that no advantage is gained by combining the jets in an Ar

The most advantageous distance, therefore, for jet-holes a 50th of an inch

* we mean of course comparatively yellow; for it is still a bright, beauti

There is still a third method, which was proposed by Dr Henry himself,

Ditto, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... - - - - 590

Ditto, ... ... ... ... ... ... - - - - 968

All of these proportions were procured by photometrical measurement,

* It contained 46 per cent of gas condensible by chlorine.

* Glasgow Burner, No. 2.

* The instrument we used was that of the Astronomical Institution. As

“A small quantity of oil-gas, procured for the experiments, I found to

We have now concluded the account of our experiments, ac

ART. II.-A Table of the Geographical Positions of several

THE following Table of geographical positions, consists prin

The Latitudes were all obtained from actual observations

The Longitudes, except in the instances of the chief points