CE 481

INTRODUCTION to EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING

NATURE of EARTHQUAKES

Dr. Abdullah DİLSİZ

Fall 2019-2020
What is Earthquake Engineering ?

Earthquake engineering is an integration

of multidisciplinary knowledge in several
areas of basic sciences and science-based
engineering with the ultimate goal
of reducing the seismic risks to
socioeconomically
acceptable levels.
Why multidisciplinary ?
Many disciplines involving geoscientists,
geotechnical eng, structural eng, architects
and city planners, mechanical eng, materials
eng, electrical and instrumentation eng,
environmental eng, chemical eng,
contractors, construction managers, social
scientists, economists, statisticians,
government officials, and politicians.
Why the most studied natural hazard ?

“Earthquakes are a very special type of

natural hazard in the sense that they are
very rare, low-probability events, whose
consequences, when they do occur, are very
large in terms of destruction and suffering”.
By Frank Press in 1984
In principle and in the long term, we
have the ability to solve the
earthquake problem.
Fundamental Concepts in Earthquakes

• Significance of hazard for engineers

• Global plate tectonics
• Elastic rebound theory
• Faults
• Fundamental terminology on waveforms
• Magnitude and Intensity concept
• Effects of earthquakes on structures
 SEISMIC HAZARD

is the effect that earthquakes produce

at a particular location.

It is one of the most important

components of SEISMIC RISK
and SEISMIC RISK MITIGATION.
 SEISMIC RISK
Possibility or probability of losses due to
earthquakes

SEISMIC RISK = HAZARD * EXPOSURE * VULNERABILITY

The HAZARD is controlled by NATURE.

VULNERABILITY and EXPOSURE are
controlled by HUMANS!
VULNERABILITY is susceptibility of structures to damage due to EQs. More
seismic vulnerability indicates lower earthquake resistance.
EXPOSURE is the human activity in seismic prone regions. Population, houses,
lifelines, investments in terms of industry and commerce.
Nature Engineers Planners
Earthquakes + population + poorly
built structures = casualties
 Canada : An Example
Seismic Hazard Population
 Canada : An Example
Seismic Risk

Place Hazard Exposure Vulnerability

Baffin Island High Low Low
Vancouver High High High
Toronto Low High Moderate

SEISMIC RISK =
HAZARD * EXPOSURE * VULNERABILITY
Spitak, Armenia (1988) – magnitude 6.7 earthquake, death toll
of at least 25,000 due to collapse of extremely vulnerable high-
rise buildings
Loma Prieta, California (1989) – magnitude 6.9 earthquake, with
death toll of less than 70; most fatalities due to collapse of
Cypress Viaduct
Bam, Iran (2003) – magnitude 6.6 earthquake, with a death toll
30,000 (85% of the buildings were severely damaged or collapsed
There is no evidence for an increase in
seismicity,
but there is clear evidence for increase in
exposure – particularly in the developing world –
and at least no significant reduction in
vulnerability, unfortunately.
Increased RISK !
“Natural” Disasters and Casualties
Human and Economic Losses
 Seismic Risk Mitigation

HAZARD * EXPOSURE * VULNERABILITY * COST

Assess
Control
Reduce
Balance
Any rational and cost-effective program of seismic
risk mitigation, whether it be:
• Seismic design of a critical facility (e.g. NPP)
• Drafting of a building code
• Strengthening of a hospital for emergency care
• Insurance against earthquake losses
• Siting of new developments and infrastructure
Must necessarily begin with a quantitative
assessment of seismic hazard.
Elements of Seismic Hazard
With the exception of the threat of direct
damage to surface fault rupture and the
threat of tsunamis,
all other earthquake hazards are directly
related to the ground shaking induced by the
passage of seismic waves.
But first need an understanding of …
• Earth structure
• Tectonics
• Plate motions and interactions
Earth’s interior
Earth’s interior
Earth’s interior

Other boundaries exist within the earth due to the changes in material strength and stiffness:
Lithosphere is rigid and relatively strong and it is formed of the crust and the outermost part
of the mantle with a thickness of the order of 125 km; Asthenosphere is below the
lithosphere, relatively weak part of the mantle that is able to deform due to creep, essentially
a soft layer within the mantle on which the lithosphere can be considered to float. It
decouples the lithosphere (tectonic plates) from the rest of the mantle.
Earth’s interior

Crust is approximately 7 km thick under the oceans where its structure is rather
simple and uniform, and comprised mainly of basalts (oceanic crust). Below the
continents, the crust is approximately 30 km thick (continental crust). This
increases considerably below mountain ranges. Composition of continental crust
consists of granite as well as basalt. It is much older than oceanic crust.
Crust can be thought of as floating on the mantle.
 Continental vs. Oceanic Crust
The entire lithosphere is characterized as either
continental or oceanic. It is the most heterogeneous
layer of the Earth. This is due to the
difference between continental and oceanic
material.

Sometimes continents have “roots” which extend deep into the upper mantle and
so differences between oceans and continents can extend to depths of 300-400
km; sometimes this boundary is called the tectosphere.
 Convection Mechanism
The interior of the earth is in
constant but a slow motion,
which is driven by heat ...
Continental Drift Theory
Alfred Wegener demonstrated that
the two sides of the Atlantic Ocean
had once been joined together by
including similarity of geological
structures and mineral deposits
and identical fossils of both flora
and fauna. Unfortunately, his
theory was rejected by the
scientific community at the time
not because of the invalidity of the
evidence he provided but rather
because he failed to
provide a convincing explanation
for how this movement occurred.
Theory of Plate Tectonics
The
lithosphere
is broken
up into
slabs,
called
tectonic
plates…
Theory of Plate Tectonics

The plates move relative to one another as a result of convection

currents within the mantle; their interaction produces earthquake.
Earthquake activity around the world (1977-1994)
 Seismicity and Plate Tectonics

The majority of earthquakes occur at locations on or close to the

boundaries between tectonic plates:
• ~75% on the circum-Pacific belt (“ring of fire”)
• ~22% on the Alpine-Himalayan region
• ~2% on the oceanic spreading ridges

Therefore, knowledge of the direction and velocity of plate motions

is fundamental to understanding earthquake processes
 A Summary

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7ho6z32yyo
 Mechanisms of Plate Movement

There exist three types of

plate boundaries:
convergent, divergent
and transform. All three
types have significant
seismic activities. In
addition, convergent and
divergent boundaries
possess significant
volcanic activities.
Mechanisms of Plate Movement
Divergent Boundaries: Mid-Ocean Ridges
Mid-Ocean ridges occur between plates
that move away from one another (only
in oceanic crust). They are the
“birthplace” of oceanic lithosphere. The
newly formed oceanic crust is pushed
sideways to make room for hotter
upwelling material. This sideways
motion continues as the plates become
cooler and heavier.
 Convergent Boundaries: Subduction Zones
 Deep earthquakes
 Volcanoes

When two tectonic plates converge often (heavier) one will get buried or subducted
beneath the other.
 Convergent Boundaries: Subduction Zones

Earthquakes can only occur in brittle material. Therefore,

earthquakes can happen only in the lithosphere (brittle material),
which is usually 100-200 km thick.
However, there are earthquakes down to a depth of 700 km. It
turns out the deep earthquakes (depth > 200 km) are occurring in
lithosphere that has been subducted. Deep earthquakes occur in
planar (2D) arrangements called Wadati-Benioff Zones.
Seismologists use the locations of deep earthquakes to map out
the geometry of subducting lithosphere.
 Transform Boundaries: Strike – Slip Faults

Transform faults occur most often

as connecting segments between
spreading ridges.
Transform Boundaries: Strike – Slip Faults
North and East Anatolian transform faults
Vectors of GPS Stations
Faulting Types and Parameters
Faulting Types
Normal (=divergent) Reverse (=convergent)

Transform (=strike-slip)
 Elastic Rebound Theory

Came through based on the

observations from the 1906
San Francisco earthquake. On
the basis of these
observations, Harry Fielding
Reid (1911), proposed the
theory of elastic rebound as
the mechanism for earthquake
occurrence, a model that has
been universally accepted.
Fault Traces on the Surface
1999 Marmara EQ

Right lateral strike – slip fault

Fault Traces on the Surface
1999 Marmara
EQ
Fault Traces on the Surface
1999 Marmara
EQ
Fault Traces on the Surface
1999 Marmara
EQ
Release of Energy in Fault Ruptures: Seismic Waves
Release of Energy in Fault Ruptures: Seismic Waves
How Do Earthquakes Affect Buildings?
Seismic Waves
Location of Earthquakes: Epicenter

the complete location of the earthquake is given by four parameters: the

latitude and longitude of the epicenter, the focal depth and the origin time.
What Controls the Level of Shaking?

• Magnitude
– More energy released
• Distance
– Shaking decays with distance
• Local soils
– amplify the shaking
 Earthquake magnitude

 M0: Seismic Moment: The best, but application is very

complex
 Mw: Moment Magnitude: in terms of Seismic Moment

 ML: Local Magnitude : Richter (1935), Güney California

 mB: Body Wave Magnitude saturation
 MS: Surface Wave Magnitude
Moment Magnitude, Mw

saturation
Local Magnitude, ML

a nomogram
Magnitude versus Intensity

 Magnitude: measures the size of an earthquake and its

source. Example: ML, MS, Mw …

 Intensity: measures the effects of an earthquake.

Observational intensity (12-step scale for observed
damage at a site)
Instrumental intensity (strong motion record at a site)
Modified Mercalli Scale, MMS
Modified Mercalli Scale, MMS
Isoseismal Map

17 August
1999
Kocaeli EQ
(Mw=7.4)
Instrumental intensity
How Do Earthquakes Affect Buildings?
Special & Innovative Solutions for Earthquakes
 Special & Innovative Solutions for Earthquakes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HuSiRRoz72Y&t=24s
Special & Innovative Solutions for Earthquakes

LRB: Lead-Rubber Bearing SSB: Spherical Sliding Bearing

Special & Innovative Solutions for Earthquakes

Energy Dissipation Devices : Dampers

Earthquake Disaster in Turkey
 Seismic Hazard in Turkey

Fig. Earthquake Zoning Map of Fig. Earthquake Hazard Map

Turkey, 1996 of Turkey, 2018

Peak Ground Acc. (PGA) values presented here. Spectral

for a building location;
Acceleration values at 0.2 sec and 1 sec, as well as the
 10 km from the North Anatolian Fault (NAF)
Peak Ground Velocity (PGV) values are also available with
 Spectral accelerations: SS=2g and S1=1.3g
interactive web application at www.tdth.afad.gov.tr
Earthquakes in Turkey, 1999 Marmara
Earthquakes in Turkey, 1999 Marmara
Earthquakes in Turkey, 1999 Marmara
Earthquakes in Turkey, 1999 Marmara
Earthquakes in Turkey, 1999 Marmara
Earthquakes in Turkey, 1999 Marmara
Earthquakes in Turkey, 1999 Marmara
Earthquakes in Turkey, 1999 Marmara
Earthquakes in Turkey, 1999 Marmara
Earthquakes in Turkey, 2010 Elazığ
Earthquakes in Turkey, 2010 Elazığ
Earthquakes in Turkey, 2011 Van
Earthquakes in Turkey, 2011 Van
Earthquakes in Turkey, 2011 Van
Earthquakes in Turkey, 2011 Van
Earthquakes in Turkey, 2011 Van
 Once Again…

In principle and in the long term, we

have the ability to solve the
earthquake problem !?!?!

Need to study and understand more!

 But, How? An Example…

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9X-js9gXSME&t=152s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hSwjkG3nv1c
 Thanks…

Questions?
 Homework #1
Answer the following questions, using the course textbook, as well as the internet sources;

1. Explain the terms; “seismic risk”, “seismic hazard”, “exposure” and “vulnerability”. Give
their definitions and explain their relationship. Handle them from the Earthquake Engineering
perspective.
2. Explain the “elastic rebound theory”.
3. Explain the “magnitude” and “intensity” of earthquakes, giving the details and differences.
4. How the “Local Magnitude (ML)” of an earthquake is estimated using nomogram? Explain,
and show using a nomogram figure.
5. How the epicenters of the earthquakes are determined? Explain, and show using a figure.

Please, give the citation of all the references (i.e. books, scientific articles, web pages, etc.)
that you use.

Due Date: 16.10.2019 – During the Lecture