10 sources for RRLj

1
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.651&rep=rep1&type=pdf

TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND POLITICS IN THE PHILIPPINES

TOURISMOS: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF TOURISM

Volume 6, Number 2, Autumn 2011, pp. 159-173 UDC: 338.48+640(050)

Summary:

The paper examines tourism in the Philippines, a South East Asian nation which has yet to reach
its potential as an international destination. Conditions in the country are analyzed and possible reasons
for its relatively poor performance are discussed. Various barriers to development are identified, but
political circumstances emerge as a key consideration whereby instability in assorted manifestations has
impeded the operation of the industry, investment and policy making. While experiences of destination
development are distinctive, the particular example offers insights into general processes and
underlying dynamics.

Citations:

- There is a degree of economic diversity and recent years have seen good GDP growth rates, but
heavy debts and lack of investor confidence are serious weaknesses. (p.160-161)
- International tourism has expanded rapidly throughout Asia Pacific in recent decades, often at a
faster pace than in other regions of the world, although the global recession which commenced
in 2008 has depressed demand and investment. (p.161)
- About 45% of all tourists travel for holiday purposes, 26.5% to visit friends and relatives and
16.9% for business. (p.161)
- Tourists must have some knowledge of a country and be positively inclined towards it, indicating
the importance of promotion (Buhalis, 2000), and the support of tour operators and travel
agents in generating markets is required. (p. 162)
- There are further considerations such as incidence of natural disasters and outbreaks of disease
and the ways these are managed (Wilks et al., 2005; Clarke et al., 2009). Collectively, these
determinants act to encourage or depress inbound tourism and hence destination development
(p. 162)
- The political culture is, however, one of some turbulence with a propensity towards military
interference. (p.163)
- Terrorists have been guilty of brutal murders and bombings and the kidnapping of locals and
foreigners, amongst them tourists. (p.163)
 - Nevertheless, tourism is recognized as an economic sector of significance which has excellent
prospects. It is a core component of the Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan (MTDP)
2004-2010, dedicated to fighting ‘poverty by building prosperity for the greatest number of the
Filipino people’ (NEDA, 2004, p. 1), (p.164)
- The Department of Tourism (DOT) oversees the industry and is charged with promoting it as a
‘major socio-economic activity to generate foreign currency and employment and to spread the
benefits of tourism to both the public and private sector’. (p. 165)
- This is a great way to bring in foreign currency which can improve the economic standpoint of
the Philippines
- The Philippine Tourism Authority was created in 1973 as the DOT’s ‘implementing arm’ with a
mission ‘to develop identified priority areas; to operate, maintain and promote facilities in
pioneering capacity; to provide technical and financial assistance to qualified tourism projects;
and to generate revenues to fund national and corporate development undertakings’ (p. 165)
- The House Committee on Tourism is pressing for the new law to ‘ensure long-term directions,
generate more investments and employment and situate the tourism industry as a primary
engine for economic growth and national development’ (Committee News, 2007). The issue
remains outstanding and must compete with other urgent questions for parliamentary attention
and resources. (p.165)
- consequences of tourism have a wider application, particularly at sensitive sites on the coast
and inland where there has been environmental degradation and destruction. (p. 166)

Findings:

- Transportation is an issue which should be solved if tourism should improve

- The transportation system is inefficient as well as of the moment, however there are efforts
being made by the government to improve this
- The article suggests that the Philippines is a great place to have its tourism sector improved
- Due to its large potential and lack in manpower, management and initiative, having
development tourism is a great way to boost the tourism sector
- The article is not too broad and at the same time, its scope is not too narrow although in
relation to our thesis topic, it goes slightly away from tourism and goes to the topic on politics
and social welfare and even poverty in the article.

2
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lisa_Campbell/publication/7043739_What_Makes_Them_Pay_V
alues_of_Volunteer_Tourists_Working_for_Sea_Turtle_Conservation/links/53d7a4f50cf2a19eee7fc987.
pdf

What Makes Them Pay? Values of Volunteer Tourists

Working for Sea Turtle Conservation

Environmental Management Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 84–98
Summary:

As charismatic mega-fauna, sea turtles attract many volunteers to conservation programs. This article
examines the ways in which volunteers value sea turtles, in the specific context of volunteers working
with the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. The complexity of volunteer
values is explored using a qualitative approach. In-depth interviews with 31 volunteers were conducted
in July of 1999 and 2000. Interviews probed, among other things, interest in sea turtles and their
conservation, motives for participating, and the most gratifying parts of their volunteer experience.
Results show that volunteers hold multiple and complex values for sea turtles, but particular values
dominate. Results have implications for understanding human–environment relations and the emerging
study of volunteer tourism. There are also management implications for volunteer programs hoping to
attract participants.

Citations:

- This type of volunteering that takes volunteers away from home to often exotic locations, for
short periods of time, is considered a form of alternative tourism and is growing rapidly (p. 84)
- Although volunteers working for wildlife conservation in their home environments have been
studied, the focus has been on motives for volunteering rather than values (p. 84)
- The Earthwatch Institute is perhaps the best-known organization offering volunteer tourist
opportunities, and has worked with more than 72,000 participants since its founding in 1971.
(p. 84)
- Like all values, environmental values pass through cultural, social, political, spiritual, and/or
economic ‘‘lenses’’ (Rolston 1994). Although fundamental human values such as security,
achievement, and self-direction may be universal (Rokeach 1973; Schwartz and Bilsky 1991),
(p. 85)
- Use value is described as the direct use of an environmental feature, such as harvesting wildlife
for human consumption or income generation. Nonuse values, also referred to as passive
values, are those expressed for the environment or an environmental feature for the enjoyment
it provides rather than its usefulness to humans (p. 85)
- The two most common approaches to environmental values research are 1) socio-psychological
studies of expressed environmental values, attitudes, and actions; and 2) economic studies of
‘‘willingness to pay’’ (p. 85)
- Picture below taken from page 86
- There is debate, for example, about the most appropriate questions to gauge environmental
values on socio-psychological surveys (Fransson and Ga¨rling 1999; Kemmelmeier and others
2002). Furthermore, because surveys rely on respondent self-reporting, actual activity may be
over-reported, and surveys have often proven an inadequate predictor of environmental action
(p. 86)
- Fearnside (1999) and Clark and others (2000) suggest that the values generated through the
WTP method are not real values for an environmental ‘‘good,’’ and Freese (1997) maintains that
WTP surveys often overestimate what individuals would actually pay if required. (p. 87)
- For all of these reasons, a qualitative approach was used. Although fewer in number, there are
qualitative studies of environmental values (p. 87)
- PRs (participant researchers who engage in the tourist work) generally stay for 1 to 3 weeks, and
aid Ras with all tasks except tagging during one data collection shift per night. Fees paid by PRs
are as follows: US $1,360 for 1 weeks, $1,785 for 2 weeks, and $2,075 for 3 weeks (2001 prices).
These fees cover room and board, round trip transportation to Tortuguero from the capital city,
and some local sight-seeing excursions. Fees do not include the roundtrip fare to Costa Rica and
other miscellaneous expenses. (p. 87)
- Although the results presented here are not meant to represent the values of all volunteers, we
were concerned to maximize the number of volunteers interviewed and our use of resources.
(p. 88)
- Most volunteers were engaged in professional occupations or, in the case of younger
volunteers, in university training that would lead to professional occupations. (p. 88)
- Direct questions regarding respondent values were generally avoided (p. 88)
Findings:

- This is a good article on showing about how development volunteer tourism is beneficial for
both the tourist and the tourist spot
- However, in the later parts of the article the topic revolves more around the results and findings
on the efforts made by the researchers on the behaviors and the impact that the volunteer
tourists posses
- Although this may be somewhat lacking in information, this is expected since it revolves more
around the findings that the tourists have towards their work towards the turtles
- This article is quite narrow in scope to be of good use at least for the later parts of the article,
however in the earlier parts, the article is useful in understanding the dynamics of volunteer
tourism seeing the differences volunteer tourists have towards the same issue.
- Also shows some suggested age groups of tourists to target which is good as it reinforces our
idea on focusing our scope to young professionals and even university students on vacation.

3
https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/49962729/1522-
1970_28200101_2F02_293_3A1_3C1_3A_3Aaid-jtr241_3E3.0.co_3B2-m20161029-6326-
fur3oq.pdf?response-content-
disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DTravelling_workers_and_working_tourists.pdf&X-Amz-
Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A%2F20191006%2Fus-
east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20191006T104945Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-
SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-
Signature=f33204ad40b5a28ed6679ffb576ac2c5e08092a3e778965061e9fc94156356cb

`Travelling Workers' and `Working

Tourists': Variations across the Interaction

between Work and Tourism

Summary:

Tourism and work are usually perceived as two contradicting fields of human activity.
Nevertheless, the study of tourism contains a few references to situations in which workrelated and
tourist-oriented activities are combined. A review of this narrow and sporadic literature suggests that
the interaction between work and tourism, although mentioned in various contexts, has been hardly
discussed as a distinct phenomenon. This paper aims to provide a coherent descriptive basis to further
the study of this phenomenon by setting up a typology of travellers who combine workrelated with
tourist-oriented pursuits. Based on their work-related and tourist-oriented motivations, four types of
such travellers are depicted: `travelling professional workers'; `migrant tourism workers';
`noninstitutionalised working tourists'; and `working-holiday tourists'. Whereas members of the two
former types of travellers are referred to as `travelling workers', members of the two latter types of
travellers were defined as `working tourists'. In addition, the typology points to the differences between
these types of travellers in terms of their work characteristics and their demographic profile. Copyright #
2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Citations:

- definition of tourism suggests that, beyond its image of `holiday-making', people travelling for
business or professional purposes also can be considered as tourists WTO, 1993). (p.1)
- The term `working tourist' was used recently by Uriely and Reichel (2000) with respect to all
types of travellers who engage in situations that combine work with tourist-oriented activities.
(p. 2)
- “Young Professionals”
o young professionals who engage in a form of journeying that depends upon occupation,
but only in a secondary sense in that it serves the more primary goal, the travel itself'
(p.2)
o professionals who perform touristry engage in their occupation primarily as a means to
travel. (p. 2)
- “Migrant Workers”
o work combined with a casual lifestyle leads them to move between popular tourist
destinations where they engage in seasonal employment. (p. 3)
- “Non-institutionalised working tourists”
o The tendency to engage in certain jobs primarily as means to travel is mainly associated
with `non-institutionalised' young tourists (e.g. Cohen, 1972) who tend to engage in
unskilled and manual labour during their excursion. (p. 3)
o Thus, they are better referred to as `working tourists' rather than `travelling workers'.
(p. 3)
- “Working-holiday tourists”
o exemplify the most tourist-oriented manifestation of the interaction between work and
tourism. (p. 4)
o in which youth from one country travel into another to work for short periods, mostly
during summer-school vacations' (p. 4)
o More leisure oriented compared to working oriented (p. 4)
o These volunteers engage in unpaid work for a period of three to six months, but the
kibbutz provides them with accommodation, free food, cleaning services, cultural
activities and monthly `pocket money' of about $50 to $100 (p. 4)
- The interaction between work and tourism has been conceptualised in this paper by setting up
a typology of travellers who engage in situations that combine work-related and touristoriented
pursuits. (p. 6)
- Specifically, four types of travellers were depicted across three dimensions of comparison: their
work-related and tourist-oriented motivations, the characteristics of the work they engage in,
and their demographic profiles (see Table 1). (p. 6)
 (1) `travelling professional workers', who are
mainly oriented towards work-related purposes and engage in tourist-oriented activities only as
a by-product of their excursion;
(2) `migrant tourism workers', who travel in
order `to make a living' and `have fun' at
the same time;
(3) `non-institutionalised working tourists',
who engage in work while travelling in
order to finance a prolonged trip;
(4) `working-holiday tourists' who perceive
their work engagement as a recreational
activity that is part of their tourist experience.
- future research needs to be focused on the community expectations and attitudes towards
these travellers. (p. 7)

Findings:

- This article narrows down the scope more on developmental tourism

- It is clearer now on what kind of traveler we are to target more on the scope
- However, this focuses more only on the working aspect out of travelling with expected
monetary compensation rather than volunteer work
- Although this is slightly the goal to combine compensation with volunteer work this article only
tackles on the working tourist aspect without the development and the volunteering
- This is good though to narrow things down to see which kind of tourist worker or working
tourist to target more
 4
https://aboutphilippines.org/files/WorkingPaper-2008-08-RPUSFTA-Lagman.pdf

The Philippine Tourism Industry: Adjustments and Upgrading

(best article among the 10)

Summary:

Tourism plays an important role in the socio-economic development of a country. This paper
examined the Philippine’s tourism attractions, particularly major destinations like Boracay, Palawan,
Camiguin, and Bohol. It also discussed deterrents to the growth of tourism in the country. It explored
the Department of Tourism’s tourism strategy, looked into the public and private sector partnership in
tourism development and proposed possible alternatives for improved tourism in the Philippines.
Finally, it concluded that the aggressive effort of the Department of Tourism and the enthusiastic
participation of the private sector, with deliberate push from the Philippine Chamber of Commerce and
Industry, to upgrade and expand the tourism-related infrastructure, facilities, amenities, and systems
present a bright future for the Philippine tourism industry.

Citations:

- Even in countries that have security problems, tourist arrivals continue to increase. (p. 4)
- Tourism is a key element of the Philippine economy. According to the World Tourism
Organization, its contribution to the Gross National Product averages 8.8 percent. It brings in the
much-needed foreign exchange into the country. (p. 4)
- The Philippines has timeless competitive advantages. It is near North Asia, which is composed of
the rich sources of tourists: China, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, and Hong Kong. The country has
world-class natural attractions, like the world-famous Boracay beaches and Taal Lake. (p.4)
- Surveys indicated that 46% of the visitors cited the warm hospitality and kindness of the people
as the thing they liked most about the Philippines. Only 15% cited the natural attractions as the
thing they liked most. Twenty-six and half percent cited heavy traffic as the thing most disliked.
The other most disliked thing (cited by 16% of visitors) is the air and water pollution/dirty
environment/ bad roads. (p.5)
- Deterrents to tourism growth: (p. 7)
o Domestic political uncertainty in the country;
o Constant threat of insurgency in areas with natural attractions;
o Inadequacy of accommodations with standards of quality befitting foreign tourists;
o Absence of a culture of tourism;
o Lack of transportation systems to move efficiently and comfortably, and at lower cost,
large numbers of tourists to other attractions outside Luzon, and from one destination
to another;
o Lack of secondary attractions around primary destinations.
- Inaccessibility is at the heart of Philippine tourism destinations’ competitive disadvantage. (p.8)
- The places known for scuba diving, surfing, caving, board sailing, mountain/rock climbing, and
kayaking are even less accessible or are unsafe. They are down rugged coasts or in areas
infested with rebels. (p. 8)
- The natural attractions of the country can compare with the best in the region and some, like
the beaches, are even superior to their counterparts in other countries. (p.7)
- The Department of Tourism (DOT), recognizing the competitive disadvantage of Philippine
tourist destinations, has decided to address the problem. It has decided that the product focus
for the medium term should include the following elements: (p. 12)
o 10-14 day well-organized package tours based on several tourist-ready destinations in
the long-haul mass comfort segment;
o 4-5 day well-organized tours based on convenient flights to specific cluster areas
offering sightseeing, shopping for native branded goods, eating out, and a good range of
accommodation in the short-haul sightseeing and shopper segment;
o Good beaches with direct access, varied accommodation, and also varied choices of
convenient sun and fun activities in the short-haul beach lover segment;
o golf, gaming, diving, spa or theme parks worth visiting in the short-haul recreation travel
segment;
o Convenient and well-organized 4-5 day adventure activities at natural sites in the short-
haul ecotourism segment;
o World-class convention and exhibit facilities together with competitively priced flights
and hotel accommodations for the MICE segment.
- Eight priority destinations have been classified into three groups:
o Major destinations: Cebu-Bohol-Camiguin-Palawan, Manila plus Tagaytay, and Davao •
Minor destinations: Vigan-Laoag, and Clark-Subic
o Special interest destinations: Baguio-Banaue, and Boracay Priority actions in each set of
destinations are:
o For major destinations, priority shall be given to major infrastructure improvement,
aggressively closing gaps, and promoting destinations. In the case of Davao, the priority
shall be to build for its future after resolving security issues;
o In the case of special interest destinations, the priority shall be to increase accessibility,
and improve the existing tourism products being offered; and
o For minor destinations, the priority shall be more attractions, and promote these as
secondary options.
- The priority destinations will be developed through the establishment of tourism economic
zones to create accountability and mobilize investments. (p.12)
- Hotels, restaurants, resorts, tourism enterprises and other tourism-related products and
activities shall be developed with the identified tourism zones and hubs. Moreover, health
tourism, ecotourism, agritourism, cultural tourism, handicraft skills demo centers, and
adventure shall be enhanced. (p.12)
- The Tourism Department should encourage private sector investors to create secondary
attractions around established tourist destinations. (p. 14)
- The famous Bohol Chocolate Hills attraction was a 20-minute experience, making the long land
travel time to get there not worth it. What the Bohol government did was to develop attractions
 along the way to the Chocolate Hills. So, visitors are now also shown heritage and cultural
attractions. What used to be a 20-minute experience has become a half-day experience. (p.14)
- Tours can also be packaged to give the tourist a sampling of the country’s natural wonder,
historical sites, and culture. (p. 17)
- The attractiveness of these secondary destinations would be enhanced significantly if the
physical environment would be cleaned, the roads to the points of interest upgraded, the area
made safe and secure, and the local folks enjoined to welcome warmly the visitors. (p. 18)
- With these cluster attractions, the DOT is concentrating its marketing efforts to attracting
Japanese, Korean, and Chinese tourists. (p. 19)
- The Secretary needs to launch an information and education campaign that highlights the
significant contributions that tourism can make to the development of the local economy, the
improvement of the environment, and the increase in job opportunities. He needs to personally
persuade the local people to support efforts to develop tourism in the area. (p. 20)
- PCCI calls this initiative BIZTOURS 5, which is focused on driving investment in five tourism-
related areas: Arrival, Access, Accommodation, Attractions, and Activities, or the 5 A’s. (p. 21)
- Ilocos Norte Governor Ferdinand Marcos has launched a program of bringing in as many as one
million tourists into Ilocandia, the Northern Coast of the Philippines. Ilocandia comprises the
provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, and Pangasinan. (p. 23)
- For this reason, Gov. Marcos presented the investment opportunities in tourism-related
undertakings to the participants in the Philippine Business Conference and Expo last October 12,
2005. They parallel the PCCI’s 5A’s investment opportunities. (p.23)

Findings:

- This article shows the emphasis on the importance of developing the tourism sector
- This further supports our thesis topic on developmental tourism through encouraging
developing the tourism sector
- This also shows and categorizes the main and secondary as well as the other kinds of tourist
destinations and their needs
- Shows the strengths and weaknesses in the tourism sector which can also give ideas for how the
development tourists can come here and contribute to improving the facilities of these tourist
destinations
- Also this shows the areas which the government are already trying to target as a means for
improving the tourism sector which means that there is already an area or scope which we can
target for the sake of improving the tourism sector.
- Transportation is the main issue here
- However, the article is only heavily relevant at the start only with its topic emphasizing on the
needs which need to be addressed for the sake of improvement of the tourism sector.
- Since moving on to the later parts it starts to talk more on about the attractions themselves.
- But because they talk about the attractions with secondary attractions, it also shows what some
world class resorts and tourist destinations like anvaya, azure, and Tagaytay highlands are doing
which also shows a glimpse on what efforts should be made if we are to boost and further
develop the tourism sector.
- Also shows the effectiveness on planning tourist packages
 - Also shows a suggested tourist target of north east Asians

5
http://research.lpubatangas.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/JRBM-Promoting-the-Tourism-
Industry.pdf

Promoting the Tourism Industry of Calatagan Batangas, Philippines

Summary:

This study entitled aimed to promote Calatagan as a tourist destination in Batangas. Descriptive
type of research was utilized in the study. Results showed that Lago de Oro is the most frequently visited
over the other attractions. The common problem encountered by the Tourism Industry in Calatagan is
lack of promotion. Among the social benefits brought by tourism in Calatagan they strongly agreed on
promoting of peace and order situation. Among the economic benefits they strongly agree on
employment opportunities. Tourism means more jobs for the people and improvement of their standard
of living. All programs are implemented and the government knows how to develop more of their place.

Citations:

- Tourism is a fast growing industry that has become a top priority of the economic agenda of a
number of countries. (p.1)
- It is believed that tourism can be used as a tool to solve problems like unemployment and
poverty in developing countries (p.1)
- Commerce and industry play a significant role in the economic structure of the Municipality. It is
primary economic indicator progress. Moreover, it strengthens the nexus of settlement fabrics
by catering to the local everyday needs of the populace. (p. 2)
- To maintain the tourism industry, residents may provide additional services to satisfy tourists,
maintain the quality of the product and the characteristics of people and create more products
that continuously develop their social and economic resources (p. 2)
- Calatagan is a place, which is not yet, developed but despite of this, it has aesthetic value that is
ready for development. It is also a place where beautiful sites lie such as; Punta Baluarte,
Calatagan Golf Club, Rosegold Hotel & Resort, Lago De Oro Beach, and Nacua Eathing/ Fishing
Resort. (p. 2)
- The study aimed to determine the most frequently visited tourist attractions in Calatagan; to
determine the extent of rating of the residents and tourists to the different tourist attraction in
Calatagan; to determine the common problems that hinder tourism growth in Calatagan; to
identify the respondents’ view on the social and economic benefits of the development of
Tourism Industry in the place and the to determine the extent of the implementation of the
development programs and projects by municipality of Calatagan. (p. 2)
 - The common problem encountered by the Tourism Industry in Calatagan is lack of promotion,
accessibility and financial constraints (p. 3)
- Among the economic benefits they strongly agree on employment opportunities. Tourism
means more jobs for the people of Calatagan and improvement of their standard of living.
However, they agree on trading industry, income for local government, improve standard of
living, economic growth or progression, investment and development, prestige for the place and
upgrade production of local products. (p.3)
- The government and resort owner should enrich more on all the attractions found in this
destination specially those attractions that are less frequently visited so that it will be
appreciated and patronised by many. The non-government, residents and government
representatives may collaborate in demonstrating information education communication
focused on coastal management (p. 4)
- The resort owner should think of many ways on how to attract more tourists. They should
develop more of their place by offering different facilities and amenities. The government
should properly implement all the programs and projects in Calatagan and they should try to
lessen the problems encountered by the government employees, residents, resort manager and
tourists by implementing those programs. The different business establishments related to
tourism must improve and develop their products, goods, and services they rendered, also their
facilities to attract more tourists (p. 4)

Findings:

- At the start of the article, it shows the importance of tourism and the potential impact it poses
the the economy of a certain country
- It also further supports our agenda on our efforts to improve the tourism sector of the country
since it shows the importance of tourism
- It shows Calatagan, Batangas as an example of potential tourist spots which can be further
developed to attract more tourists in order to boost the tourism sector
- This article also shows the areas which are lacking for tourist spots in calatagan, Batangas and
also the measures which should be done in order to improve these spots.
- This also shows the openness of people towards accepting tourism as a means to further
improve the local economy in the area
- This article can also show as a basis and an example which can also represent all the many spots
across the Philippines which have major potential in terms of attracting tourists.
- This also narrows down the scope on what to do specifically for potential tourist spots

6
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Greg_Richards3/publication/310327332_Tourism_and_Sustainab
le_Community_Development/links/582b881408ae004f74afb962.pdf
 Tourism and Sustainable Community Development

Summary:

As the tourist industry becomes increasingly important to communities around the world, the
need to develop tourism sustainably has also become a primary concern. This collection of international
case studies addresses this crucial issue by asking what local communities can contribute to sustainable
tourism, and what sustainability can offer local communities. The role of the community in
environmental, cultural and economic sustainability is highlighted in an extraordinary variety of
contexts, ranging from inner city Edinburgh to rural northern Portugal and the beaches of Indonesia.
Individually, through the breadth of their coverage, these investigations present a wealth of original
research and source material. Collectively, these studies illuminate the term ‘community’, the meaning
of which, it is argued, is vital to understanding how sustainable tourism development can be
implemented in practice.

Citations:

- Communities are a basic reason for tourists to travel, to experience the way of life and material
products of different communities. (p. 1)
- Communities also shape the ‘natural’ landscapes which many tourists consume. (p. 1)
- Communities are, of course, also the source of tourists; tourists are drawn from particular places
and social contexts which in themselves will help shape the context of the tourist’s experience in
the host community. (p.1)
- Sustaining the community/particular communities has therefore become an essential element
of sustainable tourism. (p. 1)
- The rationale of sustainable tourism development usually rests on the assurance of renewable
economic, social and cultural benefits to the community and its environment. (p. 1)
- sustainability requires that the continuing/improved social, cultural and economic well-being of
human communities is an integral component of environmental renewal. (p. 1)
- The growing complexity of communities and the relationships between them pose significant
challenges for the sustainable development of tourism. Local community structures can provide
the source of both problems and potential solutions in the sphere of sustainable development.
This is the major issue examined from different perspectives in this book. (p. 2)
- Ideologies on the concept of a community (p. 2)
o First, the idea of community as belonging to a specific topographical location.
o Second, as defining a particular local social system.
o Third, in terms of a feeling of ‘communitas’ or togetherness;
o fourth as an ideology, often hiding the power relations which inevitably underlie
communities.
- The fact that tourists may travel to experience such communities—if only at arm’s length,
interpreted through a guide or by dint of an evening’s ‘staged authenticity’—has placed
renewed emphasis on the relationship between community and locality. (p. 4)
- Tourists travel partly to consume difference, to see how other societies live. They can also be
repulsed from districts regarded as dangerous or hostile because of the nature of the
‘community’ within. (p. 4)
- The realization that the community itself has become an object of tourism consumption has in
turn encouraged some communities to reproduce themselves specifically for tourists. (p. 4) –
This also serves as a negative effect which takes away the authenticity of some communities
rather than maintaining their original way of life just for the sake of tourism and attraction
- Communities are not simply victims of the globalisation process and commodification, however.
Communities also become centres of resistance to the processes of modernisation. (p. 4)
- economic necessity is usually the driving force behind the growth of tourism. (p. 5)
- Sustainability is important because communities need to support themselves on the basis of
available resources. (p. 5)
- Sustainability, which embraces and integrates environmental, economic, political, cultural and
social considerations. In this way there is an implicit recognition that to be truly sustainable, the
preservation of the ‘natural’ environment must be grounded in the communities and societies
which exploit and depend upon it. (p. 5)
- Not all local residents benefit equally from, or are equally happy with, tourism development.
The literature on the bounding of ‘community’, conflict versus consensus and questions of
inclusion and exclusion is, historically, considerable. (p. 7)
- The community is often treated as relatively homogeneous, with little internal conflict (p. 7)
- In many cases, however, the development of tourism may only serve to highlight existing
inequalities and differences in the community. The failure of existing institutions to address
problems of inequality and deprivation are leading to the growth of the ‘third sector’, or grass-
roots organisations, NGOs and other associations which operate outside existing formal
structures. (p. 7)
- it is suggested that locals not only support the industry but are in favour of its expansion. (p. 8)
- influencing the nature and appropriateness of ‘community’ which cannot easily be
accommodated within current tourism development models that present a Western-oriented
perspective. (p. 8)
- Monitoring is an important part of the bottom-up approach adopted by the Tourism
Management Programme established for the region. (p. 9)
- He examines the way in which ‘ordinary’ areas of the city have been developed for tourism, as
part of the search by ‘new tourists’ for ‘authentic’ experiences. (p. 9)
- local authorities have so far paid little attention to Agenda 21 in general, and to the need to
develop sustainable tourism in particular. Long-term planning for sustainability is currently
incompatible with the short-termism characteristic of most local authorities. (p. 9)
- They argue that the development of ‘fair trade’ schemes is far more effective than aid in
stimulating economic development and ensuring that the benefits of that development reach all
sectors of the community (p. 9-10)
- identifies two types of entrepreneurs: patrons, who control the means of production, and
brokers, who act as intermediaries between the patrons and the tourists. Patrons, as owners of
homestays and other small businesses, act largely within the formal sector of the economy,
whereas the brokers (guides, street vendors, taxi drivers) operate more often in the informal
sector (p. 10)
- They describe how the local population initially responded to the growth of tourism by offering
simple accommodation and other services suitable for the predominantly young visitors. (p. 10)
 - development of networks can be a useful means of stimulating community development. Her
study of local networks in rural Friesland shows that a combination of top-down and bottom-up
approaches can work, providing there is sufficient integration of regional and local policies, and
providing incentives are aimed at networks rather than individual entrepreneurs (p. 10)
- local communities need to track the birth and death of tourism enterprises as a guide to policy.
(p. 11)
- sustainable tourism is such a loosely defined concept that it allows the tourist industry to adopt
it for marketing purposes. (p. 11)
- accelerated growth of the tourism industry, guided by public and private policies, benefits the
region. (p. 11)
- She finds that the market can be divided into four segments or clusters, and advocates policy
orientation towards these. (p. 12) – try to research on this more if kaya
- They argue that while a clear brand image emerges, the basis of such perceptions could be
undermined by the very development of the brand if the underlying key determinant, the socio-
economic structures of the local community, is undermined. (p. 12)

Findings:

- Aside from further developing the community which will also serve as a tourist spot, sustaining
and ensuring that the community is in good shape is also as important in order to allow it to
continue being a community for the locals and tourists
- This shows the importance of sustaining the community before we can move forward
- Also shows the relation between sustainable development with tourism
- Article tends to go more on the ideology of a community itself rather than our focused topic
which is tourism development for that very community
- Although it emphasizes on the importance with maintaining and sustaining a community it tends
to shift focus
- This also shows the possible negative effects which tourists may impose on the tourist spots
which are also communities
- Sustaining resources is a major priority
- This book also shows some methods and suggestions made by different researchers in order to
address the issue on making sure that the development and tourism in that certain community
is also sustainable.
- Long term planning is key here
- Businesses are key also in assisting the tourism sector of a specific area
- Sustainable tourism needs to be developed and studied more instead of being used as a means
only as a marketing strategy in order to increase the benefits both for the tourist and the
community.
- Branding and marketing a community is also an effective way to boost economic output and
growth in that tourism sector.
 7
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ercan_Sirakaya-
Turk/publication/258160598_Measuring_Residents'_Attitude_toward_Sustainable_Tourism_Developm
ent_of_Sustainable_Tourism_Attitude_Scale/links/552d9dd20cf29b22c9c4f810/Measuring-Residents-
Attitude-toward-Sustainable-Tourism-Development-of-Sustainable-Tourism-Attitude-Scale.pdf

Measuring Residents’ Attitude toward Sustainable Tourism: Development of Sustainable Tourism

Attitude Scale

Summary:

The purpose of this study is to develop and validate a scale assessing residents’ attitudes toward
sustainable tourism (SUS-TAS). Following the pretesting phase, a 51-item scale of resident attitudes
toward sustainable community tourism was administered to 800 households in a small tourism
community in Texas. Psychometric properties of SUSTAS along with its practical and theoretical
implications are discussed within the framework of sustainable tourism development.

Citations:

- Sustainable tourism as an emerging paradigm seems to enhance the existing conceptual

frameworks on tourism planning and development by making the residents its focal point.
Indeed, both direct and indirect support of community residents’ (p. 381)
- The sustainable tourism paradigm seeks to strike a balance between the traditional “utility
paradigm” and its derivative, “social exchange theory,” which focuses on the tradeoff between
economic costs and benefits, and the new environmental paradigm (NEP), which concentrates
on conservation/preservation of all resources and enhancement of the well-being of
communities during generations to come (Rowe 1992). (p. 381)
- , sustainable tourism seems to be one of the best alternative developmental frameworks that
has the potential to ameliorate the negative impacts of conventional mass tourism. (p. 381)
- According to Rees (cited in Gunn 1994), sustainable community tourism needs to prevent the
deterioration of the social, cultural, and ecological systems of a host community. (p. 382)
- Active participation of the community can make sustainable community tourism viable. This
viability can be created by opening well-developed management-communication channels with
receptive governments. Satisfying visitors is also a critical element of sustainable community
tourism for long-term economic viability of local tourism. (p. 382)
- Criteria for sustainable tourism: (p. 383)
o community-driven or community-based tourism development (e.g., residents’ benefits
in use of recreational facilities, community reinvestment funds, local first policy,
promotion of local businesses, local participation);
o minimization of negative social and cultural impacts;
o optimization of economic benefits;
 o environmental concern (e.g., protection of physical and man-made resources, ethics,
policy, standards, minimization of negative impacts);
o planning (long term, integrated, participatory);
o visitor management (e.g., visitor satisfaction, maintaining destination attractiveness, use
of proper tools); and
o full community participation (e.g., leadership roles, active participation, participation in
decision making, collaboration, information, and communication).
- Tourism is often promoted as “the smokeless industry” that can bring maximum benefits with
relatively minimum investment compared to other economic activities (see Frangialli 2002). It
can generate hard currency, improve the balance of payments, promote regional development,
diversify the local economy, increase the tax base, create new employment opportunities, and
stimulate nontourism investment (p. 383)
- Government support may include (p. 383)
o (1) the strengthening of training programs,
o (2) providing low-interest loans, and
o (3) fostering cooperation among local, regional, and national government agencies,
industries, nongovernmental organizations
- The foremost objectives of education are to increase visitor awareness and to modify travel
behavior and attitude. Before visiting a region, a tourist needs to become acquainted with the
culture, society, and nature of the destination as well as a code of ethics (Aronsson 1994).
Furthermore, education can foster an appreciation for the human and natural culture among
local residents and stakeholders and instill community pride (Bramwell and Lane 1993;
Biderman and Bosak 1997). (p. 384)
- Tourism has been considered an easy means of improving a community as a better place to live
and generating economic benefits. Planners, developers, industry, NGOs, and community
residents are responsible for rising to the challenges and driving its development in the right
direction. (p. 384)
- For the past 30 years, poorly managed tourism has inflicted severe damage on destinations. (p.
384)
- The goals of community-based tourism are to empower community residents, encourage
resident participation in the decision-making process, and distribute revenue from tourism to
community residents (McIntyre 1993). (p. 384)
- Table of results: (pages 389 & 390)
 - Most researchers agree that the paradigm has shifted from conventional to sustainable tourism.
The means of achieving and maintaining sustainable growth will be the challenge of the coming
years (p. 391)

Findings:

- Gives more detail on sustainable tourism

- Goes deeper on the definition of sustainable
- Gives also a criteria which shows the requisites for tourism to be considered sustainable.
- Having sustainable tourism with development in the picture allows the community to continuing
developing while self-sustaining itself to allow the community to be self-sufficient and
independent
 - There is a difference between sustainable and normal tourism
- There was a study and survey conducted which then supplemented the information given even
more
- However, there is a lot of statistics about the respondents and their results rather than the
impact they impose on to the communities which we are looking for more.
- There is also a table of results showing the factors and criteria affecting tourists on their
perspective towards sustainable development tourism which can also bring a greater
understanding on their behavior towards this issue.

8
https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/4105/6/strathprints004105.pdf

Sustainable Tourism Development: A Critique

Summary:

Sustainable tourism has become an increasingly popular field of research since the late 1980s.
However, the sustainable tourism debate is patchy, disjointed and often flawed with false assumptions
and arguments. This paper is a brief critique of some of the weaknesses in the sustainable tourism
literature. In particular, it explores six issues that are often overlooked but must be addressed in
research: the role of tourism demand, the nature of tourism resources, the imperative of intra-
generational equity, the role of tourism in promoting sociocultural progress, the measurement of
sustainability, and forms of sustainable development. Finally, it is argued that in order to transform
research on sustainable tourism to a more scientific level, a systems perspective and an interdisciplinary
approach are indispensable.

Citations:

- Since the late 1980s, sustainable development has become a buzzword in development studies
in general and in tourism research in particular. (p. 459)
- The Commission further emphasised that sustainable development is not a fixed state of
harmony, but rather a dynamic process of changes which ‘are all in harmony and enhance both
current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations’ (WCED, 1987: 46). (p. 460)
- “Sustainable tourism development meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while
protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. It is envisaged as leading to management
of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while
maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support
systems.” (p. 460)
- Prosser (1994) highlights four forces of social change that are driving this search for
sustainability in tourism: (p. 460)
o dissatisfaction with existing products;
o growing environmental awareness and cultural sensitivity
o realisation by destination regions of the precious resources they possess and their
vulnerability
o and the changing attitudes of developers and tour operators.
- Sustainability has been widely viewed as holding considerable promise as a vehicle for
addressing the problems of negative tourism impacts and maintaining its long-term viability. (p.
460)
- Key issues to be addressed:
o While emphasising the sustainability of tourism resources, no due attention has yet
been paid to that of tourist demand, especially at the destination level, where a
sustained flow of tourists cannot be taken for granted though this might be the case at
the global level.
o When discussing resource sustainability, it is often limited to the preservation and
conservation of resources and fails to appreciate that resources are a complex and
dynamic concept, evolving with changes in the needs, preferences and technological
capabilities of society.
o While emphasising intergenerational equity, no due attention has yet been paid to
intra-generational equity, that is, the fairness of benefits and costs distribution among
the stakeholder groups of tourism development.
o While emphasising the interests of the host population, an overwhelming majority of
the writers in the field appear to have a view that the destination community should
reap the economic benefits of tourism but keep its culture intact.
o Many tourism organisations and academics have searched for ways to set the limit or
threshold to tourism growth, through identifying carrying capacities and indicators of
sustainable development, but with limited success.
o The means and instruments advocated for achieving sustainable tourism are often
fraught with simplistic or naïve views. Many writers and practitioners enthusiastically
promote ecotourism, alternative tourism, responsible tourism, soft tourism, low-impact
tourism, community tourism, and so on, as the path to sustainable tourism
development.
- Sustainable tourism requires both the sustainable growth of tourism’s contribution to the
economy and society and the sustainable use of resources and environment. (p. 462)
- Tourism development is both supply-led and demand–driven. The provision of tourist facilities
and services may arise as a response to growing demand or aim to stimulate tourist demand. (p.
462)
- The tourism industry is also vulnerable to external events. (p. 462)
- Furthermore, tourist destinations across the world are facing increasing competition from other
leisure industries and other destinations as well as constantly changing tourist tastes and
behaviours. (p. 463)
- Based on the utilities of natural resources, the following resource types can also be easily
observed: (p.464)
o touristic resources, which are only suitable for tourism purposes, such as sandy beaches
and snowy slopes;
o shared tourist resources, which are mainly used in tourism and a limited number of
other industries like fishery and agriculture, such as sea and forest;
o common resources, which are used in most industries and everyday life, such as land
and water.
 - , Garrod and Fyall (1998) propose two approaches to sustainable tourism: the macro and micro
approaches. The former involves the use of environmental balance sheets to measure
sustainability conditions, while the latter entails the use of social cost-benefit analysis at the
level of the individual tourism development project. (p. 465)
- The more that local residents gain from tourism, the more they will be motivated to protect the
area’s natural and cultural heritage and support tourism activities. If they do not benefit from
tourism development, they may become resentful and this may drive tourists away from a
destination as tourists do not like visiting places where they are not welcomed. (p. 466)
- Sustainable tourism development requires simultaneously meeting the needs of the tourists, the
tourist businesses, the host community and the needs for environmental protection. (p. 467)
- Croall (1995), for example, claims that tourism has trivialised cultures, brought about uniformity,
and had adverse effects on traditionalways of life and on the distinctiveness of local cultures. (p.
467)
- Changes have been an intrinsic part of human evolution. What is different in the modern world
is that changes are occurring more rapidly and are caused by a wider variety of forces. Which
changes are negative and damage the cultural integrity of the destination is a subjective
judgement based on development objectives and public values (Wight, 1998). (p. 468)
- It is also unfair to expect the less developed world to keep its traditional culture for the sake of
the tourists who wish to seek exotic and authentic experiences. (p. 468)
- Pigram (1990) argues that the tourism industry should adopt a ‘safe minimum standard’
approach to development which minimises the risk that irreversible changes will foreclose
development opportunities for future generations. (p. 469)
- The carrying capacity concept has often been used to identify the ‘thresholds’ of a system to
absorb changes. It is argued that sustainable tourism can only take place if carrying capacities
for key tourism sites are computed and then rigorously implemented through a system of
effective planning and operating controls (Wearing & Neil, 1999). (p. 469)
- Globally speaking, all the non-conventional or alternative forms of tourism are at best playing a
complementary role in tourism development. As they are ‘essentially small scale, low-density,
dispersed in non-urban areas, and they cater to special interest groups of people’ (Mieczkowski,
1995), alternative forms of tourism cannot offer a realistic general model for tourism
development. (p. 471)
- The denigration of human progress embodied in the sustainability paradigm is likely to hold
back humanity from facing up to and solving problems of poverty and underdevelopment. It is
hence a far bigger problem than some of the troublesome by-products of unplanned tourism
development. (Butcher, 1997: 31) (p. 472)
- main task is not to limit growth but to manage growth in a way that is appropriate to the
tourists, the destination environment and the host population. (p. 472)

Findings:

- From the start this already shows the relation between development and tourism which is
sustainable
- Sustainability is a long-term agenda
- Shows the importance on emphasizing the local population as an important stakeholder
 - At times sustainable tourism may be a bit of an issue since it may come across 2 contradicting
ideas which are sustaining and developing further so a thin line must be placed in order to
address both these ideas correspondingly with satisfying all parties involved
- Sustainable tourism may have been often misconcepted with only sustaining when it can also
develop a community even further.
- Also shows the connection between the tourist industry in terms of competition with the ability
for a tourist destination to be more successful.
- Also shows the different categories of resources which can be utilized
- Sustainable developmental tourism is more complex since it has more stakeholders to consider.
- Tourism may also have negative effects towards the culture and way of life to a community
since it may interfere with the local customs
- Shows how sometimes changes need to be in place in order to allow the community to move
further and develop
- Changes should be limited in order to ensure that the development and the tourism aspect in a
certain community will continue to be considered as sustainable.

9
https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/44710331/FLR_Howe_and_Reilly.pdf?response-
content-
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Howe J. & MEETING AUSTRALIA'S LABOUR NEEDS: THE CASE FOR A NEW LOW-SKILL WORK VISA

Summary:

This article examines whether Australia's regulatory settings for temporary migrant labour are
working effectively and argues that a backdoor currently exists which permits the entry of low skilled
migrant workers on visas which are not for a work purpose, namely the international student visa and
the working holiday maker visa. We propose that an explicit visa pathway be created for low and semi-
skilled workers so that the working conditions of these visa holders are more appropriately monitored
and to enable Australia's temporary labour migration program to better meet skill shortages in the
economy.

Citations:

- globalisation dismantles the boundaries around national labour markets. (p. 260)
- Since the 1990s, a large and growing amount of low and semi-skilled work in Australia has been
undertaken by young migrants on Working Holiday and International Student visas, which are
not subject to the same regulatory constraints as the subclass 457 visa. (p. 260)
 - Subclass 457 Business Long Stay visas, introduced in 1996 as a result of the Roach Report,8 are
the main pathway for employers and state governments to sponsor migrant workers to satisfy
employment needs in a range of skilled occupations. The visas allow sponsorship of migrant
workers for up to four years when Australian workers are not available to do the job, based on a
skilled occupation list and labour market testing for certain occupations. (p. 261)
- Labour agreements provide the opportunity for employers to access workers who do not have
the work skills or English language ability required under the standard pathway of the 457 visa.
(p. 262)
- Working holiday visas (visa subclass 417 and 462) allow temporary migrants from 31 countries
between 18 and 30 years of age to work while they holiday in Australia for up to a year. (p. 266)
- International students are permitted to work part time during the course of their studies.45
Since 2008, the opportunity to work has been automatically included in student visas whereas
previously students had to apply to be able to work. (p. 267)
- The World Bank estimates that moving an additional 14 million workers from low income to
high income countries would increase global income by $350 billion (p. 269)
- Some scholars refer to this as a 'triple win': the host country has access to a new pool of labour
enabling it to meet domestic skill shortages; the migrant worker has access to new employment
opportunities, the chance for higher paid work than is available at home and the attainment of
new skills; and the sending nation benefit from remittances and the enlarged skill set of migrant
workers if they return home. (p. 269)
- For example, a recent report argued that 'further consideration will need to be given over time
to determine whether the focus on a narrow definition of skills is serving Australia's needs,
particularly as it is becoming increasingly clear that critical labour shortages are now apparent in
Western Australia in relation to both skilled and unskilled occupations. (p. 270)

Findings:

- This article shows the areas and information on the topic of temporary migration workers and
temporary tourist workers which align with our topic of developmental tourist workers
- Aligns with the idea with matching the format or method which Australia is using to get
temporary workers who are also tourists
- Speaks heavily only on the issue on temporary working visas rather than involving more of
tourism which is our original topic
- There is a segregation between the kinds of working visas such as student and working holiday
visas
- Shows the benefits which supports the agenda to push through
- The development and tourism sector may face challenges if there is too much influx which may
lessen economic productivity (economies of scale as an example here)
- Having too much foreign workers may take away the job opportunities for locals who may want
to as well take initiative in assisting the development of the country
- The article in the later stages drifts away from the benefits and the format of the topic on tourist
workers which we are trying to associate it.
- Although it may be still related and even possible to add to our research, it goes to a broader
topic and even a different one such as the political and social aspect and impact on tourist visas
 10
https://www.japss.org/upload/7.%20Aroudu.pdf

‘Embedded Racism’ in Japanese migration policies: Analyzing Japan’s ‘revolving door’ work visa
regimes under Critical Race Theory

Summary:

power and dominance, has been increasingly applied to other countries to analyze racialised
power relationships between social groups. Applying CRT to Japanese society, where racismhas been
officially denied as a factor in the systematic differentiation of peoples into a dominant majority and
disenfranchised minorities, nonetheless reveals embedded racialised paradigms behind visa regimes,
i.e., allocating privilege to foreign workers by bloodline. This research focuses on Japan’s work visas,
where biologically-based conceits have favored ‘Wajin’ (i.e., Japan’s dominant social group with
‘Japanese blood’) over ‘Non-Wajin’, even when the Wajin (as Nikkei Japanese diaspora) were not
citizens – e.g., granting them longer-term visas, job mobility, labor-law rights, and even subsidized
repatriation. This research demonstrates that the broader lessons of CRT and Whiteness Studies may be
expanded and applied to a society without a white majority.

Citations:

- Critical Race Theory (CRT) sees racism as a study of power relations within a society, particularly
in terms of how people are rendered into hierarchical categories of power, social dominance,
and wealth acquisition (cf. Delgado and Stefancic 2001; Crenshaw et al. 1995). (p. 155)
- in terms of analyzing the racialised structural relationships of social power, CRT may be applied
to any society. CRT starts from the fundamental standpoints (p. 156)
o race’ is purely a social construct without inherent physiological or biological meaning, so
it is open to the same perceptional distortions and manipulations as any other social
convention or ideology;
o the prejudicial discourses about human categorization and treatment are so hegemonic
that they become part of the ‘normal’ in society; that is to say, so embedded in the
everyday workings of society that they give rise to discriminatory actions
o such illusory perceptions of ‘race’ are in fact the central, endemic and permanent
driving force behind organizing the scaffolding of human interaction, categorization, and
regulation, both at the individual and more poignantly the legislative level
o ‘race’ thus fundamentally influences, even grounds, the formation, enforcement, and
amendment process of a society’s laws
o those who best understand this dynamic and its effects are the people disadvantaged
within the racialised structure of power and privilege, and thus are necessarily excluded
from the discourse regarding the organization of society; and, consequently
o one must also recognize the power of minority narratives as a means to allow more
minority voices and alternative insights into the discussion, to expose the realities
present for the unprivileged and underprivileged.
- This research will use the term Wajin for two reasons: (p. 158)
 o it is a legitimate, non-pejorative word in modern Japanese language long used to
describe Japanese people, even before Japan as a nation-state
o it enables the author to define its meaning under new and flexible paradigms.
- This excerpt illustrates the arbitrary degree of power that Japan’s administrative branch has
through its visa regimesto subordinate and deprive non-citizens of fundamental constitutional
rights. (p. 160)
- The policy justification for Japan’s ‘Trainee’ visas has been covered in detail elsewhere (cf. Linger
2001; Roth 2002; Lesser 2003; Tsuda 2003); but a brief recap: During Japan’s economic boom
between 1986 and 1991 called the ‘Bubble Era’, there was a labour shortage in industry (p. 163)
- Although officially for actors, musical performers, thespians, or other show business people, this
visa regime has brought in many women ostensibly to work as ‘dancers’ and ‘entertainers’ who
then found themselves trapped working in Japan’s sex trades connected to organised crime. (p.
167)
- Conditions have been reported as horrendous, including physical and sexual abuse, no freedom
of movement, unpaid wages and debt bondage, little punishment of offenders, little protection
of victims due to their status as visa overstayer (often because their passports had been
confiscated by employers); victims reporting abuses to the police have resulted in arrests and
deportations of the victims. (p. 167)
- As companies began to rationalise and cut labour costs due to the financial crisis, non-citizens,
including the Wajin, were among the first to be downsized. (p. 168)

Findings:

- This article shows the effect of racism towards tourism and its implications especially in the
example of Japan in the article
- It also shows relation to our topic since it can also allow us to anticipate the drawbacks that
racism may bring towards developmental tourism.
- Also this shows a greater understanding on understanding the concept on racism towards
tourism
- In Japan’s case they put stricter passport regimes on those who are non “Wajin” in order to
make sure that their capabilities in affecting the system of the society of japan wont be affected
too much
- This may be racism in some point but it also removes any loopholes in the system which people
may try to exploit, this is good in terms of maintaining national security which we may impose
for our case of developmental tourism
- There have been cases where this limitation on the rights of the workers may have been
exploited for their employers making them even more vulnerable.
- Although this article tackles a lot on the idea of foreign workers, it does not fully align since we
are targeting more on developmental tourist workers rather than foreign workers only.
- This article targets more on the aspect of foreign work which is correlated slightly to our topic of
developmental tourism work and this can also allow us to come up with ideas on how to
manage these people through limiting their capabilities in affecting the host country too much
in a negative way.