Sustainable Urban Planning - Vibrant Neighbourhoods - Smart Cities - Resilience PDF

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Smart Cities
Resilience Unauthenticated
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Editors and Authors © 2019 English translation of the second reviewed and
Helmut Bott, updated German edition “Nachhaltige Stadtplanung –
Gregor C. Grassl, Lebendige Quartiere, Smart Cities, Resilienz” (ISBN
Stephan Anders 978-3-95553-430-1) by DETAIL Business Information
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Contents
Editors’ preface to the 2nd Edition 6 CHAPTER 3 — IMPLEMENTATION

STRATEGIES 168
General principles to consider in planning and
CHAPTER 1 — INTRODUCTION 10 strategies to implement the illustrated solutions
What the term sustainability means and how it is across all action areas in the development process
used in urban and neighbourhood planning
3.1 Developing Holistic Concepts 169
1.1 Aims and Objectives of this Book 11 3.2 Stakeholders, Visions and Tools 179
1.2 Sustainability and Resilience 13 3.3 Local Government Implementation
1.3 The Neighbourhood 21 Strategies 188
1.4 Smart City 25 3.4 Project-specific Implementation
1.5 Added Value of Sustainable Urban Strategies 195
Neighbourhoods 28
CHAPTER 4 — TOOLS 200
CHAPTER 2 — CHALLENGES AND Overview of methods and tools for planning and
ACTION AREAS 32 delivering sustainable neighbourhoods
Issues relevant to sustainable city and neighbourhood
design and specific problem-solving approaches
4.1 Computer-aided Design Tools 201
4.2 Simulation 206
2.1 Regional, Urban and Neighbourhood 4.3 Visualisation 214
Development 4.4 Certification and Evaluation Systems 218
Challenges 33
Action Areas 42
2.2 Processes and Participation
CHAPTER 5 — CASE STUDIES 224
International selection of sustainable neighbourhoods
Challenges 51 with specific strengths
Action Areas 54
2.3 Communities and Sociocultural Issues Introduction 225
• Social Fabric Overview 226
Challenges 61 Potsdamer Platz 228
Action Areas 66 Carlsberg City District 232
• Lifestyle and Behaviour ecoQuartier Pfaffenhofen 234
Challenges 73 Bo 01 – Western Harbour 238
Action Areas 77 Dockside Green 240
2.4 Ecology Neckarbogen 242
• Protecting Species and Habitats Hammarby Sjöstad 244
Challenges 83 Möckernkiez 246
• Open Space and Urban Climate NEST – New Ethiopian Sustainable Town 248
Challenges 85 GWL-Terrein 250
Action Areas 88 Barangaroo 252
• Protecting Water and Soil NDSM Wharf 254
Challenges 96 Berlin TXL 256
Action Areas 99 Viertel Zwei 260
• Material Flows Other Projects 262
Challenges 106
Action Areas 108 A PPE N D I X 266
• Mobility and Transport Bibliography 266
Challenges 114 Image Credits 275
Action Areas 117 Authors 278
• Energy Case Study Collaborators 280
Challenges 126
Action Areas 130
• Emissions
Challenges 142
Action Areas 146
2.5 Economics
Challenges 153
Action Areas 158
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6 Editors’ Preface to the 2nd Edition
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Editors’ Preface to the 2nd Edition 7
Sustainability – an Old Hat?
W
hen the first edition cities have had to tackle new challenges, such as
of this book was pub- extreme precipitation or fine particle pollution
lished in 2012, the from increasing motor traffic.
term “sustainabili- It has become evident that alternative means of
ty” seemed rather energy production (vast photovoltaic plants, enor-
long in the tooth or mous windmills, corridors of high-voltage power
even overcome. Oc- transmission, retention basins, eco-fuel mono-
casionally, there were cultures etc.) impact heavily on cities and villages,
comments that the “sustainable city” was passé, nature and landscape, often giving rise to civic
whereas the “resilient city” was the next big thing, protest. This all bears direct witness to the multi-
the objective of “resilience” encompassing the dimensional nature of the sustainability principle
topic of sustainability. and the need to better analyse reciprocity and
“side effects”, and work across disciplines to
And indeed, all too frequently, the term “sustain- develop holistic planning approaches which go
able” was bandied about – often wrongly – in every beyond one-dimensional improvements.
conceivable and inconceivable context.
This book focuses on urban planning. As the key
Nevertheless, there was great demand for the socio-spatial unit of everyday life and the spatial
book in all its complexity and it sold out after about level of intervention in urban development, the
three years. The revised and updated second edi- neighbourhood lies at the heart of its regard. Given
tion is now available. We have restructured the that many aspects cannot be confined to clear
content, added current topics such as urban digit spatial sub-entities within the city, the field of
alisation, and streamlined the overall volume. view extends from the neighbourhood to the entire
city or even the region, whilst also homing in on
During the first half of the decade, much in Ger- the building scale in some cases.
man society, economy and policy pointed to a
paradigm shift towards greater sustainability. Irrespective of the outlook and dimension of ana
After decades of conflict and occasionally fractious lysis – environmental, sociocultural, or economic
dispute, the impact of the Fukushima nuclear – the discourse always centres on the sequence of
catastrophe in 2011 led even conservative polit the human habitat’s processes, and the urban or
icians to turn away from established energy policy rural space within which they take place. Even in
and engage in the so-called “energy turnaround”. an absence of economic and technological change,
Seen from abroad, Germany appeared to take the humans would age, new generations arrive, build-
lead in the field of sustainability, admired or belit- ings and technical systems would wear away,
tled, depending on the point of view. A few years plants would thrive and die in successive sequence.
down the line, things look different again. Ger-
many’s nuclear exit has been a major milestone The sustainability of spatial structures can only
towards environmentally friendly and safe energy be defined and evaluated in terms of life cycles,
production, but it has failed to contribute to an from the procurement and use of construction
improved CO2 balance. Increasingly, German materials and components, through the use and

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8 Editors’ Preface to the 2nd Edition
maintenance of built structures, to their eventual a fundamental understanding of the complex

disposal or re-use. Intelligently meshing all elem correlations and reciprocities. Varied pointers to
ents across the most wide-ranging dimensions is further reading and exemplar projects give readers
key and growing ever more decisive. the opportunity to further acquaint themselves
with the details of the relevant professional dis-
The city is not a closed system. Evaluating the ciplines. A team drawn from research, planning
qualities of this complex, open and dynamic sys- practice and business was compiled in order to
tem includes the assessment of its ability to adapt generate a holistic analysis. The topic is too varied,
to changing parameters – its resilience. This is all aspects to be addressed too diverse, to be covered
the more true for the fact that economy and soci- by a small group or even an individual author.
ety on our spatially confined and resource-limited The range of authors helps to study the topic of
planet is still geared to continuous growth, appar- sustainability from very different points of view.
ently the only means of (at least partially) address-
ing the effects of the principles which hitherto The term “sustainability” is understood and put
have governed economic distribution. We have to use in very disparate, even opposing ways from
long known of the limits to growth, and yet this a range of positions within the professional and
knowledge has not yet found its place in main- political discourse. Some follow the adage that
stream economic theory and political strategy. “sustainability is nothing new” and hark back to
old methods and values; others follow the pre-
Standard urban development planning procedures cept that “sustainability is the vision of a better
and current planning strategies must be ques- future” and pursue innovation and technical pro-
tioned and assessed in terms of their effects on gress. Many discussions and publications focus on
resilience and sustainability. The same goes for high-tech versus low-tech strategies, from cities of
municipalities’ and other public bodies’ invest- clay houses and sheep wool insulation on the one
ment strategies. Intelligent technical and social hand through to smart cities with smartphone-
infrastructure is sure to require significant fund- controlled, fully automated buildings, service
ing: this relates to renewed or restructured new robots and autonomous vehicles on the other.
water courses, highways, public transport and Both approaches are of interest, even though the
energy networks as well as the social infrastructure debate is often very ideologically driven.
which has always been a key foundation of the
European city. Along with open social interaction This clearly demonstrates that the route to sus-
between city dwellers, these – rather than the data tainable resource management is stony and cer-
networks dominated by a small number of global tainly not without byways or even cul-de-sacs – just
businesses – are the essential and enduring social think of Desertec. Some technical systems cele-
networks. brated today will prove to be interim solutions,
sooner or later rendered obsolete by new findings,
Clearly, this publication cannot address such a changing political strategies or social develop-
complex topic in all its detail. It is aimed at provid- ments. Their reversibility will become an import
ing an informed overview which can help promote ant criterion.

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Editors’ Preface to the 2nd Edition 9
This book aims to contribute to open, objective Accordingly, we believe the examples shown serve
debate. We assume that a sustainable future will to promote a number of lessons learnt.
not be possible without technical innovation, but
that technical development alone will not be able Along with the many distinguished authors from
to solve the major problems of the “anthropocene” the broadest range of disciplines, we confidently
era. Technical innovation does not represent a present a book which can inform work as a planner
value in and of itself, either with respect to the or as a decision- maker in policy or business. We
welfare of society as a whole or in terms of its would like to take this opportunity to thank all the
effects on nature. On the contrary, many of today’s authors for their great commitment and their kind
problems stem from the failure to consider or permission to update their contributions. Our
adequately judge the “side effects” of technical special thanks are due to Drees & Sommer, with-
systems. Granted, nobody can assume the position out whose support this book would not have come
of ultimate objectivity in this debate. Our book’s about.
authors present plausible cases for objectives and
principles such as social diversity, density and
mixed-use. Fundamentally, these views draw on
value judgements as well as factual analysis. We Stuttgart, 2018
trust this will be clear to our readers, who may Helmut Bott, Gregor C. Grassl, Stephan Anders
concur or disagree with the lines of thought pre-
sented.
Making visions reality requires collecting experi

ence in practice, learning from it and formulating
appropriate strategies for delivery. On the one
hand, comparatively modest funding has in recent
decades secured significant progress in certain
fields, such as the move from low-energy housing
to the Passivhaus and subsequently to the Plus-en-
ergy or Activhaus standard. On the other hand,
it is evident that completed projects generally do
not follow the holistic approach promoted within
this book, and the examples presented in chapter
7 demonstrate as much. Our view is that complex,
multidimensional analysis and planning is still in
its infancy. The fact that projects meet only some
of the dimensions addressed in this book is thus
hardly surprising and does not detract from their
merit. Any project which helps promote new tech-
nological or socio-economic findings is important.

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C H A P TE R 1
Introduction

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1.1 — Aims and Objectives of this Book 11
1 .1
Aims and Objectives

of this Book
Ste p han Anders, Helmut Bott, Gregor C . Gras s l
T
he main aim of this book is to ers an overview over tools for sustainable plan-
explain the complex, multi- ning and construction, some of which are rela-
dimensional concept of “sus- tively novel.
tainability” and explore what In conclusion, we will present a range of planned
it means in terms of urban and and completed projects which provide inspiration
neighbourhood development. for dealing with specific challenges, and insights
This is why the book is so big, into what is currently achievable in terms of
and why so many authors have sustainable urban planning. Case studies were
contributed to writing it. Its many authors can selected to reflect international practice and pre
provide more in-depth insight into current re- sent a broad spectrum of different concepts, each
search and development in their respective dis- focusing on a different action area to address the
ciplines and areas of expertise than just one author issues at hand.
or a small team of authors.
The chapter structure helps readers quickly find
The introductory chapter will set out the three information about individual topics. Our overall
pillars of sustainability – economic, social, and aim is to explain that sustainability can only be
environmental – and outline how they apply understood as a comprehensive whole, and that
to urban and neighbourhood development. this is why it requires a complex planning process.
It will place sustainability in its historical con- We have sought to approach the topic as broadly
text, and describe its fundamental dimensions as possible by assembling an interdisciplinary
and strategic effects. The following chapters team of authors to address the respective issues
will identify key challenges in terms of eco- with the required depth and current state of sci-
nomic, environmental and social sustainabil- ence and technology. Despite the scope of this
ity, and describe them in key facts and figures. task, we imposed a strict limit on the number of
This will involve explaining the basic concepts pages. Individual chapters can therefore provide
relevant to sustainable urban planning, clari an overview, but cannot replace in-depth special-
fying the relationship between sustainability ist literature. Accordingly, references to important
and resilience, and classifying the Smart City sources, research and in-depth specialist literature
model. are listed at the end of each chapter. Readers who
would like to delve more deeply into topics such
Finding successful project solutions is not just as protecting water and soil, processes and par-
about taking the right approach within each dis- ticipation, or material flows will find valuable
cipline; it is always also about adopting an inte- information for their work there.
grated implementation strategy for urban and
neighbourhood development. Sustainable plan- This book examines the issue of sustainability
ning approaches must always be integrated and from various different perspectives. Contributions
avoid promoting one issue above all others – shed light on urban design visions, which have to
e.g. by pursuing the “energy-efficient” or “car- go far beyond the current urban conditions if sus-
friendly” city. This is especially important in tainability targets are to be met, and also look into
large and complex projects, such as city and social policy objectives and issues of social inte-
neighbourhood developments. We will give read- gration or segregation.

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12 Chapter 1 — Introduction
The lack of affordable housing is no longer just a explore the general economic effects of acting
social problem, it has long since become an eco- sustainably. Medium and long-term benefits to
nomic issue. Where are the educators, nurses and the whole economy can justify individual meas-
skilled workers earning middle incomes we so ures which may appear unviable when viewed
urgently need in order to further develop our econ- only in their individual, short-term context. On
omy to find homes in future, if land and property the contrary: neo-liberal policies have driven many
prices continue rising at the current rate? Short- cities to fill financial gaps by selling their real
term profits are clearly opposed to sustainable estate to investment funds, only to generate major
urban development and create a social imbalance social problems sooner or later which lead to fur-
with incalculable follow-on costs to our social ther economic challenges.Whether as taxpayers,
fabric. insured parties, or landowners, citizens will sooner
or later bear the follow-on cost of poor urban and
We also consider investors’ concerns. These are neighbourhood planning. This may be after the
not just hedge funds, looking for a quick return next flood or financial crisis, or when a badly
on capital invested anywhere and everywhere on planned neighbourhood rapidly becomes an area
earth, or even “corporate raiders” devouring any- of social tension.
thing of value before moving on: Investors also
include client groups, locally grounded small This book aims to highlight ways for the profession
businesses, co-operatives and housing associa- to implement sustainable planning and delivery.
tions or social housing providers with long-term Readers are offered various methods and tools to
investment goals and a local sense of responsibil- deliver project objectives. The showcased projects
ity. Their investments must and can be tied into demonstrate that sustainability goals for urban
strategic sustainable urban development targets. and neighbourhood development have been deliv-
This leads to an evaluation of the overall eco- ered, at least in part, during recent years, and
nomic effects of sustainable practice. Viewed in thereby illustrate that important contributions to
the medium and long-term context, these macro- sustainable policy do exist even today. There is
economic benefits can provide a viable business no need simply to wait for politics and business
case for individual measures which appear unprof- to change the rules.
itable when seen only from a short-term, sectoral Even now, we are experiencing record heatwaves
point of view. and extreme droughts. Polar ice-caps and glaciers
are melting ever more rapidly or have already
We present an independent German sustainabil- largely disappeared in the Alps. Nevertheless,
ity certificate for urban districts, and we set out some politicians and lobbyists claim that the cli-
the spatial model of the European city as a func- mate is not changing. Even politicians who rec-
tioning, administratively autonomous and self- ognise the complexity of the problems are reluc-
reliant political entity planning the future for its tant to address them clearly and take appropriate
citizen’s benefit. How many local governments measures, fearing voters’ responses. This makes
still fully complete their planning task, planning it all the more necessary to apply current know
ahead to cover all points from A as in acquiring ledge of challenges and action areas to sustainable
development sites to Z as in zoning plans? We also urban planning.

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1.2 — Sustainability and Resilience 13
1.2
Sustainability and
Resilience
Ste p han Anders, Helmut Bott, Gregor C . Gras s l
S Sustainability
ustainable development was
first defined in the Brundtland
report in 1987 as “development
that meets the needs of the and/or
present without compromising
the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs”.1 This
resilience?
basic approach to sustainable During the first decade of the 21st century,
urban development rests on the following two debate, research, and publications about resili
ethical foundations: ence in urban planning increased exponentially
in response to discussions about the problem-
•• On the one hand, taking responsibility for the atic effects of climate change (increasing storm
future generations is about preserving and damage, flooding, periods of heat and drought)
protecting human beings’ ability to meet their and the increase in terrorist attacks. To some, the
needs in the long term. idea of resilience seemed to replace the principle
•• On the other hand, the effort to share equally of sustainability.2
is a constant, dynamic effort to prevent con-
flict and contribute to a stable, better society. We fundamentally oppose this view. We see resili
ence as a precondition for sustainability, but do
This notion is reflected in the common three pillar not consider it sufficient in itself.3
sustainability model – other concepts include the
sustainability triangle, the magic triangle, or the Different ways of responding to climate change
triple bottom line. According to the three pillar can illustrate this point. For example, a resort or
model, development can only be sustainable if it region could introduce snow cannons or even
gives equal weight to environmental, economic, build air-conditioned indoor ski slopes in order
and social aspects, whereby the three dimensions to stay viable as a ski resort even in warmer win-
1 Hauff 1987, p. 46
are both closely connected and mutually inter ters. Undoubtedly, this would make it more “resili 2 “In the years ahead,
dependent. In short: society will not survive in ent” in dealing with climate change. But if the resilience will replace
the long term without protecting the environment region depends on tourism and leisure and wishes the pleasing concept of
and making sustainable use of available resources. to remain so, it would be more sustainable to shift sustainability. There is
Our book is based on this definition. We are fully the focus to other sports and leisure activities an ancient illusion of har
mony in sustainability.”
aware that the addition of further dimensions – which are less dependent on snow. Or, to cite
Horx 2011, p. 309
such as culture – is often debated in professional another example: building flood barriers – ideally 3 cf. Lukesch 2016, p. 303
circles. SA removable – makes cities more resilient in respond- 4 cf. Fekete /Grinda /Norf,
ing to more frequent flooding. But the truly sus- p. 226
tainable response would be to increase retention
throughout the entire river catchment area, for
example by reducing sealed surfaces and recre-
ating controlled riverside flood plains to absorb
high water peaks.4

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5 “A resilient city or society For complex systems such as cities or even larger moting resilience”.9 Broadly consistent with
has a high capacity to spatial units, resilience is about being adapt- sustainability principles, these goals also suit
adapt and is able to
able and able to respond to changing condi- the “Smart City” concept (see Smart City, pp. 25ff.),
adapt both reactively and
tions both reactively and proactively.5 This re- however sustainability remains the o verriding
proactively to changing
environmental conditions quires considering and analysing extremely com- concept. HB
and recover quickly from plex effects, and implementing holistic rather
negative effects. Resili than isolated solutions. Resilience in its origi-
ence can thus be under nal meaning (resilire = rebound, spring back)
stood as a comprehen
sive, holistic approach
to problem solving aimed
is incompatible with complex, dynamic systems,
as there can be no simple “reset” to the previ- Definitions and
at preserving natural and
social systems’ general
ous settings, such as with a spring. Adaptabil-
ity in complex, “living” systems is about react- strategies for
capacity to resist, regen
erate and develop.”
Fekkak 2016, p. 11
ing to external impacts, even if some system ele-
ments have to change or drop away altogether.
The system must be able to change in order to
sustainability
6 “Evolutionary economic
survive.6 According to Volker Hauff, the former chair of the
geographers thus pro
pose understanding
Council for Sustainable Development, a sustain-
resilience primarily as Economic geography research examines regions’ ability strategy is always also a strategy for the
the ability of a region to ability to respond to structural and economic future.10 The strategy’s guiding principles depend
anticipate or respond to crises – which could also be described as “resili on the respective values and understanding of the
shocks by reorganising ence” – and identifies principles which have long term sustainability.
its structures in such a
been recognised as clear advantages in the sus-
way that disturbances
tainability debate: these include decentralisa-
have minimum impact
on system functionality. tion and diversity (instead of monopolies), open- Soft or hard sustainability
Maintaining functionality, ness and connectivity, high qualifications and a
mentioned at the outset willingness to learn.7 Clearly, these points are According to the “soft sustainability” model, arti
of defining resilience, is about change and evolution, rather than “spring- ficial resources can replace natural resources.
thus not interpreted as
ing back”. A decline in natural capital, for example as a re-
preserving the system’s
sult of raw material mining or shrinking natural
structure, but as its ability
to adapt its structure to It turns out that these principles are consistent habitats, can nonetheless be sustainable if it is
changing environmental with the aims of sustainable neighbourhood devel- offset by capital growth in other areas. By contrast,
conditions.” Strambach opment. Decentral or semi-central sewage systems “hard sustainability” prioritises protecting the
2016, p. 269 are better suited to using excess heat and feeding environment. In practice, natural and artificial
7 cf. Lukesch 2016, p. 303 biogas plants. Smaller, networked power plants resources can be difficult to distinguish. The
8 cf. Libbe 2012, p. 29
(CHP with biogas) are more able to keep going environmental economist Jürgen Kopfmüller
9 cf. Beckmann 2012,
p. 13 during catastrophes or terrorist attacks than large proposes a “middle of the road” approach with
10 Deutsche Bundesregie central plants. The same goes for interim fresh critical, rather than fixed thresholds for nat
rung 2008, p. 13 water storage.8 Decentralised rainwater retention ural resources. This approach could prevent spe-
11 Grunwald /Kopfmüller can soften the impact of flooding by buffering the cies dying out, or stop a climate catastrophe,
2006, p. 39 flow from storm water mains during major rain without totally obstructing the development of
events. human living conditions.11 This practice is com-
mon in German environmental legislation and
“The necessary new way of thinking about development regulation. For example, greenfield
regions, cities and neighbourhoods and their sites may be developed, even if the population is
technical and social infrastructure must in- stagnating and sufficient brownfield sites are avail
creasingly be led by the following principles: able. But the greenfield site in question can usually
decentralisation, networks, diversity (in services, not be developed if it is home to a species in dan-
structures and procedures), tolerance towards ger of extinction.
faults, safeguarding feedbacks and buffering
capacity. Monostructures, big central plants or
supply monopolies are counterproductive to pro-

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Substantive and procedural greenfield land per day by 2020 is one such empir-
sustainability ical upper guideline.
A substantive interpretation of sustainability The syndrome approach presents an alternative:

is based on fixed targets from the outset of devel- “a syndrome is globally relevant if it modifies the
opment. A procedural approach is based on tar- earth’s character and thereby directly or indirectly
gets being continuously adapted and moved for- exerts tangible influence over living conditions”.15
wards. The CO2 debate focuses on one such syndrome,
where CO2 emissions cause global warming and
The substantive approach sets out clear targets thus change the earth’s character.
and unambiguous criteria. In practice however,
the complexity of holistic planning draws this
clarity into question. A possible solution is to see Multiple pillar models
sustainable development as a “regulative idea”
as conceived by Immanuel Kant: an objective to Amongst the models resting on multiple pillars, 12 Deutscher Bundestag
strive for, with the direction of travel acting as a the “magic triangle” is one that has been estab- 1998, p. 16
moral compass even when the final destination lished in practice. This is based on the equal treat- 13 Willke 1993, pp. 102ff.
14 Klemmer et al. 1998,
can never be reached.12 ment of environmental, economic and sociocul-
pp. 45ff.
tural aspects (Fig. 1).16 In practice, different values 15 WBGU 1996, pp. 4ff.
A primarily procedural approach does not pursue often cause problems in its implementation17. For 16 SRU 1998, pp. 11ff.
long-term goals, but seeks swift, specific solutions example, cultural attitudes may vary with regard 17 Grunwald / Kopfmüller
to current problems. This approach is supported to the equal treatment of men and women, or 2006, pp. 49ff.
by sociological system theory, which doubts minorities. 18 Grunwald / Kopfmüller
2006, pp. 52ff.
whether society in general can be directed.13 The
procedural approach can yield results with regard Four-pillar models take public engagement into
to social aspects of planning, and this is currently account. Problems include the fact that demo-
reflected in the lively debate around consultation cratic systems are usually based on four- or five-
processes in the development of urban neighbour- year electoral cycles and provide little long-term
hoods and other major projects. In this context, a continuity, and the fact that ministerial, depart-
neighbourhood’s success is more closely related mental and other divisions prevent cross-cutting
to the ways and means of communicating with approaches.
involved parties and less reliant on the quality of
neighbourhood design (Processes and participa-
tion, pp. 50ff.). Integrated sustainability
concepts
Single pillar model Integrated sustainability concepts take account Fig. 1 Sustainability
of all the above mentioned aspects and focus on triangle
The single pillar model is based purely on an en general sustainability goals. Key tenets include
vironmental foundation. It views modern man as safeguarding human existence, the potential for
part of the environment and as one of our planet’s social productivity, and the capacity for develop-
active system factors. Human settlement has a ment and free action (Fig. 2). This approach
local environmental impact, but it also influences extends the principles of justice and implements
Ec
the earth’s entire functional cycle. We could ex- them according to the principle of subsidiarity.18
l
on
cia
om
periment to find the limits to the earth’s capacity, This leads to a bottom-up approach to sustain
So
ic
but this would lead to the destruction of our planet ability, with each level implementing what it can
if applied at a global scale. The single pillar model and drawing on the next level up only for issues
uses empirical data to generate guidelines which it cannot solve alone. This concept is interesting
map out a safe corridor between maximum and for sustainable neighbourhood development
minimum limits. 14 The German government’s because it takes all aspects into account before
target for developing no more than 30 hectares of focusing on the key points. GCG Environmental
Fig. 1
Authenticated
Substantive rules
Safeguard human existence Safeguard potential for Preserve capacity for

social productivity evelopment and free action
d
• protect human health • use renewable resources • equal opportunities for educa
• safeguard basic needs (food, sustainably tion, work and information
education etc.) • use non-renewable resources • take part in societal decision
• secure independent livelihoods sustainably making
• equally distribute opportunities • make sustainable use of the • preserve cultural heritage
to make use of the environment environment as a sink and diversity
• balance external differences • avoid unacceptable technical • preserve nature’s cultural
in income and wealth risk function
• sustainably develop factual, • preserve social resources
human and knowledge capital
Instrumental rules
• internalise external environmental and • responsive societal institutions
social cost • reflexive societal institutions
• discount appropriately • steering capacity
• limit state debt • capacity for self-organisation
• fair global trade conditions • balance of power
• international cooperation
Fig. 2
Resource demand believed to have had more than a million inhab-

Fig. 2 System of sustain
ability rules itants at the peak of the Tang Dynasty (7th – 10th
Fig. 3 Urban growth of
London 1840 –1929
– the historical century AD).21
Cities of this size depended on major food sup-
view plies from far-reaching catchment areas. This in

turn required reliable transport systems, large
storage buildings, wharves and the preservation
19 Weber / Winckelmann Nature cannot be seen as the closed, static sys- of foods.
1985, p. 727 tem of perfect harmony which romantic idealisa- By comparison, the cities of ancient Greece were
20 Strudwick 1995
tions and various faiths’ creationary myths sug- comparatively small. For example, classical Ath-
21 Kiang 2007; Thomas
gest. Nature is a delicately balanced ecosystem, ens is believed to have had 120,000 to 190,000
1997
22 Kloft 1992, p. 115 sometimes frail and occasionally stable, within residents.22 Even then, the Attican hinterland
23 ibid., p. 117 which the widest range of species compete or alone was unable to feed the city state. It is es
24 Kloft 1992, pp. 20ff. coexist and impact on each other. The nature-cul- timated that around a quarter of the city’s grain
25 ibid., p. 194 ture dichotomy captures the essence of human (ca. 8,000 tons) was imported from the Black
activity in appropriating and modifying nature. Sea, from Sicily and North Africa during the clas-
During the hunter-gatherer period and into the sical period. The Greeks could draw on an enor-
Neolithic period, communities remained small mous merchant fleet to support this supply chain
and their impact on plants and animals was less and meet demand for an estimated 100,000 tons
than that of the great herds of grazing animals. nationwide. By contrast to the vast states of cen-
This impact on the ecosystem grew with the move tral Asia, Greece lacked a sufficiently large uni-
to nomadic, cattle-rearing societies. The intro- tary state territory. As a result, food could only
duction of arable farming in Asia Minor around reach the cities through trade.23 Even the Greek
10,000 years ago, permanent settlement and the polis had an environmental footprint far beyond
durable modification of nature to create a culti- the urban area and the land owned by urban resi
vated landscape led to a great increase of available dents.
foods within a small habitat and paved the way
for very much higher density lifestyles than had At the peak of its geographical reach, ancient
previously been possible. Raising crops and cattle Rome drew taxes and levies from an empire
enabled families and communities to produce over 6’000 km2 wide. During the rule of Marcus
many more products than they needed for their Aurelius in the 2nd century AD, Rome had more
survival. Voluntary or enforced taxes or tithes than a million inhabitants. Constantinople, the
facilitated the division of labour and development East Roman capital, had around 500,000 residents
of specialist knowledge. This allowed for the devel- in late antiquity.24 Even in the 2nd and 3rd century
opment of large settlements, where residents led AD, Rome quenched most of its thirst for wine and
urban lives far from agriculture.19 olive oil with Spanish imports.25
A population of around one million is generally
Thebes, the upper Egyptian city of kings and tem- equated to a demand for 250,000 tons of grain.
ples, boasted an estimated 500,000 inhabitants In Rome, supplies from provinces in Africa, Egypt
during the middle kingdom period around 2000 and, to some extent, Sicily met this demand. Al-
BC.20 Changan, the ancient capital of China, is though the river could only be navigated with ease

Authenticated
1840
in winter, the Tiber and the seaport of Ostia han- Berlin in the “Gründerzeit” years after 1871. Until
dled heavy shipping of merchandise which the the end of the 18th century, physiocratic macro-
surrounding province of Latium, heartland of the economic theory assumed that agricultural pro-
empire, was unable to provide in order to raise ductivity defined economic growth. In 1776,
Rome’s standard of living. Scotsman Adam Smith published a dynamic the-
Rome’s economic social system was based on ory of macro-economic development, according
permanent growth and increasing exploitation of to which specialisation and the division of labour
the provinces. New land was conquered to support led to greater productivity in individual areas of 1900
veterans and generate tax revenue, but the increas- production. With the onset of mechanisation, the
ing number of provinces required ever b igger scope for economic growth seemed limitless.
armies and increased construction spending to
defend the long and continually growing bound- New means of transport, initially steam trains
aries. The alternative would have been to raise and ships, set urban commerce and industry free
taxes and exploit the provinces more harshly. Nei- from the limits of agricultural production and
ther option could be sustained in the long term. raw materials available in its hinterland. Thanks
Until the industrial revolution, and with few excep- to food and raw materials sourced from col
tions such as Venice and Constantinople, medieval onies and from the global market emerging in the
and early modern cities in Europe were consider- 19th century, there seemed to be no limits to the
ably smaller than the ancient capitals of antiquity. range of merchandise available on sale and any
To a large extent, they were fed by the capacity of notion of “natural capacity” – the number of
their immediate or wider environs. Although some people a region might be able to support by itself
food was traded from further afield, the amounts – was lost. The market-driven capitalist economy 1929
were far less than in antiquity. In the high middle spread through infinite individual market trans- Fig. 3
ages and the early modern period, charcoal pro- actions, each apparently fair and governed by the
duction and smelting caused wholescale deforest- market’s “invisible hand” (Adam Smith). Accord-
ation in some areas, but environmental intervening to this theory, nobody was accountable for
tions were generally less intense than in later social deprivation, and the damage to nature and
centuries. Mostly, the consumption of food and the environment caused first in industrial countries
raw materials did not exceed regional capacity. and later in the colonies and developing countries. 26 cf. Trentmann 2017
Food was produced, traded and consumed within In a previously inconceivable development, entire
cities and their surroundings and thus limited to regions were transformed into industrial land-
regionally and seasonally available products and scapes.
crops. Nevertheless, there was already a significant The global market born in the 19th century stead-
demand for long-distance trade and luxury goods.26 ily expanded throughout the 20th century, obscur-
ing the links between locations where resources
In the 19th century, the industrial revolution and were consumed and living and working conditions
the introduction of the capitalist market economy and damage to nature in the places where they
led to rapid urban growth, initially in Europe and were gathered.
later in the US. London broke through the one- During the so-called information age, globalisation
million barrier around 1800 (Fig. 3), followed by has led to the ultimate international division of
Paris around 1840, New York around 1855, and labour: as well as trading raw materials and fin-

Authenticated
ished products, now even the smallest parts of forest than could grow back. Today, anybody
ever more complex machines from all over the would agree to this principle, but the decision was
world are assembled somewhere else, according far-sighted at a time when timber demand to
to plans and calculations made in yet another build houses and ships, for smelting and metal-
place. The mining of raw materials and production work, and for heating and cooking seemed inex-
which destroys landscapes and causes emissions haustible.
27 von Carlowitz / Rohr 1732 has shifted increasingly from the highly developed
28 Friedman 1998, p. 55 European and North American countries to devel- The course of industrialisation and global oil
29 Pufé 2012, p. 34
oping and emerging economies. Badly paid work- trade has led to an increasing number of envir
30 Forrester 1961; Forrester
1969; Forrester 1971 ers often suffer poor living and working conditions onmental catastrophes. Examples include the
31 Meadows et al. 1972, to produce goods developed and traded very prof- United States’ first oil spill known as Lakeview
p. 17 itably by European and North American busi- Gusher, the Niger delta oil spills since the 1960s,
nesses. Instead of providing places of production the Minamata mercury catastrophe in mid 1950s
with a greater share of its benefits, this global Japan, and the ongoing drying, pollution and
division of labour leaves them to bear most of the salinisation of the Aral Sea, previously the earth’s
Fig. 4 Cover of “Silent
downsides. Whereas living and working standards fourth largest inland lake.
Spring” by Rachel Carson
Fig. 5 Cover of “The Limits and environmental problems in highly developed
to Growth” western centres improve, the unequal division of In 1962, the American biologist Rachel Carson
Fig. 6 Filling station owner in labour exacerbates global environmental prob- published “Silent Spring” (Fig. 4), lending voice
Perkasie, Pennsylvania (US) lems. This has been made possible by information to a growing environmental movement which has
during the oil crisis, 1973 technology and international networks which gained strength in society since the 1960s. Car-
Fig. 7 Visual of an autono
support the extremely diversified division of labour son’s book describes the effects of massive agri-
mous agricultural business in
the form of a pyramid from and the quick dispatch of data and information. cultural pesticide use on the environment and on
the “Ökologisches Bauen” human beings. Considered one of the 20th cen-
publication These very same networks also allow for connec- tury’s most influential publications,28 the book
tions to be analysed rapidly and in detail. Media triggered major political debate in the US and
channels provide near instant information about eventually led to the insecticide DDT being out-
working conditions in Asian factories. We can see lawed.29
precisely where our cheap clothing is made and Ten years later, an American research team around
why its price is so low, whilst gaining full aware- Dennis L. Meadows published “The Limits to
ness of the inhuman conditions suffered by local Growth” (Fig.5) in 1972 and contributed a further
workers and the “attractive” profits achieved by milestone to the sustainability debate. The book
the businesses in question. We also learn about builds on the System Dynamics method, which
the cost (e. g. fuel consumption) and negative lo- was developed by Jay W. Forrester, an American
cal environmental impacts of agricultural products computer technology pioneer, to examine inter-
flown to us from poor countries in order for us to actions between objects in complex dynamic
consume low-price meat, fish, fruit and vegetable systems using simulation processes.30 This m ethod
throughout the seasons. Such is the success of a enabled researchers to simulate the reciprocal
global economy representing the polar opposite effects of population growth, industrialisation,
of sustainability. HB pollution, food production and the exploitation
of natural resources. The findings questioned the
Fig. 4 contemporary belief in continuous growth and
the lifestyle of the industrial nations: If pollution
The awakening and the exploitation of natural resources were to

continue at the level so far associated with eco-
awareness of nomic growth, the absolute limits to global growth

would be reached within the next 100 years.31
sustainability The first oil crisis, triggered by the OPEC oil

embargo in 1973, revealed industrial countries’
dependency on fossil fuels and the effects of
The word “sustainability” goes back to the 18th resource scarcity on their economies (Fig. 6). In
century, when the head of the Saxon mining office Germany, the first oil crisis brought the preceding
Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1645 – 1714) promoted years of continuous economic growth to an end
“a continuous and sustainable use of the forest”.27 and led to short-time work, unemployment and
His key idea was not to take more timber from the increased social spending.
Fig. 5
Authenticated
In response to the general societal trend in the able use of land for the common good. Land 32 Krusche et al. 1982
1970s and 1980s, architects and urban planners use plans should help protect a humane environ- 33 www.null-emissions
increasingly looked into environmental principles ment, and protect and develop natural living con- gemeinden.de
34 de Bruyn et al. 2009
in construction. One of the most important books ditions (…) ”36
35 Hauff 1987, p. 51
to leave a lasting impression on generations of The Brundtland Report was the basis for the 36 Federal Building Code,
German designers was “Ökologisches Bauen”. 32 United Nations Conference on Environment and 2011
Starting with building appropriately for the climate Development (UNCED) in Rio in 1992, seen as 37 Pufé 2012, p. 48
and going on to cover ecological design principles a milestone of the global sustainability debate. 38 Stern 2007
and technology, and energy and material cycles, A variety of agreements were reached in order
the book addresses many aspects which remain to implement the Brundtland Report objectives
relevant today. At the time, the book’s ideas were for sustainable development. These included the
pure fiction (Fig. 7), but many of these apparently Rio Declaration on Environment and Develop-
futuristic concepts are now reality. Examples ment, the Climate Change Convention, the Rio
include the many rural areas, that have set them- Forest Principles, Biodiversity Convention, the
selves the goal of covering 100 percent of their Convention to Combat Desertification and the
energy supply from regenerative sources33 or the Agenda 21. The latter includes global measures at
technique of “botanical construction” developed the political, social and economic level and was
at Stuttgart University, which makes “living” plant seen as an action plan for the 21 century. It led
structures possible.34 In English literature, the many local governments and regions across the
book "The Autonomous House" had a similar globe to initiate local Agenda 21 processes under
effect (Vale 1975). the “think globally – act locally” motto. Currently,
around 2,600 local governments have passed
The Chernobyl nuclear disaster near the Ukrain- resolutions to prepare a local Agenda 21.37
ian city of Pripyat in 1986 was one of the worst
accidents in recent history with far-reaching con- One of the main aims of the third UN Climate Fig. 6
sequences for the environment and for human Conference in Kyoto in 1997 was to agree spe-
health, even to the present day. The event lent cific, measurable climate targets. This led to the
new support to the anti-nuclear movement born publication of the so-called Kyoto Protocol, which
in the 1970s. included the first binding targets for protecting the
In 1983, the United Nations responded to the climate. For example, it was agreed that industrial
unending debate as to how societal development countries should reduce greenhouse gas emis-
should take account of environmental problems sions by 5.2 percent of the 1990 levels by 2012.
by setting up the World Commission on Envir No reduction targets were agreed for developing
onment and Development (WCED) chaired by and emerging countries. Currently, 191 states and
former Norwegian prime minister Gro Harlem the European Union have signed up to the Kyoto
Brundtland. The commission was charged with Protocol. As one of the main producers of gases
the challenging task of developing recommen- damaging the climate, the US never signed up to
dations for sustainable development. As a result, the protocol.
the report “Our Common Future”, also known as
the Brundtland Report was published in 1987. It Despite numerous publications on the issue, such
defines sustainability as “development that meets as Nicholas Stern’s reports on the economic con-
the needs of the present without compromising sequences of climate change38 and former presi
the ability of future generations to meet their own dential candidate Al Gore’s highly successful doc-
needs”.35 In the years that followed, this definition umentary “An Inconvenient Truth” (2006), and
gained increasing currency, eventually becoming events such as the Fukushima nuclear catastrophe
globally axiomatic. in 2011, no new reduction targets could be agreed
at subsequent climate conferences. The follow-up
In Germany, the objective of sustainable devel- to the Kyoto protocol was not agreed until the UN
opment was explicitly written into law. For ex Climate Conference in Paris in 2015, when it was
ample, Paragraph 1, Section 5 of the German agreed to limit global warming to less than 2 °C.
building code (BauGB) states “Land use plans To achieve this target, net greenhouse emissions
should safeguard a sustainable urban develop- have to be reduced to zero in the second half of the
ment which unites social, economic and environ 21 century. It is to be hoped that member states
mental requirements in responsibility towards take a determined approach to implementing
future generations, and ensure the socially equit these ambitious targets. SA
Fig. 7
Authenticated
20
First use of the term “Nachhaltigkeit” (Sustainability) 18th century
Start of global oil trade as of 1850
Fig. 8
First oil pipeline in the USA 1865
Lakeview Gusher oil spill (USA; 1.2 m t oil) 1910
Start of conveyor belt production / private mobility as of 1911
World economic crisis 1929
International whaling convention 1946
sustainability debate
Foundation of IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature 1948
Minamata (JP) Mercury pollution / Clean Air Act 1950
ment of parameters in the

Fig. 8 Historical develop
Niger delta oil spill (1.5 m t oil) as of 1960 1960
Drought, salination, pesticides in Aral Sea / Foundation OECD 1961
Publication “Silent Spring” (R. Carson) 1962
Space heating demand (source: Munich RE)

European Water Charter 1968
Global oil production (source: King 1971, p. 39)

Anti-Nuclear Movement as of 1970 1970
UN Environment Conference in Stockholm / “The Limits to Growth” Study 1972
Number of natural disasters per annum (source: Munich Re)

Oil crisis, Washington Convention on Biological Diversity 1973
Development of global temperatures (source: World Bank 2010)

> 350 kWh/m2a
Seveso (IT) dioxin disaster / UN Habitat Conference, Vancouver 1976

1. Wärmeschutzverordnung (WSchV; DE) 1977
Amoco Cadiz oil spill (FR) 1978
Three Mile Island nuclear meltdown 1979
Foundation of Green Party (DE) 1980 1980
World Nature Charter / “Ökologisch bauen” publication (DE) 1982

> 300 kWh/m2a
2. Wärmeschutzverordnung (WSchV; DE), Bhopal disaster (IND) 1984

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985
Chernobyl nuclear disaster (UA) 1986
Love canal toxic waste scandal (USA) / Brundtland report 1987
Chapter 1 — Introduction
Piper Alpha disaster (North Sea) / Foundation IPCC 1988

Exxon Valdez oil spill (USA) 1989
Oil well fires in Kuwait 1990 BREEAM 1990
Packaging legislation (DE) 1991
Rio de Janeiro conference /Agenda 21 1992
Human rights conference in Vienna 1993
> 200 kWh/m2a
Enquete-Commission report / Article 20a (DE) /Aalborg Charter 1994

1. Climate conference, Berlin (Berlin mandate) / 3. WSchV 1995
2. Climate conference, Geneva / UN Habitat II, Istanbul 1996 HQE
3. Climate conference, Kyoto (Kyoto protocol) 1997
4. Climate conference, Buenos Aires (Work plan) 1998 LEED
5. Climate conference, The Hague / nuclear chain reaction Tokaimura (JP) 1999
Renewable Energies Legislation EEG (DE) / UN Millennium Summit New York 2000 Green Globe 2000
> 150 kWh/m2a
6. + 7. Climate conferences, Bonn + Marrakesh (Negotiations) 2001 CASBEE

8. Climate conference, New Delhi / World Sustainable Development Summit, Johannesburg 2002 Green Star
9. Climate conference, Milan 2003
10. Climate conference Buenos Aires (Anniversary) / EnEV 2004 2004
UN Climate conference, Montreal / Hurricane Katrina 2005
> 120 kWh/m2a
UN Climate conference Nairobi / “An Inconvenient Truth” film 2006

UN Climate conference Bali / EnEV 2007/ Leipzig Charter 2007 TÜV / THS CASBEE UD DGNB
> 100 kWh/m2a
UN Climate conference Poznan / Foundation Masdar City, Abu Dhabi 2008 OnePlanet C
Climate conference Copenhagen / EnEV 2009 / Energy Passport 2009 BREEAM C
Deepwater Horizon oil spill (1 M t oil) / UN Climate conference Cancun 2010 LEED ND Estidama 2010
> 75 kWh/m2a
Fukushima (JP) Nuclear disaster / German exit from Nuclear power / UN Climate conference, Durban 2011 SMEO Q
UN Climate conference, Doha 2012 DGNB NSQ
Peak Oil
Authenticated
EnEV 2014 2014
UN Climate conference Paris 2015 GreenStar C
> 40 kWh/m2a
EU Nearly Zero Energy Buildings for public buildings 2019

Prediction: renewables account for 47 % of German electricity supply 2020
1.3 — The Neighbourhood 21
1 .3
The Neighbourhood
He l m ut Bott
I
rrespective of its historical background, port interchanges, shopping centres etc., are
the notion of the neighbourhood today familiar to the neighbourhoods’ residents and
refers to a part of an urban system which users. Lynch also describes “landmarks”, vis-
is integrated with the wider city, but which ible and invisible elements or regular events
– thanks to its specific structural features and rituals which serve as symbols for the
– feels distinctively different to residents neighbourhood and its history. Names, par-
and outsiders alike.1 This is not just about ticularly conspicuous buildings or building
a number of homes randomly jumbled types, pronounced landscape features, dis-
together around a common street network: neigh- trict festivities, processions or clubs named
bourhoods offer public and private amenities as after the neighbourhood can all become land-
well as many homes, and they provide social diver- marks. This happens when they are linked to
sity and a mix of uses. In line with definitions and the neighbourhood and its history and exist
models currently used in neighbourhood research2 within residents’ collective memory, and/or
we will use this notion to describe what happens when they are associated with the neighbour-
when three layers are meshed together. hood by outsiders.
•• Physical: buildings and private and public open Fundamentally, neighbourhoods are based on the 1 Schnur 2008
spaces (streets, squares, parks and green areas) built spatial structure. This can often include his- 2 Vogelpohl 2008;
create a specific urban fabric with character- torical units which retain their historical character Schnur 2008
3 Lynch 2001
istic urban spaces. despite having been absorbed in to the city as a
•• Socio-economic: locals and visitors use homes, whole, such as villages, suburbs or urban exten-
facilities and places of work, fulfilling different sion. A neighbourhood (or “district”, according
roles, e.g. as residents or workers. In doing so, to Lynch) could also be an area of similar building
they move in very different, but partially over- typologies built within a short period of time, such
lapping circles. They spend time in homes and as the urban extensions of the 19th century, or an
their surroundings, in playgrounds, cafés, work- urban area laid out according to a coherent over-
places etc. and they move along routes to work, all design. In these cases, the neighbourhood’s
shops, schools, crèches, restaurants, clubs, built elements are quite similar, and differ notice-
recreation grounds, places of worship etc., and ably from the surroundings when approached
back. Neighbourhood residents and visitors from adjoining areas. It is possible to draw a line
come into contact regularly. This ranges from along the border (or “edge”). This might be physic
seeing and greeting one another, through to ally very distinct, like a railway line, a river or
communicating more intensively and getting canal, or a very broad and busy road. However,
engaged in initiatives, clubs or administrative neighbourhoods can also be found in continuous
groups (e.g. parent-teacher groups, local insti- street grids like those in many American cities,
tutions, religious communities, local parties). where they can focus on shopping centres or
•• Symbolic: as these activities overlap, they cre- streets with a high density of local facilities. In
ate intersections which the American urbanist these cases, neighbourhood boundaries are often
Kevin A. Lynch describes as “nodes”:3 These less distinct, with fluid transitions from one
nodes, such as market squares, public trans- neighbourhood to the next (Fig. 1).

Authenticated
Frequency Path Edge Node District Landmark

More than 75 %
50 – 75 %
25 – 50 %
12 – 25 %
Fig. 1
Fig. 1 Mental Map of The significance of the neighbourhood as the key for urban redevelopment measures should in-
Boston, after Kevin Lynch space for daily life has decreased as suburbs have clude not only social and economic aims, but also
Fig. 2 Subsections of very sprawled out into the wider region, increasing seek to implement sustainable urban structures
different characteristics,
labour mobility and economic globalisation. At and climate protection. Article 171 a, Clause 3
HafenCity Hamburg (DE)
Fig. 3 Aerial photograph of
the same time, even globally operating businesses sets out the objectives for urban redevelopment
Lübeck (DE) have a connection to the local area, frequently measures:
through administrative staff and workers in
research and development, often also through “Urban redevelopment measures serve the public
production workers. Global activities always have good. They should contribute to
a local dimension, and even internationally ori- 1. adapting settlement patterns to the demands
ented specialist staff have a “base camp” in some of demographic and economic development
specific location rather than merely existing in and to the general requirements of climate pro-
4 Franke 2011 abstract space. tection and climate adaptation,
2. improving living and working conditions and
the environment,
3. strengthening inner urban areas,
Neighbourhoods 4. putting built structures which no longer meet

current requirements to new use,
as activity areas 5. dismantling built structures which cannot be

put to new uses,
6. facilitating the interim use of fallow or disused
The federal building code (BauGB) does not men- land for the purpose of climate protection or
tion neighbourhoods in defining renewal or devel- adaptation,
opment areas or urban policy measures. The code 7. sustainably protecting inner city heritage build-
merely states that boundaries for regeneration ings.”
or transformation should be drawn in such a way
as to support “purposeful intervention”. For ex- As socio-spatial units, neighbourhoods offer a suit-
ample, the urban regeneration funding programme able scale of intervention for integrated planning
“Soziale Stadt” (Social City), launched by national and packages of measures for sustainable urban
and federal governments in 1999 and renewed redevelopment.4 Article 166 Clause 2 of the build-
in 2012, combines very diverse social policy and ing code states that: “The municipality should cre-
urban development measures and relates to spatial ate the conditions for the creation of a functional
subdivisions within the city. area which corresponds to the objectives and the
purposes of urban development measures, and
The level of intervention for sustainable urban within which the orderly and purposeful supply
redevelopment is pitched at spatially defined sub- of goods and services to the population can be
units, for administrative reasons and due to the guaranteed.” These functional urban areas are
concentrating of investment and the clustering what we describe as neighbourhoods within this
of social policy, education and integrative pol book (“Quartiere” in German).
icies. The building code states that objectives

Authenticated
1.3 — The Neighbourhood 23
Fig. 2
It is common to create individual areas of different ferent function (e.g. tannery districts), historical
character in developing new urban areas. The development phases (such as in Cologne or Hil
designs for major new urban areas such as Munich- desheim), or systematically quartered around a
Riem feature a range of subdivisions, whilst others central intersection (e.g. Lübeck, Fig.3). Siena was
such as HafenCity in Hamburg include a phased divided into three “terzi”, each of which was fur-
delivery strategy. With plans for 6,000 new homes ther divided into five or six “contrade”. Ongoing
and 45,000 jobs on a 157 ha site, HafenCity fea- urban growth often departed from the division
tures ten areas, described as neighbourhoods, into four quarters. For example, Venice featured
each featuring a very different spatial layout and six sections (“sestiere”) even during the middle
mix of uses (Fig. 2). Future development will reveal ages.
the extent to which these areas succeed in cre
ating a neighbourhood character within the wider During the 19th century, rapid bursts of growth
development. and urbanisation transformed the scale of the
European city, which was subsequently divided
according to new, administrative and infrastruc-
tural principles. As from 1860, Baron Haussmann
Historical redeveloped and extended Paris, dividing the city

into 20 arrondissements, each with its own town
development hall and administrative tasks (Fig. 4, p. 24). These

new administrative units comprised a number of
existing or new neighbourhoods. Other major
The idea of dividing the city into quadrants and cities such as Vienna followed suit. In 1920,
thereby creating four neighbourhoods has a long Greater Berlin was divided into administrative
historic lineage. The axial cross with four key “Bezirke”, each of which included various, very
directions is an archaic symbol of the city as a diverse districts or neighbourhoods. 5 Rykwert 1988
whole and in many cultures represents the basic
urban order, associated with embedding the urban Promoted by the idea of the Garden City eman
habitat in the “cosmic order”.5 ating from England, the idea of breaking the city
up into smaller units as part of an urban develop-
In “Politéia” (“The State”, ca. 370 BC), Plato goes ment based on planned neighbourhoods first
into a lot of detail in describing the subdivision of appeared in the 19th century (Fig. 5). These
the city into socio-spatial, administrative sections planned neighbourhoods were intended to
such as “phylae” (tribes). counteract the anonymity of the city and facilitate
social control and mutual support, thereby com-
Roman cities throughout the colonies were div bining urban comfort with village structures. This
ided by a north-south axis (Cardo Maximus) and concept of the neighbourhood reappears in dif-
an east-west axis (Decumanus Maximus), there- ferent guises, with varying political objectives,
by creating four areas or “quarters”. right through until post-war settlement plan-
Medieval European cities were commonly divided ning. Urban sociology took a critical view of this
into smaller units, such as parishes, areas of dif- development, because its famed German founder
Fig. 3
Authenticated
Fig. 4
6 Simmel 1903 Georg Simmel had specifically described anony- protests against clearance projects and the demo
7 Bahrdt 1961 mous behaviour, such as “looking the other way”, lition of established heritage neighbourhoods, led
8 Borchardt 1974; as the precondition for urban survival.6 to an intensive engagement with the historical
Müller 1979
fabric. The traditional European city was redis-
9 Göderitz / Rainer /
Hoffmann 1957
This particular urban behaviour, which placed city covered, along with its tradition of urban space.
10 Hecker 2007 dwellers between the polar extremes of familiar, The notion of the modern city as a purely spatial
11 Berndt 1971; Mitscher private intimacy on one hand and public ano- structure, which residents used according to
lich 1965; Rossi 1966; nymity on the other, was propagated as the very momentary whim, moving home frequently and
Rowe /Kötter 1978 nature of urban communication and interaction developing no emotional ties to their residential
in the design of major settlements on the urban surroundings, applied only to a small share of city
periphery.7 dwellers, and to varying degrees according to the
neighbourhood in question.
The view was that increasingly frequent moves
and urban anonymity resulted in ties between It became apparent that a considerable proportion
residents and their neighbours losing importance, of a neighbourhood’s residents spent long periods,
rendering neighbourhood design ideologically sometimes entire lives, in older, established neigh-
outdated wishful thinking. After World War II, bourhoods, often developing a strong emotional
text books and technical codes divided the city bond with the neighbourhood and its culture.
according to catchment areas and demand needed Various initiatives picked up and reinforced this
Fig. 4 Plan of Paris with for facilities at different levels, such as the number tradition, a trend later associated in part with
20 arrondissements each
of residents required to support a small row of social restructuring (gentrification). The recog-
with their own administration,
Baron Haussmann, 1864 shops with a bakery and a dairy, or a crèche.8 nition and appreciation of socio-spatial complexes
Fig. 5 Garden City concept, This approach facilitated the apparently un- in everyday life were reflected in planning and
Ebenezer Howard, 1902 ideological design of the “orderly, airy city”9, free research. In Germany, this led to the German
from the ballast of criticism for the metropolis, Society for Geography (Deutsche Gesellschaft für
and in tune with the functional urban design con- Geographie, DGfG) creating a subcommittee for
cepts of the era. neighbourhood research.
And yet within CIAM, the core group at the heart

of modern architecture and urbanism, increasing
criticism opposed technically oriented function-
alism. Team 10, in particular, introduced the city’s
social and cultural dimensions in the debate, with
a particular focus on the significance of urban
space for communication and interaction, and the
symbolic dimension of architecture.10
Finally, the onset of professional criticism of func-

tionalism and anonymous big housing projects
during the 1960s11, enhanced by residents’ groups’
Fig. 5
Authenticated
1.4 — Smart City 25
1.4
Smart City
Gre gor C. Grass l, Phil ip p Gro ß
R
ecent decades have seen the of digitalisation are difficult to foresee, and the
pace of change in techno issues around data protection and the transpar-
logical and social develop- ency of human life need to be resolved quickly
ment accelerate dramatically. and in depth. The technical implementation of
Twenty years ago, it was un- the smart city presents many major hazards. Can
thinkable that nearly every- high-tech cities make a valid contribution to sus-
body today would have access tainable development, or are they taking first steps
to an all-encompassing tool towards an inhuman world? Does this not also
for communication and control, information and question whether traditional sustainability mod-
daily support: the smartphone. Rapidly progress- els are able to solve the problems of massive global
ing digitalisation has affected buildings and cities population growth? How can the limited resources
too. Nearly every project tries to be “smart” to of our planet sustain its population growing from
attract users with new features. And yet society 2 billion in 1927 to around 10 billion in 2050?3 How
still has no consistent understanding of the “smart can this population safely satisfy its demand for
city” concept. The fingerprint opening the front wealth and social peace?
door, the rural roll-out of broadband, the smart-
phone in our pocket or the e-bike in our garage, The smart city offers opportunities to use artificial 1 Otto 2016
which of these is truly smart? Science differentiates intelligence to calculate and predict previously 2 ibid.
two key definitions for the smart city: intractable conflicts. We are already able to avoid 3 United Nations 2011
4 www.slideshare.net/
traffic jams without even seeing them. Smart urban
IBMIoT/unlocking-hidden
•• The “holistic smart city” concept includes sus- planning could provide a flexible model for positive insights-with-cognitive-iot
tainable and innovative approaches to social, urban development. This would see functions and (Slide 8; date: 03.08.2018)
economic and environmental aspects as well infrastructure in the city respond to the sun, rain,
as making use of information and communi- population growth, or vacancy. Current smart city
cation technology (ICT).1 concepts such as Songdo in South Korea are pursu-
•• The more recent “connected smart city” ing these opportunities. However, these concepts
concept takes an ICT-driven approach and often rely too heavily on sensors as a catch-all
makes use of modern technology to “enable” solution. As yet, it remains unclear whether this is
improvements to as many aspects of urban really in users’ best interests. This is remarkable,
life as possible.2 as no more than 12 percent of worldwide data
gathered by the Internet of Things (IoT) is actually
In detail, the two approaches differ only when used, whereas 88 percent of all information has
seen from an external perspective. The connected no use at all so far.4
smart city approach may form part of a holistic
concept, but focusses on technical methods, doing In designing new cities, neighbourhoods and cit-
without the clear objectives typical for the holistic ies, it is of key importance to identify the chal-
approach. This questions whether the holistic lenges presented by the relevant project, as well
smart city is the logical continuation of existing as the objectives to be met by the use of technol-
sustainability strategies, or whether it is just one ogy. Our concept of the smart city as a holistic
of many possible approaches. The rebound effects approach places human beings and their needs at

Authenticated
1. Objectives 2. Action areas 3. Technology

Efficiency Energy Sensors
Sustainability Planning M2M communication
Quality of life Infrastructure Mobile communication
Competitive locations Mobility Big data
etc Protecting the environment Internet of things (IoT)
Process /Organisation etc.
Financial viability
Society
1. Stressors
etc.
Demography Resources
High-performance
Mobility Infrastructure
broadband
Energy
Infrastructure
Ecology
etc.
etc.
Technology must always serve the user and the defined goals, and solve the issues at hand.
Fig. 1
5 cf. e.g. www.dreso.com/ the heart of design, with technology fulfilling a the neighbourhood level.5 Modern data man-
de/leistungen/integrated purely enabling role. It is not about finding ways agement supports planning, and tools such as
urban-solutions/ to integrate the newest technology into the city, City-BIM and Virtual Reality help visualise the
(date: 03.08.2018)
it is about finding out whether new technologies design. In smart cities, the urban design or archi-
6 Otto 2016
7 Landkreis Ludwigsburg
offer better ways to fix the specific challenges of tecture team will take on the overall coordination
2015 neighbourhood development than previously for planning whole neighbourhoods, rather than
available technologies (Fig. 1). merely fulfilling the tasks set out in in the archi-
tects’ and engineers’ standard fee order. Smart
Irrespective of the amount of technology intro- urban designers will not only set out planning
duced into the city, it is crucial that the framework frameworks for development control and draw
conditions are right. Even the best concepts and up visions through informal planning but go on
applications will not function without a strong and to take on real responsibility for the architecture
stable network – a smart grid. Building on this of the future city.
foundation, smart cities should make user-friendly
use of technology and artificial intelligence to Holistic neighbourhood planning includes
address the central task of supporting sustainable designing and delivering the entire infra
urban development. structure, right down to the smart grid for the
However, urban planning has responded insuffi- smart home as an integral element of neighbour-
ciently, if at all, to the smart city megatrend. There hood design. The smart city offers a modern way
is a shortage of specialists able to plan smart grids of making use of synergies to master the
and integrated urban solutions. Infrastructure challenges of sustainable urban planning more
cannot be left either to industry or local municipal efficiently. This is not just about digitalisation
utilities alone. Major neighbourhoods delivered for the sake of technology, but about planning a
by one single developer demonstrate that holistic truly smart neighbourhood with a high level of
solutions are possible. The design of buildings smartness (Fig. 2).6
cannot be separated from urban design and infra-
structure. This is about looking for, and finding And yet the complexity and massive scope of
the best solution, no matter whether it follows a neighbourhood planning is daunting. Unfortu-
centralised or decentralised approach. This nately, this complexity cannot be denied and
requires an independent planner competent in should not be ignored in planning. However,
urban planning and infrastructure as well as indi- many planning instruments can support progress
vidual buildings, in order to identify synergies at towards the smart city. Geographic information

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1.4 — Smart City 27
Levels of smartness
Level 5
Databased,
Data managment, ITsupported
Analysing, diag
comparing and automated Level 4 nosing and pre
Digital communi interpreting data reaction
dicting conditions,
cation via net according to
Shared data use early triggering of
worked technolo predefined Level 3 to add value for corrective meas
gies, such as sen parameters
other action areas. ures.
sors, machines,
programmes,
Level 2
control units etc.
Level 1
Fig. 1 User defines objectives and
stressors. The right approach leads
to success.
Fig. 2 What is truly smart? – Levels
Transferring Handling and Reacting and Synergies between Predicting of smartness
data evaluating data controling systems and planning Fig. 3 ÖGNI Speedometer Smart
City – processes and participation
Fig. 2 are required to get going.
ÖGNI POSITIONSPAPIER SMART CITIES Seite 12 von 14
Fig. 3
© ÖGNI
systems (GIS) are well established in municipal the wealth of CAD and GIS system data. This Further information
administrations and in urban planning. Building approach helps make a city of the future tangible in • Bundesinstitut für Bau, Stadt und Raumfor-
Information Modelling (BIM), which combines virtual reality and ties data and facts with emotions schung (BBSR) im Bundesamt für Bauwesen und
planning and data management, is becoming more for a sustainable project. These new instruments, Raumordnung (BBR) (Ed.): Smart City Charta.
common. Virtual reality applications are replacing which – mainly due to ignorance – currently appear Digitale Transformation in den Kommunen nach-
haltig gestalten. Bonn 2017
traditional gypsum models. Smart networking daunting to us, will eventually seem as accessible
• Soike, Roman; Libbe, Jens: Smart Cities in
between these tools will soon help simplify previ- as a pocket calculator, providing us with simple Deutschland – eine Bestandsaufnahme. Published
ously complicated processes. First examples, such tools to create the next generation of sustainable by Deutsches Institut für Urbanistik (difu).
as the 3D-GIS climate change concept developed neighbourhoods.8 Until that time, the smart city Berlin 2018
by the Ludwigsburg district council, demonstrate will mainly present challenges, as stated by the • Harm, Corvin: Smart City und Klimaschutz. Der
that digital instruments can be put to use success- Austrian Sustainable Building Council (ÖGNI) in Smart City Ansatz in den Klimaschutzstrategien
von Berlin, Hamburg und München. Saarbrücken
fully for CO2 accounting and for public consulta- its first position paper on the topic.9 How, and how
2018
tion.7 The Deutsche Entwicklungsgesellschaft quickly, our way of planning, building and finally
(DEG) has helped develop a City-BIM model for living in the built environment will become truly
Maidar EcoCity+, the proposed new Mongolian smart is a key question. The answer remains to 8 Meier / Portmann 2011
capital. It unites modern virtual reality (VR) with be seen (Fig. 3). 9 ÖGNI 2017

Authenticated
1 .5
Added Value of Sustainable

Urban Neighbourhoods
Ste p han Anders
T
he added value of sustain- ing green roofs and rainwater management sys-
able urban neighbourhoods tems in car parking areas often fall victim to cost
is diverse and varied, but cutting at early project stages. It is worth consid-
can only be partly measured ering whether the cost of later damage could be
against quantitative criteria. avoided by investing in a design approach which
The major cost and emissions includes the wider public to take a holistic view
savings of sustainable neigh- from the outset, rather than taking a narrow,
bourhoods can be measured project-based approach.
objectively. And yet the benefits of biodiversity, In his report “The Economics of Climate Change”2
social balance, or improved quality of life for soci- published in 2007, former World Bank economist
ety as a whole – though potentially immense – are Nicholas Stern concluded that the benefits of early
very difficult to express in numbers. Differing, decisive action far outweigh the economic cost of
even isolated approaches to ecological, social, inactivity. Stern’s economic models demonstrated
and economic aspects of natural and built envir that humanity would in future need to use 5 – 20
onments can have negative as well as positive percent of global annual gross domestic product
consequences, depending on the point of view. (GDP) to cover the cost of frequent floods, storms
and illnesses, if it failed to implement steps against
The dying of the bees demonstrates the general climate change. For comparison: with global GDP
complex interplay of different factors. The use of around US $ 79 bn, 20 percent equated to around
new fertilisers in agriculture went along with a US $ 17 bn, approximately equivalent to EU GDP
lack of awareness for the mutual effects which in 2017. By contrast, Stern calculated that the worst
would eventually threaten human existence it- effects of climate change could be avoided at a
self. Scientific research at Leuphana University cost of 1 percent of global GDP, which – at around
in Lüneburg has shown that the intensive use US $ 0.8 bn – roughly matched the GDP of the
of agricultural landscapes has caused a mas- Netherlands in 2017.
sive reduction in global bee numbers with dir Stern’s calculations relate to the global level,
ect effects on human health. Researchers reckon but can be broken down to the urban level. In
that 40 percent of plant nutrients could be lost if the following, the above general comments on
this trend continues, because many plants are no added value will be applied to the neighbour-
longer pollinated.1 It is difficult to estimate the hood level and spelled out in immediately acces-
effects and interactions this will have on the global sible terms.
ecosystem.
1 Klein et al. 2011 The 2013 floods revealed the extent to which many
2 Stern 2007
3 Christ et al. 2001,
German cities and neighbourhoods had been Environmental added value
planned with little regard, or even design-driven
p. 105
active disregard for flood protection. This com- In 2001, the Bauhaus University Weimar and
plex issue requires more than simply building Öko-Institut Freiburg studied urban design and
dykes and swales. General development notice- environmental quality in neighbourhoods which
ably makes the situation worse by increasing were car-free or had low car use.3 The results were
sealed surfaces. Nevertheless, rainwater-retain- quite clear: neighbourhoods with a low level of

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1.5 — Added Value of Sustainable Urban Neighbourhoods 29
traffic benefit from many positive effects. For Land is a resource which cannot be increased, 4 Fuchs /Schleifnecker
example, massive construction, maintenance and especially in densely populated countries such as 2001, p. 55; Jenks /
Dempsey 2005, p. 24;
service costs for large traffic areas (streets, car Germany. The soil fulfils a vital function in our
OECD 2008, p. 115
parks) can be cut. This frees up space which can ecosystem: it supports plant, animal and human
5 https://www.destatis.de/
be dedicated to high-quality residential infill devel- life, purifies precipitation and stores groundwater. DE/Themen/Branchen-
opment or new leisure facilities. Further benefits However, our current use of land is far from spar- Unternehmen/Landwirt
of low-traffic neighbourhoods include positive ing. Between 2012 and 2015, an average of ca. schaft-Forstwirtschaft-
effects for residents’ health, such as less noise and 66 ha of land – amounting to 92.5 FIFA football Fischerei/Flaechen
pollution, and greater safety. In addition, buildings pitches – was consumed for settlement and trans- nutzung/Tabellen/anstieg-
suv.html
and the public realm can be used more flexibly port each day in Germany. According to the Fed-
and more diversely – e.g. as play areas, for walking eral Statistical Office, this is due to urban sprawl
or cycling – or they can even be closed off for pub- into the surrounding countryside, the increased
lic events, which would be very difficult on a heav- separation of housing, work, leisure and amenity
ily trafficked road. This example demonstrates areas, and rising mobility.5 Brownfield or under-
how just one measure – reducing neighbourhood used urban land thus represents a possibility
traffic – can deliver major benefits. to protect outlying areas and reduce land con-
sumption.
Providing facilities for daily life in easy walking
distance and good access to public transport also
contributes to low traffic levels in neighbour- Added value for people
hoods. It makes car journeys unnecessary and
reduces travel times – benefits not to be under
and society
estimated. Often, parents will spend a major share Along with these environmental effects, sustain-
of their day ferrying children to various leisure able neighbourhoods offer many further benefits.
activities, making administrative errands and These are mutually interdependent and partly
trips to the shops – usually by car. A neighbour- very closely linked to environmental aspects.
hood’s location can have a major influence on Adequate green and open spaces provide animal
residents’ ability to move around by environmen- and plant habitats, but they also improve micro-
tally friendly means, e.g. on foot, by bike or on climates and thereby directly benefit humans.
public transport. Human well-being in public space does not depend
on microclimate alone, even if the perceived out-
Fundamentally, resource efficiency is one of the door temperature may become a decisive factor,
most important principles in planning sustain as in the case of cities such as Abu Dhabi, where
able neighbourhoods. This includes energy, street surface temperatures may climb to 70 °C
water, building materials and other valuable re- (Fig. 1). Subjective factors – design, accessibility,
sources as well as more generally, land, cost and vitality, noise level, and even perceived safety, to
time. Thus a neighbourhood’s location will have name just a few – also play an important role. A
a decisive effect on the distances residents cover representative survey carried out by the German
each day and the time and energy consumed in Federal Environment Agency in 2011 highlights
doing so.4 the significance of noise for well-being: 83 percent

Authenticated
Fig. 1 a
of respondents stated that they were stressed by

traffic noise, and 36 percent of respondents even
felt very or extremely stressed by it. 6 This aspect
should be given more attention in future.
Sustainable neighbourhood design aims to offer

homes and jobs to a diverse population and recre
ate a greater mix of living and working. This offers
advantages for social life, but also makes neigh-
bourhoods more able to adapt to changing param-
eters and more stable in terms of long-term value.
Today, monofunctional neighbourhoods such as
Frankfurt’s Niederrad office area or Berlin’s Märk-
b isches Viertel are being returned to a greater mix,
whilst also being improved in terms of design and
energy-efficiency. Social factors remain very sub-
jective and difficult to quantify, but they play a
decisive role in the sustainable development of
cities and neighbourhoods. It is no surprise that
cities with a high quality of life, such as Vienna,
6 UBA 2011, p. 5 Zurich, Munich or Auckland7, succeed economic
7 Mercer 2012 ally by attracting highly qualified people and inter-
8 Rotermund, pp. 10ff. nationally active businesses.
Economic added value

Economics is the third dimension of sustainabil-
ity. Though difficult to quantify at the neighbour-
hood level, the economic benefits of sustainable
urban development can be linked to specific data
at the building level.
The use phase accounts for nearly 90 percent of
life-cycle cost in office and industrial buildings;8
and the same goes for green, open and transport
areas. It is crucial to include buildings’ and spaces’

Authenticated
1.5 — Added Value of Sustainable Urban Neighbourhoods 31
Urban climate
Health
Open space
Ventilation
Sealed surfaces
Well-being
Shading
Density
Compactness
Efficiency of
infrastructure
Volume of traffic
Energy demand
Life cycle cost

Fig. 2
use and disassembly cost as well as construction density and the increased sealing of the ground Fig. 1 Thermal imaging
cost from the outset. An article on life cycles in disrupts natural water cycles, increasing the risk to compare temperatures:
green space points out that in the past, open spaces of flooding.11 The decreasing proportion of open a Central Abu Dhabi:
average street surface
“had to be dismantled or adapted after only a space has a detrimental effect on the urban cli-
temperature 57 °C,
few years, because financial and staffing cost for mate, leading to rising urban temperatures which average temperature
their maintenance proved unviable, or because can be very taxing for residents.12 of street space 52 °C
the area’s appearance no longer met users expec- Further negative effects include fewer solar gains b Masdar City: average
tations”.9 through mutual shading of buildings, and in- street surface temperature
creased resource demand in taller buildings due 33 °C, average tempera
ture of street space 37 °C
The example of life-cycle cost clearly demon- to special structural needs and increased power
Fig. 2 Complex interactions
strates that sustainable urban neighbourhoods consumption for lifts and technical ventilation.13 between urban design
deliver a massive added value when compared to Pursuing energy-efficient neighbourhoods can parameters
conventionally designed neighbourhoods, even lead to a situation where efficiencies gained in
if it cannot always be expressed in figures. It is to buildings are wiped out by energy losses in neigh-
be hoped that more neighbourhoods will be devel- bourhood heating systems which can no longer
oped according to sustainable principles in future. be used efficiently.14 The same goes for reducing
This can pay off in the long term, even if it may waste water: a positive move in terms of sustain-
cause higher design and construction costs. ability, this can lead to higher cost in terms of
infrastructure maintenance and servicing. This
is because reduced waste water volumes leave
more deposits in pipes, which need to be washed
Complexity away with drinking water. The slower flow of waste

water can lead to rotting, which in turn can make
and reciprocity pipes and pumping stations corrode.15
Finally, it is important not to forget the effects 9 Blaser / Buser / Borer

The discourse on sustainable urban neighbour- higher density can have on human behaviour. 2009, p. 2
hood in recent years can be summed up by the Empirical research demonstrates close links 10 Fuhrich et al. 2006, p. 42
11 Henninger 2011, p. 17
City of Munich’s “compact, urban, and green” between rising density, decreasing childbirth,
12 Jendritzky 2007, p. 108
vision. As charming and simple as this seems – the increasing mortality, youth and adult crime and 13 Hegger et al. 2008, p. 63
reality is far more complex, thanks to countless psychological distress.16 14 Koziol 2011, p. 24
interactions between urban design parameters It is not possible to make general statements about 15 Koziol et al. 2006, p. 18
(Fig. 2). For example, benefits of infill densifica- design interventions in the city as a whole. Rather, 16 Friedrichs 1983,
tion, such as more efficient energy and transport individual factors should be assessed holistically pp. 134ff.
systems or more effectively used social infrastruc- and implemented on a project-by-project basis
ture10 may go along with negative effects. Higher for each location and situation.

Authenticated
C H A P TE R 2
Challenges and
Action Areas
2 .1
Regional,
Urban and
Neighbourhood
Development
Authenticated
2.1 — Regional, Urban and Neighbourhood Development 33
Challenges
for Regional, Urban
and Neighbourhood
Development
He l m ut Bott, Ste fan Sieden top
M
ajor cities are not self- Urbanisation thus presents a dilemma: rising popu
sufficient systems – they lations in most parts of the world (Fig. 1, p. 34),
import large amounts increasing wealth creation and burgeoning af
of resources from near fluence make settlements’ spatial expansion a
and far and rely on the sheer necessity – yet this growth often takes up
export and disposal of land crucial to the supply and disposal of urban
gaseous, liquid and resources.
solid waste. Cities are Urban development frequently devours rich
nodes for the production, distribution and con- agricultural soils and areas fulfilling valuable en-
sumption of goods within the global system of vironmental functions such as water retention
material flows. Whilst consuming only 2 – 3 per- or bioclimatic regulation. The loss of biologi-
cent of the earth’s land surface, cities account for cally active areas within cities’ environs feeds
three quarters of global resource consumption their dependency on exterritorial resources,
and 80 percent of greenhouse gas emissions.1 consolidating an “economy of environmental
Within the Global Change debate, urbanisation deficit”.6
– seen as a process of concentrating population in
cities and physically extending land primarily However, it would be misguided to indiscrim
dedicated to buildings – has long been recognised inately discredit urban systems as “parasitic” or
as one of the central factors in global environment inherently unsustainable. Sufficient wealth enables 1 Girardet 1996;
change.2 cities to exploit economies of scale and density and OECD 2010; UN 2007
2 Seto / Sanchez-Rodríguez /
Urban growth and the land, energy and mater organise productive and reproductive activities
Fragkias 2010; Angel /
ial consuming life styles pursued in cities, thrive with greater resource-efficiency than rural settle- Sheppard /Civco 2005;
on the principle of “acquired capacity”.3 A given ments.7 Dodman8 points out that London’s envi- McGranahan /Marcotullio
area’s capacity – the sum of materials which can ronmental footprint is 125 times greater than the 2005
be extracted or fed back into it within defined space it occupies, but that its footprint per capita 3 Rees 1992
units of space and time – is by its nature limited, amounts to no more than roughly 50 percent of the 4 Einig / Siedentop /
Petzold 1998
but can be expanded by acquiring added cap British average.9 Much the same can be observed
5 Haber 1992
acity. Freedom from the limitations presented by in other European or North American cities and 6 Rees 1992
the complement of locally and regionally avail the respective nations, as major cities allow for 7 e.g. OECD 2010
able resources has been essential for the de more resource-efficient housing and transport 8 Dodman 2009
velopment of modern economies, because this than suburban or rural regions. Economies of 9 for more information
alone made an economic system based on the scale through size (e.g. more efficient energy sup- about the Environmental
Footprint concept, see
supra-regional division of labour possible.4 Eco- ply thanks to combined heat and power), higher
WWF 2008
logically however, consumption in excess of a density and a greater mix of uses equip cities with
10 OECD 2010; Naess 2006;
city’s natural capacity can only be maintained comparatively energy-efficient forms of housing Frank / Kavage /Appleyard
if other areas’ resources and scope for disposal and transport.10 2007
are permanently appropriated. Sustainability
shifts “from individual sustainable systems, i.e. Against this backdrop, and with sufficient pros-
local ecosystems to higher-order, regional perity, the aim of sustainable urban development
systems”.5 must be to more consistently exploit urban effi-

Authenticated
34 Chapter 2 — Challenges
less than 0 %

0 to less than 0.5 %
0.5 to less than 1.0 %
2.5 % and more
no values
Fig. 1
ciencies whilst cutting the economy’s environ- least due to excessive agglomeration costs.
mental deficit to a responsible volume. Cities and Throughout the world, major cities’ growth takes
11 Crutzen 2002 towns should not be seen as hindrances to sus- place in suburban areas.15 These are generally
12 United Nations 2010 tainable, humane development. On the contrary: less dense, more discontinuous and dispersed
13 UN Habitat 2008, p. 24f. they offer a decisive step towards a solution. How- settlements, less characterised by the mix of urban
14 UN Habitat 2008 ever, this requires a radical change of thinking in functions than the urban core.16 A deceleration
15 Forsyth 2012 urban planning and design. Rebuilding cities to of economic and demographic growth from fringe
16 Schneider / Woodcock
preserve and promote density, compactness and to core can be observed in developing and emer
2008
17 van den Berg et al. 1982; mix of use whilst protecting valuable open spaces ging as well as in developed countries. Whilst
Champion 2001 must be recognised as a key contribution to sus- suburban areas experience high growth rates,
18 Champion 2001 tainability. HB populations in inner-city areas tend to stagnate
or decline.
Suburban areas are born out of competitive cost
Urbanisation advantage. Suburban locations attract both domes-

tic households and commercial businesses with
lower land costs, greater land availability or lower
Many scientists describe the current era as the levels of pollution. Frequently, suburban growth
Anthropocene, where human influences shape is also actively fed by state policy, notably fiscal
the earth.11 Urbanisation (Fig.2) is one of its most policies and the construction of transport infra-
potent processes. In future, the majority of the structure.
world’s population will live in settlements of an
urban character.12 Urbanisation is powered by two The process of suburbanisation generates a func-
interlocking forces: city dwellers’ natural growth tional space – suburbia – with specific physical,
in numbers, and the gravitation of rural popula- economic and social qualities.17 The changed
Comparative tions towards urban centres.13 settlement pattern modifies urban and regional
cost advantage agents’ patterns of mobility and interaction.
In macroeconomics, comparative cost advantage The early stages of urbanisation are often domi- Everyday life is acted out in places of work, leisure
describes a situation wherein one region can nated by individual cities, frequently capitals – and dwelling dispersed throughout an expansive
produce a good at lower cost than other, compet-
a phenomenon described as Urban Primacy.14 urban-regional stage.
ing regions. In this context, comparative cost
advantage describes the locational cost advan-
Political and economic guidance and control
tages of suburban areas, specifically in relation functions are concentrated in these cities, they In the 1970s and 1980s, many industrialised states
to land-hungry production sectors. are powerhouses of economic development and witnessed so-called de-urbanisation processes,
the destination of national and international mi- or counter-urbanisation.18 This saw peripheral
gratory flows. rural areas grow increasingly attractive for loca-
This phenomenon dominates current processes tion-bound industries as well as private house-
of urbanisation in developing and emerging holds. Ubiquitous transport networks and nega-
countries. By contrast, more developed coun- tively rated location factors such as land price and
tries tend towards multipolar urban systems, not ageing infrastructure in dense urban regions are

Authenticated
core city urban region

total urban region urban fringe (outside urban region)
concentration deconcentration deconcentration concentration

increasing population
decreasing population
urbanisation suburbanisation de-suburbanisation re-suburbanisation
Fig. 1 Annual population

development, average
values 2005 – 2015
urban fringe
Fig. 2 Phase model of urban
core city
outside urban region development (after Schmitz-
Veltin 2012, based on van
increasing population stagnation decreasing population den Berg et al. 1982)
Fig. 2
viewed as key reasons for population and activity

growth spilling over into rural areas. Land
During the last 20 years however, growth has gravi
tated back to areas of an urban character. The
consumption
increasing economic importance of knowledge The processes of urbanisation, suburbanisation
has placed metropolitan regions with an inter and de-urbanisation are physically expressed in
national reach in the driving seat (metropolisa- the consumption of land previously not dedicated
tion). Many urban regions in Western Europe and to settlement and transport development. Land
North America have seen growth return to core consumption is considered a major challenge,
and inner cities in a process of re-urbanisation.19 indeed a persistent problem in environmental
The renaissance of historical centres is embedded policy,21 as political efforts to contain it have so
in the growth of polycentric urban regions, with far remained unsuccessful.
systems of urban-regional centres presenting
complex patterns of functional spaces for the div Land consumption has numerous negative effects, 19 Herfert /Osterhage 2012;
ision of labour. In the process of growing more particularlay the loss or disruption of soil-based Siedentop 2008
dense and rich in functions, suburban communi- environmental functions. The quantity of land 20 Aring 1999
21 SRU 2002
ties benefit from these trends, giving rise to the converted alone does not tell us much. Its location,
22 Siedentop et al. 2007
assumption that core cities and cities are becom- prior use, environmental function and the inten-
ing increasingly similar. This concept sees sity of previous land use, e.g. with respect to
so-called post-suburban areas assume functional permeability is also relevant.22
similarity with the core city, growing out of func-
tional dependency to gain partial emancipation Whereas the spatial expansion of urban settle-
from its hegemony.20 ments is a global process, its momentum is region-

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more than 10 %
5.1 –10.0 %
2.1–5.0 %
less than 2 %
no growth
no data available
Fig. 3
Fig. 3 Growth of European ally very variable (Fig. 3). The European Environ- •• the generation of follow-on costs for building
settlement area 1990 – 2006 ment Agency estimates that the growth of the and running technical infrastructure31
(based on EU CORINE settlement area in the last 20 years amounted to
Land Cover Research)
2 percent per annum in the European regions of Ongoing private demand for housing, business
Fig. 4 Land consumption
in Germany 1993 – 2008
greatest growth, whereas it remained very low and leisure development sites is a key driver of
[in ha /day] in other parts of Europe.23 Shlomo Angel esti- land consumption (Fig. 4). But local governments’
mates the annual growth of built-up areas through- development land supply policies, taxes and sub-
out the 1990s at circa 3.6 percent in developing sidies which encourage land consumption, and
countries and 2.9 percent in industrialised coun- economic interests (e.g. on the part of developers)
tries, with eastern Asia achieving markedly higher are also significant contributors.32
growth rates.24
In Germany, the continuing decrease in occupancy
23 EEA 2006 Settlement and transport areas are growing at a rates for existing housing stock is a major driver of
24 Angel / Sheppard / Civco significantly higher rate than the population. This land consumption. To a relevant extent, this is due
2005 results in a global decrease in settlement density to the ageing of the population (i.e. people staying
25 Angel 2011
of around of 2 percent and more per annum.25 In in the same big flat after their partner has died).
26 Sieverts 1997
27 Overview in Siedentop place of concentric growth, this generates discon- The prevalence of low-density buildings for hous-
2005 tinuous, dispersed and severely fragmented struc- ing and business, partly an expression of user
28 Gardner 1996 tures of settlement and open space.26 preference, is a further contributor. These factors
29 EEA 2006; EEA 2011 explain why an increasing demand for housing is
30 Naess 2006; Gutsche Effects of land consumption most vigorously dis- to be expected, even as the population decreases.
2003; Banister 1999
cussed include:27 Established areas of settlement often lack develop
31 Schiller /Gutsche 2009;
Preuß 2009; Schiller /
•• the progressive loss of high-quality agricultural ment sites (brownfields), whilst subsidised access
Siedentop 2005 land28 and the resulting land price differential between
32 Schiller / Gutsche 2009 •• reduced biodiversity29 existing and new build locations, as well as insuf-
33 Siedentop et al. 2009 •• the development of car-dependent settlement ficiently coordinated local government policies
patterns and increased vehicle traffic30 continue to drive greenfield development.33

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leisure, cemetery buildings and open space

transport rolling 4-year average
140
land consumption [ha / day]
data switch
120
100
80
62
60
40
2030 target:
20 less than 30
0
1993 –
1996
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Fig. 4
Growth and under conditions of stagnation or shrinkage can

seriously undermine the viability of infrastructural
34 UN Habitat 2008,
p. 12; and Wiechmann /
Pallagst 2012
shrinkage services, even in the medium term. Curbing land

consumption could defuse the intensity of this
threat and support a move towards a circular land
35 Wiechmann / Pallagst
2012
36 Siedentop 2010
Whilst Asia, Africa and Latin America’s metropol- economy. 37 Hüchtker et al. 2000
itan cities are growing, occasionally excessively,
many cities in western industrialised nations are
experiencing prolonged phases of stagnation or
shrinkage.34 Despite some considerable variation,
and occasionally identifiable re-urbanisation, Inward
countries undergoing the second demographic
transition exhibited long periods of decline or
stagnation. The task of managing processes of
development
ongoing structural shrinkage gained an equal foot- So-called inward development is one of the most
ing with steering and shaping growth. Processes important ways of reducing land consumption in
of re-urbanisation, a new rural depopulation and urban development.36 In practice, this usually
ongoing immigration have sparked turnarounds in comprises three types of measures:
many cities, and now present planners with new •• Developing infill sites in contiguously devel-
challenges due to the aforementioned shortage oped districts
of development sites.35 •• Land recycling, converting or reusing vacant
and derelict land (brownfields)
Germany and other European countries are experi •• Raising density to increase or enhance the
encing profound demographic change, with pop- land use, either through new build, or the Demographic transition
The term demographic transition describes a
ulations declining since the early 2000s. Re- extension or conversion of existing buildings.
globally observed phenomenon, whereby low
urbanisation and high immigration currently birth and mortality rates replace high birth and
masks this underlying trend. Demand, and the Inward development has a qualitative as well as mortality rates. In the first demographic transition,
proliferation of small households, is driving hous- a quantitative dimension. Inward development the initial decrease in mortality causes rapid
ing prices in many regions beyond the realm of measures can contribute to improving the inner population growth. This growth subsequently
the affordable, especially in major cities. In terms city open space offer and improve and stabilise decelerates, as birth rates decline. In some socie-
ties, such as Germany, the birth rate decreases to
of urban development, this global trend generates the urban fabric. This gives rise to the concept of
the extent that the natural reproduction of the
massive pressure for urban transformation and “double inward development”37 protecting open population is no longer given. This is described
densification. countryside from further development whilst as the second demographic transition, result-
adding quality to existing settlements, e.g. through ing in a natural, negative long-term population
At the same time, remote rural regions are in measures to activate and enhance open space. development.
decline. In these areas, infrastructural concerns
should be driving policies of support for estab- Land consumption in Germany remains high,
lished settlements. Further land consumption despite comprehensive measures to activate po-

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38 UBA 2003 tential development sites. The stock of brownfield benefits for the provision of public infrastructure
39 Siedentop 2003 sites in Germany is estimated to be growing at services, a low degree of social segregation and
40 e.g. Ministerium für a rate of several hectares per day, especially in exclusion, and protect land dedicated to agricul-
Wirtschaft, Energie,
rural areas and economically underperform- ture and nature.42
Klimaschutz und
Landesplanung ing cities.38 During the 1990s, a mere 30 percent
Rheinland-Pfalz 2010; of annual housing production took place with- Advocates of the compact city refer to empirical
BBSR 10/2013 in developed areas, e.g. through brownfield or research findings demonstrating the relevance of
41 for more detail see infill development.39 Conservative estimates urban design characteristics such as density and
OECD 2012, p. 27f. place the proportion of net housing develop- mixed use for transport.43 All other factors remain-
42 Siedentop 2005
ment sites within existing settlement at more ing equal, increased density, compactness and
43 Cervero / Murakami 2010;
Gutsche 2003
than 5 percent, largely marketable in the short mix of uses goes along with a decline in motor
44 Ecoplan 2000; Doubek / or medium term.40 However, inward develop- traffic and an increase in the share of journeys
Zanetti 1999 ment projects can present risks: previously un- made on foot and by public transport. Numerous
45 Motte-Baumvol /Massot / known contamination, complex stakeholder studies were further able to demonstrate that
Byrd 2010 constellations, difficult neighbourhood plan- infrastructure cost per capita is lower in dense
46 e.g. Breheny 1997
ning challenges or exaggerated book values in inner-city areas than in lower-density suburban
47 e.g. Angel 2011;
Bengston / Youn 2006
bank or business balance sheets. Finally, inward and rural areas.44 Low density and the poor acces-
development projects do not correspond to estab- sibility of employment and service locations can
lished planning routine, established over decades lead to the social exclusion of households without
to focus on preparing the ground for outward de- access to a car.45
velopment.
Opponents point to the negative sideeffects of
higher urban density and a lack of support in the
wider population.46 High density – thus the com-
Spatial models monly held view – has a detrimental effect on local

environmental quality and quality of life and fails
to meet the mainstream demand for housing with
Discussions around strategies and spatial models individually available free space. It is alleged that
for land-sparing, energy-efficient and socially restrictive land policies create a lack of develop-
equitable urban development grew noticeably ment land and contribute to rising land prices and
more intense during the sustainability debate of high housing costs in areas of extreme develop-
the 1990s and 2000s. The discourse focuses on ment pressure.47 Efforts to meet the demand for
the compact city concept, its key features includ- urban growth from increased affluence and migra-
ing centre-oriented development, higher density tion through inward development and densifica-
and mixed use.41 The compact city proponents tion alone are seen as delusional.
argue that density, mixed use and compactness
Fig. 5 create good conditions for car-free mobility and Against this background, the suitability of the
public transport, thereby reducing motor vehicle compact city as a model for the rapidly growing
dependency. It is also considered to present further cities of developing and emerging countries is

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population development
increase
Fig. 5 The “Fingerplan” is a

0 regional development plan
decrease prepared for Copenhagen
in 1947. It directed develop-
ment towards “Fingers”
time between green belts, and
thus prevented indiscrimin
ate urban sprawl.
Fig. 6 From the compact city
to the dispersed, perforated
urban structure of the future.
Fig. 7 First certified Passiv
haus museum buildings,
Kunstmuseum Ravensburg
(DE) 2013, Lederer +
compact city sprawling perforated and dissolute Ragnarsdóttir + Oei
Fig. 6
viewed critically. In these cases, controlled out-

ward development seems a more appropriate
way of dealing with the pressure of growth with-
Design quality
out having to accept environmental or social jeop- Urban redevelopment and regeneration can only
ardies. The model of Transit-Oriented Develop- be sustainable if interventions are not aimed at
ment (TOD) is much discussed internationally. maximising a narrow objective, but form part of
Examples include the “Finger Plan” for the Copen- a balanced overall plan. Urban development
hagen region48 (Fig. 5) and settlement structure models focused on just one aspect (e.g. the car-
concepts included in many German regional plans. oriented city) tend to generate other shortcomings. 48 Vejre et al. 2007
The key concept is to develop new settlement Urban renewal geared only towards energy effi- 49 Joss 2010; Joss 2011
within walkable distance of fast metropolitan ciency has in recent years caused the disfigure-
public rail networks. ment of historical buildings which exert a forma
tive effect on their neighbourhoods. The charac-
Alongside concepts for axial development of this ter of a neighbourhood’s design is significant for
kind, planning for other cities within the greater its cultural and architecturally heritage, but it also
vicinity of metropolitan cores (new towns) can contributes to its sense of place and the extent to
also contribute to their relief. In the recent past, which residents identify with it (Fig. 7). It is also
these developments often sought to deliver ambi- a prerequisite for quality of life. The quality of the
tious environmental objectives (eco-cities).49 As built environment (Baukultur) constitutes a sig-
yet, the evaluation of these approaches seems nificant cultural element of a city and its parts.
premature. In the long term, experiences with
planned new towns have not always been posi- Enhancing neighbourhoods’ performance against
tive. Often, original planning ideals, such as the complex sustainability metrics, such as those set
integrated development of self-contained cities out in this book, must thus also satisfy design
with sufficient available employment and service quality criteria and not cause the destruction of
could not be delivered. built heritage or the jettisoning of design quality.
Applying powerful energy-efficient external insu-
In summary, it must be established that there can lation to articulately sculpted historical facades
be no universal spatial model which is equally (e.g. art nouveau) can destroy an ensemble’s
suitable for all cities and metropolitan regions. formative place-making effect. Alternative means
Whereas the compact city presents an adequate of achieving equally reduced primary energy con-
response for stagnating or even shrinking cities sumption should be examined before implement-
in Europe, it seems that booming cities in Asia, ing any such measure. It may, for example, be
Africa and Latin America had better plan for a more appropriate to install a small combined heat
spatially coordinated expansion. Key compact-city and power plant (CHP) to generate electricity and
principles, such as good public transport access, use excess heat for heating and warm water. Such
and pedestrian-friendly urban design (walkability) a measure would massively reduce primary energy
can also be applied to new towns and suburban consumption, as conventional power plants’ cool-
development. STS ing systems transfer around two thirds of primary
Fig. 7
Authenticated
Fig. 8 Minergie-P-ECO-
Standard house for
three families, Liebefeld
(CH) 2006, Halle 58
Architekten
Fig. 9 Former industrial
laundry in Darmstadt
(DE)
Fig. 8
energy to the environment, representing a signif- this demonstrates design concepts’ dependency
icant additional load. In the light of recent prom- on the relevant economic, technical and social
ising experiments with interior insulation, it is conditions.
reasonable to expect soon to be achieveable major
energy efficiencies without generating physical Other areas of urban design must also submit to
problems such as vapour condensation in external the principle of regarding the issues in multiple
walls. Naturally, careful prior analysis, planning dimensions and integrating the most diverse
and calculations will be essential. aspects, always giving consideration to quality in
design and construction. For example, the histor-
Window replacement presents a similar problem. ical street profile, urban grain and guiding prin
Delicate window frames and subdivisions are a ciple of building layout lending shape to the space
major design element of classic modern build- must be reflected and integrated into the design
ings’ formally simple cubic buildings. Replacing when reconfiguring streets geared for optimum
them with large window panes and broad frames, car traffic to create traffic-calmed zones or shared
as has often been done and continues to occur, spaces. Naturally, consideration must also be given
can destroy these buildings’ appeals and render to other aspects, such as quality of place, improve-
Further information their appearance banal. Alternative constructive ment of urban climate, increasing biodiversity,
• Behnisch, Martin; Kretschmer, Odette; Meinel,
Gotthard (eds): Flächeninanspruchnahme in solutions must be found for these cases. It may and reducing sealed surfaces. The historical street
Deutschland. Auf dem Wege zu einem besseren make more sense to work with double windows, profile, the urban grain and the guiding principle
Verständnis der Siedlungs- und Verkehrsflächen retaining the original construction at facade level of building layout generating must be reflected
entwicklung. Berlin 2018 or remaining as true as possible to the original in and integrated into the design. The redesign must
• Bundesinstitut für Bau-, Stadt- und Raum- renewing it. not be driven by contemporary received wisdom
forschung (BBSR): Trends der Siedlungsflächen
in relation to transport.
entwicklung. Status quo und Projektion 2030.
BBSR Analysen kompakt 09/2012. Bonn 2012
In our example, the former industrial laundry
• European Environment Agency (EEA): Urban building had been fitted with finely latticed sin-
sprawl in Europe. The ignored challenge. EEA gle glazing, set in very slender steel T-profiles – a
feature typical of 19th century industrial buildings
Technical
Report 10/2006. Copenhagen 2006
• OECD: Rethinking Urban Sprawl. Moving and the design of their facades. At the time of its
Towards Sustainable Cities. Paris 2018;
www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/rethinking-
urban-sprawl_9789264189881-en
renewal in the late 1970s, no thermally insulated
metal window profiles were available. Within
the owners’ financial constraints, a detailed,
progress
• Nuissl, Henning; Siedentop, Stefan: Landscape
Planning for Minimizing Land Consumption. In: thermally-improved reconstruction of the facade It is worth considering that the funds dedicated
Meyers, Robert A. (ed): Encyclopaedia of Sustain seemed near impossible, as did the introduction to research into energy efficiency and energy
ability Science and Technology. New York et al. of large-pane double windows. Accordingly, finely saving are quite modest compared to the sums
2012, pp. 5758–5817 latticed timber windows were fitted, although previously bestowed upon the nuclear industry.
• Rink, Dieter; Haase, Annegret: Handbuch
these did not correspond to the industrial char- Nevertheless, we are today able to build to Pas-
Stadtkonzepte. Analysen, Diagnosen, Kritiken
und Visionen. Stuttgart 2018 acter of the old buildings (Fig. 9). Today’s context sivhaus or even Plus-Energy house standards
• UN Habitat: State of the World’s Cities would allow for a different, probably aesthetically (Fig. 8). Further development is required however,
2008/2009. Harmonious Cities. London 2008 more satisfying response to this task. Once again, especially with regard to important building

Authenticated
Fig. 9
lements, components and systems able to

e buildings, trees – all of these grow older, whilst Former industrial laundry
respond adequately to design requirements. Where new things come along. Cities and neighbour- The late 19th- early 20th-century complex in
they are available, components of this type come hoods are never finished. Buildings, streets and Darmstadt was acquired in 1978 by a group of
tenants, who had previously lived and worked in
at a very high cost. public spaces grow and need to be renewed to
the building as students. It was part-refurbished
meet new demands and needs. Hence the current and converted to maisonette flats and offices.
Where an adequate solution for a given task can- debate around the concept of “resilience”, con- Major repairs to leaking roofs and the replacement
not be found in the immediate time frame, it may sidering ways of structuring buildings or entire of windows became necessary in 2010. In a small
make sense to wait and check whether ongoing cities which equip them with the capacity to re- area of the former laundry, external brick walls’
development might not present a good solution spond flexibly to changing parameters. For ex U-values could be improved by means of external
(e.g. interior insulation). Our example of compar- ample, walkable infrastructure channels below insulation. This was preceded by tests to evaluate
the potential for condensation at points of contact
ing the relative merits of external insulation street level facilitate easy installation of new pipes
with other building components which could not
or CHP demonstrates that it is necessary and sens and conduits. The conversion to sustainability be insulated. Parts of the roof were reconstructed
ible to develop alternatives and think creatively must be viewed as a process of implementing with softboard panels on beams and insulation
across various sectors and dimensions, rather than various measures in different cycles, always giving fitted in interstices.
single-mindedly setting the fixed target of reduced due consideration to prospective technical ad- Fairfaced brickwork of the old “Reichsformat”
U-values for the external building envelope. vances. Issues of noise and particle pollution, dimensions defines the major part of the plant.
None of the owners could imagine fitting the
With new technical, organisational or other solu- mainly due to motor traffic, are urgently relevant
brickwork with external thermal insulation. With
tions in the pipeline, it may even make sense to today because they render neighbourhood living its high chimney, the brickwork building is a
delay a particular measure simply because a suc- conditions unbearable and cause health problems. defining feature and an important element of the
cessful solution is not yet within reach. As a result, fitting soundproof windows may be previously village-like, mixed-use, socially diverse
indispensable and indeed a legal requirement. local neighbourhood. After lengthy deliberation,
In future, the key point will be to no longer con- Electric mobility may soon solve this problem. and drawing on specialist advice, the owners
opted instead to install a gas-powered CHP plant
sider buildings individually, but to think of neigh- However it may be necessary to wait until the next
to generate electricity and use excess heat for hot
bourhoods, districts and entire cities as systems. cycle of window replacements before doing with- water and heating. After its successful installation,
This also means that challenges presented by an out soundproof windows. It is important in this a second CHP plant was installed some years later.
individual building can usually be solved more context to give due consideration to the possibil- A positive sideeffect of this move was the contri-
simply and effectively at neighbourhood level. ity and cost of reversing measures implemented bution to social cohesion within the neighbour-
For example, a new Plus-Energy building can sup- today, such as recyclable noise barriers. HB hood generated by the owners’ next step of
setting up an energy company. The electricity
ply a neighbouring, listed, historical building with
generated in the CHP plant is fed into the grid as
regenerative local energy and thereby contribute green electricity (according to the Renewable
to a balanced neighbourhood. The demands stead- Energies Act, EEG) and contributes to the
ily grow increasingly complex. Smart Grids and accounts of an alternative energy provider based
accelerating technological development will pres- in the southern Black Forest, which has long been
ent new prospects. dedicated to supporting local and regenerative
electricity generation.
Process-oriented thinking is particularly import
ant, rather than the pursuit of self-contained,
perfect solutions. Cities, neighbourhoods and
buildings are continually in a state of flux. People,

Authenticated
42 Chapter 2 — Action Areas
Action Area
Regional, Urban and
Neighbourhood Planning
Helmut Bott, Ste fan Siedentop
T
he duty of urban planning is to with particular regard for future generations and
develop a design which lends secure a socially equitable land use in the general
settlement its shape, and to public interest. Land use plans should contribute
organise, integrate, and facili to safeguarding an environment fit for human
tate the complex planning habitation, protect and develop natural living
process. The number of pro- conditions, help protect the climate and facilitate
fessional and technical sur- climate adaptation in urban development, and
veys and specialist plans to protect and develop the quality of the built envir
include and evaluate has steadily increased in onment and the character of settlements and
recent decades. landscapes.”
Political decision-making and public consultation Whilst local governments must accommodate
are key drivers during the initial development higher-level state and regional plans, they are free
and coordination of the planning programme. to make further planning decisions within the
Subsequently, relevant specialists (landscape, framework of the law. This planning autonomy is
transport, water, and energy planners) must be the result of historical tradition and experience
included in the design and planning process as and by no means to be taken for granted. Indeed,
soon as possible. it is valued very highly in the German constitution.
In many other nations, plans are prepared and
Urban planning occurs at very diverse scales and controlled by central institutions and authorities,
hierarchical levels, ranging from city development whereas the interests of developers and the real-
planning through to the design of small ensembles. estate market dominate in others. HB
In many countries, the cross-party consensus is
that the design of spatial development should be
democratically legitimised by citizens and their
elected parliamentary representatives. In Ger-
many, a corresponding legal requirement is set Models for
out in the constitution: design and planning should
not be left to market forces and the short-term sustainable cities
interests of individual developers. Article 1, Section
7 of the German building code (Baugesetzbuch,
BauGB) specifies an evaluative duty:
and regions
“(7) Public and private interests must be fairly Science and policy broadly agree that decisions
evaluated and balanced in the preparation of land about domestic and business locations driven by
use plans.” market mechanisms alone cannot deliver sustain-
able urban development. The use of urban and
Article 1, Section 5 demands sustainable urban regional planning instruments to control urban
development: “(5) Land use plans should ensure growth and shrinkage processes is seen as an
a sustainable urban development which meets essential prerequisite for economically efficient,
social, economic and environmental demands environmentally responsible and socially equit

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2.1 — Regional, Urban and Neighbourhood Planning 43
Depiction of area outlines Major centre

State development plan development Medium centre
corridor 1983 Minor or small centre
Regional development corridor Border of
Settlement areas along development corridor medium area
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
able urban and regional development. We have central locations and development corridors and Fig. 1 Green belts within the
already referred to the compact-city paradigm to directing development towards a concentration on Stuttgart regional plan 2009
shed some light on the key goals for designing and higherorder centres and public transport access Fig. 2 Housing locations
within the Stuttgart regional
controlling spatial development (cf. Spatial mod- corridors (Fig. 2). Some regional plans include
plan 2009
els, p. 38). Key concerns include curbing ongoing quantitative limits for housing or development
land consumption, creating pedestrian and public land for each individual municipality. This applies
transport-oriented urban spaces, and protecting mainly to small rural municipalities, where growth
environmentally sensitive spaces. There is also a in excess of demand from the local population and
consensus that coordination of local development business community is considered undesirable.
planning at the regional level (regional govern- Many regional plans set out minimum land-use
ance) is essential for effective growth manage- density guidelines for local planning. Density
ment.1 In addition to conventional hierarchical can also be addressed within local government
control mechanisms, informal and cooperative land-use planning (e.g. in Berlin). Negative plan-
approaches to public engagement and consultation ning control aims to protect certain areas from
are gaining significance.2 development. These might be special habitats or
biodiversity sites, groundwater protection areas,
Despite different terminology – growth manage- areas for agriculture or forestry, or areas with a
ment3 and smart growth4 are commonly used particular effect on the microclimate. Key tools
– international development control policies are include the definition of urban growth boundaries,
very similar in essence. Their objective is to curb green belts, and environmental priority and pro-
the growth of the developed urban area (urban tection areas. These are applied in different ways,
containment) and direct development towards as examples in the US8 and in Germany9 show.
locations suitable from a planning point of view.
In Germany, the level of regional and land-use Urban growth boundaries set out the maximum
planning is given most weight, whilst state institu- extents of settlement. They surround cities’ built-
tions control development directly in other coun- up area, including open spaces as future develop-
tries. For example, US State Growth Management ment areas. Green belts are areas in the periphery
Programs often directly control growth,5 whereas of cities experiencing high development pressure,
central government Planning Policy Guidance within which any construction work is illegal
1 Einig 2003
(PPG) influences local planning in England.6 (Fig. 1). Exceptions can be made for building pro-
2 Benz 2005
Development controls can be divided into rough jects explicitly linked to open space, such as build- 3 Landis 2006; Carruthers
categories according to their principal function ings for agriculture, leisure or energy. Local gov- 2002
(Fig. 3, p. 44).7 ernments may also use negative planning, e.g. to 4 Ye et al. 2005; Downs
keep certain areas free of development for urban 2005
Positive planning instruments directly control design reasons, or in order to dedicate them to 5 Carruthers 2002
6 Ganser / Williams 2007
the designation of development land. This can meeting leisure needs, protecting nature, or pre-
7 Einig 2005; Siedentop
include regulating the quantity and specifying venting pollution in land-use planning. 2012
the location of land made available. Key posi- The focus of efforts to reduce land consumption is 8 Bengston et al. 2004
tive planning tools in Germany include defining shifting towards inward development (cf. Inward 9 Domhardt et al. 2006

Authenticated
44 Chapter 2 — Action Area
Positive planning instruments Negative planning instruments
Priority development area Priority areas for new development, Regional green belts Regional green belts are contiguous free
(housing) such as housing. Uses which pre- spaces, within which building is generally
clude later use for housing are not prohibited. In comparison to priority areas,
permitted. green belts require multifunctional protection,
Quantitative measures for the The designation of development as no single environmental function provides
eclaration of building land
d land in municipalities with insuffi- the justification for their protection.
cient jobs and infrastructure should Green breaks Green breaks are dividing open spaces on
be oriented towards satisfying the the immediate edge of densely populated
needs of local population. Relevant residential areas. They are intended to
municipalities are given guideline prevent neighbouring residential areas from
or obligatory maximum quotas for joining up and to protect important environ-
housing or development land. mental functions.
Minimum densities Certain types of municipalities (e.g. Priority areas for open In priority areas, a defined open-space func-
according to the “central locations space functions tion is protected against interference from
system”) are advised to fulfil min construction projects. In addition to priority
imum densities in designating devel- areas for nature and landscape, this instru-
opment land. Quoted in terms of ment is also used for the protection of water
housing units or residents per resources, agricultural land, climatically
hectare and generally for guidance effective compensation areas and mineral
only. resources.
Fig. 3
development, p. 37).10 A growing number of munic- from growth management can be compensated
ipalities are attempting to use existing spare land in by lower travel and energy cost and better access
their area, of which they may have a great deal, for to jobs, infrastructure and services.20
this purpose. As well as using spare land between Local or regional interventions to control growth
buildings, redeveloping brownfield land is par- risk shifting growth to remote areas.21 Where
ticularly important. Raising density in existing development land available in the core urban area
neighbourhoods can face public resistance and has been made too scarce, instruments such as
is therefore less significant. Naturally, the effec- local growth moratoria, urban growth boundaries,
tiveness of growth control planning is also subject or regional green belts can drive households and
to criticism.11 Generally, this centres on the view businesses towards peripheral areas with good
that planning constraints to growth can lead to transport access and generate an increase in land
higher land and house prices and rents.12 This consumption for settlement and for transport.22
10 Bock et al. 2011;
can be the case especially if these strategies are This leads us to conclude that positive planning
Innenministerium
Schleswig-Holstein
implemented in high-income areas of economic instruments should be used to control growth
2011; Bragado et al. growth.13 It has been proved that policies making in areas with growing economies and popula-
2001 development land scarce lead to higher new-build tions. Urban expansion around cities can only
11 Distelkamp et al. 2011 densities and direct new building towards core be restricted responsibly where the availabil-
with further references cities and town centres,14 yet in certain cases they ity of s uitable alternative development land is
12 Pendall et al. 2002;
can also lead to less new building activity in the guaranteed, say as part of inner city redevelop-
Dawkins /Nelson 2002;
Landis 2006; Pfeiffer
wider region.15 These policies can also contribute ment. Stakeholders of urban and regional plan-
2005 to rent increases and have a negative effect on ning should make use of appropriate monitoring
13 Downs 2001 households with lower than average incomes. systems to continuously supervise the market
14 Steinacker 2003 However, it should be noted that many other availability of development land and possible
15 Korthals Altes 2006; factors can raise prices far more effectively than price responses to restricting its supply.
Levine 1999
the planning-driven scarcity of development
16 Dawkins /Nelson 2002
land.16 These include consumers’ willingness to In Germany, the effectiveness of planning as a
17 Aring 2005
18 Pendall et al. 2002; pay for housing properties or rents, which in turn tool to control growth is considered to be low to
Dawkins /Nelson 2002 depends heavily on incomes and prices expected moderate at best.23 In the context of prevailing
19 Landis 2006 by owners.17 Various sources point out that the ris- land law and economic conditions, current pro-
20 Nelson et al. 2002 ing cost of development land depends particularly tective standards in planning law are seen as too
21 Ogura 2010; Levine on the way in which growth control tools are imple- weak to contribute to any greater reduction in land
1999
mented.18 Prices only increase if growth control consumption. The economic stimuli to use land
22 Jun 2004; Bae /Jun 2003
23 Siedentop 2012; measures actually succeed in reducing the supply for development are overwhelming in the face of
Einig et al. 2011 of development in relation to real demand.19 On weak planning controls at local and higher
24 Einig /Siedentop 2005 the other hand, higher real-estate prices resulting levels.24 Tax law rewards growing municipalities

Authenticated
Economy Planning,
Processes
Emissions design qua Protecting

an lit
rb biodiversity
y
and
Human and habitats
Energy sociocultural
issues Neighbour-
hood
climate
Transport Protecting soil

and water
Material flows
Fig. 4
with increased revenue and subsidies.25 Renounc- squares, gardens and parks), regular and special Fig. 3 Selected positive and
ing growth is usually equated to the (assumed) components and characteristic built ensembles, as negative regional planning
effect of shrinking tax revenue and income. As a well as green corridors, waterways and topography instruments for controlling
urban development
result, regional planning efforts to restrict and within a stimulating overall spatial context. This
Fig. 4 Sustainable neigh-
control growth often meet strong opposition in design must have the capacity to integrate all indi- bourhood planning is based
local politics. In Germany, the devolution of vidual aspects, such as energy and water systems, on high urban development
regional planning to local governments in recent respect for material cycles, and safeguarding urban quality and a focus on
years has further weakened its effectiveness. biodiversity. This means that all of the related people. In addition, other
Against this backdrop, adding economic incentives disciplines must be included from an early stage, topics such as energy, water
and mobility must be taken
to the planning toolkit has been discussed frome in order to feed the needs and demands of their
into account in planning
some years now.26 STS respective contributing objectives into the design and combined to form an
and planning process. integral overall concept.
However, even diligent attention to all of the con-
Neighbourhood stituent aspects will not turn a poor urban design

into a good one. Neighbourhoods must be well-
planning designed in order to be sustainable. This does not

require everything to be “beautiful” and, in par-
ticular, it does not require a large number of extrav-
First and foremost, to plan sustainable neighbour- agant, striking buildings. In fact the architectural
hoods means to design and deliver working urban quality of good buildings, successfully integrated
spaces and good, adaptable buildings. However, into their context, is a prerequisite for creating an
even if all of the aims and measures compiled in individual urban character. Regular components,
this book and set out by the relevant science and which generate a certain basic order, are the foun-
planning disciplines in this chapter as “action dation for neighbourhood development. The juxta
areas” were taken into account (Fig. 4), this would position of extremely individualistic buildings of
not automatically ensure the creation of a good very different materials, colours and height makes
25 Schiller/Gutsche 2009;
neighbourhood. it difficult to create a coherent and recognisable Preuß 2009
urban grain. In the end, even special buildings, 26 Krumm 2004; Bizer et al.
often fashionably described as “iconic”, can only 2011
Urban design quality be identified as such against the background of

regular neighbourhood components.
Creating a successful neighbourhood requires a Various structural, physical, socioeconomic and
very good urban design that gives careful thought symbolic factors contribute to the character of the
to the interplay of public open spaces (streets and neighbourhood. The built spatial structure pro-

Authenticated
Fig. 5 Urban collage

Colin Rowe / Fred Koetter
Fig. 6 Dense block
structures in Paris (FR)
Fig. 7 Different density
in various urban design
structures with the same
amount of units
Fig. 5
vides the basic framework for a pronounced neigh- (BauNVO), density is described in terms of plot
bourhood character to develop. footprint ratio (Grundflächenzahl GRZ), plot ratio
(Geschossflächenzahl GFZ), and the number of
Generally, today’s cities are far too big to be experi floors. Density is a prerequisite for planning a city
enced as a whole. In fact, they include diverse of short routes, where a large share of errands can
parts from many different periods of urban devel- be run on foot or by bike: higher-density settle-
opment, and ideally these will each form vibrant ment leads to higher density of demand for prod-
neighbourhoods with their own life and identity. ucts and services per hectare, thereby allowing
The European city in particular can be read as a for dense businesses and services, crèches, schools
“collage city” (Fig. 5)27 – a collage consisting of and other facilities. Naturally, housing units’ size
heterogeneous, identifiable elements of different and occupation density play an important role in
colours and materials, which together form a new, this context (Fig. 7).
designed and internally diverse unit. Understand-
ing a neighbourhood’s physical dimension as an Even at high building density, the combination of
element within the collage of the entire city places very large housing units and very small household
it in a design relationship with adjoining neigh- sizes makes it difficult to generate a lively neigh-
bourhoods and the city as whole. It also grants it bourhood.
a degree of independence, and even requires it to
be identifiably different from other neighbour- Of course, higher density, especially resident dens
hoods. This alone allows it to be recognised. ity, contributes to making the public realm more
vibrant, which in turn benefits the service offer
27 Rowe /Kötter 1978 Suitable urban design concepts can help create (cafés, bars, restaurants, shops). Observing others
28 Lynch 2001 neighbourhood character, irrespective of the in the urban public realm, making eye contact,
29 Bott 2000; Bott 2004 quality of urban spaces and buildings. In Lynch’s entering into non-verbal communication, and
categories (cf. The Neighbourhood, pp. 21ff.), edges perceiving their reaction to one’s own behaviour
– including gateways – , characteristic paths, remains one of the most exciting activities in urban
nodes, landmarks and areas of a certain of inner society – despite and especially because of the
coherence can help generate or reinforce the char- growing significance of the media. Recently, how-
acter of an urban neighbourhood.28 Buildings, ever, permanently monitoring social media seems
built objects and urban spaces can also become to have become more important than observing
symbols representing the neighbourhood. the urban social environment.
Up to now, there has been a notable “urban feed-

Density back” effect:29 lively streets and spaces attract
observers and passers-by, thereby becoming even
As mentioned above, density is in many respects more vibrant. Especially pronounced amongst the
a necessary criterion for sustainability. Accord- young, public self-portrayal is key to forming iden-
ing to Article 16 of the German Land Use Code tity and taking part in society. This is not possible
Fig. 6
Authenticated
Tall building typology Terrace house typology Block typology

Low ground cover High ground cover Medium ground cover
60 units/ha 60 units/ha 60 units/ha
Ecology Ecology Ecology
Culture Efficient land use Culture Efficient land use Culture Efficient land use
Social Social Social

Mixed use Mixed use Mixed use
context context context
Individuality Individuality Individuality
Fig. 7
in deserted neighbourhoods where nobody passes the trunk through to the last leaf. A street is not 30 Zhou 2009
by – spaces must be animated in order to satisfy just a space for transport, to be detached from its 31 Alexander 1965,
p. 58 – 62
the need for self-portrayal. Bustling neighbour- social function and design. An urban street is
32 cf. e.g. Mitscherlich
hoods provide opportunities for social integration, the very opposite of what functionalist urban
1965
but these are not just the inevitable result of high design proposed. Interweaving and blending
footfall, they also depend on a number of other activities and functions, rather than tidily sepa-
factors such as individuals being personally will- rating and sorting them, generates u rban life and
ing and open to communicate. Lively neighbour- culture in general (Fig. 11, p. 49). This relates
hoods also allow for an appropriate degree of to all areas of life: townspeople are not either
social control, which is impossible either in the workers or consumers, pedestrians or motorists,
intimacy of close neighbourhoods or in the emp- residents or passers-by, customers of snack
tiness of anonymity (Figs. 8 and 9, p. 48). It will shops or restaurants, and they don’t either
remain to be seen whether the public realm will visit loud events or quietly listen to chamber
lose any of this significance to social media in the orchestras.
long term.
Every urban resident can take on many of these
activities and roles, but not at the same time and
Density and mixed use usually in different locations and at different
times. This very diversity of roles, functions, offers
In the 1960s and 1970s, housing estates were and activities constitutes the quality of urban life.
built on the urban periphery following the urban
design concept of “urbanity through density”, The Charta of Athens envisaged splitting cities’
but these have demonstrated that building den- complex social live into its functional aspects and
sity alone does not guarantee the creation of a designing ideal part solutions for each function
lively neighbourhood. Without an attractive pub- in turn (e.g. transport, housing, leisure). This led
lic realm which links amenities to inviting public to many of today’s cities problems, which were
spaces and integrates the routes and activities of soon criticised.32 Not least, separating functions
daily social life, neighbourhoods cannot be filled and optimising each within itself leads to globally
with life. Many extremely dense housing devel- well-known transport problems. The city of total
opments in China illustrate this point: even the functional separation maximises both source and
local playgrounds and small parks nearby are not destination transport volume. It also generates
used, if they are not tied into social life and res- asymmetrical traffic flows – from home to work
idents’ daily routes.30 in the morning and back in the evening – making
efficient use of public transport capacity difficult
In 1965, the American architect and architectural and less viable.
theorist Christopher Alexander wrote “A City is
Not a Tree”.31 His point was that urban life cannot Accordingly, density and mixed use are two fun-
be hierarchically and functionally organised from damental sustainable urban-design objectives

Authenticated
Land Use Code (BauNVO),

Germany
Article 17, Section 1 of the Land Use Code
(BauNVO) sets out upper density limits. Section 2
states:
“Upper limits set out in Section 1 can be ex-
ceeded, if
1. this is required for particular urban design
reasons.
2. excess developments are balanced by meas-
ures which ensure that general requirements
for healthy living and working conditions are Land use Footprint ratio Plot ratio
not impaired, effects detrimental to the envir (GRZ) (GFZ)
onment are avoided, and transport require-
ments are met, and Pure housing area (WR) 0.4 1.2
3. if this is not opposed by other public concerns.” General housing area (WA) 0.4 1.2
Under the impact of the dramatic housing short- Special housing area (WB) 0.6 1.6
age in German cities and the aforementioned chal-
Village area (MD) 0.6 1.2
lenging conditions for densification in existing
areas, a further building area category was added Mixed area (MI) 0.6 1.2
in 2017. This “urban area” (MU) allows mixed use,
and a higher density for housing. The maximum Core area (MK) 1.0 3.0
footprint ratio of 0.8 and plot ratio of 3.0 allows
Urban area (MU) 0.8 3.0
for housing within an urban mix.
Fig. 8
Land Use Code (BauNVO), Article 6a Urban Areas
(1) Urban areas are dedicated to housing and
serve to accommodate businesses, social, cul-
tural and other facilities which do not substan-
tially disturb housing use. The mix of uses need which are diametrically opposed to the post-war The move away from land clearance – i.e. demol-
not be equal. vision of the “orderly and airy” city. ishing existing buildings – toward urban preser-
(2) Permitted uses include
vation and renewal, and the experience of dealing
1. housing buildings,
2. retail and office buildings, As mentioned before, building density also in- with existing areas led to the introduction of a new
3. retail businesses, takeaway and stay-in dining, volves the bid to curb land consumption. In Ger- category of building area in 1990. This “area for
and hospitality businesses, many, built density, i.e. “the measure of use by retaining and developing housing” (WB), permits
4. other businesses, building”, is set out in building areas. plot ratios to rise to 1.6 with footprint ratios of 0.6,
5. facilities for administrative uses and for church, and allows a density which is 30 percent higher
culture, health, and sport uses.
When the German Federal Building Law (Bundes than in mixed areas (plot ratio 1.2).
(3) Permissible exceptions include
1. entertainment venues, provided that they are
baugesetz BbauG) was passed in 1960, the notion of
not limited to core areas due to their use or the orderly and airy city was broadly recognised. The aim of curbing land consumption is indis-
their size The building area categories set out in the 1962 pensable for sustainability. At the same time it is
2. filling stations Land Use Code (Baunutzungsverordnung BauNVO) true to say that density alone is not good quality.
(4) In urban areas, or parts of urban areas, it can – pure housing (WR), general housing (WA), core The design must allow for sufficient sunlight and
be determined that areas (MK), business (GE) – corresponded to a daylight, and ensure that the high proportion of
1. housing uses are not permissible, or only per-
functionally separated city.33 In pure and general sealed ground, which can be as high as 90 percent
missible in exceptional cases, in street-facing
ground floors, housing areas (WR, WA) and in mixed areas, the at a footprint ratio of 0.8, does not create proble
2. only housing is permissible in storeys above Code limited density to a plot ratio of 1.0, four or matic microclimatic conditions. This is hardly
a level determined in the development plan more storeys, and a footprint ratio of no more than possible without additional roof and facade green-
(Bebauungsplan) 0.3. These upper limits to density were raised with ing. Not least, ways to deal with large amounts of
3. a proportion or quantum of the permitted floor the introduction of the 1987 Federal Building Code rainwater run-off must also be considered. Open
area determined in the development plan must
(Baugesetzbuch BauGB). At 1.2, plot ratios in pure swales are hardly feasible at such high densities.
be dedicated to housing, or
4. a proportion or quantum of the permitted floor and general housing areas (WR, WA) are allowed This will require elaborate underground retention
area determined in the development plan must to be 20 percent higher today, whilst footprint facilities or adequate measures in nearby green
be dedicated to business. ratios of 0.6 in mixed areas are 50 percent higher.34 areas.

Authenticated
Fig. 9 Fig. 10
Fig. 8 Upper limits to

footprint ratio and plot ratio
by land use according to
Land Use Code (BauNVO),
Article 17, Section 1
Fig. 9 Water mirror (Miroir
d’Eau), Place de la Bourse,
Bordeaux (FR)
Fig. 10 Grasbrookpark and
view to Magellan Terraces,
HafenCity Hamburg (DE)
Fig. 11 Overlay of various
historical elements in the
city, High Line Park, New
York (US)
Fig. 11
Here, as usual, the individual case and its specific

circumstances must be analysed and taken into
account. Certainly, the demand for very dense
building is greater in conurbations than on the
urban periphery or in rural areas. On the other
hand, the microclimate is more manageable in
windy coastal areas on hilltops than in constrained
areas such as the Rhine Valley or the Stuttgart
“cauldron”. High-density neighbourhoods near
a large park or green area benefit from better
microclimatic conditions than those without these
amenities on offer. 33 For more information
Further information on the origin and
In the end, the social and urban design context • Bock, Stephanie; Libbe, Jens; Hinzen, Ajo (eds): development of Ger-
Nachhaltiges Flächenmanagement. Ein Handbuch man building and
and the quality of the design itself are key factors.
für die Praxis. Deutsches Institut für Urbanistik planning law, see the
Density is more defensible in the shape of perim-
GmbH (Difu). Berlin 2011 short summary of the
eter blocks with calm inner courtyards than in free • Innenministerium, Schleswig-Holstein: Qualität- Academy for Spatial
standing solitaire buildings surrounded by traffic volle Innenentwicklung. Eine Arbeitshilfe für Kom- Research and Plan-
on all sides. Density is perceived as more appeal- munen. Kiel 2010 ning / Leibniz Forum
ing in residential settings which allow the home • Krumm, Raimund: Nachhaltigkeitskonforme for Spatial Sciences,
and its associated open spaces (terraces, loggias, Flächennutzungspolitik. Ökonomische Steue www.arl-net.de/en/
rungsinstrumente und deren gesellschaftliche commin/deutschland-
balconies) some privacy, rather than directly
Akzeptanz. In: IAW Forschungsbericht. Tübingen germany/11-die-
exposing the home to views from heavily trafficked 2004 geschichte-des-bau-
public spaces and allowing private open spaces to • OECD: Compact City Policies. A Comparative rechts-0
be disturbed. HB Assessment. Paris 2012 34 Boeddinghaus, 2005

Authenticated
C H A P TE R 2
Challenges and
Action Areas
2.2
Processes and
Participation
Authenticated
2.2 — Processes and Participation 51
Challenges
Processes and
Participation
Ro l f Messerschmidt, Andreas von Zadow
C
urrent challenges in develop- and knowledge into account in concept develop- 1 Gaffron /Huismans /
ing inner cities, in restructur- ment. Synergies can be achieved by mutually Skala 2005; DGNB
2012
ing and shrinking cities, and integrating the individual disciplines’ technical
in large-scale urban devel- concepts and tying them in with classic urban
opment have led to increas- design throughout the planning process. This
ing demands being placed approach can help implement holistic neighbour-
on city and neighbourhood hood planning and development and meet the
planning procedures. Taking requirements of economic sustainability, for exam-
local and regional material cycles into account, ple through mixed-use neighbourhoods, public
measures to protect the climate and to develop spaces and multifunctional buildings. Standard
mobility concepts are gaining importance. At the linear planning processes, which address one
same time, sociocultural trends such as demo- planning discipline after the other, usually fail to
graphic change, changing social structures and provide this essential degree of integration.
new forms of civic involvement must be taken
into account. Setting up adequately structured, Sustainable urban and neighbourhood develop-
integrated planning and implementation processes ment requires long-term thinking. For example,
to deal with this high degree of complexity and the environmental measures can prove financially
necessary and important participation of many viable when subjected to a long-term economic
stakeholders presents city and neighbourhood assessment (life-cycle costing) – even when their
planning with a major challenge. As a result, the initial cost is high. This calls for the most com-
organisation of the planning process always also prehensive possible consideration of neighbour-
defines the quality of its result. hood life cycles, from planning, delivery and use
through to further development and restructuring
at a later stage. Resident participation models
should be considered at an early stage and resi-
Integrated dents should be able to take part in defining pro-

ject objectives.
planning The quality of the planning process in the early

stages, especially when the neighbourhood’s func-
It is essential to engage the relevant specialist tional urban design concept is defined, lays the
planners and experts in an integrated planning foundation for the neighbourhood to function in
process from the outset in order to develop the best possible way and for residents to engage
and deliver ambitious neighbourhood plans, for constructively in using it.
example in terms of energy or transport (Fig. 1,
p. 52).1 This requires experts to be appointed, and
budgets for fees to be provided from an early stage.
Appropriate processes are required in order to
take the varied interplay of planning disciplines

Authenticated
interest groups, administration,

general public government
integrated
planning
project developers, planners, experts

land owners
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Public Participation
participation processes
Often the legally required public consultation pro- The challenge therefore is to create a planning
cesses, such as those required in Germany, are pri- process, which is highly communicative for all
marily aimed at providing development plans with involved parties and which truly focusses on
a degree of legitimacy and fulfilling a corrective exchanging information, generating creative solu-
2 Scholz /Selle 1996 democratic function. However, these processes do tions and building consensus. This is the best way
3 Selle 2000 not provide stakeholders with adequate opportuni- to achieve truly integrated solutions and plans
ties to take an active part in the planning process.2 which people will find most plausible and which
The legally required processes tend to offer yes/ no achieve the greatest possible acceptance with
decisions about the direction of further planning. regards to planning objectives. This serves spe-
Often, this creates conflict which can undermine cifically to qualify plans, gain support for them,
collaboration and co-operation between stake- and reduce risks to their implementation. The aim
holders, experts, planning authorities and affected is to find and develop win-win situations which
parties. Instead of working together to find the best benefit as many different stakeholders as possible.3
solution, the interested parties adopt opposing There are no blueprints for this, given that
positions. This generates winners and losers, a methods have to be adapted to the situation.
dynamic which can have a long-lasting negative Encouraging experiences demonstrate that this
Further information effect on the way in which plans are perceived challenge can realistically be met.
• Campion, Charles: 20|20 Visions – Collaborative and implemented. These effects have led to a Mediating facilitation and a “neutral” planning
Planning and Placemaking. London 2018 growing frustration that the legal instruments team have a special role to play in implementing
• Blundell Jones, Peter; Petrescu, Doina; Till,
do not sufficiently support competent debate or creative and cooperative processes. To a far greater
Jeremy (eds): Architecture and Participation.
London / New York 2005 help find plausible solutions. In Germany, major extent than in the legally required processes, their
• Ministerium für Städtebau und Wohnen, Kultur projects such as the Stuttgart 21 railway project role is to establish and promote a broad exchange
und Sport des Landes NRW: Neue Formen der and Berlin-Brandenburg Airport have reopened between all involved parties.4 In order to discuss
Kommunikation und Kooperation im Städtebau. the search by both politicians and citizens for more new approaches to solutions in an open-ended
Bausteine Nr. 23. Düsseldorf 2001 purposeful participation processes. At the same development situation, the involved stakeholders’
• Rösener, Britta; Selle, Klaus (eds): Kommunika
time, major media interest in this issue, and the ideas and the principles of parties involved must
tion gestalten. Beispiele und Erfahrungen aus der
Praxis für die Praxis. Kommunikation im Planungs opportunities provided by new media and com- first be accepted, but also regularly challenged
prozess, Bd. 3. Dortmund 2005 munication channels provide an increasingly wide throughout the further process. The actual
• www.akbw.de/recht/vergabe-und-wettbewerb range of tools for sustainable planning. practical challenge is to create a truly creative and

Authenticated
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
transparent process which ensures that partici- are new to the parties involved. Projects of this Fig. 1 Working together in
pants respect each other and accept the objective type often take on the character of pioneer pro- integrated planning process
Fig. 2 Facilitated planning
foundations, and which delivers goals and jects, because this allows for technically, organ
workshops allow experts and
generates new coalitions to implement the pro- isationally, or socially more experimental imple- affected residents to engage
ject. This is the only way to achieve high process mentation in practice. Truly novel concepts of this in dialogue and exchange
quality. kind face significantly greater demands and hur- ideas focused on the spe
dles than tried and tested plans and developments. cific project, St Clement’s
Traditional competitive processes do not fulfil This makes it necessary to deal with greater com- Hospital, London (GB) 2012
Figs. 3, 4 Open planning
these requirements. The single-stage design complexity, more stakeholders and a greater need for
workshop on urban develop
petition is universally recognised as a tool for coordination. It requires many stakeholders to be
ment as part of creating an
quality assurance, but it does not allow involved more willing to take risks, even in financial and integrated urban develop
parties to take an active part in the planning pro- political terms. Building on these “shifting sands” ment concept (ISEK), Markt
cess. Phased competitions with several stages are requires much more thorough preparation, very oberdorf
a step in the right direction: they promote dialogue, prudent implementation, and the support of a
if not actual collaboration. Enduring sustainable broad project alliance.7 For these reasons, it is true
neighbourhoods and planning concepts require to say that excellent processes provide the key to
processes which are creative, constructive and delivering sustainable neighbourhoods.
enhance collaboration. In a purely technical con-
text, these might include design charrettes, or
community planning workshops where public
collaboration is intended.5 Indeed, it may make 4 von Zadow 1997; Wates
sense to combine various types of collaborative 2008
and competitive processes to arrive at the best 5 Ley/ Weitz 2009
6 von Zadow 2009
possible outcome.6 Projects’ sustainability goals
7 Thompson /von Zadow
must be embedded throughout the entire deci- 2009, p. 48
sion-making process from competition brief to
their implementation in detail. This means that
both planning teams and decision-making bodies
must be supported by the necessary experts and
specialists.
This is particularly true for sustainable plans pursu

ing specific innovative goals which break new
ground within their geographical setting or which

Authenticated
Action Area
Processes and
Participation
Rolf Mes s ers chmidt, Andreas von Zadow
T
he key factor in delivering begins when the project is initialised and goes on
sustainable urban neighbour- to include the master plan or urban design, urban
hoods is process quality. The land-use planning, as well as access and infra-
planning process can be im- structure plans. A holistic approach to neighbour-
proved by including partici hood development must ensure that the relevant
pation models, concept sustainability issues are given consideration when
development processes and each of these steps is organised and prepared.
a combined project and sus- (Fig. 3, p. 56).
tainability management. Supported by neigh-
bourhood management, this can also lay the Sustainability must be taken into account in de-
foundation for using an urban neighbourhood and fining project objectives from the outset, and this
increasing its value in the long term. The process must be supported by appropriate preliminary
of developing and using a neighbourhood begins studies and expert opinions. An analysis of local
with planning and developing the project, followed opportunities and constraints, particularly in terms
by completing the infrastructure, buildings and of sustainability, must be added to the general
open spaces. After all this, urban neighbourhoods land use, urban development and framework
enter a long period of use, changing and maturing plans for the development site. Amongst other
before entering into a process of regeneration and issues, this additional analysis must consider u rban
recycling. The cycle of project development and climate systems, habitat networks and the existing
planning then starts over again, with the interven- local energy supply potential. Early engagement
tions that are required at that time giving it a new with all stakeholders and coordinating goals
direction. It makes sense to assess neighbour- shared by property owners, investors, elected
hoods’ life cycles throughout a long period of use councillors and municipal planning departments
in order to come close to the objective of holistic, as well as interested citizens, allows for the
long-term sustainability in urban neighbourhoods. development of an integrated planning process
(Fig. 1). which is specifically tailored to suit the project in
question.
The neighbourhood’s functional urban design
Planning concept is particularly important. It sets out the

project’s future use, design and the basic approach
procedures to sustainability approach, thereby laying the

foundation for quality of life in the neighbourhood,
for its environmental impact and for the way in
The way in which the process of planning an urban which residents and users take ownership of it.
neighbourhood is organised and how it actually Because of its major significance for the later pro-
runs its course offers the key to the quality of its ject, it is beneficial to make use of competitive
design, delivery and subsequent use. This process and collaborative planning processes to generate

Authenticated
need for action
transformation and ageing defining project

objectives
framework planning
operation and maintenance process
Fig. 1 Integrated planning

draft design / access process
implementation process and infrastructure plans Fig. 2 Streetscape including
integrated neighbourhood
Fig. 1 drainage
the functional urban design concept1 (see Par (Fig. 4, p. 56 and Fig. 1, p. 52). Special attention 1 DGNB 2012
ticipation processes, p. 52f ). must be paid to interfaces between disciplines in 2 Gaffron / Huismans /Skala
2005; DGNB 2012
Given that the key planning decisions with a major designing access and infrastructure plans. This is
effect on economic, environmental and sociocul- because an attractive streetscape including street
tural aspects are taken at this early stage of plan- trees, pavement changes and drainage channels
ning, it is essential to form an interdisciplinary can only be achieved when highway, open space
planning team and start working together from and drainage planning are closely coordinated
the very beginning in order to generate a sustain- (Fig. 2). Access and infrastructure plans can be
able neighbourhood plan (Fig. 3, p. 56). This is completed after the legal planning frameworks
also why all relevant local specialists and experts and the development plan have been approved,
must be involved in the project.2 but particular attention must be given to specify-
ing resource-efficient infrastructure materials and
It is absolutely crucial not only to develop highly construction details, and a sustainable construc-
qualified specialist plans, e.g. for energy or trans- tion process.
port, but to tie these in with classic urban design
in order to take a holistic approach to planning Land-use planning, urban design and early access
and delivering the neighbourhood. For example, and infrastructure planning must be closely coord
a particularly energy-efficient building structure inated for planning framework approval. Public
can integrate water treatment measures into stakeholders should be consulted, and environ-
attractive open spaces for use by residents, whilst mental reports prepared as soon as possible, in
exploiting the energy potential in wastewater order to include issues such as protecting nature
treatment. Often, only this process of integrating or decontaminating sites from the outset in plan-
and knitting together the different specialist plans ning the neighbourhood. Where possible, it is
can generate the synergies needed to make meet- advisable to embed measures required for sus-
ing sustainability goals viable through mixed-use tainability in legally binding planning conditions.
open spaces and buildings, especially in dense Further measures can be embedded in urban
inner-city settings. development contracts and private law, such as
This requires the draft design and parts of access land purchase contracts. (cf. Implementation
and infrastructure plans – transport, open space, Strategies, pp. 168ff.).
supply and waste technology – to be brought for-
ward and developed alongside the urban design Sustainability should also be included in market-
concept. These interlocking urban design, access ing and constructing buildings. Bringing the pro-
and infrastructure plans then provide the basis ject to the market must also create the frame-
for urban land-use planning, which must also work conditions to deliver all of the compo-
begin early. The work required to integrate these nents planned in the neighbourhood. This can be
plans can only be accomplished efficiently by achieved by providing opportunities to purchase
adopting a parallel, integrated planning approach land to create multigenerational housing, small-
instead of classical sequential planning procedure scale mixed-use projects, or projects for client Fig. 2

Authenticated
scope of influence cost of change
preliminary initial design and detail tendering construction

research design planning control design
start completion
pre-certification
Fig. 3
analysis
urban
design
development
plan
specialist
plans
public interest
stakeholders
Concept
linear planning process
development
public
engagement
process
Concept development processes are important
analysis urban design
in all planning stages but choosing the neigh
development bourhood’s functional urban-design concept is
plan particularly important. For this reason, competi-
specialist tive and collaborative planning processes should
plans be used to generate the functional urban-design
public interest concept. These provide opportunities to explore
stakeholders
alternative development options and to bring in
integrated planning process local knowledge in order to improve design
Fig. 4 concepts step by step, particularly in terms of sus-
tainability.4
3 DGNB 2012 groups of different sizes.3 From the point of view
4 DGNB 2012 of sustainability, focus group-oriented marketing Phased processes provide particularly good op-
helps ensure that infrastructure is delivered quickly portunities for dealing with the inherent com
and rapidly put to use. On the other hand, mar- plexity of sustainable development, and for ap-
keting should present sustainability as an integral proaching issues on different levels, e.g. through
component of the neighbourhood’s mission and expert panels, interim presentations, or partially
Fig. 3 Capacity to influence image. In addition to traditional public relations public workshops which can draw on in-depth
project sustainability: the work, this can also be achieved by a design and knowledge of the locality and sustainability. Pro-
later the change to planning, sustainability handbook. cesses of this kind offer opportunities to actively
the more costly its imple
Ideally, project management should accompany engage residents and representatives as the plan-
mentation
the entire process. The classic tasks such as qual- ning process goes ahead. Phased processes also
Fig. 4 Comparison of vari
ous planning processes: ity assurance, controlling timelines and cost are allow new findings and requirements to be in-
linear planning processes particularly important in complex neighbourhood cluded and taken into account, even after planning
generally require more time. developments, but project management should has begun.
Integrated cross-cutting also include managing sustainability by navigating
communication can consid and coordinating the integrated planning process Along with this phasing, it is crucial that pro-
erably accelerate planning
throughout all of the design and delivery stages. cesses for sustainable projects support inter
results
Fig. 5 Comparing competi Neighbourhood Sustainability Certification tools disciplinary work. This means that sustainabil-
tions with consensus-orien and other planning instruments should support ity, and the criteria relating to it, must already
tated /collaborative planning this process. be written into competition briefs, and that

Authenticated
public engagement
preparation, urban design prize award,

judging further design implementation
call for entries competition
development
competitive process
community
preparing, integrated vision, architecture /
planning
calling for entries, planners, development landscape
workshop,
team briefing experts plan design
developing
competition
ideas
consense-driven / collaborative process
Fig. 5
rban designers, landscape planners, transport

u that specialist planners, civic administrations, 5 BMVBS 2013: RPW
planners and energy experts must work together residents, stakeholders, experts and local politi- 6 ibid.
7 Albers 1996
in groups to complete the planning task. Special- cians are involved.
8 Müller-Ibold 1997
ist planners from the relevant disciplines should
first examine technical plans submitted with the Processes explicitly aimed at reaching consensus
projects in depth, and then go on to support the are particularly suitable for developing sustainable
judging panel as experts – or better still, be given urban districts. This makes special interdiscip
a vote as members of the jury. This is the only linary workshops such as charrettes particularly
way to ensure that sustainability is given adequate interesting. A charrette is an intensive design
weight in the decision-making process. When workshop which often lasts several days and which
the winner of a competition is picked, it is par- concludes with the presentation of results. Char-
ticularly important to commission the entire rettes get planning teams, clients, local govern-
team including all of the specialist planners ments and other stakeholders involved through
involved in the chosen project, and the competi- constant coordination and interim presentations.
tion brief should include a corresponding com- The charrette combines individual work and team-
mitment.5 work on-site, and thereby encourages good inter-
disciplinary collaboration and getting to know the
Sometimes, clients may not be able to define their location and local conditions in depth (Fig. 6,
goals or the tasks needed in sufficient detail for p. 58).
a competition brief. In these cases, clients may
go for a formal collaborative process. The key Developing different scenario plans is impor-
point of these processes is that they offer stake- tant in order to explore the scope for action
holders opportunities to discuss goals and tasks offered by alternative designs.7 The qualities
step by step, for example in design workshops. linked to the alternative designs can then be exam-
For this to succeed, all parties taking part must ined and discussed. The aim is to develop sce-
be provided with the same information.6 narios, specialist concepts and sustainability
approaches which are truly different, rather than
Collaborative planning processes have various simply generating alternative building layouts8
advantages in terms of sustainability. For ex or access routes, to mention just one specialist
ample, they can get residents actively and inten- area.
sively engaged in urban design. The creative
debate generates more social and ecological ideas, The key point in all sustainable planning processes
whilst associated events can also support mar- is that the plans they produce are not the end of
keting and public relations and help recruit buy- planning, but that they remain open to develop-
ers and tenants at an early stage. Sometimes, the ment. This means that plans must be able to
quality and diversity of results is questioned when respond flexibly to new findings and needs. To do
collaborative processes of this kind are chosen, this, they must offer later development stages
but these points can be guaranteed by ensuring enough room to manoeuvre.

Authenticated
3 – 6 months 1 week 1 month 3 – 9 months competitions

preparation and analysis public events reporting results masterplanning and delivery
support team (s)
s s s s s s
project
kick-off, community vision and detailing

report exhibition project
starting work planning workshop presentation masterplan
project
ud ud ud ud ud ud
urban design steering group (ud)
Fig. 6
Fig. 6 Typical planning

process including Communi Participation range of available knowledge, engaging experts
and planners as well as decision makers includ-
and consultation ing owners, investors, operators, public interest

ty Planning Workshop
Fig. 7 Lively public realm, organisations, and specialist administrative units.
even before completion,
Special interest groups, affected parties and the
Carlsberg, Copenhagen
What use is even the most grandiose sustainabil- general public must be also be appropriately
(DK)
Fig. 8 Selecting the concept ity plan on paper if it is abandoned in the face of consulted and, ideally, won over as contributors
development process and practical or political realities? How much effort to the project.
the effect it has on the result has gone into picking competition-winning entries
ing plan and its deliver- that were never built? The particular challenge Depending on the task at hand, a range of concept
ability. Thanks to their broad for professional sustainable-neighbourhood design development processes with different strengths
communication approach
procedures is to lock a broad agreement on goals and weaknesses can be used in different ways.
and consensus-orientated
nature, Charrette and Com and frameworks in to the actual urban planning The traditional design competition offers least
munity Planning Workshops process. in terms of participation and communication.
produce more deliverable Many examples show that more complex projects (Fig. 5, p. 57). Its strength lies in generating a large
results than competitions. can only be completed when open and transparent number of design alternatives, most of which
collaboration succeeds in reducing the lack of remain theoretical. Even phased competitions
information, and in overcoming an unnecessary including discursive and collaborative workshops
lack of trust or even confrontational thinking. allow for much more cross-cutting communica-
High quality, sustainable, and deliverable results tion, thus making it more likely that results can
only come about when a wide range of stakehold- be implemented. Charrettes on the other hand,
ers join forces to do the groundwork together. This rely on maximum collaboration between all of
saves time and resources and stops projects going the parties involved in the development from the
wrong. Bad examples such as Stuttgart 21, Berlin- outset. This allows participants to go into much
Brandenburg Airport, or Istanbul’s Taksim Square more depth and makes the sustainable neigh-
have gained worldwide notoriety. But even small bourhood development plan significantly more
projects can fail when expectations collide with plausible and feasible even at the concept stage.
reality. The charrette condenses initial ideas at a very
early stage in the collaborative work and boils
Provided it is done with the right attitude, partici the number of possible options down to a small
pation is the key instrument to contribute to the number of very deliverable scenarios. Finally,
success of sustainable neighbourhood planning. Community Planning Workshops use the
This is especially true for truly innovative tasks strengths of the Charrette, adding further build-
– pioneer projects which are new to those involved, ing blocks for consensus-oriented community
and which present them with new challenges and participation. As a result, they are best suited to
entrepreneurial risks. The key is to set up a creative mobilise maximum political support and promote
process which constructively captures the full rapid approval (Fig. 6).
Fig. 7
Authenticated
community planning workshop charrette phased competition single stage competition

100
Deliverability [%]
0
resident engagement
communication outreach
consense-orientation
interdisciplinary team
local knowledge
sustainability level
performance level
deliverability
brief
Fig. 8
Current practice in fulfilling legal requirements stimulate communication, increase transparency Further information
for public consultation (in Germany: acc. to § 3 and promote a creative discourse. This can be • Duijvestein, Kees: Building and Environment.
BauGB) tends to include debates, hearings, state- done in different ways: Thinking in Systems, Designing in Variants.
ments, assessment procedures and public pres- •• Setting up a project website, Facebook page TU Delft, 1995
• Duijvestein, Kees: The Environmental Maxi
entations, but generally does not help promote and/or Twitter feed
misation Method. In: De Jonge, Taeke M.; Van
cooperation and understanding, build consensus, •• Organising themed working groups and infor- der Voordt, D. J. M. (eds): Ways to Study and
support the creative search for integrated neigh- mation events Research Urban, Architectural and Technical
bourhood planning solutions in terms of better •• Conducting surveys, opinion polls Design. TU Delft, 2002
planning quality, lower risk, increase support for •• Producing internal project journals, news • Gaffron, Philine; Huismans, Gé; Skala, Franz
the project, or even help generate win-win situ- letters or even household leafleting (eds): Ecocity Book 1. A Better Place to Live.
Hamburg/Utrecht/Vienna 2005
ations. In fact, the measures mentioned are •• Organising local exhibitions, roadshows
• Gaffron, Philine; Huismans, Gé; Skala, Franz
primarily aimed at providing a degree of legit •• Visualising basic information, analysis, con- (eds): Ecocity Book 2. How to make it happen.
imacy and fulfilling a corrective function. Accord- cepts, plans and views to illustrate and com- Hamburg/Utrecht/Vienna 2008
ing to § 3 BauGB, they are often used at a point municate urban design, social, economic and • Löhnert, Günter; Dalkowski, Andreas; Römmling,
when important planning decisions have already sustainability issues Uwe: sol·id·ar Planungswerkstatt Berlin. Integrale
been made, so that they end up trying to solve •• Working locally on-site, in order to create quick Planung. Zusammenhänge – Zielkonflikte –
Meilensteine. In: XIA Intelligente Architektur
conflicts when things have gone wrong. access and insight 09/2011
Mediating facilitators and a “neutral” planning • Messerschmidt, Rolf: NetzWerkZeug Nach
team fulfil a key role in implementing creative It is important to emphasise that these and simi- haltige Stadtentwicklung/Anwendung Karlsruhe
and collaborative procedures. Their task is to lar activities can only be effective in the context Südost. In: Wohnbund Informationen 01/2003
ensure that the players engage openly, to over- of facilitated processes and that they are not suf- • Thompson, John; von Zadow, Andreas (2009):
Stadtentwicklung ist eine Gemeinschaftsleistung.
come hierarchies, promote the flow of infor ficient in themselves.
In: Wolfgang Christ (ed): Access for All.
mation, and make proposals more deliverable. Zugänge zur gebauten Umwelt. Basel / Boston /
These steps should help put the debate on a level Berlin 2009
footing, resolve or soften positions where they • von Zadow, Andreas: Perspektivenwerkstatt.
have become hardened, overcome entrenched Hintergründe und Handhabung des Community
ways of thinking and cross boundaries where Planning. Berlin 1997/2007
• von Zadow, Andreas: Konzertierte Aktionen
necessary.
für einen integrativen Stadtumbau. In: Salzburger
Institut für Raumordnung & Wohnen: Stadt im
In exploring and discussing new approaches, it Umbau. Neue urbane Horizonte. Tagungsband
is important to accept where the different parties zum Symposium. Salzburg 2009
involved are coming from, but also to repeatedly • www.communityplanning.net
challenge assumptions. Putting this attitude into • http://cordis.europa.eu/easw/home.html
• www.bbsr.bund.de/BBSR/DE/FP/ExWoSt/
practice throughout the process allows new solu-
Forschungsfelder/2004undFrueher/3stadt2/05_
tions to come about. Veroeffentlichungen.html
Accompanied by supporting activities, the ap- • www.perspektivenwerkstatt.de
proaches to participation described above can • www.werkstatt-stadt.de

Authenticated
C H A P TE R 2
Challenges and
Action Areas
2 .3
Communities
and Sociocultural
Issues Brought to you by | University of Michigan-Flint
Authenticated
2.3 — Communities and Sociocultural Issues 61
Challenges
Social Fabric
Ti l m an Harlander
I
n the light of challenges posed by demo- “are no longer marginal and exceptional pheno 1 BBSR 2017a; WBGU 2016
graphic change, the tasks of integration mena, but can be widely observed, increasingly 2 BBSR 2017b
3 Sennett 1998
presented by growing migration flows, often affecting members of the middle class”.4
4 Conze 2009, p. 933;
increasing economic imbalances, and
Nachtwey 2016
the widening gap between rich and poor, Social and economic structural change progresses 5 von Einem 2016a
social urban and neighbourhood policy very differently throughout the regions. Areas of 6 Cairncross 1997
has become particularly important in growth and shrinkage or stagnation currently 7 Läpple 2008, p. 25
European cities.1 The “Leipzig Charta present extremely divergent dynamics and prob- 8 Florida 2002
on Sustainable European Cities” was adopted in lems. Whilst cities in heavily deindustrialised
May 2007 and is currently being updated. In it, the regions such as former East Germany, the Ruhr
relevant EU ministers emphasised that economic, or Saar regions struggle with declining populations
ecological and social dimensions of sustainability and high vacancy rates, cities in growth regions
should be taken into account “simultaneously and experience the settlement pressures, land short-
equally”.2 Social cohesion and the requirement ages and booming housing markets typical of the
for social redistribution in particular, are prov- opposite value dynamics. In particular, the ongo-
ing increasingly difficult to achieve, especially in ing real estate boom and the associated rapid rent
peripheral European countries, but also in dis- and purchase price increases have become a key
advantaged regions and neighbourhoods within challenge for social policy and housing p olicy,
Germany. However, as in the other welfare states affecting not only growth centres but also medium-
of central and northern Europe, poverty, exclusion sized and university cities.5 This background does
and segregation are (still) comparatively low in not allow for the implementation of uniform urban
Germany. development and neighbourhood policies.
In socio-spatial terms,6 the transition to an infor-

mation and knowledge society does not lead to
Social and decentralisation and dispersal, or to cities gener-

ally losing significance, as had initially been widely
economic change expected. Conversely, there is much to suggest

that genuine urban locational advantages are
currently experiencing a new, economically
As yet, it is not possible to fully assess the long- justified appreciation and significance. After dec-
term social and socio-spatial effects of the current ades of suburbanisation, the view is that western
transition from an industrial society to a know industrialised countries are experiencing an
ledge and information society. Changing, often impressive “urban turnaround” and an increas-
precarious employment relationships and patch- ingly clear “development of a new form of urban
work biographies are replacing full employment centrality and a new urban attractiveness”.7 The
and industrial society’s traditional employment view is that the so-called creative class,8 i.e. those
biographies following the “no long term” motto.3 active in the field of knowledge-based and culture-
These new uncertainties also affect the German based services such as software developers, media
middle classes – social decline and class relegation people, scientists and their environment, are par-

Authenticated
9 The 13th coordinated ticularly dependent on the socio-spatial density adopted far-sighted land-use planning and land
population projection is of the “privileged innovation field” which inner- banking policies for moderate expansion in periods
currently in use city districts with diverse urban milieus provide, of stagnation and shrinkage.11 Housing market
10 Simon-Philipp 2017
and that they thus create new urban concentra- demand can be expected to remain high even in
11 Dömer / Drexler /
Schultz-Granberg 2016;
tions. the event of future significant declines in immigra-
SLR 04/17 tion, simply because household sizes are expected
12 Leibniz-Institut für ökolo- to continue shrinking. According to a study pub-
gische Raumentwicklung lished by the Leibniz Institute of Ecological Urban
Demographic and Regional Development12 in 2011, it seems that

2011
13 Kuhn 2010
a very considerable increase in new construction
14 Beck 1994
change will be necessary in Baden-Württemberg during

the period up to 2030 in order to account for fur-
ther components of demand, such as rising home
Germans are becoming fewer. Due to the last ownership, ageing, and increasing living space. All
45 years of ongoing low birth rates (currently the more so as the general immigration boom since
around 1.5 children per adult female rather than 2010, after previous stagnation and a long decline,
the 2.1 required to simply replace the parent gener- has also led to considerable population growth in
ation) the federal statistical office’s population pro- Baden-Württemberg again (Fig. 1).
jections9 expect a long-term nationwide decline, Even more importantly, qualitative changes aris-
albeit at rates which vary considerably regionally ing from social change and shrinking household
and over time. However, all such forecasts were sizes (to an average of only about two persons in
rendered obsolete due to completely unexpected Germany) present major challenges for socially
immigration gains from around 2010. In the con- sustainable neighbourhood policy. Instead of tra-
text of eastern European states’ accession to the ditional classic family households, typical urban
EU, immigration was mainly driven by southern households are now one- and two-person house-
and eastern Europeans until 2014/15, when the holds, which account for 75 to 80 percent of house-
proportion of refugees rapidly increased. Overall, holds in large cities.13 Ongoing growth in the
the balance of migration accounted for a popu- number of singles, single parents, (non-)marital
lation growth of around 1.1 million in 2015 and partnerships with or without children, shared flats
around 0.75 million in 2016. Economically strong and the like has led to a plurality of household
major cities are growing especially rapidly and types, each with its own demands for housing and
must prepare for ongoing population growth. For the urban environment. The causes for this trend
example, Stuttgart gained around 43,000 residents are complex and stem from longer education
between 2010 and 2016.10 However, there is no periods, the declining status of marriage and ris-
way that building new homes can keep pace. The ing divorce rates, a general shift in values and, not
change of direction which is so urgently needed, least, rising life expectancy. This process of plur
especially to deliver affordable new housing, is alisation is promoted, accompanied and meshed
more difficult now than in previous housing crises. with a growing individualisation, and different
The lack of suitable development land is proving groups’ pursuit of increasingly diverse lifestyles
the main bottleneck – hardly any municipalities which follows in its wake.14

Authenticated
Balance of inward / outward migration Balance of births / deaths

220
Individuals (1’000)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
Fig. 1 Birth and migration
20
rates in Baden-Württemberg
0 1990 –2015
-20 Fig. 2 People in need of
care in Germany, by age
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
1999, 2013 und 2030
Fig. 1
We are getting older – many planners and local Local governments face completely new quanti- 3 495 000
politicians see ageing as one of the greatest chal- tative and qualitative challenges in integrating
lenges of demographic change in terms of urban asylum seekers looking for safety (442,000 asylum 897 000
2 626 000
and neighbourhood development policy. 15 In applications in 2015, 722,000 in 2016). The task
fact, demographic ageing, i.e. increasing older of integration certainly begins with a concern for 420 000
2 016 000
populations and decreasing younger populations shelter and securing a basic livelihood. However, 1 308 000
299 000
(usually expressed in terms of the so-called old- the focus soon shifts to the triple challenges of 1 022 000
age dependency ratio), not only makes social integrating into the labour market; providing edu- 715 000
security systems dangerously unbalanced, but cational opportunities, fostering cultural partici-
732 000 852 000
also presents the Herculean challenges of adapt- pation and language skills; and providing housing 596 000
ing housing stock to meet the needs of the elderly which offers not only adequate living space in the
406 000 453 000 439 000
and coping with rising care costs (Fig. 2). Accord- narrow sense, but also integration into the sur-
ing to the federal statistical office’s projections, rounding neighbourhood. Ideally, these processes 1999 2013 2030
life expectancy is expected to rise significantly interlock and support each other. Integration is a 90 and older 65 up to less than
(by six to seven years) by 2060, whilst the number complex process which, even at best, involves one 80 up to less than 80 years of age
of very old people over 80 years is expected to or two generations undergoing completely differ- 90 years of age less than 65 years
of age
more than double (from currently around 4.8 mil- ent phases.
lion to around ten million). Thus the number of Fig. 2
people in need of care is increasing immensely,
whereas the willingness to accept traditional care
home accommodation continues to decline. At
the same time, the capacity of family networks, Social cohesion –
until now the main care providers, continues to
decline. segregation
We are becoming “more colourful” – the success- It was not just the view to neighbouring countries,
ful integration of immigrants has become one of such as France’s burning banlieues in 2005 and
the central challenges and future tasks for urban 2007, and the unrest in England in 2011 which led
and social policy, not least due to the influx of to previously inconceivable concern about social
refugees since 2015 and the associated political cohesion in cities and the much-cited drifting
controversies. Today, around 22.6 percent of the apart of urban societies, even in Germany.18 OECD
German population – about 18.6 million people studies and the federal government’s “Poverty
– have a migrant background, whilst almost nine and Wealth Reports”19 confirm that Germany too
million of them are foreigners and do not have a is now seeing the widening income and wealth 15 Harlander 2010
German passport.16 Germany has long become a gap between rich and poor reflected in socio- 16 Statistisches Bundesamt,
country of immigration, a fact which has been spatial conditions which can no longer be over- press release No. 261,
01.08.2017
legally recognised through the 2000 reform of looked.
17 Gesemann / Roth 2009
citizenship law, and the 2005 Immigration Act. In 18 Stadtbauwelt 196/2012
practice, cities and neighbourhoods play a key In extreme cases, currently rapidly growing, more 19 Bundesministerium für
role in integration policy.17 or less enclosed enclaves of luxury urban housing Arbeit und Soziales 2017

Authenticated
Fig. 3 face socially uniform “overstretched” neighbour- at retaining remaining inhabitants, price increases
hoods of large 1960s and 1970s housing estates accompanying the renaissance of urban living,
and unrestored, neglected old building stock. The along with gentrification and displacement pro-
presence of actual “gated communities”, such as cesses threaten to homogenise social structures
Aachen’s Barbarossapark, is negligible in Ger- in boom regions – with a reversed thrust.25 Raised
many. Unlike the US, China, South America, increasingly in the media in recent years, the new
South Africa or the eastern European transfor- question for social life in cities is: Is living in
mation states, extensive closed residential com- the city turning into a domain for the rich and
plexes are not compatible with German tradition super-rich, as it offers no room for the poor, or
either in terms of housing culture or planning law, even traditional middle-class families? “City air
and have so far hardly been in demand. But as in makes you poor” wrote the Spiegel in November
some of its European neighbours, Germany is also 2012, stating: “German cities are experiencing an
seeing an increase in new, often largely socially unprecedented real estate boom. Mainly luxury
homogeneous forms of housing which are closed homes are being built, affordable living space is
off by means of architecture and urban design becoming scarce. The shortage is now pushing
(Fig. 3). rents up – and residents out of centres”.26 Achiev-
ing a balance in dealing with existing neighbour-
20 von Einem 2016b These new luxury projects are part of a general hoods in fast-growing cities is clearly not easy: the
21 Herfert /Osterhage 2012, urban renaissance, for which there is clear empir- improvement of run-down existing stock is desir-
p. 107
ical evidence.20 Whilst the causes, duration and able in principle, and it offers opportunities for a
22 BBSR 2011, p. 3
progression of this paradigm shift are still subject new social mix,27 at least with the initial influx of
23 Harlander et al. 2007
24 Holm 2016 to scientific controversy, urban researchers Günter higher-income groups. However, as for example
25 Difu 2017 Herfert and Frank Osterhage sum up the findings Christian Ude, the former mayor of Munich, has
26 Jung 2012, p. 84 from studying 78 German urban regions by stating repeatedly emphasised, this must be accompanied
27 Harlander /Kuhn / that “one can speak of a new leading trend in Ger- by the use of all available protective instruments
Wüstenrot Stiftung 2012 man urban-regional development. Re-urbanisation to at least mitigate undesirable social conse-
28 Kompetenzzentrum
has replaced suburbanisation as the dominant quences.
Großsiedlungen 2015
spatial pattern of the 1990s”.21 Closer inspection,
however, reveals that re-urbanisation is by no Moreover, the challenge is to stabilise and carefully
means a self-starter in urban development policy. upgrade urban development and infrastructural
The process is in fact highly selective, and the deficits in socially unbalanced, overstretched
degree to which cities can take part in it varies, neighbourhoods of large housing estates28 often
depending on their economic strength, regional marked by a disproportionate share of migrants,
location and not least, their respective land and benefit recipients and the unemployed. In 1999,
housing policies.22 the federal government and the governments of
Even though new urban living23 is successful in the “Länder” launched the “Social City” pro-
quantitative terms, the price in social terms seems gramme, which funded 783 programme areas in
high in growth centres such as Munich, Hamburg, 441 municipalities until 2016. The programme
Frankfurt am Main or Berlin, as it is associated became the most important urban development
Fig. 3 Isolated housing,
with the fragmentation of urban space and the instrument in this area, mainly thanks to its
Rosenpark, Stuttgart-
Vaihingen (DE) 2006, tendency to displace population groups dependent socially particularly effective non-investment
Leon Wohlhage Wernik on low rents.24 Whilst cities in shrinking regions measures for education, employment, integration
Architekten struggle to implement holding strategies aimed and participation.

Authenticated
Local identity and

the public realm
One of today’s great challenges is to provide each
city and neighbourhood with an unmistakable
identity able to provide residents with a “home”
of their own.29 This identity includes equal com-
ponents such as the historical urban layout, urban
buildings and spaces, as well as the entire tissue
of history, tradition, collective memory, self-image Fig. 4
and mentality – all of which has recently been
described as “the city’s own logic”.30 This very for people of all ages to engage and communicate. Fig. 4 Redesign Georg-
distinctiveness is currently massively endangered Awarded the German Urban Development Prize Büchner-Platz, Darmstadt
by uniform urban transformation processes which 2012, the redesign of the Georg-Büchner-Platz in (DE) 2010, Lederer +
Ragnarsdóttir + Oei
level cultural differences. Similar, part-privatised Darmstadt is a successful example (Fig. 4). Cre-
spaces such as airports, shopping centres and ating an urban square free of commerce and open
chain-store high streets generate “non-places” to public use made it possible to provide an attract 29 Hassler 2016
30 Löw / Terizakis 2011;
without history or identity.31 ive forecourt to the state theatre, but also helped
re: Häussermann 2011
As part of pursuing a careful sustainable urban knit the broken urban fabric back together to con-
31 Augé 1994
development policy and maintaining the urban nect to the city centre. 32 Siebel 2015
cityscape, preserving cultural and architectural The traditional rigid segregation of public and 33 Kuhn / Dürr / Simon-
heritage is about striking the difficult balance private spaces is increasingly becoming obsolete. Philipp 2012, p. 202
between the conservation of heritage buildings Zones of transition from inside to outside, between
and allowing “qualified further development” private indoor and public open spaces, such as
of the city. Balancing the desire for staging fes- facades and ground floor areas, but also (semi-) Further information
• Barboza, Amalia (ed) et al.: Räume des
tivals and urban events, and residents’ need for public courtyards or temporarily used vacant lots
Ankommens. Bielefeld 2016
the peace and quiet associated with residential and brownfields are gaining great importance. • Brake, Klaus; Herfert, Günter (eds): Reurbani
use, is similarly difficult and conflict-prone when Well-functioning social spaces come about when- sierung. Materialität und Diskurs in Deutschland.
planning and designing public spaces, especially in ever there is scope for users to take ownership and Wiesbaden 2012
historic town centres.32 This balance of interests creatively lend them their own shape, and where • Cachola Schmal, Peter; Elser, Oliver; Scheuer
between urban over- and potential under-use users have been engaged in the design. mann, Anna (eds): Making Heimat. Germany,
can only be achieved through dialogue with all Open unfettered access to the public realm and Arrival Country. Ostfildern 2016
• Gehl, Jan: Städte für Menschen. Berlin 2016
those involved – residents, traders and the public the communicative quality it offers undoubtedly
• Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
sector. The authors of a study on projects and play a key role in social cohesion and in building Development – OECD: Divided We Stand. Why
communal strategies for improving public spaces a (communal) sense of neighbourhood identity. Inequality Keeps Rising. Paris 2011
in Baden-Württemberg summed this up as follows: It is equally important to develop and safeguard • Siebel, Walter: Die Kultur der Stadt. Berlin 2015
“An appreciation of public space which is accepted affordable access, especially to education, culture, • Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesregierung
and supported by citizens is not possible without health, care, leisure and service facilities at neigh- Globale Umweltveränderungen – WBGU: Der
Umzug der Menschheit: Die transformative Kraft
participation”.33 bourhood level. This enables all resident groups
der Städte. Berlin 2016
Generally, public space is once again attracting to take an equal share in urban life, even if they • Wehler, Hans-Ulrich: Die neue Umverteilung.
significant and increasing interest as a space for cannot provide for themselves adequately through Soziale Ungleichheit in Deutschland. München
the extension of private life, for recreation, and the open market. 2013

Authenticated
Action Area
Social Fabric
Til man Harlander
C
ities, housing industry and the European urban tradition, with short routes
committed citizens have and a fine-grain functional and social mix, is con-
responded to the challen sidered sustainable and timely. In terms of urban
ges of demographic change, design, this contrasts with the fluid spaces and
mounting tasks of integra- serried layouts of modernism, and harks back to
tion, and threats to social the pre-modern urban layout, with plots and small-
cohesion by developing a scale perimeter blocks set out within a grid-like
multitude of strategies, pro- street network.2 Rejecting modernist monocul-
jects and individual measures for socially sustain- tures should see homes, workplaces and services
able neighbourhood planning. The fundamental facilities knitted together more closely once again,
aim is to make urban neighbourhoods liveable, with open ground floor areas generating a sus-
attractive and safe places for all population groups tainable urban revival of public street space, and
to live and work. Due the range of issues and the commuter traffic significantly reduced.
variety of neighbourhood types, there can be no To date however, the results in practice have been
uniform strategies or patent recipes: the neigh- somewhat sobering. In new urban extensions,
bourhoods of the outgoing 19th century, small the goal of a small-scale mix of uses has often
settlements on the urban periphery, large 1960s remained wishful thinking on the part of planners.3
and 70s housing estates, single-occupation hous- Yet it has also become apparent that large (interna-
ing areas, and urban neighbourhoods built since tional) investors’ economies of scale conflict with
the 1990s each have very different strengths and creating a fine-grain weave of living and working,
weaknesses which result in different needs for even in regenerating the existing urban fabric,
1 Becker /Jessen 2014 intervention. Finally, the design of the neigh- which has a greater predisposition towards such
2 Feldtkeller 2012 bourhood as a social space must form part of a a mix.4 Ongoing processes of concentration and
3 Jessen 2004, p. 99
comprehensive, integrated and inclusive devel- expansion in the urban retail sector are also prov-
4 Pätzold / Spars 2015
5 Mayer-Dukart 2010, p. 75f.
opment planning process, which unites social, ing difficult to overcome.5 Instead, amusement
6 Kuhn / Harlander 2010 environmental, and economic aspects with urban arcades, betting offices, junk shops and call shops
7 Soehlke 2014 development to form a holistic action plan. invade small-scale retail space and undermine the
aim of a small-scale urban mix of uses.
So far, the most successful approaches have sought
Mixed use out a variety of different developers, including

“Baugruppe” building associations and new co
operatives, to deliver the desired functional and
What makes an urban neighbourhood socially social mix.6 The projects in Tübingen can be seen
sustainable? Since the “renaissance of the Euro- as pioneers in this field. The city exploited existing
pean city model”1 the answer to this question has opportunities to take a “bottom-up” approach to
been completely different from functional con- developing attractive urban neighbourhoods in
cepts for cities and neighbourhoods put forward the French Quarter and Loretto, both former mil-
by modernism. Fundamentally – at least in legis- itary sites.7 Tübingen’s Südstadt was specifically
lation, programmes, memoranda and white papers designated an area of mixed use rather than gen-
–, the model of a dense, compact urban fabric in eral housing, as is usually the case, thus allowing

Authenticated
for an exemplary functional weave of living and

working. A commercial use had to be demon-
strated for each ground floor. The usual develop-
ers did not want to meet the city’s requirements,
leaving it with no choice but to “try to work with
future users themselves to deliver the small-scale
diverse mix of uses”. 8 The initial strict regulations
were made more flexible in later neighbourhoods
(Alte Weberei, Güterbahnhof-Areal etc.). Small- Fig. 1
scale mixed use in neighbourhoods is considered
a key component for urban diversity, liveliness, Migration: 43.4 % “total protection rate” in 2017), Fig. 1 Neighbourhood
safety and social qualities in the public realm. refugees move on to subsequent accommoda- including homes for the
aged, crèche, and parent-
However, there are no ideal models. The mix of tion and are basically treated equally to German
child centre, Zurich (CH)
uses can be achieved horizontally or vertically, in housing seekers. The competition and social envy 2011, pool Architekten
individual buildings, blocks or whole neighbour- engendered could unleash dangerous explosive
hoods – its respective design should be developed forces, especially in conurbations and growth
on a case-by-base basis, through the engagement regions. In addition to renting apartments, local
with users and stakeholders on site. governments face the choice of creating human
but economic“interim modular buildings” (Fig. 2,
p. 68) or “universal housing” for long-term social
use, which is more densely occupied at first.10
Urban neighbour- Despite the general trend of re-urbanisation,

rooted especially in the influx of younger
8 Feldtkeller 2012, p. 104
9 Steffen / Baumann / Fritz
hoods – universal “educational migrants”, cities still tend to expe-

rience a net outflow of older people and families
2007
10 Werkbund Bayern 2016;
housing with children to surrounding areas. These groups

still find too little suitable – and above all affordable
– living space, and often face home environments
Friedrich et al. 2015
The challenges of demographic change have which are inadequate at best. Decades of car dom-
led local governments to redouble their efforts inance have made opportunities for children to
to enable people of all ages and nationalities to play together in the street close to home scarce,
use urban neighbourhoods on an equal footing with urban children’s everyday life often charac-
(Fig. 1).9 Against the backdrop of the recent years’ terised by “urban islands” and “medialisation”.
influx, providing refugees with decentralised There has been a change in thinking, especially
accommodation (where possible), care and sup- in recent years, and the goal of regaining urban
port has become a very special task only to be space suitable for children enjoys a high priority
mastered by administrations and volunteers work- today. For example, many competitions testify to
ing closely together. Refugees are first cared for the innovative ways in which local governments
in reception centres and then moved to so-called in Baden-Württemberg are experimenting with
temporary accommodation. Once recognised and traffic management measures, playground design,
granted “subsidiary protection” (Federal Office for opening schoolyards, building childcare infrastruc-

Authenticated
Fig. 2
Fig. 2 Modular building for ture, delivering children’s cultural workshops or intergenerational housing projects and furnish
refugees in Stuttgart Plienin- children’s city maps and the like.11 outpatient assisted living communities.
gen (DE) Adapting housing stock and urban neighbourhoods Appropriate equipment for the elderly is only one
to meet the increasingly varied needs of an ageing of the parameters which enable older people to
population is one of the most demanding tasks of remain in their established home setting. The
socially sustainable urban policy (Fig. 3). In the other is the appropriate adaptation of the home
city, older people in particular benefit from being environment and high-quality – and affordable –
close to medical specialists, pharmacies, cultural safe care and provision in the neighbourhood. The
and educational institutions, a wide range of retail innovative care concept of mutual give and take
outlets and well-developed public transport. Hous- pursued by the award-winning senior citizens’
ing preference surveys clearly highlight the desire cooperative in Riedlingen, founded in 1991 to run
11 ARGE 2008 to stay in the familiar home setting for as long as the “Rösslegasse” and “Am Stadtgraben” senior
12 Jocher / Loch 2010 possible. residences, is seen as exemplary and has since
13 www.martin-riedlingen. Statistics show that this is reflected in real life: been often copied.13
de/senioren/senioren
more than 95 % of people over 65 live in their own
homepage.htm
14 ARGE BW 2012, p. 15;
four walls in Germany, whereas less than 5 % in In the context of socially sustainable neighbour-
BMVBS/BBSR 2010 care homes. Even two thirds of those in need of hood planning, it is improvements to overall qual-
15 BBSR 2009, p. 6 care receive this at home. In 2016, there were ity, not special measures for individual age or
16 Kuhn / Dürr / Simon- about 2.9 million people in need of care and about ethnic groups, which ultimately benefit all resi-
Philipp 2012 7.6 million severely disabled people in Germany. dents.14 Thus improving the public realm provides
17 BBSR 2008
The more homes and their surroundings are age- the key frame of reference. According to the Ger-
proof and low in barriers,12 the longer residents man Federal Institute for Research on Building,
can stay in their own homes even with increasing Urban Affairs and Spatial Development (BBSR),
limitations. And yet total accessibility cannot be the public realm “sets the scene for neighbourhood
the goal. Barriers help structure spaces and may society, for forming social networks, but also acts
even provide safety in individual cases, such as as a theatre of conflict between social groups. Thus
in fences to children’s playgrounds. Overcoming the public realm provides the ideal testing ground
barriers also provides children with an important for a new culture of planning”.15 This requires the
feeling of success in their physical development, relevant parties to engage creatively in developing
in training their agility and gradually extending and testing new traffic and/or green plans (e.g.
their horizon of experience. Appropriate demands shared spaces, urban gardening), different ways
to the muscular and skeletal systems are also bene- of treating water (e.g. uncovering streams), pub-
ficial for older people and those with impairments. lic art (e.g. temporary installations, light design
Efforts to reduce barriers are thus always about etc.) or new ways of articulating the transition
balancing different neighbourhood interests and from private to public space.16
demands, and providing equal access to opportun Providing the associated communal facilities
ities, spaces and social respect. However, Germany at neighbourhood level is just as important as
is generally only just beginning to adapt housing the design of open space.17 Here too, sponsors,
to the requirements of barrier-free living, improve stakeholder groups, built form, content and scale
various forms of assisted living, initiate innovative have become immensely varied, and have led

Authenticated
Fig. 3
to diverse descriptions: neighbourhood centre,

district meeting point, multigenerational house,
house of cultures and generations, neighbourhood
Smart Cities? Fig. 3 Neighbourhood for
people with dementia “De
Hogeweyk”, Weesp (NL)
2012, Molenaar & Bol & Van
exchange, residents’ meeting point or community Approaches to creating so-called "Smart Cities",
Dillen architekten
centre.18 For example, a successful project such such as Songdo in South Korea, meet with the full
as the “Wagnis 1” cooperative housing project force of this issue. Songdo’s entire life, right down
in Munich has seen a café and a neighbourhood to the private sphere, is monitored and controlled
meeting point turn into a social reference point by countless and ubiquitous cameras and sensors
for the entire neighbourhood. and around the clock, aiming to reduce resource
and energy consumption, but also ensure safety
in public spaces. So far, as “Le Monde” has found,
this type of city apparently tends to attract young,
Safe neighbour- wealthy families with children: “Sterile and soul-

less, the city looks different from Korean cities.
hoods There are no poor people, no street vendors, no

old people”.20 Here, as in other “smart cities”,
extremely rapidly progressing digitalisation and
A socially sustainable city is safe and is perceived networking of all areas of life remains in conflict
as being safe. Spatial structures do not determine with protecting data and privacy (for the time
behaviour, but they create opportunities and con- being?). To a degree, this applies even to the devel-
straints for action in a variety of ways. Architecture opment of systems providing assistance systems
and urban design can significantly contribute to for elderly and disabled people. The variety and
increasing the public sense of safety. In the public number of potentially useful products are con-
realm as well as in buildings, this includes remov- stantly expanding, and yet, in addition to data
ing spaces of fear, improving visibility, and pro- protection issues, the extent to which technology
viding good lighting, sufficient orientation and challenges this client group in everyday use should
generally clear, well-maintained and well- by no means be underestimated.21
designed spaces. Encouraging informal social
control and residents themselves taking respon-
sibility, rather than increased police control or
surveillance, is crucial for strengthening function-
ing social neighbourhoods. According to urban Social mix,
sociologist Walter Siebel, safety is about striking
a difficult balance in practice: “Too little control housing and 18 BMVBS / BBSR 2010
land policy
can threaten public space just like too much con- 19 Siebel 2006, p. 11
trol”.19 Siebel sees uncertainty as structural com- 20 www.lemonde.fr/smart
cities/article/2017/05/29/
ponent of the public realm: Fully controlled spaces
songdo-ghetto-for-
are no longer public, conversely unsafe parks and In the context of the current real estate boom, the-affluent_5135650_
street spaces can very quickly lose their public construction practice in most cities is tending to 4811534.html
character. focus on upmarket and high-price housing market 21 Weiß 2017

Authenticated
Fig. 4
Fig. 4 Social housing reinter- segments. Negative effects of processes including deemed good or bad per se. Only their extreme
preting former terraced enforced segregation and gentrification can be forms are undesirable in equal extent. As a result,
housing, Buchheimer Weg,
observed, giving rise to growing concern. Over he proposes finding an ideal balance in each spe-
Cologne (DE) 2012, ASTOC
and above growing social housing shortages, the cific case, whereby there should be sufficient
Architects and Planners
loss of affordable housing is increasingly posing homogeneity to prevent conflict and build positive
a serious economic disadvantage for sections of relationships with neighbours and at the same
the middle classes, employees and specialists in time sufficient heterogeneity to allow for a cer-
business and service sectors. Thus, the issue of tain diversity.26 In practice, this has led to the
social mix has once again become a central trope.22 frequently repeated recommendation to keep the
22 Harlander / Kuhn /
The objective of social diversity, set out in Article immediate surroundings of the home or apart-
Wüstenrot Stiftung 2012
1 of the German Building Code (Baugesetzbuch, ment block more homogeneous, but to make larger
23 BWSV NW/DIFU 2015
24 Magistrat der Stadt BauGB) and Article 6 of the Housing Act (Wohn- units such as the neighbourhood as heterogeneous
Frankfurt am Main 2010, raumförderungsgesetz, WoFG) with the intention as possible.27 Local governments and housing
p. 9 of “creating and maintaining socially stable resi associations are still exploring the issue of social
25 ILS 2018 dential structures”, meets with broad consensus mix at building, block or neighbourhood level,
26 Gans 1974, p. 197 among local politicians and the housing industry.23 experimenting with a wide range of projects even
27 Spiegel 1983, p. 88
Within the context of modern integration and today. Experience to date shows that finer-grain,
28 Harlander / Kuhn /
Wüstenrot Stiftung 2012, diversity policies at municipal level, “creating a smaller-scale approaches require correspondingly
pp. 402ff; Hegger et al. mix” is not (any longer) understood as levelling greater sensitivity, commitment and above all
2015 and flattening cultural and ethnic differences. On willingness to engage with residents on the part
the contrary, the aim is now to create a balance of project developers.28
between integration and diversity, shared common
ground, and individual diversity.24 Of course, the Mixed living is only possible if all population
limitations of creating this mix must be kept in groups have access to suitable living space in terms
mind.25 Spatial proximity alone does not automat- of size, equipment and, above all, cost (Fig. 4). In
ically create social proximity. Poverty, exclusion Germany, the current rate of new construction
and discrimination are not tackled primarily by in subsidised housing by no means compensates
means of policies for social mixing, but through for the inexorable melting away of existing social
proactive education, labour market and social housing stock as the effects of subsidy come to an
policies. end. This is due to the fact that state subsidies for
“social” rented housing are not permanently tied
The issue of neighbourhoods’ residential compos to specific target groups and/or fixed rent levels in
ition or "mix" raises fundamental questions as to Germany. Instead, subsidies are delivered through
the urban scale and granularity (neighbourhood, 15- to 30-year, low-interest loans to build housing
block, or building) at which this mixture has proved for rent. Whereas rents are initially regulated,
to be most meaningful and most effective. The the homes in question can be offered for sale or
American social researcher Herbert J. Gans pro- rent at market rates once state loans have been
vides a classic, much quoted answer in an essay repaid in full.
first published in 1961: In principle, neither homo- This presents what may be the biggest challenge
geneous nor heterogeneous structures can be to a sustainable policy for socially mixed neigh-

Authenticated
bourhoods. Cities across Germany, especially The debate around tools which can limit socially 29 Landeshauptstadt
in growth regions, have responded to growing undesirable rent dynamics and processes of seg- München 2017
problems at the lower end of the housing market regation and displacement in the existing housing 30 SLR 04/17
31 Reiß-Schmidt 2012,
and begun to tackle the task of securing and cre- stock is generally only just getting going. In 2015,
p. 415
ating affordable housing through new initiatives a “rent brake” was introduced, allowing federal 32 https://wm.badenwuert-
and “housing alliances”. In recent years, social state governments to designate certain areas as temberg.de/de/bauen/
quotas, i.e. requirements for private investors to “stressed housing markets” and limit excessive wohnungsbau/umwand-
create a certain amount of subsidised housing for speculative rent increases in new rentals. In its lungsverordnung/
low-income groups when delivering new develop- current form at least, this has proved to be a blunt
ments or securing new planning approvals, have weapon. Local governments can also impose pro-
become the most important instrument of socially tection orders (e.g. Milieuschutzsatzung, Article
oriented municipal housing policy in many cities. 172 BauGB), which limit changes to housing stock
Munich has pioneered this field since the 1990s, 29 in order to prevent the displacement of sitting
adopting a policy of “socially equitable land use” tenants. This can slow down, but not permanently
(Sozialgerechte Bodennutzung, SoBoN) with a prevent gentrification processes.31 Luxury reno-
social quota of 30 percent (50 percent on municipal vations and conversions of rented apartments to
land). Numerous cities have now followed suit with apartments for sale can hardly be prevented. The
similar initiatives. It is increasingly clear that local state of Baden-Württemberg at least issued a (con-
governments must combine a socially oriented version) order in 2013, whereby conversions of
urban and neighbourhood policy with a socially rented apartments to apartments for sale have to
equitable land policy which is oriented toward be approved by local governments in areas subject
the public good. Shortages of development land to a valid protection order: approval is usually
and massive increases in land value – especially in refused if conversions are considered to put the
growth centres – have become the biggest obstacles delicate interplay between the existing social fab-
to creating “affordable housing”. In the past, all ric and the urban structure at risk.32
land reform efforts to capture a share of land value
increases for the benefit of the general public have
failed at the political level in Germany. However,
the impact of current conditions has triggered
new debate on land reform in expert circles. This The “Social City”
includes, at the municipal level, allocating devel-
opment land to the best concept (rather than to the
highest bidder), setting up land funds, disposing
programme
of municipal land in leasehold only, expanding In 1999, the German federal government and
land reserves, implementing reforms to bring land the governments of the “Länder” (federal
taxes up to date, and further developing specific states) launched the “Social City” programme
legal urban development instruments such as the for neighbourhoods with special development
“urban development measure for inward develop- needs (“Stadtteile mit besonderem Entwick-
ment” (Städtebauliche Entwicklungsmaßnahme lungsbedarf – Soziale Stadt”), which pursues a
in der Innenentwicklung).30 complex approach to improving deprived areas

Authenticated
in large housing estates and peripheral inner- developed, as well as some new.36 These cover a
city locations.33 Important preparatory work had broad spectrum, ranging from simple remakes of
already been completed through various federal historical archetypes, stacked maisonettes and
state programmes, and the “Overstretched Neigh- other “house-in-house solutions”, to new high-rise
bourhoods” study by the Federal association of and tower housing such as the Marco Polo Tower
German housing and real estate enterprise reg- in Hamburg (Fig. 5).
istered associations (GdW).34 The programme is On the other hand, the single-family housing
funded by the Federal Government, the “Länder” areas of the 1950s to 1970s have occasionally been
and local governments. The programme is based described as “forgotten spaces of urban develop-
on the basic idea that only an integrated approach ment” and can be regarded as increasingly “endan-
to comprehensive neighbourhood development gered spaces”.37 The drastic decline in demand
can counter the dreaded downward spiral, due for this typology due to demographic trends and
to the multiplicity of problems such as depopula- changing needs arising from the increased plural-
Fig. 5 tion, lack of maintenance investments, neglect, ity of lifestyles, has led to detached single-family
Fig. 5 High-price housing, and vandalism. This includes both construction housing becoming less attractive, and the very real
Marco Polo Tower, Hamburg and non-investment measures, addressing fields threat of vacancies and seriously declining values,
(DE) 2010, Behnisch Architekten such as language skills, improving school and especially in peripheral locations and shrinking
educational qualifications, supervising young regions.
people’s leisure time, and promoting the local
economy. Given its particular focus on maintaining The search for compact, higher-density designs
33 Weeber 2016
lively neighbourhoods and social cohesion, the both for “inward” development and for new urban
34 GdW 1998
35 Weidemüller/Hunger 2016, programme in practice also plays a key role in extensions goes along with a “revaluation” of
p. 5 integration policy. The programme has become density itself.38 Increasingly, the merits attributed
36 Harlander et al. 2007 the most important instrument for stabilising to density are replacing previously common nega
37 Wüstenrot Stiftung 2016 disadvantaged and socially excluding neighbour- tive notions of bad, “unhealthy” density, and
38 Roskamm 2011, Stadtbau- hoods in Germany. In 1999, it included 161 areas “density stress”. As the trade publication “Stadt-
welt 12/2016
in 124 local government areas. By the end of 2016, bauwelt” enthused in 2016, the best cases can
39 Herzog 2016, p. 61
40 https://dejure.org/gesetze/ 783 comprehensive packages had been imple- achieve something close to “density delight”, such
BauNVO/6a.html mented in 441 cities and municipalities. as “Mehr als Wohnen” (More than living) in
41 Wüstenrot Stiftung 2017 Every two years, model projects throughout Ger- Zurich’s Hunziker area.39 This reassessment of
many are awarded the “Social City” prize. Despite density was reflected by the introduction of the
the different issues, all prize winners so far have new “urban area” category (MU) in the BauNVO
shared an approach of combining construction Land Use Code in 2017. This allows for taller and
with social and economic measures. Thus, their higher density buildings, and a mix of commercial
implementation of the objectives of supporting and housing uses in cities (cf. Regional, Urban
neighbourhood coexistence and a sense of united and Neighbourhood Development, p. 49).40
Further information solidarity, as set out by the instigators, has been The ideal urban housing type – block, terrace,
• Bundesinstitut für Bau-, Stadt- und Raum exemplary.35 apartment block, townhouse, urban villa, mansion
forschung (BBSR). Zehn Jahre Leipzig Charta.
block, loft or high-rise – is, when taken as absolute,
Die Bedeutung integrierter Stadtentwicklung
in Europa. Bonn 2017
an aberration. Urban building is building typo
• BBSR; Jocher, Thomas: Zukunft Bauen. Ready – logical diversity. As well as its location, basic fea-
vorbereitet für altengerechtes Wohnen. Bonn 2014
• Harlander, Tilman; Kuhn, Gerd; Wüstenrot New urban tures of good-quality, attractive urban homes
include flexible, neutral floor plans, the best pos-
housing
Stiftung: Soziale Mischung in der Stadt. Stuttgart/ sible equipment and above all, generous, sheltered
Zurich 2012 private open spaces. Typological diversity is not
• Städtebau Institut: Stadtquartiere für Jung und
achieved through investor-driven, large-scale
Alt. Europäische Fallstudien. Werkstatt: Praxis,
Heft 63. Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau und Against the backdrop of social and demographic urban development, but by mixing different
Stadtentwicklung (BMVBS) and BBSR. Bonn 2009. change, urban neighbourhoods are proving to be types of developer. Many local governments are
• Weeber, Rotraut et al.: Sozialer Zusammenhalt complex social universes of extraordinarily varied, providing opportunities for new community-
in der Stadt. Integrierte Ansätze zur Aufwertung occasionally diverging and barely compatible oriented developer types, such as “Baugruppen”
benachteiligter Stadtteile in Europa – ein Leit social milieus and lifestyles. The traditional hous- or cooperatives. These provide great identification
faden. Stuttgart/ Berlin 2016
ing market supply no longer matches this diversity. potential and have proven track records, not only
• Wüstenrot Stiftung: Wohnvielfalt. Gemeinschaft
lich wohnen – im Quartier vernetzt und sozial Typologically, cities and the housing industry are for possible cost savings, but also as instruments
orientiert (Dürr, Susanne; Kuhn, Gerd (eds)). exploring a wide range of dense urban building of an urban development policy which is socially
Ludwigsburg 2017 types, sometimes rediscovered, sometimes further and environmentally innovative.41

Authenticated
Challenges
Lifestyle
and Behaviour
Ma r i o Schneider
I
n all cultures, people interact with na- provided for, but also increase the number of
ture and change it with varying intensity p eople leading resource-intensive lifestyles,
and with different consequences. This already prevalent in today’s industrial nations.3
tendency has increased exponentially
since the industrial revolution, especially
through the use of fossil fuels since the
invention of the steam engine in the 18th
century. Due to the globalised economy, Impact on
massive consumption of energy, water, food and
consumer goods in highly developed countries, environmental
and growing demand for housing and mobility,
have far-reaching consequences not only in these
countries but worldwide. One sixth of the world’s
footprint
population in high-income countries pursues a The environmental impact of different human 1 World Bank 2010, p. 3
very resource- and energy-intensive lifestyle and behaviour or lifestyles can be illustrated in terms 2 Debiel et al. 2010,
is thus responsible for almost one third of green- of the so-called “environmental footprint”. This pp. 262ff.
3 Campbell 2007, p. 78
house gases in the atmosphere.1 For example, makes it possible to directly compare the supply
4 Beyers et al. 2010,
consumption in central Europe causes forests and demand for biocapacity within a spatial area. pp. 19ff.
and landscapes to be destroyed in South Ame Biocapacity denotes the amount of biologically
rica or Africa for the extraction of raw materials. productive land available for extracting resources
As a result, consumer habits and lifestyles are and for degrading waste and CO2. This biocap
increasingly damaging the environment. Despite acity, i.e. the ecological footprint, is expressed in
their generally high level of environmental aware- terms of land consumption in global hectares
ness and knowledge about climate change, this is (gha).4
particularly true for the populations of Western
European industrial nations. For example, a country’s annual ecological foot-
print can be determined by comparing the use
The interplay between human behaviour, envir and consumption of biologically productive land
onment and climate is complex and diverse. It has with the relevant country’s actual available bio-
been proved that climate change is closely linked capacity. In doing so, both the extraction of renew-
to the consumption of fossil fuels.2 Global warm- able resources such as agricultural products, and
ing subsequently impacts on the availability of the consumption of biologically productive areas
other natural resources such as water, and on the by means of sealing the ground or extract-
production of food. ing non-renewable raw materials are taken into
account. Ideally, actual available biocapacity
According to some scientists, we are living in the should be equal to, or even exceed the ecological
Anthropocene era, a new geological age during footprint.
which the earth is shaped by anthropogenic, i.e.
man-made, influences. Future global population Currently however, the exact opposite is the case.
growth will not only require more people to be Mankind’s ecological footprint far exceeds avail-

Authenticated
Environmental footprint moderate business as usual quick reduction
Number of planets 2.5
1.5
Fig. 1 Humanity’s ecological 1

footprint
Fig. 2 Biocapacity con
sumption per capita, in 2018 0.5
[in gha]
Fig. 3 Various countries
environmental footprint per 0
capita in 2018 [in gha] 0 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Fig. 4 Components of the
ecological footprint of one
German citizen in 2018 Fig. 1
able biocapacity. Fig. 1 shows the development of 43.5 tonnes. Closer inspection reveals the areas of
the global ecological footprint from 1960 to 2018 daily life which are the biggest sources of CO2:
Qatar 15.7
and possible future scenarios. Its rapid growth is the production, consumption, and disposal of
mainly due to increasing greenhouse gas emis- consumer goods such as clothing, electronics etc.
sions. Even today, CO2 released into the atmos- (11 tonnes p.a.). The production and supply of
US 8.4
phere is responsible for over 50 percent of the heating, food and individual transport are the
Germany 5.0
global ecological footprint.5 next biggest sources.9
Based on a world population of 7 billion people,
China 3.7 each individual could – on average – make use of Fig. 4 illustrates the extent to which nutrition,
1.8 gha to produce food, energy and consumer housing, mobility and the production and con-
theoretical availability per capita 1.7
goods and to reduce CO2.6 Naturally, biocapacity sumption of consumer goods contribute to Ger-
varies greatly between countries. For example, many’s ecological footprint (including CO2).
India 1.1 Brazil’s biocapacity per capita is much greater Nutrition contributes the largest share, followed
than Saudi Arabia’s. by housing, infrastructure, and transport. How
Fig. 2 we eat, how we live and when we use which means
People’s lifestyle’s determine the extent of their of transport, accounts for the fact that Germany’s
environmental impact. The current lifestyle of an ecological footprint nearly three times exceeds
average German requires 4.9 gha, whereas the its actual available biocapacity.
average Indian only needs 0.8 gha, and the global
average amounts to 2.2 gha (Fig. 2). Within Ger-
many, the average biocapacity available to each
citizen amounts to no more than 1.7 gha.7 Balan
cing this environmental deficit would either require Behaviour
5 WWF 2010, p. 34
Germany’s biocapacity to be increased, or the
population’s ecological footprint to be reduced.
The lion’s share of a German’s ecological foot-
patterns
6 Schulte 2008, p. 3
7 WWF 2011 print – more than 50 percent – comprises areas for Lifestyles and associated behaviour thus influence
8 Beyers et al. 2010, p. 75 CO2 reduction.8 In 2009, a German four-person people’s ecological footprint. Despite their being
9 Lehmann 2010, p. 148 household’s average CO2 emissions amounted to very environmentally conscious, the populations

Authenticated
> 6.7 3.4– 5.1 < 1.7

5.1– 6.7 1.7– 3.4
Fig. 3
of western European industrial nations continue incentive, insufficient feedback on consequences 10 Kuckartz 2005, p. 5
to behave in harmful ways. Most people in devel- of behaviour, a lack of public commitment and 11 Jaeggi et al. 1996, p. 181
12 Preisendörfer 1999, p. 78
oped industrial societies know that resources are control, or insufficient knowledge of actually
13 Weber 2008, pp. 121ff.
by no means unlimited and that their consumption relevant behaviour.13
14 Visschers 2009, p. 5
must be reduced. And yet they still drive ever 15 Diekmann / F ranzen
larger, more powerful vehicles and take holiday A study on consumer behaviour and the promo- 1996, p. 137; BMU 2010,
trips to the most remote places. Products from tion of environmentally compatible consumption p. 17
resource-efficient organic or regional cultivation by ETH Zurich concludes that people do not
are often bought only if they are cheaper than necessarily have to be aware of the consequences
conventional products.10 of their behaviour in order to adopt sustainable
habits.14 As many purchases are made without
This discrepancy can be explained in different much thought, they are difficult to influence
ways: through information and raising of awareness.
In environmental psychology it is assumed that a However, they can be influenced by political or
high level of environmental awareness leads to a infrastructural measures.
more ecologically oriented behaviour. However, 18 % 22 %
behaviour is clearly lagging behind awareness and Prices of products and services are also import
environmental behaviour is changing only slowly. ant in relation to environmentally friendly
Environmentally harmful behaviour must there- consumption and behaviour. Not only is there
fore also be rooted in other beliefs and external a major contradiction between environmental 25 %
factors.11 For example, these affect the choice of awareness and environmental behaviour, the
transport. The appreciation of public transport evaluation of environmental goals also competes 35 %
and awareness of its environmental friendliness with economic objectives. In a benign economic
do not necessarily lead to its use if sufficient, com- situation which allows people to pursue the
fortable transport links and options are not pro- lifestyle they want, protecting the environment
vided.12 gains importance. When economic problems
Transport
threaten to lower living standards, however, Other consumption
There are various causes for the identifiable p rotecting the environment becomes less Housing and infrastructure
Food and drink
discrepancies, including limited agency, lack of important.15
Fig. 4
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housing space per capita space heating demand

space heating demand per capita per m2 housing space
8000 350 70
space heating demand per capita [kWh per capita]
space heating demand per m2 housing space [kWh/a]
housing space per capita [m2]

7000 300 60
6000
250 50
5000
200 40
4000
150 30
3000
100 20
2000
1000 50 10
1973 reunification prediction
Fig. 5 Development of oil crisis
0 0 0
ousing and space heat-
h
ing demand in Germany 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
1960 – 2050 (projected as
from 2015) Fig. 5
16 Visschers et al. Moreover, generally higher prices of environmen- more goods to be transported over longer dis-
2009, p. 17 tally friendly products often affect the decision to tances. This increase in transport capacity can
17 Jevons 1865, buy them. In general, people seem more willing lead to 30 – 80 percent of actual savings being
pp. 108 –113
to pay for technological measures than to change used up again.18 A similar trend can be observed
18 Maxwell et al. 2011,
p. 82
their behaviour or forego comfort or certain con- in residential and industrial sectors. In recent
19 www.umweltbundes- sumer goods. Changing behaviour or cutting back years, the population in Germany has remained
amt.de/daten/private- lifestyle choices remains unattractive to many constant whilst various measures have been taken
haushalte-konsum/ people.16 to reduce household energy consumption. Never
wohnen/energiever- theless, household energy consumption has
brauch-privater-
increased since the 1990s.19 Amongst other things,
haushalte (date:
12.07.2018)
this is due to the increase in single-person house-
Rebound effects holds, the desire for more space in the home and
a growing array of electronic equipment. The same
Further information applies to industrial production, which has become
• Beyers, Bert et al.: Großer Fuß auf kleiner Erde? The tendency to reject moderation and the pref- more energy-efficient in recent years but con-
Bilanzierung mit dem Ecological Footprint. An erence for technical solutions which require no or sumes more and more electricity due to increasing
regungen für eine Welt begrenzter Ressourcen. only minor changes in behaviour often lead to the automation.
Heidelberg 2010 optimisation of existing systems, for example by
• Madlener, Reinhard; Alcott, Blake: Herausfor reducing energy consumption through improve- Increased efficiency alone will thus not be able
derungen für eine technisch-ökonomische Ent
ments to technical efficiency (Fig. 5). to influence resource consumption. Only when
koppelung von Naturverbrauch und Wirtschafts
wachstum unter besonderer Berücksichtigung measures are taken to change the behaviour which
der Systematisierung von Rebound-Effekten und However, greater efficiency does not automatically drives consumption will it be possible to reduce
Problemverschiebungen. Berlin 2011 lead to savings if behaviour remains unchanged. resource consumption in the longer term.
• Santarius, Tilman: Der Rebound-Effekt. Über die On the contrary, consumption can even increase
unerwünschten Folgen der erwünschten Energie if one or more improvements to productivity facili
effizienz. Wuppertal 2012
tate an increase in resource consumption.17 This
• Wackernagel, Mathis; Beyers, Bert: Footprint:
Die Welt neu vermessen. Neuausgabe 2016 mit phenomenon is described as the rebound effect.
aktuellen Zahlen. Hamburg 2016 For example, making freight transport more fuel-
• www.footprint-deutschland.de efficient can reduce freight costs and thus enable

Authenticated
Action Area
Lifestyle and
Behaviour
Ma r i o Schneider
S
patial and infrastructural meas- only slowly (Fig.1, p. 79).3 The current urban shape
ures often fall short of chan of cities, and their resource- and CO2-intensive
ging lifestyles and behaviour. economies will continue to affect people’s lifestyles
They correspond to complex and energy consumption patterns for a long time
patterns, and are unconscious to come.
and deeply embedded emo-
tionally, having been estab-
lished over long periods. These
“automatisms” can successfully be influenced
by measures with a structural or personal focus, Influencing
such as campaigns.
Whereas structural measures focus on architec-

opportunities
ture or urban design, aiming to change behav- Some already available spatial planning instru-
iour by reconfiguring the external physical set- ments aim to take different types of intervention
ting,1 personal measures aim to achieve an intrin- and their possible effects into account. For ex
sic and voluntary change in behaviour. The object ample, the “planning quartet” offers four options
ive is for individuals to change their attitude not (Fig.3, p. 79): identifying sites, constructing plants,
simply for short-term advantage, but as a result aligning facilities and controlling behaviour.4
of insight and understanding. This means that a “Identifying sites” and “constructing plants” re-
sustainable lifestyle requires individuals to be late to fixtures such as buildings or built infrastruc-
aware of the environmental crisis and their own ture. Here, material interventions can create new
obligations, as the scope to overcome the crisis structures or improve existing ones. On the other
through technological, economic and political hand, “aligning institutions” and “controlling
means alone is limited. This requires up-to-date behaviour” are social rather than spatial moves. 1 Kaufmann-Hayoz et al.
knowledge of environmental conditions and eco- They relate to non-spatial structures such as in- 2010, p. 698
2 Scheuthle et al. 2010,
logical relationships, as well as a willingness to stitutional organisations or to individual beha
p. 643
adapt personal behaviour accordingly and ac- viours, and interventions often take place in a 3 Wackernagel /Beyers
knowledge the threat posed by environmental non-material way, for example through legislation 2010, p. 117
problems.2 or taxation. 4 Jung 2008, p. 78
Bringing about lasting behaviour change requires Interventions in the built environment can impact
both structural and personal measures. The former social structures, and vice versa, changes to social
include offers and incentives for new behaviour, structures can impact the built environment. For
whereas the latter aim to make individuals aban- example, building a new road improves access to
don old consumer patterns in favour of new ones. a city and changes commuter behaviour. Longer
Physical structures and spatial frameworks are distances become acceptable and private motor
particularly important in this. After all, the built transport increases.
environment (buildings, roads, large power plants, This effect can be further enhanced by incentive
etc.) remains operational for years and changes systems such as tax breaks for commuters. An-

Authenticated
ticipating expected behaviour is a very important vidual choice of transport. This depends on the
aspect of planning, where social and physical mix of uses within a settlement, the availability
structures can be used to change people’s beha of cars and parking spaces, the quality of public
viour.5 transport access and the design of the street
scape.8 For example, a shortage of parking spaces
or attractive alternatives to the car leads to a
change in transport behaviour. The spatial distri-
Changing bution of uses such as work and childcare can also

shorten routes and thus lead to a reduced volume
behaviour of traffic (Fig. 2). The effect of settlement and

infrastructure on behaviour are also reflected in
the choice of where to live: the high cost of hous-
Only very few people are willing to adapt the life- ing, urban pollution, and the desire to live in the
style they have achieved to their awareness and countryside lead to suburbanisation. This process
knowledge and reject environmentally harm- is reinforced by tax allowances for commuters.
ful products and services.6 But they are happy Instead of subsidising individual motor transport,
to accept technical solutions which require lit- funds could be redirected to ecological alterna-
tle or no change to their behaviour (increasing tives, such as affordable housing near to places of
the energy efficiency of the home, buying a more employment or cheap and comfortable public
economical hybrid vehicle). However, technical transport.
solutions are only effective if basic behaviour pat-
terns driving resource consumption also change People’s failure to behave ecologically in certain
and rebound effects can be avoided (see p. 76). situations is due to personal needs and attitudes
Interventions must therefore also aim to change as well as infrastructure, or economic, legal or
habits. social structures. People fail to recognise feasible
and meaningful possibilities for action because of
their personal preferences. This especially affects
Structural interventions people’s habitual behaviour, because it is no longer
consciously questioned, and thereby restricts their
External structures can influence people’s behav- scope for action.9 This scope only opens again
iour, encourage desirable behaviour or make when habits become weaker. This can happen,
undesirable behaviour more difficult. Physical for example, if people’s external circumstances
5 Kaufmann-Hayoz et al.
and social structures mesh with forming inten- change, such as a new job or home, a change in
2010, p. 698
tions and enacting environmentally relevant be- family structure or a break in lifestyle – perhaps
6 Visschers et al. 2009,
p. 17 haviour. On the one hand, sociocultural factors even as the result of traumatic experiences such
7 Kaufmann-Hayoz et al. (lifestyle and social standards) and socio-eco- as dramatic accidents in nuclear power plants.
2010, p. 698 nomic aspects (prices and market conditions) These changes open windows of opportunity for
8 BBR 2005, p. 27; INFAS / influence behaviour. On the other hand, institu- testing new, alternative behaviour.10
DLR 2010, p. 122 tions and technical infrastructure also have a
9 Visschers et al. 2009,
considerable impact.7 Redesigning the environment or introducing
p. 47
10 Kaufmann-Hayoz et al. new products can help people recognise new
2010; Visschers et al. For example, the settlement and infrastructure possibilities for action, thus expanding or re
2009, p. 13 framework has a considerable impact on the indi- ducing the scope for individual action. This sys-

Authenticated
minimum maximum
Solar power plant
Road
Bridge
Fig. 1 Lifetime of various

Coal-fired power station infrastructures
Fig. 2 Using a varied offer
Commercial building and urban design to influ-
ence possible actions, taking
the example of the transport
Wind power plant
choice
Fig. 3 Quartet of planning
Railway line, house, dam instruments, and possibilities
to intervene in planning
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Years
Fig. 1
Influencing through planning Influencing through policy, by local authority
Mixed use Financial incentives

(distance between (commuter tax breaks,
living, work, social congestion charging,
amenities and facilities) ticket prices etc.)
Street design Public transport

(transport routes, (number of stops,
green corridors etc.) frequency, number of
routes etc.)
Number of parking lots

(availability, price,
location etc.)
Fig. 2
tematically favours alternative, ecological be ing tax allowances for commuters will not neces- Social structure:
haviour.11 sarily lead to a change in mobility behaviour un- Promoting /preventing activities
less adequate and sufficient transport alternatives
Controlling behaviour
The British Department for Environment, Food are provided. (Directing and steering)
and Rural Affairs (Defra) came to a similar con-
clusion in its study “A framework for pro-environ-
Aligning institutions
mental behaviours”.12 This identified seven dif- Individual interventions (Foundation and design)
ferent consumer types in British society. Each of
these groups has very different attitudes towards Whether people use opportunities for environ- Physical structures:
the environment. The Defra concluded that it mentally friendly behaviour also depends on their Creating locations
was not feasible to force the whole population to belief system, i.e. on individual values and atti-
radically change their lifestyle. Instead, it envis- tudes. These determine how they perceive and Construction plants
aged concentrating on measures to encourage value the environment. For people with a high (Construction and maintenance)
each consumer type to change their behaviour.13 environmental awareness, bicycles could be an
This could be achieved, among many other meas- option for a journey to work of several kilometres, Identifying sites
ures, by creating options for environmentally whilst people with a low environmental aware- (Suitability and use)
friendly behaviour and by making environmentally ness would exclude this possibility outright.14
Fig. 3
harmful behaviour more difficult. Price increases Ideological convictions thus resemble a “window”
for environmentally harmful products, for ex through which people perceive certain opportun
11 Kaufmann-Hayoz et al.
ample, are a simple way of making environmen- ities.
1996, p. 88
tally harmful behaviour more difficult. However,
12 Defra 2007
such measures are usually only very effective if Personal measures are primarily characterised 13 ibid., p. 47
environmentally friendly alternatives are offered by voluntary behavioural change. This requires 14 Bamberger / Kühnel
at the same time. Raising fuel prices and abolish- system knowledge in order to recognise the inter- 1998, p. 15

Authenticated
Sinus B1 Sinus C1
1 Sinus AB12 Liberal Intellectuals Performers
Higher Established (enlightened educationall (multi-optional, Sinus C12
(the establishment elite) 7% efficiency-oriented Cosmopolitan
in the classic Sinus B12 top performers) 7% Avant-gardes
Social Ecologicals
sense) Sinus C2 (ambitious, creative
(socially engaged and
10 % Adaptive Navigators avantgarde)
socio-critical milieu) 6%
2 (modern young center
Sinus B23 7%
Middle of society with a prag-
Modern Mainstreamers
Sinus AB23 matic outlook on life
(Mainstream civil society
Traditionals and sense of ex-
with the will to achieve Sinus BC23
(security and perience) 9 %
and adapt) Hedonists
order-loving 14% (fun and experience /
older generation) adventure-orientated
Sinus B3
15 % modern lower class /
3 Precarious
Lower (low class in search low-middle class)
of orientation and 15 %
social inclusion)
9%
social
status A B C
basic Tradition Modernisation & Individualisation Re-Orientation
values
Fig. 4
15 Scheuthle /Frick /Kaiser play and processes of environmental problems.15 The choice of measures also depends strongly on
2010, p. 655 This knowledge alone could even be imparted the target group to be influenced. In general, in-
16 Stern 2000, p. 421 at school, but it does not lead to a change in be- centive systems and sanctions should be used
17 Scheuthle /Frick /Kaiser
haviour if the people in question do not also have wisely. Although the latter can help to make cer-
2010, p. 648; Visschers
et al. 2009, p. 7 sufficient knowledge of how to avoid negative tain behaviour less common, it can also lead to
18 Scheuthle /Frick /Kaiser consequences for other people and the environ- the opposite. In this case, the people targeted by
2010 ment.16 In addition, knowledge of the specific sanctions would deliberately behave in the oppos
19 BMU/BDI 2010, p. 6 effects of one’s own actions can promote cer- ite manner. There are many historical examples
20 Visschers et al. 2009, tain behaviour. People who are convinced that of this, such as the prohibition of alcohol in the
p. 10
their behaviour can have a positive effect on US, or the relative failure of anti-smoking cam-
21 Scheuthle /Frick /Kaiser
2010, p. 647
the environment are generally more environ paigns. Conversely, incentives for more ecological
22 Visschers et al. 2009, mentally friendly.17 behaviour can also undermine personal motiv
p. 10 ation, as those affected only behave in an envi-
Common tools to change people’s behaviour ronmentally friendly manner if they receive a
include arguments, role models, direct and be- reward in return.20
Sinus-Milieus havioural advice, reminders, voluntary commit-
Sinus-Milieus connect demographic characteris ments, “foot-in-the-door” techniques and exter- Instead of merely rewarding or punishing specific
tics such as education, occupation or income with nal incentives or sanctions.18 For example, smart- behaviour, people’s environmental awareness
people’s everyday lives, views and lifestyles: Which phone apps could enable product comparisons must therefore be promoted in parallel. It is safe
basic values are important, what are their attitudes
via QR code and thus demonstrate the conse- to assume that people go back to their beliefs
towards work, family, leisure, ecology, money or
consumption? Thus the human being is perceived
quences of individual behaviour. This could when a new situation arises or when their usual
holistically within their system of reference. make the environmental compatibility of differ- behaviour does not lead to the desired result. This
Sinus-Milieus are established as a scientifically ent products visible and thus provide a new de- is the case, for example, when political or eco-
based model and are continuously kept up-to-date cision-making basis for consumer behaviour. nomic decisions change those external structures
by associated research and the observation of The Federal Ministry for the Environment, Na- which promote or unexpectedly prevent certain
sociocultural trends. Leading branded goods ture Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) behaviour.21
manufacturers and well-known service providers
and the Federation of German Industries (BDI) Target group-specific campaigns and arguments
from all sectors, many public clients in politics,
media and trade bodies as well as advertising and recommend a similar approach: They favour a are required to promote awareness of the problem.
media agencies use Sinus-Milieus for strategic label which assesses the environmental impact of These are particularly effective when the recipients
planning and operational implementation – products (from raw material extraction to pro- are willing to receive and process the message.
nationally and internationally. Sinus-Milieus are duction, distribution, purchasing and disposal) Without this willingness, there will hardly be any
developed and validated individually for each and thus simplifies resource-saving consumer change in behaviour.22
country; they are currently available for 18
behaviour. This kind of “product footprint” would The more specifically and personally interven-
nations. Dividing society into “like-minded people”,
depicted in the Sinus-Milieus, has proven its help consumers directly identify the product’s tions are planned, the more likely it is that they
worth. Today Sinus-Milieus are part of the most climate and environmental compatibility, and will be successful. Environmental awareness
important market media studies. act accordingly.19 and behaviour vary from person to person. The

Authenticated
1
Liberal Intellectuals
Higher 68 % Performers
Established 51%
55 % Cosmopolitan
Social Ecologicals Avant-gardes
62 % 64 %
2 Adaptive
Middle Navigators
42 %
Modern Mainstreamers
43 %
Traditionals
40 %
Hedonists
3 59 %
Lower
Precarious
51%
social
status A B C
basic Tradition Modernisation & Individualisation Re-Orientation
values
Fig. 5
respective development of awareness and behav- resource consumption and environmental pollu- Fig. 4 The Sinus institute’s
iour depends, amongst other things, on the avail tion and destruction. This means that possible concept of milieus
ability of time and physical resources, the cur- measures must relate to both physical and social Fig. 5 Attractiveness of
borrowing items for every-
rent life phase, the geographical location (degree items. It is therefore not just about technological
day use (overall population
of urbanisation, retail options) and values.23 In solutions such as increased energy efficiency, but average 51 %)
urban and neighbourhood planning, however, it also about overcoming underlying behaviour pat-
is hardly possible to take specific measures tailored terns. This requires a range of measures which,
to each individual person; group-specific measures among other things, change external situations Further information
seem more promising. Existing research on con- and structures in order to open up new possibilities • Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz,
sumer types (e.g. Defra 2007) or milieus (e.g. for environmentally friendly behaviour. At the Bau und Reaktorsicherheit; Umweltbundesamt:
Sinus-Milieus, Fig. 4) can be used to plan same time, people’s values must be influenced Umweltbewusstsein in Deutschland 2016.
group-specific interventions. For example, milieu in such a way that they recognise and use these Ergebnisse einer repräsentativen Bevölkerungs
umfrage. Berlin 2017
research provides useful insights into certain opportunities, because belief systems and thus
• Umweltbundesamt (ed.): Marktbeobachtung
groups’ open-mindedness for, or hostility towards individual values and attitudes determine how Nachhaltiger Konsum: Entwicklung eines Instru
individual measures. If the target group is captured the environment is perceived and evaluated.25 It mentes zur LangzeitErfassung von Marktanteilen,
precisely, appropriate measures can be taken to is also about developing alternative models for Trends und Treibern nachhaltigen Konsums.
change behaviour. A study on environmental everyday life that can neutralise current consump- Dessau-Roßlau 2015
awareness and behaviour in Germany published tion patterns fuelled by advertising. • Byerly Hilary et al.: Nudging Pro-Environmental
Behavior: Evidence and Opportunities. In: Frontiers
by the Federal Ministry for the Environment,
in Ecology and the Environment Vol. 16 Issue 3
Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) However, high environmental awareness does not April 2018
provides interesting findings in this respect: For necessarily lead to better environmental behaviour • Department of Environment, Food and Rural
example, people with a higher level of education if the structural frameworks are not also adapted Affairs (Defra): A Framework for Pro-Environmen
in particular are very open to borrowing objects in order to provide appropriate scope for envir tal Behaviours. Report. London 2007
of daily use, such as tools or gardening imple- onmentally friendly behaviour.26 Successfully • Linneweber, Volker; Lantermann, Ernst-Dieter;
Kals, Elisabeth (eds): Spezifische Umwelten und
ments. (Fig. 5). Along with the high acceptance of influencing behaviour requires a whole array of
umweltbezogenes Handeln. Göttingen 2010
car sharing amongst these environmentally aware different measures and interventions, including a • Visschers, Vivianne et al.: Konsumverhalten und
groups, this offers the opportunity to exert influ- counter-offensive to advertising strategies which Förderung des umweltverträglichen Konsums.
ence through structural and personal measures. boost consumption, such as adverts for shiny new Bericht im Auftrag des Bundesamtes für Umwelt
Implementing the “sharing, not owning” principle cars on empty roads in untouched landscapes.27 BAFU. Zurich 2010
could lead to energy and resource savings. At the
same time, the members of these groups would
23 BMU 2010, p. 13
set an example and thus stimulate behaviour
24 Defra 2007, p. 11, 48
changes in other groups.24
25 Bamberger / Kühnel
1998, p. 9
Intervention at several levels is necessary in order 26 Preisendörfer 1999, p. 78
to counteract problems of climate change, high 27 Stern 2000, p. 419

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C H A P TE R 2
Challenges and
Action Areas
2.4
Ecology Brought to you by | University of Michigan-Flint

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2.4 — Ecology 83
Challenges
Protecting Species
and Habitats
G e rhard Haub er, Wal traud Pus tal
T
he highly complex topic of UN Conference on Environment and Development 1 Millennium Ecosystem
biodiversity can be simply in Rio de Janeiro (UNCED). Along with 191 other Assessment 2005
2 Werner / Zahner 2009
defined as “the diversity of states, the Federal Republic of Germany is also a
3 Bateman 2012
life on earth”.1 This term in signatory.
4 European Commission
cludes components such as The CBD’s key objectives include: 2011, Our life insurance,
genes, species, populations, •• conservation of biological diversity (ecosys our natural capital, p. 1
ecological systems, and natu tems, species and genetic diversity) 5 Schumacher / Fischer-
ral habitats and takes all geo •• the sustainable use of its components Hüftle 2011, Article 1,
graphical scales from the local to the global level •• the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits Marginalia 30, 35
6 ibid. margin. 39
into account.2 These are the main foundations arising out of the utilisation of genetic re
7 Statistisches Bundesamt
for human life, and it is essential for our survival sources5 8 e.g. LUBW 2013
to protect and sustain them. Even though some
calculations now prove that this also makes sense In principle, the term biodiversity covers all living
in economic terms,3 a quarter of all animal spe organisms, including wild organisms as well as
cies in the EU are nevertheless threatened with those bred and kept in captivity. However, Article
extinction. Only 17 % of EU protected habitats 1 of the Federal Nature Protection Act (BNatSchG)
and species and 11 % of ecosystems are in good is limited to organisms which are part of nature
condition; all others are at risk – mainly because and landscape.6
of human behaviour (Fig. 1, p. 84).4
Biodiversity Displacement
Between 2013 and 2016, around 62 ha were de
Biological diversity is specifically mentioned in signed for settlement and transport in Germany
Article 1, Section 1 of the German Federal Nature every day.7 Settlements, roads, industrial areas
Protection Act 2009 (Bundesnaturschutzgesetz and car parks destroy animals’ habitats and mi
BNatSchG). This covers the diversity of animal gratory routes, and interrupt water cycles. The
and plant species, and includes intraspecific move to use urban infill sites to make cities more
diversity, as well as closely related forms of bio dense is viewed positively in terms of preserving
logical communities and habitats. Species can land, but it can also destroy protected natural
only survive in the long term if both a minimum features.8 Next to the use of land for construction,
number of genetically differentiated populations other major hazards for biodiversity include the
and the structure of associated ecosystems are input of harmful substances, such as air pollutants,
preserved. excessive fertilisers, plant protection products
(insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc.), drug
The concept of biodiversity is also part of the Con residues in soils and water and so on. These cause
vention on Biological Diversity for the protection immense problems and costs, e.g. in treating
of habitats and species (CBD), ratified at the 1992 drinking water.

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Decrease
> 30 % 10 –20 %
25 – 30 % 5 –10 %
20 – 25 % 0–5% Increase
Fig. 1 Global biodiversity

development for 2090 (scen
ario: “Business as usual”,
data derived from Newbold
et al., 2015) Fig. 1
9 Schumacher / Fischer- Alien and invasive species are also becoming of climate change, preserving species’ genetic
Hüftle 2011, Article 1, more common.9 This often causes the extinc diversity and improving their adaptability takes
margin. 6, pp. 82ff.
tion or displacement of endemic native species, on a particular relevance.12
10 ibid. Article 40 margi
nalia. 2– 4
the introduction of pathogens, or the destruc
11 These can be viewed tion of certain types of habitats.10 Nationally Strategies to protect biodiversity in habitats and
at www.bfn.de and internationally, so-called “red lists” identify biological communities cover both natural and
12 Schumacher / Fischer- the degree of threat to each species.11 As not cultivated landscapes, and thus also include pop
Hüftle 2011, Article 1, all components of biodiversity are endangered ulated areas and urban landscapes. The more
margin. pp. 77ff.
to equal extents, protective strategies must be richly structured these landscapes are, the higher
adapted to match the type and extent of threats their biodiversity. Protecting special, particularly
in each case. threatened or strictly protected habitats and spe
Further information cies, and dealing with them in urban design gen
• Endlicher, Wilfried: Einführung in die Stadtöko erally also helps other species and is therefore an
logie. Stuttgart 2012 ideal way to protect species successfully. In Ger
• Sukopp, Herbert; Wittig, Rüdiger (eds):
Stadtökologie. Stuttgart 1998
• Werner, Peter; Zahner, Rudolf: Biologische
Protective many’s Federal Act for the Protection of Nature
(Bundesnaturschutzgesetz BNatSchG) this is gov
Vielfalt und Städte. BfN Skripte 245, 2009
• Wittig, Rüdiger; Streit, Bruno: Ökologie.
Stuttgart 2004
strategies erned in in Sections 31–36 relating to the “Natura
2000 network”, and in Sections 44–47 relating to
specific species protection.
• www.cbd.int: Original text of the 1992 CBD Species can only survive in the long term if they
Treaty and current information from the UN have access to habitats of sufficient size and qual
• www.biodiv.de: German association providing
ity as well as sufficient opportunities for migra
current and easy-to-read information about
biodiversity tion, exchange and distribution. The exchange
• uknea.unep-wcmc.org: Ecosystem Assessment between populations prevents genetic depletion
• www.umweltbundesamt.de and reduces the threat of extinction. Because

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2.4 — Ecology 85
Challenges
Urban Climate
Jü r gen B aumül ler
T
he phenomenon of the urban cities. This leads to additional warming, especially 1 Kuttler 2010
climate has existed ever since during the winter heating season. Depending on 2 UN 2008
3 IPPC 2007
people first started to settle the city’s size and location, and the season, this
4 BUM 2008
down and build cities. Due to can amount to around 10 –70 W/m2.1
its specific location, each city
creates its own climate. This is
different from the regional cli
mate, sometimes very much
so. The differences depend on many factors, es
pecially the size and density of the city. Cities are
Global scale
generally less windy, warmer, drier and dirtier. Currently, more than 50 percent of the global
In comparison to the surrounding landscape, all population lives in cities. By 2050, this proportion
of the meteorological parameters are changed will rise to 70 percent.2 The number of megacities
in urban areas, including the composition of the with more than 10 million inhabitants is constantly
air and the energy balance. The differences to increasing. Air pollution and overheating increase
surrounding areas become particularly evident with the size of the city (Fig. 3, p. 87). This devel
in locally influenced weather conditions. Major opment is taking place against a background of
cities’ polluted atmosphere weakens incoming climate change and significantly rising tempera
solar radiation, especially in the UV range; wind tures.3 Globally, the annual mean temperature
speed is reduced, periods of calm become more may increase by up to 5 °C by the end of the cen
frequent, relative air humidity is lower and tem tury. Even today, measurements clearly show that
peratures are higher (Fig. 2, p. 86). the earth has warmed by approximately 0.9 °C
within the last 100 years. Against this background,
Particularly large temperature differences occur it is necessary to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
on cloudless nights. Night-time low temperatures and to plan for cities and regions to adapt to cli
in cities with more than a million residents can mate change. The effects of the hot summer in
differ from minimum temperatures in surround 2003 are a foretaste of the problems we will face
ing areas by more than 10 °C. This effect is also in future.
called the “urban heat island”. One of the biggest
differences in the urban atmosphere is that all
kinds of pollutants accumulate in the air. In un
favourable weather conditions, this can lead to
harmful concentrations. High concentrations
of pollutants tend to occur in winter (“London
National scale
smog”) when high amounts of pollutants from In Europe, climate change will affect precip
heating, industry and traffic coincide with a poor itation, but also air temperatures, with spatial
exchange of air; or in summer, when strong solar differences between winter and summer (Fig. 1,
radiation and high temperatures interact with p. 86). For this reason, the German federal cabinet
fumes from vehicle traffic (“Los Angeles smog”). adopted the “German Strategy for Adaptation to
Man-made heating is also an important factor in Climate Change (DAS)” in 2008.4 This envisages a

Authenticated
Element Measure Difference to surrounding area
Radiation Global radiation up to 20 % less

Ultraviolet radiation Summer: up to 5 % less,
Winter: up to 30 % less
Sunshine duration up to 15 % less
Temperature Annual average up to 1.5 K higher

Night minimum up to 12 K higher
Heating days up to 10 % fewer
Duration of frost period up to 25 % shorter
[K]
Ground inversion hardly present in urban area
6.0 a
5.5 Humidity Annual average Summer: up to 10 % less
(relative humidity) Winter: up to 2 % less
5.0
4.5 Evaporation Average up to 60 % less
4.0 Wind speed Annual average up to 30 % lower
3.5 Gales up to 20 % fewer
3.0 Calms up to 20 % more frequent
2.5
Cloud cover Degree of cover up to 10 % higher
2.0
Visibility Fog frequency somewhat lower
Visibility up to 5 km considerably worse
Precipitation Amount (mm) up to 10 % more

Days with more than 5 mm up to 10 % more frequent
Days with snowfall up to 5 % fewer
Dew up to 65 % less
Air pollutants Concentration considerably higher
Fig. 1 b Fig. 2
Fig. 1 Projected increase edium-term, step-by-step process, whereby

m (Experimental housing and urban planning) pro
in temperatures in Europe, federal states join forces with interest groups in jects focus on the urban scale. The Federal Min
from today until the end of society to evaluate the risks of climate change, istry of Education and Research (BMBF) has been
the 21st century
identify the possible need for action, define the funding the “KLIMZUG” (Climate change in
a in winter
b in summer corresponding goals, and develop and implement regions) research programme in order to help
Fig. 2 Urban atmosphere possible adaptive measures. The DAS adaptation increase competencies for climate adaptation in
in comparison to surround- strategy was supplemented by the “Adaptation Germany.
ing area Action Plan” (APA) in 2011. The German federal
Fig. 3 Factors influencing government identifies four priorities:
urban heat cycles
•• Providing, informing and enabling knowledge
Fig. 4 Schematic process
for necessary research into
the urban climate
•• National government framework
•• Activities under direct federal responsibility
•• International responsibility
Regional scale
Fig. 5 Analytic chart, ex
ample from Stuttgart Region Generally updated every ten years, the German
Climate Atlas (Klimaatlas Since 2008, the Federal Ministry of Transport, regional plans are a good instrument to ensure
Region Stuttgart): heat load
Building and Urban Affairs (BMVBS), the Federal and promote regional measures for adapting to
in Stuttgart Region in the
year 2000
Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs climate change. Spatial development must be
and Spatial Development (BBSR) and the Federal aimed at permanently safeguarding protected
Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) have ecological assets and the balancing capacity they
funded various pilot projects for climate adapta provide, in order to guarantee the environmentally
tion. The “KlimaMORO” (Spatial development compatible development of settlement and infra
strategies for climate change) model projects are structure. The climate, protecting the climate, air,
aimed at the regional level, whilst the “ExWoSt” and – since 2011 – climate adaptation are important

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2.4 — Ecology 87
Effective
Solar radiation
terrestrial radiation
(short-wave)
(long-wave)
Reflection and absorption through

fog, clouds, dust, and other alien pollutants
Reflection Diffuse celestial radiation Outbound Inbound

from ground + direct solar radiation terrestrial atmospheric
(Albedo) = global radiation heat radiation radiation
Convection and Advective transport

Artificially
transport of latent of latent and
generated heat
and perceivable heat
Al
perceivable heat
be
do
Wind direction
Heat storage, evaporation, photosynthesis in plants

Fig. 3
Measurement
Examination
Environmentally friendly planning
Calculation
and urban development
Analysis
Diagnosis
Vulnerability
Adaptation
measures
Therapy
Counteractive
measures
Fig. 4 Fig. 5
concerns of spatial planning in the context of

appropriate regional planning and urban devel
opment planning. In order to give these concerns
Local scale Further information
• Baumüller, Jürgen; Baumüller, Nicole: Städte im
Klimawandel. Anpassung in der Region Stuttgart.
appropriate consideration, local governments As planning authorities, local governments bear
In: PlanerIn 02/2010
need to conduct area-based studies and provide the greatest responsibility for urban climates and • Baumüller, Nicole: Stadt im Klimawandel. Klima
information focussed on urban regeneration, climate change. In some German cities such as anpassung in der Stadtplanung. Grundlagen Maß
urban design, building conservation, green and Berlin, Hanover, Hamburg, Stuttgart and Nurem nahmen und Instrumente. Dissertation. University
open space planning, and the climate-adapted berg, climate adaptation strategies are already of Stuttgart 2018 (https://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/
development of settlements and commercial areas. being successfully developed. However, the im handle/11682/9838)
• IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Climate Change
Regional planning-related climate atlases such as plementation of specific measures will still take
2013/14 (AR5)
the “Stuttgart Region Climate Atlas”5 are valuable some time. The main focus has been on the prob • Kuttler, Wilhelm: Klimawandel im urbanen
aids for coping with this task (Fig. 5). Climate lem of overheating in summer, flooding near rivers Bereich. Teil 1: Wirkungen. Environmental Sciences
adaptation focuses on flood protection and secur and coasts, and local floods caused by heavy pre Europe 2011
ing regional green corridors and green breaks. cipitation. Studies of the current urban climate, • Kuttler, Wilhelm: Klimawandel im urbanen
and scenarios for future development are funda Bereich. Teil 2: Maßnahmen. Environmental
Sciences Europe 2011
mental prerequisites for action plans and impact
• www.klimamoro.de
assessments. Studies and plans must be formu • www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/klima-
lated at the local level because the effects of cli energie/klimafolgen-anpassung/werkzeuge-der-
mate change vary from city to city and from region anpassung/projektkatalog/klimzug-klimawandel-
to region (Fig. 4). in-regionen-zukunftsfaehig
5 VRS 2008

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Action Area
Open Space and
Urban Climate
Ste p han Anders, Gerhard Hauber, Walt raud Pus ta l
C
ities are shaped by landscape, cult to express more precisely. In 2011, the British
buildings and infrastructure. government published a report on the “National
Creating and networking Ecosystem Assessment” (NEA), which describes
multifunctional green spaces a new approach.1 The NEA attempts to capture
plays a central role. In future, ecosystems and their development processes
open spaces will have to be in monetary terms. This provides the only way
protected even more effect of comparing different management scenarios.
ively, and developed and The results are clear: For example, a compara
extended as vital elements of urban life – rather tive study demonstrates that the macroeconomic
than being reduced to “leftover areas” between results of conventional agriculture, which is ori
buildings, as has often been the case up to now. ented towards farmers’ incomes, are very different
Open spaces not only provide recreation, but also from those of sustainable farming, which also
play a key role in urban climate adaptation strat takes habitats and the protection of species into
egies. They are essential for stabilising urban bio account. The costs of conventional agriculture
diversity. Existing open spaces must be extended outweigh its long-term benefits, and it damages
1 Watson 2011
2 National Ecosystem and new spaces created to provide attractive open the environment. On the other hand, sustainable
Assessment 2011 space and spaces for all generations to enjoy in agriculture produces a positive monetary balance
3 Werner 2009 free-flowing movement. and preserves the cultivated area for society in
the long term. Examples include fewer fertilisers,
pesticides and sediments (erosion) flowing into
rivers thanks to near-natural management. This
Regional scale makes it easier to treat the water for drinking, and

thereby lowers costs.2 Future regional planning
will have to further develop this type of approach
and re-evaluate the cost-benefit ratio of individual
Future regional planning decisions from this new point of view. Protecting
species and habitats is important to society and
Regional planning mediates between the state should be given top priority.
level and the municipal level. Its task is to lay out
the groundwork for a region’s spatial develop
ment for housing and business, recreation and Protecting habitats and
nature in the following years or decades. This
is based on highly specialised expert opinions
biodiversity in urban areas
and often involves lengthy processes of negoti Biodiversity in urban areas plays an increasingly
ation and coordination. The basic requirement is important role in preserving biodiversity as a
always to assess the impact of human interven whole. In Europe, more than 50 % of all species
tion in nature, and to balance these effects with in any biogeographical region are generally found
the requirements of urban development. Up to in the cities.3 Many species, especially the “urban
now, the value of species and habitats tended adapters” and “exploiters”4 find it easier to survive
to be seen in general social terms and was diffi in cities than in our empty, intensively used agri

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2.4 — Ecology 89
Fig. 1 Green roof with bee-

hives for honey production,
City Hall, Chicago (US)
Fig. 2 Connecting green
areas through canal renatur-
ation, Seoul (KR)
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
cultural landscape. Nevertheless, the relationship Integrating green systems 4 after Blair 2001
5 Werner 2009
between cities and their surroundings is also an The networking and design of urban green spac 6 Klausnitzer 1998
important factor for the development of sustain es is important for residents to appreciate their 7 SenStadtUm 2013
able biodiversity.5 Key factors include sufficient residential setting and identify with their neigh
exchange, areas of supply and for retreat, and bourhood. It is central to satisfaction and qual
contact with other populations for genetic regen ity of life. Green systems include spaces such as
eration. parks, playgrounds and sports fields, street green
ery, trees, avenues, allotments, cemeteries, water
However, cities are problematic: they are very ways and embankments, nature conservation
vibrant, loud, and feature many irritations and areas, urban forests, copses, but also private gar
extreme emissions. Amongst other things, major dens and parks, paths and stairs connecting pri
changes in urban light conditions influence some vate and public green areas, say through dry
birds’ song rhythms as well as their breeding, stone walls. (Fig. 4, p. 90) Water bodies are par
feeding and flight.6 ticularly important green systems, especially
flowing waterways.
Toxic influences can cause stress in organisms
and changes in plants and animals. The need for This list demonstrates that green and open space
sufficiently large, specifically structured and net systems are extremely diverse, having developed
worked areas for plants and animals to develop very individually in every city or settlement, often
thus takes on a new significance in the context of over many centuries.
overall efforts to “protect species in the city”
(Fig. 2). Because habitats are evidently important In quantitative terms, residents in city centres or
for preserving the value of our environment, pro extended inner-city areas generally do not have
tecting species will become an important strategic enough access to green systems.
urban planning goal. A tried and tested approach
is to define a number of key plant and animal spe In Berlin, nearly one million inhabitants have
cies, and create the habitats and networks required insufficient access to green and recreational areas
for their protection and development. This is not according to current guideline values7 (Fig. 3,
just about perfect, large-scale scenarios. It is also p. 90). It is nearly impossible to improve existing,
about exploiting and consolidating existing poten very densely populated areas by providing new
tials through numerous smaller measures. For open spaces. For this reason, the Greater London
example, settlements with many green areas can Authority’s “All London Green Grid” open space
be improved in terms of protecting species, or the concept focuses on upgrading existing residual
maintenance of roadside greenery can be adapted and intermediate areas, as well as providing access
to the needs of plants and animals. There are and connection to existing green spaces. This is
countless possibilities at all scales. Primarily, it is not just about networking public parks and green
important to get the fundamental topic of protect spaces, but also about including any type of space
ing species rooted in general awareness and daily inhabited by plants and animals. Only continuous
practice (Fig. 1). connections can create qualitative improvements
in densely populated areas.

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Scale Maximum distance Open space area m2 per resident

Dwelling 250 m < 1 ha 4
Neighbourhood 500 m 1.1–10 ha 6
District 1,000 m 10 – 40 ha 7
City 5,000 m > 40 ha 8
Fig. 3
8 Reuter / Kapp / Baumüller Newer land-use plans, green area plans and the a building environment adapted to the urban
2012, p. 192 requirement for compensatory measures have led climate will become increasingly important.
9 Reuter / Kapp / Baumüller
to a more sustainable development. For example,
2012, pp. 192 – 248
development plans generally set out a footprint The following goals should be pursued in plan
ratio (GRZ) which ensures an open space share ning for climate change:
of around 40 percent and which provides some •• improving living conditions in terms of com
potential for increasing the proportion of green fort and bioclimate
space. •• improving airflows in neighbourhood
•• promoting fresh air supply through local
Green systems are constantly changing and never wind systems
finished. Possible approaches for further devel •• reducing the release of air pollutants and
oping existing systems include: greenhouse gases
•• consistently and radically protecting all habi •• identifying and appropriately evaluating
tat areas, systems and structures as the basis existing or expected impacts (e.g. additional
of a stable natural system (see Protecting Spe traffic, climate change)
cies and Habitats, pp. 83ff.) •• adapting use concepts to react to pressures
•• examining and including all open space, appropriately8
whether maintained or not, public or private
•• consistently networking green areas to allow Which measures make sense in detail and should
free movement for humans, animals and also be prioritised against other aspects of sustain
for plants ability, such as space-saving construction, largely
•• developing a vision for a green system as a depends on local conditions. For example, keep
basis for further urban development ing cold air ducts free and avoiding high-rise
•• motivating residents to take small measures. buildings with a negative effect on ventilation,
Fig. 4 Examples include the natural garden move is far more important in the Stuttgart valley b asin
ment, edible gardens in Andernach (Fig. 5), than in the port city of Helsinki, which has to
Prinzessinnengarten in Berlin, Urban Farmers contend with too many cold air currents. How
in Zurich GH, WP ever, it is important to consider not only the
direction and quantity of air flow, but also its
properties, such as temperature, humidity, and
Adapting building layouts pollutants.
to the urban climate The “Urban design climate reader” (Städtebau

In Europe, the influence of the urban climate liche Klimafibel)9 includes the following recom
on people’s well-being and health finally entered mendations for the optimum planning of cities
general consciousness with the hot summer of and districts for the urban climate:
2003. In the light of ongoing climate change and 1. Maintain and gain planted areas:
the associated increase in extreme weather events, •• Retain planted areas in landscape and green
Fig. 5
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2.4 — Ecology 91
The layout of the Masdar City urban development

project in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi is based on
the site’s wind systems. (Fig. 6) The road grid is
rotated 45° out of the north-south axis. Streets
running from north-east to south-west direct cool
air through the city in the evenings. At the same
time, streets are offset from north-west to south
east to block or deflect the flow of hot desert
winds through city. Finally, the layout was designed
to ensure that public spaces benefit from as much
shade as possible.
Fig. 6
space plans (achieve nature conservation and

Neighbourhood
Fig. 3 Recommended
landscape management goals) green and open spaces
per inhabitant
•• Avoid sealing soils (reduce thermal load or
heat island effect)
•• Green roofs
scale Fig. 4 Dry stone wall,
Trochtelfingen (DE)
Fig. 5 Integrating urban
•• Green facades green space and urban
2. Safeguard local air exchange: Integrating and designing farming, edible gardens,
•• Generate cold air (green open land, water, Andernach (DE)
forests)
open space Fig. 6 “Green fingers” for
ventilation, Masdar City,
•• Ensure the supply of fresh air (Fig. 7) The main goal of sustainable planning is to use
Abu Dhabi (AE), masterplan:
•• Provide green corridors (e.g. climate-regulat land economically and sparingly. This is why Foster + Partners
ing function, spaces between buildings) today’s new housing estates are designed to be Fig. 7 Urban design prin
•• Choose favourable settlement and develop much denser, whilst existing neighbourhoods are ciples for protecting fresh air
ment layouts (e.g. decreasing density towards densified. Large gardens can be divided, resulting corridors in hillside buildings
the edges, fresh air corridors, Fig. 8) in new land plots. This allows existing areas of Fig. 8 Correlations between
urban density and ventilation
3. Implement measures to control air pollution detached, semi-detached, terraced or multiple
a High density on the urban
(reduce emissions). For example: occupation houses to be further developed. This periphery
•• Provide green breaks downwind from com spares nature and the landscape outside the city, b Decreasing density
merce and industry to ensure settlements are but it also requires open spaces in the inner city towards urban periphery
protected to be handled extremely sensitively. Environmen
•• Prohibit heating fuels with high particle emis tal functions must be considered, especially when
sions, such as wood areas where many people live close together are
•• Promote environmentally friendly networks, densified. Urban planning must not only ensure
shift through traffic out of residential areas that development density is appropriate for the
4. Conduct urban climate studies related to plan character of the neighbourhood, it must also
ning (simulations, wind tunnel investigations, significantly increase the quality of remaining
measurements, expert assessments) open spaces in environmental and design terms.
This can only be achieved if designing green spaces
pp p
In order to meet these requirements, urban cli and considering all environmental concerns is
GGaaGa
mate and air hygiene must be taken into account always an integral part of urban planning. This
in land-use and traffic planning. SA integrated green planning must formulate and Fig. 7
systematically implement guiding principles for
the entire city. This should focus on creating a
“green spine” as the key urban element. This could
be a “green belt” of networked parks, gardens and a
bodies of water, or it could be a continuous, rena
tured river system which is connected to parks,
sports facilities and playgrounds, footpaths and
Fig. 8 b
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Fig. 9 Fig. 10
10 cf. Frentzen 2006 cycle paths as well as integrated and connected maintenance in at least 50 % of public green
public amenities. Neighbourhoods should plug in space
to this system, and local governments should •• promoting naturally integrated urban devel
implement policies to coordinate the private devel opment through public relations
opment of neighbourhoods and buildings accord •• encouraging residents and schools to sponsor
ingly. certain green areas
•• promoting opportunities to experience nature
The following general principles, some of which in urban areas
coincide with the principles for planning an opti
mum urban climate, can promote eco-friendly, Eco-friendly, naturally oriented urban develop
near-natural urban development: ment is successful if the goal of a functioning
•• space-saving development, minimum soil ecosystem is endorsed politically, and clearly
sealing communicated to the public. Plans and projects
•• handling topsoil carefully to avoid compacting must be set up as multidisciplinary projects and
the soil, according to DIN standards will only succeed in the medium- and long-term,
•• reducing the sealing of the ground and pre if residents actively engage and take responsibil
serving its capacity to recharge groundwater ity to identify with “their” eco-friendly city. GH,
•• handling rainwater in a way which is compat WP
ible with nature
•• greening roofs
• • greening facades (planting buildings and Solar gains
walls)
•• providing eco-friendly lighting Natural sunlight plays a very important role in
•• avoiding facades with large window surfaces people’s well-being.
and/or using glass which is safe for birds
•• leaving and encouraging spontaneous vege For topographical reasons, the village of Viganella
tation on fallow land, roadside verges, tree in the mountains of Piedmont, Italy, enjoys only
discs and other unused areas a few hours of sunlight every day, and is shaded
•• coordinating maintenance plans for public all day on 83 days a year. This made its residents
green areas to promote near-natural areas depressed, especially in the winter months, and
•• promoting near-natural parks and urban for many moved away. In order to remedy this situ
ests, forest and wooded areas ation, the mayor decided to install 14 steerable
•• greening streets intensively, using trees which mirrors at 1,100 m height on a rock face, in order
are appropriate for the local area, preferable to direct the sunlight into the village. This solution
native species (tree rows, avenues) is now being discussed in other villages with little
•• implementing natural designs and extensive sunlight.10

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2.4 — Ecology 93
100
Reflective capacity (albedo) [%]
90
80
Fresh White
snow paint
70
60
Old
snow
50
Dry Fig. 9 Cube of plane trees

40
sand
Walls at the Landesgartenschau
Ice
Garden Exhibition in 2012,
30
Desert Red, brown, Nagold (DE), Ferdinand
Roofs green paint Ludwig / IGMA Stuttgart
20 University, Daniel Schönle
Meadows
City Forest Fig. 10 Green noise barrier,
10 Frankfurt am Main (DE) 2013
Streets
Water Fig. 11 Albedo of different
0 surfaces
Fig. 11
On the other hand, traditional Arab architecture and thereby fulfil a kind of buffer function for the 11 Jendritzky / Nübler 1981;
tries to let as little direct sunlight as possible into microclimate. Green surfaces need not always be Jendritzky / Sievers 1987
12 Helbig et al. 1999, pp. 136ff.
outdoor open space, in order to avoid too much horizontal, but can also be vertical greening, as
solar radiation. Narrow streets, staggered build in trees or facade greening (Figs. 10 and 11). In
ings or awnings prevent extreme heating. designing sustainable neighbourhoods, it is
These extreme examples demonstrate that specific important not only to select materials according
strategies have to be developed to deal with solar to their aesthetic quality, durability and cost, but
radiation, depending on the neighbourhood’s also to consider their effects on the microclimate.
location. It should be noted that global warming
will require more thought on temporary measures
to reduce the heat load, even in temperate climates Thermal comfort
(e.g. awnings, greening, air humidification or
water).
and well-being
Air temperature alone does not define thermal
comfort in outdoor areas. In fact, this is deter
Surfaces mined by a multitude of different factors such as
direct solar radiation, wind speed, air humidity
In addition to the intensity of direct solar radi and thermal radiation from surrounding surfaces.
ation, the surfaces used also have a significant At 35 °C for example, it makes a big difference
influence on the heat input in the city. Unlike snow, whether this is in the direct sun or in the shade.
sand or light colours, water, roofs and roads absorb For human beings, this can be equivalent to an air
a large proportion of incoming sun rays and thus temperature difference of 15 °C in calm condi
have a low albedo (Fig. 11). The lower the albedo, tions.11 This roughly corresponds to the daily
the more solar radiation is absorbed by surfaces, temperature amplitude on a cloudless day.
and the more they heat themselves and their sur
roundings (heat island effect). It is not without The Association of German Engineers (VDI) uses
reason that houses in Greece are traditionally the so-called “Klima Michel” model (VDI 3787).
painted white. However, the albedo of a surface This describes the human thermal balance and
is not automatically equal to its contribution to allows useful conclusions to be drawn (Fig. 12,
the heat island effect. Green areas have a low p. 94).12 For example, perceived temperature (PT)
reflectivity and thus absorb a large part of the depends, amongst other things, on wind speed
incoming solar radiation, but incoming energy is and humidity, which influence the flow of heat
converted by photosynthesis and thus does not from the body to the environment. In summer
contribute to heating. At the same time, green even low wind speeds (e.g. from fans) can gener
areas and permeable surfaces such as lawn grids ate sufficient evaporation and an associated pleas
or water-bound gravel allow water to evaporate ant cooling effect. In winter, the “wind chill”

Authenticated
M Total energy turnover

QH turbulent flow of perceptible warmth
Fig. 12 The human organism D QSW turbulent flow of latent warmth
EKM
as a complex of thermal A QM
L
Gesamtenergieumsatz
turbulent flow of latent warmth through
effects (Klima-Michel Model) B turbulenter Fluß fühlbarer Wärme
QH water diffusion
Fig. 13 Sun-sail in the “Calle Q turbulenter Fluß latenter Wärme
R thermal flow through breathing
QRESW
QL turbulenter Fluß latenter Wärme durch
Sierpes” pedestrian precinct, QRE (perceptible and latent)
Wasserdampfdiffusion
R
Sevilla (ES) QRE Wärmefluß über Atmung (fühlbar und latent)
QL
Fig. 14 Outdoor water EKM Components of radiation balance Q
vaporiser, Hiroshima (JP) E M I Komponenten derradiation
direct solar Strahlungsbilanz Q
E I
Fig. 15 Re-naturalised water QH QSW D diffusedirekte Sonnenstrahlung
solar radiation
D diffuse Sonnenstrahlung
course and near-natural R R reflected radiation (short waves)
E R Reflexstrahlung (kurzwellig)
design of adjoining Bishan A A atmospheric thermal radiation
Wärmestrahlung der Atmosphäre
Park, Singapore (SG) 2012, E E thermalWärmestrahlung
radiation from surrounding surfaces
der Umgebungsoberflächen
Atelier Dreiseitl EEKMKM humanWärmestrahlung
thermal radiation des Menschen
Fig. 12
13 e.g. Stadt Reutlingen, makes icy temperatures feel colder, so that 0 °C summer, filter the air and thus reduce air pollution.
1979, 1984, 1989, 1994, can feel like -15 °C. Simulations of wind speeds They are able to purify rainwater and discharge it
2000, 2010 near the ground show that these can vary greatly into groundwater in a clean state, or temporarily
in individual areas. This should be taken into accumulate it and thus relieve wastewater and
account in planning and land use. river systems.
Plants help identify and evaluate existing prob
Perceived temperature can be influenced by lems. For example, some groups of plants react to
means of shading elements such as narrow rising urban temperatures, others to air pollution
streets and awnings, (Fig. 13) or by taking local or to certain pollutants in the air. For example,
wind speeds into account. Another option is to lichens are used in standard processes to indi
change the humidity. Green and water areas help cate urban air pollution, because they are very
to lower the perceived temperature completely widespread and extensively studied. In this way,
naturally through evaporation. Solar-powered changes in the composition of air pollutants can
spray mist systems for outdoor areas achieve even be documented over decades.13
similar effects (Fig. 14) and are already being
used in the public realm in some countries. This However, the relationship between vegetation,
is an interesting solution, particularly with regard climate and air hygiene is very complex. Trees
to adapting existing urban structures to climate can either absorb some of the air pollutants dir
change. SA ectly or deposit them on the leaf surface. However,
in badly ventilated streets, this can even lead to
increased concentrations of pollutants. In ped
Influence of open space estrian areas, squares, parks and green areas how
ever, the positive effect of trees is measurable and
on microclimate noticeable.
Relevant climate changes such as rising average During the day, typical, extremely high inner-city
temperatures and changing precipitation patterns temperatures occur at roof level, rather than in
Fig. 13 have a lasting effect on our cities and the lives the space occupied by humans (up to approx. 2 m
of people who live in them. The consequences above ground level). Temperatures in this area
are likely to include more frequent and longer stay at levels which hardly differ from the sur
hot spells in summer and fewer, but more severe rounding countryside, particularly because of the
rain events. The effects are dramatic. Local and shade provided by buildings. However, this space
regional floods are already becoming more com does not cool down at night, especially in clear
mon, due to overstretched sewer systems. In summer weather when air pressure is high and
addition, a significant increase in climate-related winds are low. The facades of buildings and the
health issues is to be expected. surfaces of roads and pathways release the thermal
energy accumulated during the day, causing tem
Green spaces and open spaces can positively peratures to remain unpleasantly high. Well-placed
counteract this effect. They are one of the key trees can naturally reduce heat absorption during
elements in making climate adaptation in cities the day but must not bring the air exchange to a
possible. They reduce (peak) temperatures in standstill at night.
Fig. 14
Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 95
Fig. 15
Roof and facade greening provides a more suitable •• creating a maximum volume of greenery in
alternative. In this context, research by TU Berlin parks and pedestrian-dominated areas
on the combination of facade greening and facade •• creating widely dispersed urban “climate is
structures reveals interesting findings: Foliage lands” to provide public cooling areas
keeps the facades cool in summer and reduces the
effort required for interior air conditioning, whilst
greenery loses its foliage in winter to expose walls
to solar radiation.
Multiple use
The advantages of green areas are most evident
in relation to rainwater management (see Water
and Soil, pp. 99ff.). Every litre of rainwater which
of open space
does not enter waste water and urban river sys In future, green spaces and other open spaces will
tems, or enters them with a time delay, helps relax have to fulfil an increased range of functions for
the situation, especially during heavy rainfalls. climate adaptation – such as rainwater manage
Overflows from overloaded sewage treatment ment, which can be achieved easily. However,
plants into rivers cause great damage to animals establishing zones or periods of protection to pre
and plants, particularly in habitat areas. Con serve biodiversity limits the possibilities for human
Further information
• Bingham-Hall, Patrick: Garden City Mega City.
trolling infiltration, retaining water, and flooding use. For example, the animal and plant life on Singapore 2016
parks can prevent this happening and can be in inner-city waterways requires as many natural • Bruse, Michael: Stadtgrün und Stadtklima.
cluded cost-effectively into the design of parks, shore areas and protected shallow water zones as In: LÖBF Mitteilungen 01/2003
even at a later date. This has little effect on their possible. This must be balanced with the leisure • Fezer, Fritz: Das Klima der Städte. 54 Tabellen.
use for local recreation, as only few people use use of river banks (e.g. “urban beaches”). In add Gotha 1995
• Kemper, Tobias; Riechel, Robert; Schuller, Tobias:
parks when it rains. Rainwater stored in the soil ition to their actual and primary use, allotments,
Klimaanpassung in Mittel und Südhessen. Modell
has a positive effect on the climate through in urban farming or gardening as well as private vorhaben der Raumordnung. Raumentwicklungs
creased evaporation. If necessary, stored rainwater gardens in areas of detached housing can help strategien zum Klimawandel. Gießen 2011
can be used for irrigation in summer with the protect species of habitat systems. • LA.BAR Landschaftsarchitekten in collabor
resulting, targeted evaporation delivering a further ation with TU Berlin Fachgebiet Landschaftsbau –
climate benefit. Multifunctionality is an important basic principle Objektbau: Leitfaden nachhaltiges Bauen –
of sustainable planning and can have an extremely Außenanlagen. Endbericht. Commissioned by
BMVBS and BBSR. BBR. Berlin 2011
The aspects mentioned above can be implemented positive effect in making our cities more eco-
• Landeshauptstadt München: Grünplanung in
with the following measures for urban climate friendly. Ideas and concepts are available, however München. Munich 2005
adaptation: the cost and effort of maintenance increases with • Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und
•• creating as many green roofs and walls as the degree of multifunctionality. Involving resi Umweltschutz Berlin: Versorgung mit öffentlichen,
possible dents and users in the planning process will be wohnungsnahen Grünanlagen. In: Umweltatlas
•• integrating rainwater management into green crucial for successfully implementing such con Berlin. Berlin 2013
• www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/environment/
areas and other open spaces cepts. In the end, ambitious projects of this kind
parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity
•• conducting appropriate studies and simula can only be successfully implemented in an open, • www.stadtklimalotse.net
tions to avoid adverse effects when preparing broad-based dialogue aimed at achieving a broad • www.staedtebauliche-klimafibel.de
street greening social consensus. GH, WP • www.umweltbundesamt.de/daten

Authenticated
Challenges
Protecting Water and Soil
Antje Stokman
S
oil quality and water availabil plants and animals, ground for agriculture and
ity are key requirements for forestry, as well as sites and raw materials for urban
humans to settle in the land development. Soils act like sponges and store
scape. Its appearance is the rainwater in their pores. This leads to a reduction
result of the interplay between in surface precipitation run-off and therefore
water and soil in the global reduces river flooding. Soils make stored water
water cycle – there is no soil available to vegetation, and without water reserves
without water and no water stored in the soil there would be no green, pro
without soil. Unlike other resources, which form ductive landscapes. At the same time, the ground
part of a degenerative material flow, water is not can absorb waterborne harmful substances and
consumed, but is locked into a permanent global nutrients, bond them to soil particles and remove
cycle driven by solar radiation. Liquid water con them through processes of transforming substanc
stantly evaporates and forms clouds in the atmos es. The process of water passing through the soil
phere. These water reserves fall back to earth as through the infiltration of precipitation generally
precipitation, where they form bodies of water produces clean groundwater suitable for drinking
and groundwater. Flowing water shapes soils and water extraction. As the pressure for land use and
topographies through continuous erosion. At the the economic value of land rises, the amount – and
same time, many factors in soil and topography nature – of space to be given to natural water sys
shape bodies of water. Waters and soils change tems, and land to be sealed as development land,
over different periods of time and in different is subject to increasingly pressing debate. The
spatial dimensions. Thus they are expressions of resulting effects on the urban soil and water
the complex natural processes of landscape balance are described below.
change.
As the basis for human, animal and plant life as

well as soil organisms, water systems and soils
have many natural functions which are precisely
described in the German Water Resources Act
Urban change
(Wasserhaushaltsgesetz WHG) and the German Due to robust global urbanisation and the eco
Federal Soil Protection Act (Bundes-Boden nomic growth in the last 150 years, many water
schutzgesetz BBodSchG) (Fig. 1). Waterbodies are systems and soils have been significantly trans
the source of water for humans to drink, for indus formed. Ever since the birth of cultivation dur
trial processes and for agricultural irrigation. At ing the Neolithic revolution ten thousand years
the same time, they fulfil important functions in ago, agriculture and forestry have generally
terms of fishing, freight shipping, recreation and been geared towards maintaining or increasing
biodiversity and make an important contribution the produ ctivity of natural ecosystems. This
to degrading pollutants through their capacity for has changed in many regions as agriculture has
biological self-purification. Whereas waterbodies turned into agricultural industry. Soils’ ecological
are aquatic ecosystems, soils are terrestrial eco function is partially impaired as they are com
systems. They provide an important habitat for pacted by large machines. In cities, soil is mainly

Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 97
Basis for human life Building land, raw material supply

Function as the basis for
human, animal, and plant
Basis for animal life
life and soil organisms Natural soil fertility
(BBodSchG Article 2 (2) 1 a)
Basis for plant life
Potential to develop habitats
Basis for life of

soil organisms
Capacity to retain nitrate
Groundwater recharge
Natural function as a Nutrient cycle

component of the natural Surface run-off
cycle, especially water and
nutrient cycles (BBodSchG
Capacity to retain precipitation
Article 2 (2) 1 b) Water cycle
Water storage for vegetation
Retaining and buffering inorganic

pollutants / heavy metals
Natural function for degrad- Degrading organic pollutants

ing, balancing and building Protecting
up material impacts due to groundwater
capacity to filter, buffer and Buffering acid
convert substance proper-
ties, particular for protecting Filtering substances
groundwater (BBodSchG Storing rainwater which cannot be absorbed
Article 2 (2) 1 c)
Reducing surface run-off
Fig. 1
used as building land, whilst water is drained and under paving with few joints, 40 % under Fig. 1 Hierarchical structure
becomes sewerage. Both are used for depositing paving with many joints) (Fig. 2) of natural soil functions
and disposing of solid and liquid waste. These Fig. 2 Sealed urban soils
interventions seriously affect important natural Water which cannot infiltrate into the ground in
properties and functions. the city has to drain away in other ways. Precipi
tation is discharged through drains above and 1
Sukopp/ Wittig 1996,
In urban areas, the original soil is often removed below ground level. This means that water drains pp. 169 –176
and replaced with industrial ground coverings. away very quickly and is not available to evaporate
This process compacts and seals the soil. The or to recharge groundwater for plants and humans.
ground drops out of the cycle of rainwater in Large amounts of water quickly flow through
filtration, pollutant filtration and plant growth. drains and into rivers, and result in extreme peaks Proportion of sealed soils
Three different groups of urban soils can be iden in run-off, especially during heavy or prolonged 0 –15 % low agricultural land, forests,
tified: 1 precipitation. In a natural setting, the floodplains parks, allotments, ceme-
•• soils which have developed naturally be of rivers provide enough space for managing teries, aerodromes,
fore being changed, particularly common higher water levels and draining them slowly. By playing fields (can also
in less densely built-up areas or in parks and contrast, urban areas do not offer sufficient space be moderate)
gardens for waterways. Instead, these are straightened, 10 – 50 % moderate detached and terraced
•• artificially composed soils, characterised by diked and channelled in order to quickly drain housing with gardens
restructured natural substrates (sand, gravel, away as much water as possible in a short time. 45 –75 % medium terraced housing with
macadam etc.), technical substances (building This causes ever higher flood peaks and greater communal green space,
public buildings
rubble, waste, sludge etc.) or mixtures of the flood risks further downstream.
above 70 – 90 % high dense perimeter
blocks, commercial and
•• sealed soils, whereby the degree of sealing At the same time, the high degree of sealing in
industrial buildings
can be classified as either extreme (100 % urban areas lowers the groundwater level. In
85 –100 % very high city centres, industry
under buildings/asphalt) or moderate (80 % periods of low precipitation, certain watercourses
Fig. 2
Authenticated
Evaporation
Clean
precipitation Surface
Low water level [l/s·km2] 709 run-off
High water level [l/s·km2] Infiltration into
groundwater
Separating
horizon
Groundwater level Groundwater
Groundwater storage
307
Impermeable
layers
202
Flood River Wooded Low-lying Settlement Wooded hillside High-
3 plain flood plain agricultural lying
2 land agricultural
1 Natural
flooding area land
Infiltration areas, Sealed Infiltration,
Forest Brownfield, Built-up area
water-storing open areas surface groundwater recharge a
Agriculture
Fig. 3
Evaporation
Polluted
precipitation Surface
run-off
Water extraction Dried up
groundwater
flow
Weak ground-
water flow
Groundwater deficit
Fig. 3 Increased frequency Water Chan-

of flooding and simultaneous extrac- nelled Industrial area Urban area Residential area
tion = river =
increase of low water phases add- flood
and/or drought as a special itional risk Waste water and polluted rainwater run into channelled rivers
problem in settlement areas lowering through sewer system and on into the sea
Fig. 4 Natural (a) and urban
Infiltration Shore Sealed areas Part-sealed areas
(b) water cycle filtrate
Fig. 4 b
2 UNESCO 2003
Further information
• Henninger, Sascha (ed): Stadtökologie.
Paderborn 2011 or stretches of waterways can completely dry out, global water consumption has increased approxi
• Hüttl, Reinhard; Bens, Oliver (ed.): Georessource a phenomenon which is otherwise only found in mately six times between 1930 and 2000. This is
Wasser. Herausforderung Globaler Wandel. arid or semi-arid areas. due to the tripling of the world’s population and
Beiträge zu einer integrierten Wasserressourcen
the doubling of average per capita water consump
bewirtschaftung in Deutschland. Heidelberg 2012
• Hurck, Rudolf; Raasch, Ulrike; Kaiser, Mathias: Whilst water levels continue to rise during floods, tion.2 UNESCO expects that half of the world’s
Wasserrahmenrichtlinie und Raumplanung. Berüh adjacent drained soil layers collapse and are population could suffer from water shortages due
rungspunkte und Möglichkeiten der Zusammen penetrated by oxygen. This makes the soil de- to the effects of climate change by the end of this
arbeit. In: Alfred Toepfer Akademie für Natur compose. A typical consequence of drainage and century, and that a third of the global land mass
schutz: Fließgewässerschutz und Auenent
wicklung im Zeichen der Wasserrahmenrichtlinie.
channelling, this subsidence is a major problem, could no longer be usable for agriculture.
Kommunikation, Planung, fachliche Konzepte. especially in water-rich areas such as the Nether
Schneverdingen 2005, pp. 37– 50. lands. The subsidence in turn increases the risk The great challenge of urban planning is therefore
• Sukopp, Herbert; Wittig, Rüdiger (ed.): of flooding: Once water has broken through dikes to develop compact cities without sealing any
Stadtökologie. Ein Fachbuch für Studium und
and channels, it cannot flow off naturally. As more large open spaces, and which even when
Praxis. Stuttgart 1996
• Versteyl, Ludger-Anselm; Sondermann, Wolf a result, far larger areas of land are flooded, built resemble the natural water cycle of evapor
Dieter: Bundes-Bodenschutzgesetz (BBodSchG). which are much lower-lying than before diking ation, infiltration and run-off as closely as possible.
Kommentar. 2005 and drainage. The aim must also be to reduce global drinking
• UNESCO: The United Nations World Water water consumption in areas affected by water
Development. Report 1. 2003
• WWF International et al.: Living Planet Report
At the same time, increasing global population shortages. This means reducing the amount of
2012. Biodiversity, Biocapacity and Better and climate change are making the global water fresh water used directly or indirectly to provide
Choices. Gland 2012 shortage more acute. UNESCO estimates that goods and services.

Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 99
Action Area
Water and Soil
Antje Stokman
U
sing water and soil sustain framework for considering and protecting these
ably, and ensuring that they soil functions, and individual soil protection laws
are sustainably protected, is at the state (“Länder”) level.
about taking a holistic view
of the varied mutual rela There is still no agreement on a coherent EU-
tionships and interactions wide soil protection policy: the first draft of a
between ground water, soil European soil protection framework presented in
and water protection. This 2006 has not yet been adopted. However, the
requires scientific, legal, political and planning European Union aims to bring together and unify
approaches which consider and integrate the vari existing member state regulation, and make
ous factors as part of an overall system. Current it binding for all members. At the international
scientific findings and legislation provide the basis level, the United Nations Conference on Environ
for preparing specific strategies and measures for ment and Development’s (UNCED) environmen
soils and waters. tal policy principles and objectives address soil
protection as one of the most important tasks of
Due to the very low rates of regeneration, soil the future.
is a resource that cannot be multiplied. For this
reason, protecting soil is a key element of sus Threats to water in urban areas include surface
tainability strategies, whilst these are designed and groundwater pollution, falling groundwater
to preserve the soil’s most important functions. levels, and extreme hydraulic fluctuations between
These include: high and low water levels. Integrated Water Re
•• Habitat: providing space and nutrients for sources Management (IWRM) aims to support
human, animal, and plant life, as well as soil efforts to develop and manage existing water and
organisms land resources, and the associated natural re
•• Use: providing raw materials, being available sources in a coordinated sustainable way. In the
for agriculture and forestry, development and year 2000, the European Water Framework Dir
other public and business uses, transport, ective (WFD) adopted IWRM principles as guide
supply and disposal, etc. lines for managing water (but not soil) in Germany
•• Regulation, storage and filtering: storing and Europe (Fig. 3, p. 101). The WFD aims to direct
and filtering precipitation, retaining nutri EU water policy towards environmentally friendly,
ents, storing pollutants in the soil matrix, sustainable water use. The directive extends the
soil organisms which degrade organic pollu focus of observation to natural water catchment
tants, storing of climate-relevant trace gases, areas and thus calls for spatial action frameworks
etc. for natural water cycles, rather than administrative
•• Archive of geological and cultural history urban, district or national boundaries. Compre
hensive inventories and integrated management
In Germany, the German Federal Soil Protection plans have been prepared for all river catchments,
Act (BBodSchG) and German Federal Soil Pro taking interactions between surface, ground and,
tection Code (Bundes-Bodenschutz- und Alt where appropriate, coastal water into account.
lastenverordnung BBodSchV) provide the legal The process was completed in dialogue with local

Authenticated
From sea From land
Human
Cd use
Evaporation
Precipitation
Pb
Surface
run-off H+ Pb Stores water Contamination
Filtration
Cd Hg
Ni Pb Offsets high-water peaks Pb
Retained
H+
water Filters (e.g. heavy metal) Cd
Infiltration Buffers (e.g. acidity)
Capillary Transforms
rise (e.g. anorganic pollutants) Cd = Cadmium
Pb = Lead
H+ Ni = Nickel
Cd
Groundwater Pb Cd
Hg = Mercury
Hg Pb
H+ = Hydrogen (Positive)
Fig. 1
Fig. 1 Important soil func- governments, users and interest groups in the Protecting soil and sustain
tions (filtering and buffering)
Fig. 2 Degraded soil in
respective catchment areas. In many catchment able land management
areas, so-called water advisory councils were
the Langenäcker-Wiesert
established, engaging stakeholders from very Urbanisation and the associated reshaping of soils
neighbourhood, Stuttgart
(calculated with “Verlust von
different sectors of society. The WFD aims to has a much more serious impact on the natural
Bodenressource” software, restore surface waters
From sea
to a good ecological functionFrom land
balance than agricultural and forestry soil man
based on soil quality map by 2027 and to preserve the usability of ground agement. For this reason, the federal legislature
and soil protection concept) water. requires economy Humanand resource awareness in using
a Current soil condition land Cd use
(BauGB Article 1, Section 6). Despite this
Evaporation
b Soil condition according
In Germany, the Federal Water Resources Act
Precipitation legislation, a steadily increasing share of Ger
to development plan Pb
Fig. 3 River catchment
(WHG) came into force in 2010, creating a uniform many’s total area has been used for settlement
areas in Germany, which national basis for implementing water legislation
Surface
and transport in recent years, with the national
serve as the basis for imple- in line withrun-off
the European Water Framework
H+ Pb Stores wateraverage currently
Dir around 13 percent.1 However,
Contamination
Filtration
menting the European Water ective (WFD). Internationally, theCd principle of this varies greatlyHg from region to region and rises
Pb
Ni Pb Offsets high-water peaks
Framework Directive. integrated water resource management
Retained has found to more than 50 percent in densely populated
H +
its way into almost all sustainability

water strategies and
Filters areas.
(e.g. heavy In housing and
metal) Cd transport areas, around
water policy declarations. This includes the United
Infiltration Buffers (e.g. 46 percent
acidity) of soils are sealed.2 This corresponds
Nations Millennium Development Goals adopted to around 6 percent of Germany’s total territory.
Capillary Transforms
1 Statistisches Bundesamt in 2001 and the UNESCO World rise Water Reports
(e.g. anorganicThe daily consumption of Cd
pollutants) undeveloped
= Cadmium land in
2015 Pbuntil
= Lead
published as from 2003. The latter provide H+ an Germany steadily increased the end of the
2 Gunreben / Dahlmann / Frie Cd Ni = Nickel
overview of global waterGround
resources, Pb
waterincludingCd links 20th century. However, there
2007, pp. 34ff. Hg =are now signs of a
Mercury
3 Statistisches Bundesamt to other aspects such as populationHggrowth Pb
and turnaround: The four-year H average
+
of 120
= Hydrogen ha per
(Positive)
2017 climate change. day (1993 – 1996) has since steadily declined to
62 ha per day (2015). Nevertheless, the amount of
land used by each individual has increased since
2003, due to the decline in population. Thus, land
Urban and use per capita has increased from 505 m2 (1992)
to 606 m2 (2015).3 This means that land use con
regional scale tinues to become less efficient, even as the rate of

consuming previously undeveloped land is falling.
Preventive measures to protect the soil and The Federal Government aims to limit land con
i ntegrated water resource management are sumption to 30 ha per day by 2020. It is essential
fundamental prerequisites for sustainable urban to intensify inward development and promote
and regional development. This requires space-saving development within and outside
comprehensive basic information and planning built-up areas in order to gradually reduce land use
tools. and soil sealing, and limit building on near-natural

Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 101
Lacking Low High

Very low Medium Very high
a b
Fig. 2
Lacking Low High
soils.4 Implementing land resource management rainwater, water bodies and groundwater
systems and local government soil protection •• improve the structure of water bodies and
policies on the basis of municipal registers of new their ecological permeability
development land, infill land and brownfields are
key to the success of this approach. Regional or In urban area, the concept of water-sensitive urban 4 BBR 2004
municipal soil information systems with com development is an important guiding principle. 5 Hoyer et al. 2011, p. 18
prehensive maps of sealed soils provide another This involves making sure that the urban water
important planning and decision-making tool for cycle is taken into account in urban development
local governments to evaluate progress in meeting and landscape planning. A further overarching
the requirements of the Federal Soil Protection goal is to make it easier to experience water in the
Act.Lacking
In order to reduce Low High govern
soil sealing, local city and creatively integrate it into the design of
ments should implement measures to promote multifunctional urban and open spaces. All this
making soils permeable once again (“unsealing”), can only be achieved through interdisciplinary
and rigorously prevent further increases in sealing collaboration between water management, urban
urban soils. This can be achieved by development development and open space planning, since these
plan conditions, financial incentives to “unseal” must be given joint consideration in order to cre
private areas, strict policies to “unseal” municipal ate and use synergies for environmental, eco
and public transport land, and increased fees for nomic, social and cultural sustainability (Fig. 4,
draining sealed private surfaces. p. 102).5
As far as possible, it is also important to avoid the
undesirable input of substances into the soil, to In implementing water-sensitive urban develop
comprehensively record, investigate, and evaluate ment, it is essential to develop regional and muni
sites known or suspected to be contaminated and cipal development plans in order to arrive at an
remediate these where necessary (Fig. 2). integral approach to the management of urban
water cycles. Necessary measures also include:
•• treating and reusing rainwater, and enabling
Integrated water the infiltration and delayed discharge of rain
water (integrated rainwater management),
resource management •• creating areas to drain and store rain water in
The aim of integrated regional and municipal extreme rain events and measures for flood
water management IWRM must be to: resilience (integrated flood risk management),
•• reduce the flow speed of precipitation and •• reducing the need for drinking water, reducing
thus reduce the threat of flooding in urban waste water and recycling treated waste water
waters, (integrated waste water management),
•• reduce the lowering of the groundwater and •• re-naturalising or structurally reconstructing
the decline in groundwater recharge, urban waterways (integrated waterway devel
•• counteract the deterioration in the quality of opment).
Fig. 3
Authenticated
Components Tasks Stakeholders
Safeguarding water supply Environmental

engineers
Rainwater management
Sustainable water Environmental

Waste water treatment
management scientists
Improving water systems • Managing the

Environmental entire water system
Protecting surface and planners • Contribution
groundwater to sustainability
in cites
Water-sensitive Analysing ecological Integration • Creating frame-
Urban and
urban design requirements work conditions
landscape planners
Analysing economic for attractive and
requirements Government humane living
Urban planning environments
Analysing social stakeholders
requirements
Architects and
Analysing cultural
Engineers
requirements
Safeguarding Landscape
Landscape design quality architects
design Contributing to Urban designers
urban attractiveness and architects
Fig. 4
Fig. 4 Components, The following section sets out individual ap Integrated rainwater
tasks and stakeholders
of water-sensitive urban
proaches for implementing and specifying meas management
ures at the neighbourhood scale. It is important
development
that these are coordinated and integrated at the Traditionally, public urban spaces have been
Fig. 5 Components
of integrated rainwater
regional or urban level. The aim must be to com designed to create dry surfaces such as streets,
management bine and create synergies between measures to squares or lawns which are accessible for use at
make flooding less likely (e.g. integrated rainwa any time. A close-meshed, maximum-capacity
ter management and measures to reduce soil drainage system drains rainwater off sealed sur
sealing), measures to improve the ecological faces as quickly as possible and leads it through
structure of waterbodies (renaturation, more space an underground storm water or combined sewer
for flooding and retaining water), and mechanisms system in order to release it into bodies of open
for flood protection (water storage, construction water, either directly or indirectly via sewage
adapted to flooding). This helps create a system treatment plants. However, recent years have seen
of measures relating to buildings, land, neigh a paradigm shift towards decentralised rainwater
bourhoods and districts as well as to the whole management, including water management stra
city or region: combining green roofs, plants to tegies to avoid flooding, hydraulic pressure on
purify water through vegetation, swales for road flowing waters, and sinking groundwater, and to
side drainage, higher-level green corridors, and reduce cost in building and maintaining technical
water meadows to form a water-sensitive, inte systems. The concept of near-natural rainwater
grated overall urban development system. At the management generally includes a combination
same time, the technical, design, social and eco of four basic principles: collection and direct reuse
nomic potential of different water management of rainwater, evaporation, infiltration and reducing
options make urban spaces attractive and easy to run-off (Fig. 5).
experience.
Rainwater use reduces the annual run-off of pre
cipitation and can also contribute to capping peak
flows, depending on the volume of water reser
Neighbourhood voirs. It also offers great potential for saving drink

ing water.
scale Evaporation and infiltration of precipitation reduce

the amount of water to be drained away. The evap
The field of integrated water resource manage oration of water promotes a good microclimate,
ment and water-sensitive urban development whereas infiltration ensures that groundwater
offers many opportunities to develop integrated, is recharged. In areas with easily draining soil,
interdisciplinary neighbourhood concepts, start infiltration can take place in shallow depressions
ing from the following points. or ditches. In areas with less well-draining sub-
soil, seepage trenches help conduct water through

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2.4 — Ecology 103
Evaporation
Reduction
Use
Infiltration
Fig. 5
underground gravel bodies into layers suitable extending buildings is forbidden (WHG Article
for interim storage. The principle of reducing 78 Section 1). Exceptions are only possible if all
run-off is to cap peak flows of surface water. This WHG requirements are met: there must be no
requires an appropriate volume to be available in negative effect on flood protection, the run-off
order to retain and temporarily store water. Local of flood water, or the water level of waterbodies,
peak flows of water can be reduced by delaying so that there is no negative effect on the water
and dosing drainage. cycle. New buildings in flood areas must be con
structed to avoid any danger to life, or consider
Planning approaches must be developed to make able damage to health or property (WHG Article
it possible to experience systems to drain, collect 78 Section 2 No. 3). Attractive waterside locations
and clean rainwater as attractive elements of can only be used if due care is given to providing
spatial design. This requires water management information, protecting property, and taking
professionals and designers of urban and open structural precautions in terms of adaptation of
space to work together from the outset of design construction methods and materials. This must
and planning. The topographical conditions, the be disseminated via information portals and 6 BMVBS 2010
flow patterns and the technical components to planning aids.6 7 LAWA 1995
purify, use, store and drain water are starting
points for the design of urban and open spaces. Due to the increased frequency of extreme wea
ther events caused by climate change, it is to be
expected that urban sewage systems will no
Integrated flood risk longer be able to drain the water underground,
leading to more frequent inner-city flooding.
management Events of this kind are typified by short reaction
In the past, moving home to flee from water was times and potential sewage backflows. This means
often the last resort for residents seeking to avoid that floods can occur very quickly in urban areas,
the threat of flooding. Today, moving to safer even where no water is visible.
areas is often impossible or undesirable. Eco
nomic development and settlement pressure, Construction methods adapted to flooding help
and the attractiveness of waterfront locations reduce risk by reducing the likelihood of damage.
have led to the development of low-lying areas The “three pillar” model includes the following
and flood plains. Areas threatened by flooding measures to help reduce flood damage and build
often include good agricultural land and eco ing’s exposure to flood damage:7
nomically interesting development sites. As a •• Avoid: Reduce the negative impact of floods
result, they are often home to many people and by retaining water in the area, use traffic and
valuable assets. The Water Resources Act (WHG) open space to retain over capacity run-offs
sets out conditions for waterside development and reduce flow speed
in defined flood areas. In principle, designating •• Protect: Provide technical flood protection
new development land, and constructing or such as protective walls, dykes, dams, flood

Authenticated
Protect Tolerate Raise Go with the flow Withdraw

stationary mobile
• Install protective struc- • Use mobile elements • Respect constraint of • Create refuge spaces • Create amphibian • Flee from water
tures into buildings to to protect buildings historical locations • Raise buildings on houses and summer • Resettle
protect from flooding, • Use mobile elements • Keep up existing stilts infrastructure • Return to wilderness
rising groundwater, externally but retain retaining areas • Combine raised • Use for leisure • Create new location
sewage backflow relationship with water • Create new retaining buildings and dykes • Design floating build- quality
• Integrate protective area as usable open ings and leisure uses • Create escape routes
structures into public space • Use house boats
open space instead of buildings
• Use as a lake
Fig. 6
troughs and retention areas, and locally protect of the Directive focuses on the morphological and
buildings and structures at risk ecological aspects of water. The main aim of a
•• Pre-emt: Prevent development of endangered Water Development Concept is to implement
areas, adapt construction methods and build measures to make waterways resemble the natural
ing uses, provide warning and evacuation condition as closely as possible. However, this
systems to influence behaviour and adopt goal must not be seen in isolation, as rivers and
insurance models for risk their banks fulfil important functions as urban
open spaces and significantly improve quality of
8 Prominski et al. 2012 Integrated spatial strategies should comprise not life in increasingly urban societies.
only technical, organisational and legal measures,
but should be embedded in planning and devel Making more space available for waterbodies
oping urban and open space developments with increases opportunities to allow their own natural
the aim of generating synergies and spatial qual development in the design. This calls for the devel
ities by combining different measures (Fig. 6). opment of innovative interdisciplinary approaches
to the adapted design of landscape elements and
uses in frequently flooded areas near bodies of
Integrated development water.8
of waterbodies and river For example, waterside areas which are flooded
area design first can be planted as natural flood plains, with
From the industrial revolution on, urban river terraces, ramps, stairs and observation platforms
embankments between low and high water levels to provide direct access to the water in key lo
were designed according to increasingly functional cations. Paths at different levels allow the park
considerations. A variety of technical designs were to be used during both low and high water. To
characterised by uniform channel cross-sections achieve this, the choice of plants, different use
which are as smooth as possible for maximum areas and furnishings must match the respect
drainage capacity. In extreme cases, this created ive frequency and depth of flooding. Processes,
sterile concrete channels with vertical walls, often whereby flowing water changes course to create
also with concrete covers to create additional road new shorelines and islands in the river bed, re
space. This kind of design is engineered in order sulting in a natural and varied appearance, are
for watercourses to fulfil the function of a sump, described as morphodynamic processes. These
optimised with regard to preventing floods and should be promoted where dynamics of water
maintaining waterways. Due to the current EU currents and available space make this possible.
Water Framework Directive, countless European The combination of fixed and mobile elements
and German authorities are now faced with the also offers a wide range of design options for in
challenge of reconfiguring waterways in order to tegrating flood protection systems in open spaces
resemble nature more closely. Implementation close to the banks: Walls and dykes can be

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2.4 — Ecology 105
Restoring
Collecting
soil fertility
rainwater
Nutrients
Agricultural
use
Faecal matter Grey water

Urine
Treatment /
Disinfection /
Energetic use
Reuse
Fig. 6 Individual key

Do not release sewage strategies for construction
into waterbodies
adapted to flooding
Fig. 7 Water cycle based
on Ecosan system
Fig. 7
c ombined with lockable steel sluices, hatches it in agriculture, rather than mixing it with drink
and mobile aluminium dam beams. These elem ing water and flushing it away (Fig. 7). Depending
ents retain the areas’ accessible character, as they on the context, a variety of low- or high-tech solu
close off open spaces only in emergencies. In order tions can be employed: compost toilets, purifying
not to act as barriers, walls and dykes should be water through vegetation, waste water ponds and
designed as attractive, multifunctional, accessible, biogas plants were regarded as outdated transition
experiential landscape elements. Embankments technologies to be used in areas where a connec
thus provide a stage for the dynamic processes tion to a central supply and disposal system was
related to waterways to be more consciously per not yet financially feasible, and was planned for
ceived. a later date. However, in the light of the challenges
relating to the high cost of central systems, inter
est in these technologies is now growing. One
Integrated and decentralised advantage of these technologies is that some of
the necessary structures can be created by users
waste water management themselves and are therefore comparatively in
The expensive and technically complex centrally expensive. At the same time, high-tech solutions
organised system of water supply and disposal such as separation toilets with vacuum sewerage,
was developed in the water-rich industrial coun anaerobic treatment processes and membrane
tries. As the current global water scarcity is set to technologies are becoming available in developed
increase in future, approaches for reducing water countries. In comparison to conventional systems, 9 Lange /Otterpohl 2000
consumption are now coming to the fore. Trad these technologies save between 20 and 40 percent
itional flushing toilets and alluvial drainage sys of drinking water because faeces are mixed with
tems, which require an extremely expensive water very little drinking water, or none at all, in order
infrastructure, and which in many countries results to be flushed away. Further information
in high drinking water consumption and largely • Hoyer, Jacqueline et al.: Water Sensitive Urban
untreated discharge into the waterbodies, are thus A decentralised reorganisation of water infra Design. Principles and Inspiration for Sustainable
open to question. Against this background, there structure systems goes along with an increase in Storm Water Management in the City of the Future.
Berlin 2011
is a great need for flexible, decentralised, cost- the number of waste water treatment plants vis
• Stokman, Antje; Dieterle, Jan: Hochwasseran
effective and resource-saving systems.9 Even ible above ground, which need to be integrated gepasstes Bauen als Strategie der integrierten
today, a large number of new sanitation and waste into the urban environment. Increasingly, urban Stadtquartiersentwicklung am Wasser. In: BMVBS
water technologies and methods offer opportuni open spaces must accommodate combined drain (ed): Integrierte Stadtquartiersentwicklung am
ties to shift away from currently predominant age and retention elements as well as cleaning Wasser. Schriftenreihe Werkstatt: Praxis, Heft 77,
waste water disposal and treatment. Decentralised systems. This has a noticeable impact on the char Berlin 2011, pp. 44–47
• UNEP; European Environment Agency: Down to
concepts for waste water disposal and treatment, acter of settled areas and calls for innovative
earth: Soil degradation and sustainable develop
such as the “ecological sanitation” (Ecosan) con designs which integrate water infrastructure ment in Europe – A challenge for the 21st century
cept promoted by GIZ envisage processing raw and make it an attractive and usable feature in Environmental Issue Series, No. 16, Copenhagen
faecal matter as fertiliser or biogas and recycling open space. 2002

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Challenges
Material Flows
Jul ia Böttge, Marcel Özer,
Daniela Schneider, Bas t ian Witt s tock
M
aterial flows are every can be recycled and used again. However, recyc
where in urban space. ling used building materials from current buildings
They can be seen in and infrastructure is set to become much more
(delivery) traffic and challenging in the near future, because of the rising
regular refuse collec use of composite and problem materials. Com
tion service. Any prod posite building materials make disassembly and
ucts and materials used recycling much more difficult. They end up in
in the city cause direct building rubble and construction waste, where
or indirect material flows. For example, direct they reduce material quality. A further problem
material flows include food purchases, whereas is that the lack of information about materials
indirect material flows include the supply of coal when buildings are dismantled makes it difficult
for power generation, which becomes tangible in to sort materials by type. Maintaining – and clos
the flick of a light switch. (Figs. 1 and 2). ing – material cycles requires parallel cycles of
information and documentation. The aim is to
The wide range of activities in urban areas gen create an overall documentation which makes
erates extremely complex material flows, and materials traceable and legible throughout their
reducing their negative impact to a minimum life cycle.
requires thorough analysis and optimisation.
Because of this complexity, the focus is always Defining targets for individual material flows is
only on a selection of material flows. particularly difficult. This is because the balance
of material flows varies massively, depending on
1 TU Wien 1996 Closing material cycles and reusing mater the city’s economic activity (e.g. services or pro
2 Beckenbach /Urban ials previously considered as waste will gain an duction) and urban development (e.g. growing or
2011
increasingly important role in future. This shifts shrinking cities), as well as many other aspects.
the focus towards issues such as use cycles, flexi Accordingly, targets for material flows must always
bility, disassembly and ease of recycling, aspects be regionally defined.1 (Material Flow Analysis
which are seen to present opportunities such as MFA)2 is used to examine material flows and look
urban mining. The great challenge of future urban into the numerous, varied and multidimensional
development is to transform our disposable society questions relating to this topic. The extraction of
into a circular economy. raw materials as such has no environmental
impact, unless habitats are destroyed or degraded
Buildings and cities are an especially important in the process. However, the processes used to
repository of resources, thanks to the wide range extract raw materials cause environmentally rele
of very complex and varied materials used in them. vant emissions, e.g. through operating machinery
However, they also present challenges to the recov or contaminating soil.
ery of recyclable materials. In future, construction
waste will need to be separated more rigorously The Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) method describes
into individual material groups such as concrete, various environmental impacts that are associated
gypsum, plastic, steel, and timber etc. so that these with the entire life cycle of products and m
aterials

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2.4 — Ecology 107
Sun, wind,
environmental Air, Exhaust,
energy rainwater pollutants,
noise, light
Electrical energy Electrical energy

(power mix) (fossil / regenerative)
Oil, gas Oil, gas
Heating, cooling Heating, cooling
Fresh water Waste water

Biomass Biomass,
cascade step 2
Raw materials + products Production Services Processes Waste products

- Metals - Metals
- Plastics - Plastics
- Glass, ceramic, mineral - Glass, ceramic,
- Gaseous mineral
- Gaseous
Components and Components and

building materials building materials
(products) (products)
Foods Foods
Services Services
Human resources Human resources
Surfaces, Water,
Financial resources biodiversity energy Financial resources
Traffic Traffic
Fig. 1
Other waste
Abb. 7: Stoffströme im Ökosystem Gewerbegebiet, Drees & Sommer Advanced Building Technologies GmbH, 08/2014
14 %
Waste from mining
and ore treatment
7%
412 Mio. t Construction and

Waste from waste 54 % demolition waste
13 %
treatment plant
13 % Fig. 1 Example of material

flows in an industrial estate
Household waste Fig. 2 Waste volume in
Germany, 2016
Fig. 2
and can capture the entire upstream chain’s them, used or transformed within them, or ex 3
Klöpffer /Grahl 2009
environmental impact with a view to making im tracted from them can thus be compared. This
provements (see Certification and Evaluation makes it possible to identify potentials within
Systems, pp. 218ff. and Action Areas: Material neighbourhoods which function as “ecosystems”
Flows, pp. 108ff.).3 Environmental impacts and in terms of an association of interacting organisms.
resources needed are recorded for each step of In industrial areas for example, it is possible to Further information
• Donner, Susanne: Die Stadt als Mine. In: Tech
the process. This makes it possible to model the identify businesses which can collaborate and
nology Review 04/2011
product life cycle, identify weak points and eva generate synergies (Fig. 2). • Jordi, Beat: Stoffflüsse im urbanen Raum. Die
luate alternative courses of action. Analyses and Versorgung der Stadt hängt von ihrem Umland ab.
models of this kind are also becoming more and Consideration must be given to the environ In: Umwelt. Natürliche Ressourcen in der Schweiz
more important for cities. In planning individual mental impacts arising from these material flows 04/2012
neighbourhoods, it is especially important to de and to ways in which they can be reduced. For • Sperling, Carsten et al.: Nachhaltige Stadt
entwicklung beginnt im Quartier. Ein Praxis- und
termine which material flows are caused or influ sustainable urban development, this model of
Ideenhandbuch für Stadtplaner, Baugemeinschaf
enced within the neighbourhood. All flows in and urban material flows must be extended to include ten, Bürgerinitiativen am Beispiel des sozial
out of the defined system boundaries (i.e. inputs further aspects of urban design, the economy and ökonomischen Modellstadtteils Freiburg-Vauban.
and outputs), as well as consumables applied to society. Forum Vauban e. V., Öko-Institut e. V. 1999

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Action Areas
Material Flows
Jul ia Böttge, Johannes Gant ner, Thomas Haun, Marcel Özer,
Christina Sager, Daniela Schneider, Bastian Wittstock
I
deally, well-planned material flows form building materials can be removed and recycled
complete circuits of interlocking technical at the end of a building’s life and thus stay avail
and natural cycles.1 able beyond the initial use cycle. On the other
The cradle-to-cradle (C2C) design con hand, some materials dissipate2 because they
cept developed by the German chemist are processed and very finely distributed. A major
Michael Braungart follows this approach. effort is required to make these materials avail
It is based on the idea of assigning all able for later reuse. The aim must be to design
goods to either the technical or the bio and implement flexible uses for materials so that
1 Braungart / McDonough logical cycle. Products should be designed in such information and material cycles can be closed,
NY 2002 a way that all components are either biodegrad and thereby to keep many options open to use
2 Rebernig 2007
able or recyclable at a consistently high level. C2C materials again later.
is thus oriented towards the natural principle
of material cycles where all substances are in
constant use and no waste is produced. There is
still a long way to go for this to be achieved.
Material flows must be consciously planned and
documented at all levels, directed in the desired
Regional scale
direction and preferably reduced, providing that At the regional level, it is important to distin
the logistical structures are in place for this pur guish between flows of material supply (import)
pose. This concerns the use of materials in neigh and disposal (export) in planning terms (Fig. 1).
bourhood development and building construction Material flows also occur in consumption, use
as well as the supply of energy to urban areas. or further processing. In terms of timelines, it is
Urban supply and disposal systems must also be important to distinguish between flows which
considered within the holistic planning framework. store materials for long periods or result from
For this purpose, material flows relating to the mobilising materials stored for a long period
entire life cycle of the neighbourhood and all and flows which only store materials for short
its components must be taken into account (cf. periods or generate a continuous material flow.
Life-cycle analysis, p. 175f.) and the associated Buildings and structures that embed building
issues must be recorded, analysed and docu materials for long periods can thus be described
mented. Methods such as Material Flow Ana as long-term storage facilities. Large quantities
lysis (MFA) can be used to analyse material flows, of raw materials can be mobilised at the end of
whereas Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) is suitable for buildings’ lifetimes, in a process also known as
considering the ecological effects in further detail. urban mining. Existing domestic and commercial
(cf. MFA and LCA, p. 106). waste landfill sites are also long-term storage
Material flows relate to different planning hori facilities. Reclaiming them mobilises s econdary
zons, use requirements and time frames. A dis resources.
tinction is made between long-term material flows Continuous material flows which store materials
and short-term material flows. only for short periods fall into several categories,
Special attention should be paid to what happens but specifically include the supply of energy, food
to materials in the long term. For example, some and consumer goods.

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2.4 — Ecology 109
Emissions
Import Export
Water /Air Water
Energy Energy
Food Food
Consumer and investment goods Consumer and investment goods
Waste water
Solid waste
Other raw materials / Half-finished products
Half-finished products etc.
etc.
Fig. 1 Example of urban

Fig. 1 material flows
Spatial optimisation involves networking raw mate reducing energy material flows in using buildings Exergetic approach
rial suppliers and customers in order to promote in the long term. The second law of thermodynamics (entropy
a regional use of materials which generates only Looking at exergy related to energy used in build theorem) describes the limits to converting heat
short transport routes, where this makes sense in ings is another important aspect. From a ther into other forms of energy. In practice this means,
for example, that one litre of heating oil can be
environmental terms. This relates both to regional modynamic point of view, it is important whether
almost completely converted into heat, but this
primary raw material stores, and to disassembling the energy used is extracted from an energy heat cannot be converted back into the same
neighbourhoods and buildings as potential secon source, or whether it is electricity or heat. In build amount of oil. The thermodynamic quantity of
dary raw material sources. Processes to recycle ings, the largest share of energy is accounted for exergy quantifies this energetic quality, namely the
leftover construction materials are becoming more by space heating and cooling demand which can transformability and usability of an energy flow in
common and are the subject of ongoing research. be provided from low-exergy sources such as relation to the task to be performed (Rant 1956).
The exergy approach for buildings uses low-
Amongst other things, this focuses on the improved lukewarm water. On the other hand, lighting,
exergy heat sources (e.g. waste heat, solar energy,
use of recycled building materials3 or innovative pumps and fans require high-exergy electrical geothermal energy) according to the given heat
approaches for extracting high-quality resources power. Burning high-exergy fuels such as natural demand and thus preserves valuable high-exergy
from construction waste (e.g. BauCycle). gas, heating oil, or even regenerative timber fuels energy sources such as natural gas and oil or
There are comprehensive possibilities to control in order to produce warm water wastes potential wood pellets.
material flows which do not involve long-term in terms of energy. Optimum solutions can
storage in the built environment at the regional be identified by analysing exergy in the energy
level. Examples include supplying and disposing supply.5
of regional water through inter-municipal single- Much of the low-temperature warmth required
purpose associations (which is quite common), or for neighbourhoods, housing schemes or urban
regional waste management systems which ope districts can be sourced by tapping existing waste
rate across local government boundaries. 4 heat sources, for example from industrial
The scope for regionally controlling material flows processes.6 Local and district heating systems
has not been fully exploited yet, especially with are based on Combined Heat and Power (CHP),
regard to energy. JBÖ, JG, BW primarily to generate high-exergy electricity, but 3 Goetz 2009
also to generate low-exergy heat for use where it 4 Janda 2012
5 Fraunhofer IBP 2011
is needed. Analysis at a larger scale makes it pos
6 Torío 2012
Exergetic evaluation of sible to redistribute and cascade the use of exist 7 Sciubba /Bastianoni /
ing heating and cooling potentials.7 For example,
cities and neighbourhoods residual warmth in district heating backflows can
Tiezzi 2008; Sciubba
2011; Stremke et al. 2011
Energy requirements for heating and cooling be used to heat new energy-efficient develop
buildings are often met from fossil sources. The ments. Renewable environmental energy as well
German government has set out sustainability as solar and geothermal heat combined with
goals to significantly reduce overall energy con storage and heat pumps can make meaningful
sumption and increase the use of renewable ener contributions to the overall supply system. Exergy
gies. The Energy Saving Ordinance (EnEV 2016) concepts aim to match demand-side and supply-
sets out the framework for this, and promotes side exergy levels as closely as possible. This
energy saving and efficient plant technology. The ensures that high-quality energy sources are used
prospect of only allowing very low-energy new sparingly and promotes the integration of envi
buildings in future maps out the path towards ronmental energies into the energy system. CS

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8 Schenkel 2003 Waste management hoods, because material flows become increas
9 Vogt 2010 In large settlements and cities, separating housing ingly complex as they grow in number and in rela
10 Modellstadt Mannheim
from waste disposal is primarily necessary for the tion to the size of an area. Spatial units of analysis
2012
11 BDA 2012 city and its residents’ health.8 In the last 70 years, should be defined on a case-by-case basis. It makes
12 Umweltbundesamt 2005 scarce natural resources have changed perceptions sense to view larger cities in terms of the entire
13 Hendrickson 2012 of “waste”. The focus is now on the circular econ city, its neighbourhoods and individual housing
omy and the hierarchical approach to waste dis blocks (Fig. 2).
posal (avoid, recycle, treat, and dispose). In prin
ciple, the amount of waste should be kept as low
as possible and waste should be avoided. Urban and
If this is not possible, recycling waste gains import
ance for reducing the volume of material flows.
neighbourhood cycles
Systems for collecting recyclable waste play a key Material cycles within cities play a key role in
role. This can be done in two different ways: One achieving an efficient raw material supply and
approach is to collect waste according to materials optimising material flows.
and, if possible, type. Alternatively, many different For example, neighbourhood energy flows are
materials can be collected together.9 The advan generated locally, e.g. through photovoltaics or
tages of collecting materials separately are that combined heat and power (CHP) units. Consump
this reduces the effort for sorting and offers pos tion control systems (“energy butlers”10) are ideal
sibilities for high-quality disposal. The disadvan for ensuring that the highest possible share of
tages are higher costs, greater effort and increased electricity is generated directly where it is used.
transport demand. For example, electricity consumers (electric cars,
The choice of collection system must be consid refrigerators, washing machines, etc.) are switched
ered in detail, taking local conditions into account. on or off according to local electricity production,
If recycling does not make economic or environ thereby reducing voltage peaks and coordinating
mental sense, thermal recycling (incineration) or the production and consumption of electricity as
mechanical-biological waste treatment can be con closely as possible. 11
sidered. Landfill is the worst of all solutions – but it
may nevertheless be possible to recover gases from Depending on local conditions, water manage
landfills which can be used to generate energy. ment within the neighbourhood can also offer an
opportunity to optimise material flows. Some of
the drinking water used for flushing toilets, wash
Neigh- Material flows
Housing bour- City ing, etc. can be saved by obtaining and storing
block
City and neigh- rainwater on-site. Cascading the use of rainwater,

hood
grey water and black water offers the potential for
bourhood scale great savings.12

Material flows can be further reduced through
local food production, as urban food production
It makes sense to consider the potential of material (e.g. urban, vertical, and aquaponic farming; Fig. 3)
flows in smaller units such as urban neighbour eliminates long transport routes.13
Fig. 2
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2.4 — Ecology 111
Fig. 3
These potentials can only be partially exploited mass to produce energy or compost)
as a result of high inner-city density and o ther •• producing food locally (e.g. crops, fruit trees,
issues. On the other hand, high urban density herbs, etc.)
offers other opportunities such as the use of
district heating and local electricity management.
JBÖ, JG, BW Material flows
Substances and emissions released during the Fig. 2 Subdivisions within
Reducing material flows manufacture, transport and processing of building the city
Fig. 3 Aquaponics: com-
materials can have locally and globally harmful
in open space impacts, which can be identified by means of
bined fish and vegetable
farming at the Leibniz-
The issue of material flows is also relevant to the life-cycle assessments. These impacts include Institute of Freshwater
design of outdoor areas and facilities. intensifying the greenhouse effect, depletiing the Ecology and Inland Fisheries
The following measures can help reduce material ozone layer, contributing to soil acidification and (IGB) in Berlin (DE)
flows: eutrophication, generating ground-level ozone,
•• using available (regional) natural resources, and so on.
raw materials and conditions (timber, rock, Harmful substances such as anti-corrosive agents,
trees, waterbodies, etc.) above and below timber preservatives, paints or adhesives can be
ground to reduce incoming and outgoing ma dislodged, either by weathering or in processing
terial flows to a minimum. and handling, and thereby present a further risk
•• using available land sparingly (e.g. recycling to water, soil and air. Substances, mixtures or
brownfields) to reduce soil movement products of this kind should be avoided or substi
•• avoiding waste before it enters into the circu tuted.
lar economy Green spaces, facades and roofs can contribute sig
•• avoiding urban barriers by providing good nificantly to counter-balancing damaging impacts.
access (short routes, activating and intensify They bind CO2 greenhouse gas, create a better
ing pedestrian and bicycle traffic as well as microclimate by cooling through greater evapor
public transport) ation, and thus counteract the rising demand for
•• considering the design of access routes to cooling buildings. Using materials with a low solar
reduce sealed surfaces to a minimum (e.g. absorption reduces the heat island effect. Light
sharing car parking infrastructure) surfaces (cf. albedo, p. 93) should be preferred to
•• actively protecting soils by avoiding sealed dark surfaces, which gain and store a lot of heat.
surfaces and underground areas, avoiding soil
compaction, structural disturbances and infil It is equally important to preserve, protect and
tration into the soil further develop vegetation to minimise interfer
•• creating concepts for biodiversity, maintain ence in the ecosystem and thereby reduce mater
ing existing vegetation structures ial flows.
•• treating rainwater and waste water locally and Regional materials, such as timber products from
using local water sources regional forestry, should be preferred and long
•• recycling biologically on-site (e.g. using bio transport routes avoided in order to reduce trans

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14 BMVBS 2012, p. 24f.,

pp. 27ff.
15 ibid., p. 38f.
16 Müller 2012
17 UBA 2012, Glossary on
protecting resources
Further information port and storage to a minimum.14 As a matter of as early modifications or repairs unnecessary,
• Bundesministeriums für Bildung und For principle, timber should only be sourced from thereby extending the life cycle. Natural (raw)
schung (BMBF): r3 – Strategische Metalle certified timber suppliers, who can prove that their materials can usually be returned to material cycles
und Mineralien. Innovative Technologien für supply is sourced from regulated and sustainably without any problems. Durability is a key principle,
Ressourceneffizienz. Bonn 2013; www.fona.de/ managed forestry. both in materials and in structures. Durable mater
mediathek/r3/pdf/
ials need to be replaced less frequently, resulting
• Fraunhofer-Institut für Chemische Technologie
(ICT): Übermorgen-Projekt “Molecular Sorting”. Maintaining relevant components of outdoor facil in lower costs, energy consumption and waste.
Perfekt getrennt – ressourcenschonend produ ities also contributes to reducing material flows. They are usually also easier to care for and con
ziert; www.ibp.fraunhofer.de/de/Kompetenzen/ Materials should be easy to replace or exchange serve resources for new materials. TH
ganzheitliche-bilanzierung/Projekte/Molecular and the system should be easy to operate. Opti
Sorting.html mum maintenance ensures that components and
• Karlsruher Institut für Technologie: Ganzheit
materials achieve the longest possible service
liche Bewertung von Stahl und Verbundbrücken
nach Kriterien der Nachhaltigkeit (NaBrü);
stahl.vaka.kit.edu/713.php
life and thus leads to lower life-cycle costs and
environmental impacts. Decommissioning and Building and
• Rebernig, Gerd: Methode zur Analyse und
Bewertung der Stoffflüsse von Oberflächen
einer Stadt. Vienna 2007
disassembly should be given careful thought early
in the design stage. It is advisable to select mate infrastructure
• Torio, Herena; Schmidt, Dietrich (eds): Report
ECBCS Annex 49. Low Exergy Systems for High
rials which are as durable as possible and offer a
high reuse and recycling potential, and to choose
low-waste constructions which can be dismantled
scale
Performance Buildings and Communities. Stuttgart
2011 by type. Floor coverings which are not bonded, Many different materials are required during the
• Sciubba, Enrico: A Revised Calculation of the such as paving stones and slabs, are particularly entire life cycle of a building or infrastructure
Econometric Factors α and β for the Extended suitable for reuse, because they can simply be facility. In order to consume as few natural re
Exergy Accounting Method. In: Ecological Model removed and reinstalled directly elsewhere (direct sources as possible throughout the life cycle, it is
ling, Volume 222, 2011, pp. 1060–1066
reuse). Other materials such as concrete, bricks necessary to define what is meant by the term
• Sciubba, Enrico; Bastianoni, Simone; Tiezzi,
Enzo: Exergy and Extended Exergy Accounting
and asphalt can be reused indirectly, i.e. through “resource”, and how resource efficiency should
of Very Large Complex Systems with an Applica processing (recycling, upcycling, downcycling). be measured.
tion to the Province of Siena, Italy. In: Journal of Recycled building materials are mainly used as Resource use can be viewed in terms of cost (as an
Environmental Management, Volume 86, 2008, gravel or hard core for paved areas and paths or economic measure) and natural resources. Natural
pp. 372–382 as aggregate for concrete products. Brick build resources include abiotic and biotic primary raw
• Daxbeck, Hans et al.: Das anthropogene Lager ing materials can also be recycled, e.g. for use as materials, energy resources, water, land and soil,
in der Steiermark. Entwicklung eines Urban Mining
planting substrate for green roofs. It is important biodiversity and ecosystems as CO2 sinks.16 There
Katasters. Vienna 2015; www.rma.at/sites/new.rma.
at/files/Projekt%20UMKAT%20-%20Endbericht%20 to examine whether the use of recycled building is currently no universal definition for “resource
(Vers.%201.0a).pdf materials is environmentally compatible and per efficiency”. Accordingly, the German Federal
• Braungart, Michael; McDonough, William: Cradle missible on a case-by-case basis. As a result of Environment Agency’s definition is used: “Re
to Cradle. Remaking the Way We Make Things. recycling processes, recycled building materials source efficiency is the ratio of a specific benefit
New York 2002 may also involve higher emissions than materials or result to the use of resources required to achieve
• Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and
from primary production.15 it.”17
Inland Fisheries (IGB): Aquaculture & Aquaponics;
www.igb-berlin.de/en/aquaculture-aquaponics The measures listed directly or indirectly reduce Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) and Life-Cycle Costing
• Bundesverband Aquaponik e.V.; http://bundes material flows by preserving resources and ren (LCC) are methods to consider many of the aspects
verband-aquaponik.de/ dering plumbing and construction work as well mentioned above and demonstrate environmen

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2.4 — Ecology 113
tal emissions and impacts as well as respective In considering material flows and resource effi 18 Huber 1995
costs throughout the entire life cycle. Resource ciency, it is crucial not only to optimise one area of
efficiency is a complex issue which can be viewed sustainability, but to strive for a holistic approach
in many different layers. This makes it difficult to to improvement. As has been explained, many
make general recommendations. Nevertheless, individual factors are relevant, and must be
Huber’s18 notion of sustainability can be applied evaluated in the wider larger context for a holistic
to resource efficiency in order to arrive at the fol assessment and interpretation.
lowing points:
•• Using material sparingly (sufficiency): As a
matter of principle, it makes sense to use as
little material as possible in buildings and
consume as little energy as possible when
using them. This preserves natural resources
Looking ahead
and reduces cost. But it is important to bear Understanding material flows will become more
in mind that resource efficiency can also de important in future, as this offers the potential
teriorate as a result of using alternative or less for major improvements in urban design. Meas
material, making it important to give this point ures and technologies which reduce the mater
careful consideration. ial demand or help recover raw materials from
•• Making facilities or the overall building system finished products are gaining importance in the
more effective (efficiency): It is important to light of the increasing cost and decreasing avail
consider how resources are used throughout ability of raw materials, the uncertain supply of raw
buildings’ entire life cycle in order to holistic materials, and their impacts on the environment.
ally evaluate individual measures, some of
which may cancel each other out. For example, Urban and neighbourhood planners will increas
increasing the insulation of outer walls ingly focus on efforts to reconcile local sources,
consumes more resources during construc material sinks and material flows. In addition to
tion, but may – to a certain extent – be com water, energy and classic material cycles, new
pensated through consuming fewer resources value chains such as urban mining and urban farm
in use. ing will gain in importance. This is the only way
•• Recycling, and replacing non-renewable with to avoid unnecessary losses and reduce resource
regenerative resources (consistency): Using consumption.
renewable instead of non-renewable resources
can increase resource efficiency, but this is In planning buildings or urban neighbourhoods,
not necessarily always the case. For example, it is therefore becoming increasingly important
existing heating systems can become less effi to compile an integrated planning team at an early
cient when converted to the use of renewable stage, because aspects such as choosing the right
energies and may need more fuel to become materials or coordinating the various trades are
more efficient again. This makes it impor becoming increasingly important. Material flows
tant to examine and weigh up this interplay in production and use can best be influenced dur
in detail and on a case-by-case basis. ing the design phase. JBÖ, JG, BW

Authenticated
Challenges
Mobility and Transport
Jürgen Laukemper, Antonel la Sgobba
T
he negative impacts of road freer forms of individual mobility. At the same
traffic on people and the en time, improved transport connections created new
vironment are especially no urban hierarchies. The invention of the aircraft and
ticeable in cities. Increasing the advent of increasingly dense airline networks
urbanisation, scarce resourc replicated this process on a global scale.
es and the negative effects of
climate change pose new Until the 1950s, streets in European cities were
challenges to urban mobil dominated by bicycles, buses and trams. The mas
ity. These include avoiding transport emissions sive spread of the motor car changed the image
(noise, CO2, air pollutants etc.) reducing resource of the city. An increasing environmental aware
consumption (energy, land, etc.), improving safety ness, partly triggered by the first and second oil
conditions, and taking increasing individual and crises in the 1970s, led to initial resistance and
general mobility requirements into account. initiatives to “save” European cities. However,
Mobility has become a basic need. In this chapter, problems have continued to grow, calling for a
we distinguish between “transport”, which refers new culture of urban mobility. In 2011, the Euro
to the transport (or measurable movement) of pean Commission adopted a “White paper on
goods and people and “mobility”, which relates transport”, which set out a roadmap for competi
to modern mobility demand and movement tive and sustainable mobility. This identifies ten
potential. benchmarks and sets out the target to reduce
transport-related CO2 emissions to 40 percent of
1990 levels by 2050.1
Mobility The European Parliament had already adopted

the EU climate package in 2008, aiming to “reduce
development greenhouse gas emissions in the EU by 20 per

cent by 2020, increasing the proportion of re
newable energy sources to 20 percent and in
The search for better living conditions has always creasing energy efficiency by 20 percent”.2 The
led people to change location, making mobility German government has adopted a plan to pro
a basic human need. As people have settled, the mote electric mobility in order to meet these
need to transport goods, people and informa targets.3
tion has increased. Original modes of transport
1 European Commission and logistics were mainly determined by muscle Optimisations and improvements to vehicle tech
2011 power. The industrial revolution fundamentally nology based on combustion engines have already
2 European Parliament 2008 changed all of this, with the introduction of the contributed to reducing energy consumption
3 BMVBS 2009; cf. NEP steam engine, electrification and the subsequent and emissions. The target is to permit average
http://nationale-plattform
invention of the internal combustion engine. emissions of no more than 95 g/km from 2020.4
elektromobilitaet.de
4 UBA 2012, p. 41; Railways and motor cars on dry land, and steam Despite technical progress, further efforts are
cf. Regulation (EU) transport on water, contributed to an unprece necessary to meet this target. In 2011, transport
No. 443/20095 dented “compression” of space and allowed for (mainly on roads) accounted for 29 percent of final

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2.4 — Ecology 115
1.1% 8.2 %
Mineral oil products 13.3% 4.5 % 20.3 %
Gases 19.4 %
Electricity 7.0%
(including renewable)
Distant heating
Renewable heating
Coal and lignite
Biofuels 19.3%
Other Trade
Households Commerce 36.3 % 30.4 %
26.2 % Services
39.9 % 16.2 %
4.3% 2.9% 1.5 % 4.0 %

6.7% 0.3 %
Industry Transport
17.0 %
28.2 % 29.5 %
2.4 %
31.6%
Total 2,542
35.0 % terawatt-hours (TWh)
94.2 %
Fig. 1
energy consumption.5 (Fig. 1) In 2016, transport leisure (35 percent), whilst other traffic-intensive Fig. 1 End energy consump-
still accounted for 29.5 percent of final energy sectors included employment (18 percent) and tion by sector and energy
consumption, whereby 90 percent of fuels were retail (16 percent).10 Traffic areas are a further source, 2016
oil-derived.6 noteworthy and resource-intensive aspect, even

Making the transport sector independent of fossil though they are only fully used during short, peak
5 UBA 2011
fuels remains a challenge. Switching to environ time periods (Fig. 5, p. 116). The space needed for
6 UBA 2018 (www.umwelt-
mentally friendly modes of transport and using parked and moving traffic leads to conflict and
bundesamt.de/daten/
transport more effectively can make a very signifi space shortages, especially in cities. Transport energie/energiever-
cant contribution to reducing energy consumption, accounted for 21 ha out of a total 77 ha of land brauch-nach-energie-
even if the need and demand for individual mobil consumed per day in 2010, and yet the Federal traegern-sektoren)
ity remains very high. Government’s declared goal is to reduce the total 7 VDA 2011
daily land consumption for housing and transport 8 Statistisches Bundesamt,
Press release 04.07.2017
This is evidenced by the rising density of motor to 30 ha per day by 2020.11
9 UBA 2012
cars in Germany, going from 525 cars per 1,000 10 ibid.
inhabitants in 20117 to 548 passenger cars per As well as causing pollution and consuming space, 11 ibid.
1,000 inhabitants by 2017.8 It is further reflected the very high proportion of individual motor car 12 Arthur D. Little 2011
in the fact that, at nearly 900 bn passenger kilo traffic in cities also causes major congestion. At
metres, the volume of private motor transport present, 60 percent of all kilometres travelled are
accounted for 75.8 percent of the modal split (the located in the urban setting. If the total distance
share of traffic volume accounted for by various travelled were to triple by 2050, this would cause
transport modes) in 2009.9 In 2009, the lion’s the time each individual spent in traffic jams to
share of passenger kilometres were travelled for increase to 106 hours per annum.12 AS

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All means of transport Bicycles Boats

TGV Horses Buses and cars Aeroplanes
100,000
[m / person and day]

10,000
Fig. 2 Transport growth

and breakdown, France
Fig. 3 Traffic including
pedestrians and cyclists
1,000
between 2002 and 2009,
Germany [in bn kilometres
per capita]
Fig. 4 Problem of unbal-
anced transport infra 100
structure capacity use,
daily pattern by purpose,
Brunswick (DE)
Fig. 5 Interplay between
traffic and individual needs 10
1800 1850 1900 1950 1990
Year
Fig. 2
Private vehicle transport Air traffic Private errand Education

Public transport Pedestrians Work errand Leisure
Rail transport Bicycles Retail Work
900 350,000
Workday traffic Tue –Thu
[bn passenger kilometres]
300,000
750
[bn passenger kilometres]
250,000
600
Further information 450
200,000
• BMVI (ed.): Verkehr in Zahlen 2017/2018. 150,000

Hamburg 2017 300 80 100,000
• Infas; DLR: Mobilität in Deutschland 2008
150 40 50,000
(MiD 2008). Bonn/Berlin 2010
• Kuhnert, Nikolaus; Ngo, Auh-Linh: Post-Oil 0 0 0
City. Die Geschichte der Stadt der Zukunft. 2002 2005 2008 2009 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Daytime
In: ARCH+ 196–197/2010 Fig. 3 Fig. 4
Work
Effects of
transport demand
Housing Education Satisfying people’s transport needs has an envir at any time. Instead, mobility needs are increas
Transport
onmental cost. The challenge for the future will ingly being met by a variety of means, which are
Result of people
and goods changing be to balance these needs with people’s social selected according to a range of factors including
physical location concerns and sustainable urban development. convenience, availability, cost and environmental
Transport generates many measurable environ impact. These behaviour changes provide excel
mental impacts (noise, particulate air pollution, lent opportunities to promote sustainable trans
CO2, and nitrogen oxides). port and urban planning. This can be achieved by
Leisure Retail
Mobility behaviour has already begun to change offering compatible transport chains, and espe
in society. Free mobility is no longer expressed cially by promoting environmentally friendly and
by using the private motor car to reach any point sustainable means of transport. JL
Fig. 5 Mobilität – Möglichkeit,
Ziele erreichen zu können Brought to you by | University of Michigan-Flint
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2.4 — Ecology 117
Action Areas
Mobility and Transport
Jü r gen Laukemp er, Antonel la Sgobba
M
aking mobility inde Planning and design
pendent of fossil fuels Cities are seeking to balance planning and design
is an important goal of measures aimed at reducing or avoiding nega
sustainable planning. tive effects of traffic, with the effort to ensure and
Being networked has improve resident mobility and to safeguard urban
become a “basic need” supply.
in this age of informa In doing so, they pursue new approaches and para
tion technology and glo digms: the compact city, the city of short distances,
balisation. This demand is met not only by the or the mixed city.1
internet, but also by an increasingly efficient in
frastructure network that closely links long- and The highly developed countries’ transition from
short-haul transport. Today, this link is seen as a industrial to service societies allows functions
location advantage for cities which look to survive separated during the modernist era to be recon
1 Speer 2011
in competition and which have a global and local nected. This has the potential to shorten routes 2 SRU 2012
presence. between homes and jobs and reduce the negative 3 Difu 03/2011
The city is a dense network of paths, streets, axes, impacts of commuting. 4 Stockburger 2012
squares, and digital infrastructures. The world
now faces a historic paradigm shift which requires Much of the population wants to work in the city
interdisciplinary discussion at all levels (social, and live in the countryside, indeed the lack of
political, technological and environmental) includ affordable housing in key centres soon makes this
ing all stakeholders engaged in shaping sustain a necessity, especially for families. This, however,
able mobility – from administrations, urban plan generates even more traffic. On the other hand,
ners and politicians through to infrastructure commuter traffic can be reduced through more
service providers, energy providers, financial dense urban development instead of suburban
institutions, motor manufacturers, and urban isation. The modal split for passenger transport,
residents. The future of urban mobility lies in i.e. the distribution of traffic among different
networking, integrating a wide range of services, modes of transport, shows that the proportion of
developing low-emission energy-efficient solu individual motor transport is lower in core cities
tions, and providing an adaptable, flexible trans than in suburban or rural areas (Fig. 2, p. 118).2
port infrastructure. The share of individual motor transport rises from
the city centre to the periphery (Fig. 3, p. 118).3
The extent of motor car use also depends on popu
Minimising traffic lation density. In Germany, cities with more than

1 million inhabitants have 322 cars per 1,000 inhab
itants, whilst cities with less than 500,000 inhab
Many cities and professional circles have already itants have 498 cars per 1,000 inhabitants.4
shifted away from the car-oriented city to strive
for sustainable mobility and an environmentally- Reducing private motor car use in modal splits
friendly city. (Fig. 1, p. 118). is an important task for the future. The eco-

Authenticated
Generating traffic Distributing traffic Mode of transport Displacing traffic
Activity needs Destination? Mode of transport Route?

Models
Data
Spatial Undirected Directed Modal split Traffic

structure transport demand transport demand strengths
Avoiding traffic Displacing traffic Making traffic

bearable
Fig. 1
5 Stadt Freiburg 2008 and bike-friendly city of Freiburg aims to reduce commit to live without a car gain access to pub
6 Breitinger 2012, cf. UBA private motor car use to as little as 28 percent by lic transport and car-sharing. Collective garages
2016 2020, shifting the balance towards walking, cyc on the periphery provide parking lots for homes
7 Frey 2011; https://frei-
ling and public transport. The city’s transport without on-site parking spaces. The neighbour
burg-vauban.de/verkehr/
8 RASt06 – Richtlinien für development plan (Verkehrsentwicklungsplan hood is not completely traffic-free, but largely
die Anlage von Stadt- VEP 2020) sets out specific measures such as traffic-calmed. Along with the city’s guiding
straßen extending public transport and cycle paths, traf principle of short routes, this mobility concept
fic calming, concentrating traffic, and parking significantly improves residential and environ
management.5 mental quality. Vauban is currently considered to
Private non- Public transport have one of the highest child densities in Frei
motor transport Private motor Freiburg has provided cyclists with 500 km of burg. Nonetheless, its residents will grow older
(pedestrians,
non- cyclists) transport
100
Private Public transport cycle paths and a bicycle station providing park and become more car-dependent. It remains to
[%]
motor transport Private motor

90 (pedestrians, cyclists) transport
ing spaces for around 1,000 bicycles, bicycle be seen whether the Vauban concept is flexible
100 34% 37% 32% 33% rental and a repair workshop at the railway sta enough to adapt to demographic change.7
[%]
80
90 tion. In 1991, the city introduced an eco-ticket
70 34% 37% 32% 33%
80 9%
6% 5% (RegioKarte), combining all public transport in The 2006 German guidelines for the construc
60
70 15% one tariff. tion of urban roads (Richtlinien für die Anlage
50 6% 5%
60 9% von Stadtstraßen RASt06) reflect an environ
40 15% Whereas speed limits are widely accepted in resi mentally compatible approach to transport plan
50 57% 48% 62% 62%
30 dential areas, the proposal to implement a blanket ning. The guidelines set out “a balanced consid
40
20 57% 48% 62% 62% 30-kph zone throughout the city is controversially eration of all use requirements for road space”
30
10 discussed. Advocates emphasise safety and the and takes issues related to urban planning and
20
0 reduction of noise emissions, whilst opponents traffic, design and the environment into account.
10 Total Inner Built-up Rural emphasise that slowing urban traffic would gene Street cross-sections are not determined by traf
cities areas areas
0 rate bottlenecks, congestion and displacement fic volume alone. This approach aims to create
Fig.
1002 Total Inner Built-up Rural
traffic.6 high-quality spaces by balancing the amount of
[%]
cities areas areas

90
51% 45% 34% 27% space for vehicles, pedestrians, cyclists and for
100
[%]
80 The burden on residential areas can be expected the ground floor uses of the adjoining buildings.
90
70 51% 45% 34% 27%
13%
to rise if key routes within the traffic network are For example, it states that 40 percent of available
80
60 no longer prioritised – for example by allowing space should be dedicated to the carriageway,
70 22%
50 13% the same speeds on all roads – as drivers would with 30 percent of remaining space flanking either
60 26% tend to choose the shortest route. Banning car side.8
40 22%
50
30
23% traffic has been investigated and implemented in
26%
40 the context of concepts for low-car and car-free Park-and-ride facilities on urban outskirts aim to
20 23%
30 26% 29% 44% 60% mobility, but only works at the neighbourhood reduce traffic density and the need for parking
10
20 level in residential and mixed areas. Vauban in space in the city centre. Demand for parking spaces
0
10
26%
Inner
29% 44%
Inner city Urban
60%
Outlying Freiburg is an example of a neighbourhood where in the city could be reduced by up to 80 percent
0
city periphery periphery suburb a largely car-free living concept was delivered as by strategically locating park-and-ride facilities
Inner Inner city Urban Outlying a flexible and mixed model of living without cars along key access routes and near public transport
city periphery periphery suburb
and parking. Households which contractually stops, offering alternative mobility services, rais
Fig. 3
Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 119
Fig. 1 Principles of sustain

able mobility: avoid, shift, and
design transport for compati-
bility. Demonstrated as part
of the so-called four-step algo-
rhythm of transport prediction.
Fig. 2 Modal split of passen-
ger traffic according to local
government type
Fig. 3 Modal split in relation to
inner-city location (SrV 2008)
Fig. 4 Introducing a tram line
into an existing street space,
Strasbourg (FR)
Fig. 4
ing long-stay parking fees in the inner city, or of materials and the design of transport stops
introducing urban congestion charges.9 and integrating the tram into the public space.
Banning car traffic in city centres risks shifting Six tram lines covering 55.5 km of ground-level
housing, jobs and retail to other areas (e.g. green- routes, 560 km of cycle paths, and the “Velhop”
field shopping centres, business and service loca bike-share scheme with 4,400 bicycles set up in
tions), especially if these are dependent on car 2010 are only a few of the measures implemented.
use. On the other hand, city-wide parking man Under the banner of “Strasbourg, une ville en
agement could optimise the use of parking lots, marche” (Strasbourg, a city in motion), the city
offering evening long-stay parking to residents aims to further promote walking for distances
and short-stay daytime parking to visitors. Neigh of less than 1 km by 2020. The design of street
bourhood car parks can also achieve high use space remains a key step towards creating more
rates, as they can compensate daily, weekly and attractive walking routes in order to achieve this
annual fluctuations. Reducing urban car traffic target.12
to a minimum offers further benefits in terms of
lower emissions and improved housing quality,
which make cities more attractive. Many Euro Mixing traffic
pean cities have already begun to remove traffic
and reclaim public space. “Shared Space” has become a fixed term for
inner-city zones where special rules apply. These
Danish architect Jan Gehl argues in favour of differ somewhat from traditional pedestrian zones
liberating the city from cars to reconquer public or traffic-calmed areas, such as those described
space as a space for social life. In Copenhagen, in the German road traffic ordinance (Strassen
many streets and squares in the city centre have verkehrsordnung StVO). Shared spaces put all
been converted into pedestrian areas in the course modes of transport on an equal footing. Vehicle
of the last 50 years. Between 1962 and 2000, the speed is limited and traffic is expected to regulate
traffic-calmed and pedestrian area increased from itself without traffic signs and lanes. The blind
15,800 m2 to almost 100,000 m2.10 Copenhagen are the only user group to receive a system of
is also one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in guided routes. This approach prioritises creating
the world. In 2016, 41 percent of commuters trav highquality spaces, whereby some points are seen
elled by bicycle. The political goal is to increase as critical, and shared space solutions are only
the share of bicycle journeys to work and school considered suitable for low traffic volumes in
to 50 percent by 2025.11 small towns or in manageable inner-city areas.
Other cities have adopted similar approaches. A positive aspect is that shared spaces allow street
Strasbourg has been pursuing a “mobilité durable” space to be used and shared more flexibly. Urban
(sustainable transport) strategy based on sustain development requires public space to be more
9 Meyer 2013, p. 129
able mobility and enhancing public space since usable, as more and more people use the same
10 Gehl / Gemzøe 2006
the 1990s. The city converted a former main road space for increasingly varied transport modes. 11 City of Copenhagen
and reintroduced a tram to the city centre in 1994. The concept of shared space is not new, especially 2017
(Fig. 4) Great attention was given to the quality in the historical urban context. 12 Ville de Strasbourg 2011

Authenticated
Fig. 5
Fig. 5 Shared Space, Exhib Around the time of the 2012 Olympics, London public transport very considerably. Where
ition Road, London (GB) converted the inner-city Exhibition Road to adequate space has been provided from the out
Fig. 6 Lower energy con- create a shared space. The street space was re set, vehicle lanes can be rededicated to rail tracks.
sumption thanks to electric
designed to give greater importance to pede In Copenhagen, vehicle lanes were rededicated
vehicles. These consume
only a quarter of the energy strians and tourists, who had previously only to bicycle traffic. Today’s designs should already
used by petrol and diesel been allowed a third of street space. Dixon Jones provide these opportunities for future change.
vehicles if they make use of Architects designed a chequered paving which
renewably generated elec- apparently contradicts the street layout to fol Traffic space can also be reduced in terms of car
tricity. low patterns of pedestrian movement, treat parking. This requires thinking about allocating
ing the streetscape as a single coherent space parking space to the public instead of private indi
(Fig. 5).13 AS viduals. Many private garages are used as add
itional storage space instead of serving their
original use, and this leaves vehicles parked in
Using traffic areas public space.
more flexibly Sharing the use of parking lots can reduce the need
Reducing available traffic space and using it for space, e.g. in larger residential units. Space
efficiently is essential for sustainability. It is rec can be reduced by sharing parking spaces between
ommended that traffic space in new develop residents and service or office workers, provided
ments should initially be dimensioned to meet that they do not need to use the space at the same
short- to medium-term needs but designed in time. Whilst residents mainly need space to park
such a way that it can be easily expanded, adapted their cars during the night and at weekends, office
or converted later if necessary, both for individual workers need it during daytime working hours.
transport and for public transport. Passenger Models of this kind must make sure that enough
rail transport only makes sense from a certain car parking spaces are reserved to be available to
13 Schabel 2012 traffic volume, but it tips the modal split towards residents at any times. JL

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2.4 — Ecology 121
Petrol and diesel vehicles Electric vehicles Energy consumption

45
Number of vehicles [M]
Energy consumption [%]

40
100
35
30 80
25
60
20
15 40
10
20
5
0 0
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 2055
Fig. 6
Innovative tech while driving to zero. Today however, limited

vehicle availability – partly due to long recharge
nical approaches periods, and partly due to their small range – pre
sents a major disadvantage. In the foreseeable
future, adapted use, especially in urban traffic,
Technical innovation can help reduce the negative will be decisive for the spread of electric vehicles.
impact of transport (e.g. by reducing emissions The distances covered here are usually short, and
and the risk of accidents causing personal injury charging stations by the roadside or in parking
and damage to property). At the same time, bays and battery exchange systems can extend
technological development, information techno vehicle range. 14 BMVBS 2012
logy and social change influence and accelerate
the development of new mobility concepts. Inno Integrating vehicle charging infrastructure is an
vative solutions for urban mobility already exist, important design task in terms of urban space.
but their influence on cities and neighbourhoods Charging facilities, such as columns, could also
has not yet been fully researched. perform other functions such as lighting, provid
ing traffic information, payment of parking fees
etc. If charging points are located in key urban
Technical development locations, car owners can use charging periods for
other tasks.
of the motor car
Developments in vehicle technology enable fuel- In future, charging columns could be replaced
efficient, low-emission mobility. However, the by induction loops embedded in the road sur
“diesel scandal” and false consumption data have face, which would charge the vehicles by means
severely damaged confidence in motor industry of electromagnetic induction. However, this would
engineers and managers. Legislation and strict significantly increase the requirements for
monitoring are unavoidable if emissions are to be planning supply and disposal lines in the road
limited. space.
Tougher regulation generally accelerates technical Electric mobility makes the connections between
development. For example, vehicle noise is energy, mobility and city or architecture even
reduced through quieter engines, encapsulations clearer. It is now common practice at least to pro
and quieter tyres. Noise can be reduced even more vide for charging points in parking areas in new
by reducing speeds and using other drive tech buildings. Pilot projects such as Effizienzhaus Plus
nologies such as electric motors. At speeds of in Berlin have successfully investigated the pos
40 kph or less, noise can be reduced to the extent sibility of integrating electric cars into an overall
that this presents a pedestrian hazard if environ solar energy concept to power the house and the
mental noise is not massively reduced. car.14 Because of electric vehicles’ drawbacks,
Using renewable energy can reduce emissions industry has also spent decades investigating other

Authenticated
Car sharing centre

Video conference
Friends
Home
Social media
Roadside rescue Images Augmented reality
Congestion advice Service

Office Weather News Music
Address book
Booking Emergency call
Calendar
Navigation EMail Films
Transport data
Maps
Online shopping
Download
Fig. 7
drives such as hydrogen. This can also achieve Guided traffic and
zero emissions if the hydrogen is generated by information technology
regenerative energy. Advantages would include
vehicles’ much greater range, but high cost is cur Even today, traffic control systems can raise road
rently still a major disadvantage. capacity by around 10 to 15 percent, either to make
traffic flow better and thereby reduce exhaust
In the transition period, hybrid drive systems fumes, or to fit more traffic on the same road space.
(e.g. plug-in hybrid) are common. The number However, this usually relates to higher-level roads.
of different drive technologies available is set Further improved traffic monitoring systems help
to increase in future and will require a more map movement patterns in real time, so that road
flexible supply network. The current structure of side control technology or mobile information
an increasingly thinly spread network of filling devices can guide vehicles to use road space more
stations will have to be replaced by much more evenly. These approaches must take data protec
adaptable and diverse supply systems. In addition tion issues into account and implement suitable
to individual filling stations, there will also be urban design measures which avoid unwanted
other supply systems – in households and in pub traffic shifts, e.g. into residential areas. Advances
lic areas. in information technology help create appropri
ate parking information systems in park-and-ride
Innovation has a very positive effect in the field facilities to link individual and public transport
of technical possibilities for avoiding road traffic more effectively. Information about available car
collisions. This makes it much easier to mix very parking spaces, bookings and payments can be
different traffic flows. For example, optical sys processed via the same system. Technically, this
tems could detect other road users’ behaviour requires the installation of suitable roadside infra
patterns and either warn them in time or auto structure for detectors to indicate free parking
matically avoid a collision by intervening in the spaces. Information technology could make traf
system. fic data and other information, e.g. on energy
consumption or events, as well as communication
Parallel to this, autonomous and digitally net options such as video conferences etc. available
worked driving is currently developing at a rapid in-car (Fig. 7).
pace. Benefits include more effectively meeting
individual needs (door-to-door transport, no need
to look for a parking space, age-appropriate driv Micro-mobility
ing) as well as a higher sharing rate, improved
traffic control, and less traffic looking for parking Innovations such as the electrically powered two-
spaces. Research to look into specific benefits and seaters developed by various car manufacturers
downsides (higher vehicle density, increased indi (Fig. 8) also have a very positive effect on short-
vidual motor traffic, data protection, etc.) is still haul transport behaviour. Electric bicycles help
ongoing. older people cycle longer distances and make it
Fig. 8
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2.4 — Ecology 123
Authorised drivers 1,800,000 25,000
Carpool vehicles
25,000
Carpool vehicles
23,000
1,600,000 23,000
21,000
21,000
1,400,000 19,000
19,000
17,000
17,000
1,200,000
15,000
15,000
1,000,000 13,000
13,000
11,000
11,000
800,000
9,000
9,000
300,000 7,000
7,000
5,000
5,000 Authorised drivers, fixed
200,000 Authorised drivers, fixed location offers
Authorised drivers, open
3,000 Authorised drivers, open street-based
3,000 location offers
location offers
Carpool vehicles, fixed lo
0 1,000 Carpool vehicles, fixed location
Carpool vehicles, open s
1997 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 101,000
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 2018 Carpool vehicles, open street-based location
7 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 2018
Fig. 9
possible to travel to and from work without too anywhere within the carpool’s operating radius
much effort. Segways help cover larger distances after completing their journey. Users could pay
in the city centre in a comfortable, space-saving by mobile phone, with fees charged only for the
and environmentally friendly way. period of actual vehicle use and all costs includ
ing parking fees included in the basic price. This
In urban planning terms, however, this means could be further improved if car-sharing pro
that three traffic streams with different speeds viders were networked and vehicles were inter
must be taken into account: firstly, pedestrians changeable. Flexible models help adapt solutions
and Segways; secondly, cyclists, electric bicycles, to individual mobility needs. Increased periods
pedelecs and low-speed scooters; and thirdly, more of active use would significantly reduce the over
motorised traffic. These streams each require all number of vehicles needed and also reduce
separate lanes on busy main routes. demand for parking spaces. The same applies to
bike-sharing schemes for bicycles and electric
bicycles.
Carsharing However, appropriate – joined-up and dedicated
– parking lots for carsharing or carpools would
Cars today no longer symbolise status or freedom have to be provided at interchanges between Fig. 7 The car as a mobile
(of movement), instead they are mainly seen as transport modes, and corresponding legal frame communication centre
Fig. 8 Electric scooter
means of transport and locomotion. People no works created, in new urban developments. User-
Fig. 9 Development of car-
longer need exclusive access to their own car at friendly billing systems for all means of transport pools in Germany
all times, but cars must be available at short notice (long- and short-haul public transport, car and Fig. 10 Cabletren Bolivaria
when necessary. (Fig. 9). bike sharing etc.) would ease change and help no de Petare, Caracas (VE)
This social change has contributed to a range of reduce the overall urban traffic load. 2013
other, more flexible models of vehicle use, such
as carsharing, gaining popularity as an alternative
to individual car ownership. Innovative transport
Car-sharing schemes allow cars to be booked to Innovative means of transport, such as driverless,
match specific needs. In cities, for example, this computer-controlled cabs, are being explored
makes it easier to switch to electric vehicles for for inner-city public transport (Fig. 10). At the
short distances whilst renting larger vehicles with same time, intensive research is being conducted
hydrogen or combustion engines for longer dis into autonomous individual vehicles. All of these
tances or holiday trips. However the disadvantage concepts are often discussed in the media. In terms
tends to be that vehicles must be returned to the of sustainability however, it remains questionable
starting point of the journey. whether they save energy for transport and spare
Thus, more flexible car-sharing models would urban and open land from being used for roads,
be ideal. For example, users might use a mobile or whether they in fact create further demand due
app to book the nearest available car and leave it to higher resource consumption.
Fig. 10
Authenticated
Central relay station

Carrier 1 Carrier 1
Carrier 2 Carrier 2
Carrier 3
Carrier 3
Fig. 11 a b
Further information
• Albers, Markus: “Eines für alle”. In: Brand Eins
Urban logistics Fiscal and legal
03/2011
• Adler, Michael: Generation Mietwagen. Die neue
Delivery traffic for households and businesses is
increasing dramatically due to internet shopping,
and accounts for a significant share of traffic
instruments
Lust an einer anderen Mobilität. Munich 2011
• Brake, Matthias: Mobilität im regenerativen Zeit in city centres. New distribution systems could Taxation, legislation or financial tools can in
alter. Was bewegt uns nach dem Öl? Hanover 2009 help solve this problem, e.g. through underground fluence behaviour through incentive or penalty
• Canzler, Weert; Knie, Andreas: Die digitale distribution systems. Goods could be delivered systems. Examples include noticeably raising
Mobilitätsrevolution. Vom Ende des Verkehrs, wie
to a central point and distributed using a pipe mineral oil tax to reduce individual motor traf
wir ihn kannten. Munich 2016
• Canzler, Weert; Knie, Andreas: Einfach aufladen. line or underground routes (cf. Potsdamer Platz fic, and making e-mobility more attractive in
Mit Elektromobilität in eine saubere Zukunft. pp. 228ff.). e.g. with electric vehicles, so that sur relative terms, as well as significantly reducing
Munich 2011 face transport routes are not burdened by vehicles. public transport cost (higher subsidy) to encourage
• Heß, Anne; Polst, Svenja: Mobilität und However, retrofitting such systems as part of urban switching to public transport.
Digitalisierung: vier Zukunftsszenarien. Gütersloh regeneration projects is very costly.
2017
In an integrated urban distribution system, goods Congestion charging – depending on the model
• Maurer, Markus et al.: Autonomes Fahren.
Technische, rechtliche und gesellschaftliche
could be delivered to a central unit (relay centre), – can completely discourage car trips into the city
Aspekte. Heidelberg 2015 re-sorted for individual customers, reloaded into centre or offer staggered prices to postpone jour
• Schindler, Jörg; Held, Martin; Würdemann, Gerd: special vehicles (e.g. small electric delivery vans), neys and help reduce peak loads. However, it is
Postfossile Mobilität. Wegweiser für die Zeit nach and delivered to the respective customers (Fig. 11). important to consider that sharp price rises, e.g.
dem Peak Oil. Bad Homburg 2009 However, legal frameworks for systems of this for car traffic or parking space, can disadvantage
• Schneider, Manuel: Post-Oil City. Die Stadt von kind have so far proved challenging. low-income road users.
morgen. In: Politische Ökologie 124. Munich 2011
Deutsche Post DHL has responded to growing
• Sperling, Daniel, Gordon, Deborah: Two Billion
Cars. Driving Toward Sustainability. Oxford 2010 demand for parcel deliveries with pick-up service Measures to directly influence car trips have fewer
• Yay, Mehmet: Elektromobilität. Theoretische points (“Packstation”), distributed throughout social impacts. The choice of transport depends on
Grundlagen, Herausforderungen sowie Chancen the city. This has saved many tonnes of CO2 in criteria such as comfort, but also on the duration of
und Risiken der Elektromobilität, diskutiert an den parcel delivery.15 the trip. Slip lanes for buses and completely segre
Umsetzungsmöglichkeiten in die Praxis. Frankfurt Regulations for fixed night-time and early morn gated bus lanes have already been implemented in
am Main. 2012
ing delivery times and the use of low-noise electric urban planning. Further possibilities include giving
• Zierer, Maria Heide; Zierer, Klaus: Zur Zukunft
der Mobilität. Eine multiperspektivische Analyse vehicles can help relieve city centres very consid public transport preferential treatment at traffic
des Verkehrs zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts. erably. However, the social burden of night-time lights, reducing permitted maximum speeds, and
Wiesbaden 2010 work must be offset. introducing gateway traffic lights regulating the

Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 125
Fig. 11 Principle of urban

logistics
a without central relay
station
b with central relay station
Fig. 12 Vision for the
Boston / Washington region
in 2030, Höweler + Yoon
Architecture (1st Prize Audi
Future Award 2012)
Fig. 12
inflow into areas. However, speed limits on main Visions for the 15 Deutsche Post AG 2010
16 www.moovel.de;
roads often generate detours through residential
areas, as these are quicker for short distances with
low speed differentials.
city of the future www.tripgo.com,
www.qixxit.de;
cf. www.guide2wear.eu
Regardless of the many approaches to solutions, 17 www.odenwaldmobil.de,
If restrictions are too severe, however, entire sec the future of mobility is still open. In the light of www.kombibus.de,
tors or professional groups that depend on vehicles digitalisation and the aim of decarbonising soci www.door2door.io
may be excluded from cities. ety, various research institutes are working inten 18 Merki 2008, p. 76
sively to define possible scenarios for developing
As has been explained above, mobility can be mobility.
improved significantly by using mobile smart
phone information systems to integrate individual Whereas the recent decades of modern mobi
means of transport into a network. Integrated lity can be described as faster, more frequent,
information, booking and accounting systems further-reaching, increasing, more convenient,
make it easy to choose the best means of transport cheaper and safer.18 future urban mobility will
and interchange between transport modes. Smart also be more networked, multimodal, intelligent,
phone apps which help identify the best mobility cleaner, quieter, space-saving, even safer and more
solution while providing general information about social. All of the different visions, however, make
the city have long been available.16 In rural areas it clear that transport infrastructure will need to be
too, digitalisation can improve residents’ mobility adapted, not least because of requirements which
and their impact on the climate. Apps can re- are changing the ever more quickly.
organise and improve the transport of people and This also requires infrastructure to be designed
goods. Pilot projects for sharing private vehicles, for greater flexibility, creating structures which
combined passenger and goods buses, or on- can be adapted to changing needs and require
demand public transport are already a reality in ments at reasonable cost, rather than being “as
Germany.17 JL phalted” for eternity. More efficient and attractive
mobility interfaces must be promoted in order
to ensure that different mobility options can
be successfully networked in digital and spatial
terms. AS

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Challenges
Energy
Gregor C . Gras s l, Olaf Hildebrandt
T
he Club of Rome report pre- humans and ecosystems can be prevented only by
dicted “The Limits of Growth” consistently reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
as early as 1972.1 In 1980, the Nonetheless, the global trend runs contrary to
German Institute for Applied these efforts: global CO2 emissions increased by
Ecology (Öko-Institut e. V.) approx. 2.3 percent per year until 2013, and CO2
presented an alternative to the emissions today are around 62 percent higher
Federal Government’s official than in 1990. Despite economic growth, emissions
energy policy, in which it pro- since 2013 have risen less rapidly, to reach around
posed supplying Germany’s energy needs whilst 36 bn tonnes in 2016. An increase of 0.2 percent is
completely rejecting nuclear energy and energy expected for 2017. Due to accelerated economic
from crude oil (Fig. 1).2 growth and the relocation of production from the
US and Europe to Asia, China is now the main
Consistent energy-saving measures and higher emitter, accounting for 28 percent, followed by
efficiency were the central building blocks in this the USA (around 15 percent) and the European
forecast for restructuring to create a demand- Union (just under 10 percent). In China, average
oriented, decentralised energy industry.3 In the emissions in 2016 reached 7.2 tonnes per capita
1990s, energy policy focused on strategies to pre- (US: 17.57 tonnes). Despite improved efficiency
vent climate change. Strategies for efficient energy and the increasing use of renewable energies, the
use also played a key role in packages of measures overall global trend continues to rise as a result of
put forward by various German parliament com- improved living standards, higher demands on
missions.4 residential and commercial buildings and their
infrastructure, and increasing mobility.5 Permis-
International experts have long agreed that the sible CO2 emissions per capita would have to be
global atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse reduced to 2.0 – 2.5 tonnes per annum by the year
gases have increased significantly since the 18th 2050, in order to achieve climate protection targets
century, as a result of human activities such as in the long term.
deforestation and the consumption of fossil fuels.
1 Meadows 1972 Since 1906, the global mean ground-level temper- The German government has set itself the ambi-
2 Krause 1980 ature has risen by about 0.8 K. This warming trend tious goal of reducing CO2-emissions in Germany
3 ibid.
has accelerated significantly over the past decades by 40 percent by 2020 and 85 percent by 2050
4 Enquete Kommission
and is now progressing at 0.15 K per decade (Fig. 2). (Fig. 4). The share of renewable energies in elec-
1990
5 PBL 2012 The effects are well-known, such as the melting tricity production is to increase to 50 percent by
6 BMU 2010; UBA 2011; of Alpine, Arctic and Antarctic glaciers and snow 2030 and to 80 percent by 2050. Switching to
UBA 2013 cover, and the rise in sea levels. renewable heat energy is a legal requirement,
and extensive measures for restructuring the
International climate policy has set the goal that energy industry have been decided. This would
the global mean temperature should not increase see annual greenhouse gas emissions fall from
by more than 0.2 K per decade and a maximum of around 900 million tonnes to 200 million tonnes
2 K overall compared to the pre-industrial period. by 2050.6 CO2 emissions in Germany have been
The consequences of global climate change for reduced by around 28 percent between 1990 and

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2.4 — Ecology 127
Natural gas Oil Coal Wind + Water Sun Biomass

450
Primary energy demand [M tonnes SKE]
Fig. 1 Primary energy

400 demand and how it might
be met in the years to 2030
(excluding non-energetic
use), in coal units SKE
300 (1 kg SKE (coal equivalent) =
7.000 kcal = 29.3076 MJ =
8.141 kWh = 0.7 kg ÖE
(oil unit))
Fig. 2 Air temperature
200
between 1881 and 2018
and temperature predictions
for Germany in the years
until 2100
100 Fig. 3 The EU 20-20-20
goals for 2020
Fig. 4 Greenhouse gas
emissions from 1990 to 2017
0 and German targets for 2050
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Fig. 1
Individual value Range between different climate simulations 100
[%]
Linear trend Median value (A1B scenario) as from 2001 -20 %
14
Air temperature [ºC]
80
13
12 60
11
10 40
9
20
8
+20 % +20 %
7 0
Lowering Energy Renewable
6
CO2 efficiency energies in the
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2018 2100 emissions energy mix
Fig. 2 Fig. 3
2015. A large part of this resulted from the eco- gas and electrical energy became more important.
nomic upheaval in former East Germany (“wall- Today, we can identify three groups of energy
fall profits”). Per capita emissions amounted to sources:
9.3 tonnes in 2014, compared with 12.9 tonnes in •• Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas
1990, and should be reduced to 3 tonnes per per- were formed from products of decompos- Energy
Industrial waste Agriculture
son per year by 2050. ing dead plants and animals in prehistoric Transport Waste
geological times. These highly concentrated, Households Emissions
dense fuels quickly became the preferred Business Total
1,400
Greenhouse gas emissions [M.t. CO2-equivalents]
energy source. Today, fossil fuels meet more
Generating than 85 percent of global energy demand and

just under 80 percent of energy demand in 1,200
energy Germany.
•• Nuclear energy sources are used to generate
electricity through nuclear reactions. In 2016,
1,000
The sun is the earth’s most important source of nuclear fuels were used to generate around
energy. Today’s renewable energies such as bio- 11 percent of global electricity, and around 800
mass, wind energy, hydropower and, in the long 7 percent of electricity in Germany.
term, fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas are •• Renewable energies are climate-friendly and 600
based directly or indirectly on solar energy. Wind, largely environmentally and resource-friendly
water, sun, geothermal energy and bioenergy are – unlike crude oil, coal, natural gas and uran
400
almost infinitely available energy sources. ium. Renewables ensure greater independ-
ence from energy imports and strengthen
When humans started using fire, timber was their the domestic economy. Moreover, the use of 200
only direct source of energy. Throughout history, renewable energies avoids harmful climate
coal, peat, natural oils and, especially since indus- emissions associated with considerable con- 0
trialisation in the 19th century, crude oil, natural sequential damage and costs. This explains 1990 2006 2017 2020 2030 2040 2050
Fig. 4
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700
CO2-equivalents
600
500
Efficient technologies
400
300
Renewable energies
200
100
0
Power grid
Heating oil
Natural gas
Calorific value (gas)
Electric ground-source
heat pump (mix)
Electric water-source
heat pump (mix)
District heating mix
Block heating mix
Wood pellet heating 10 kW
1 MW wood chip
heating plant and network
Solar panels
Amorphous photovoltaic
Big-scale water power
Medium-scale wind park

Fig. 5
Fig. 5 Specific CO2 emis- why it makes sense to use more renewable ments for approval are also strict. For example, a
sions in g/kWh of useful energies, not least because it is economically minimum distance of 1 km to the nearest residen-
energy, by energy source advantageous.7 In 2015, 13.7 percent of Ger- tial development is recommended for 2 MW wind
and generation systems
man energy was generated from renewable turbines in order to prevent shade and noise from
Fig. 6 End energy by use,
Germany 2015 sources. This is set to rise to 18 percent by disturbing residents.
Fig. 7 Seven steps to urban 2020. At the same time, renewable energy This means that cities must source renewable
energy planning accounted for more than 32 percent of gross energies from large wind farms, biomass produc-
Fig. 8 Correlation between electricity generation, 13.2 percent of heat, tion and other energy sources in surrounding
density and oil consumption and 5.3 percent of mobility in 2015.8 areas, or develop their own district and neigh-
through transport
bourhood networks, such as combined heat and
Fig. 5 shows the specific CO2 emissions of different power plants. Compact cities are at an advantage,
fuels and generation systems. Using efficient tech- because network losses decrease with increasing
nologies, partly in connection with environmental density.
energy sources such as geothermal energy, can
7 BMU 2012
lead to low CO2 emissions, but only the use of Dependency on time and weather places most
8 Fraunhofer ISE;
www.energy-charts.de renewable energy sources can substantially reduce types of renewable energy generation at a com-
(accessed emissions from generating electricity and heat. petitive disadvantage. This makes new storage
21.11.2017) Switching energy supply to renewable energies technologies necessary to ensure safety of supply.
presents urban planners with a major challenge. Open heating networks which ensure the supply
Whereas rural areas usually have enough space of heat and recoup excess heat, smart grids and
for solar settlement plans, biomass cultivation, other so-called intelligent city models are cur-
Lighting wind power, hydroelectric or geothermal plants, rently being tested. The aim is to develop an urban
ICT
2% 3% only a small proportion of the energy needed in energy management concept to strike an optimum
Space heating urban areas can be generated locally. The more balance between demand and energy consump-
Mechanical
energy
27 % compact and dense the city, the higher the energy tion. Area networks and neighbourhood storage
39 % demand and the less space there is to generate facilities can help extend the reach and use of local
energy. Facades can hardly be used for energy renewable electricity generation. New financial
because of mutual shading, while roof surfaces are incentives connected to the German Renewable
very small in proportion to gross floor areas and Energy Sources Act (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz
are usually used as technical areas or terraces. If EEG) aim to encourage building owners to offer
Warm they are not allocated to traffic, the few remaining rental space for photovoltaic electricity gener
Climate cooling
water open spaces are exclusively dedicated to leisure. ation and promote generating renewable energy
5%
0% Large, effective wind turbines or deep geothermal locally. So-called “sector coupling”, i.e. the inter-
Process cooling Process heating energy are powerful alternatives to in-house re- play of local heat and power supply based on
2% 22 % newable energy generation systems, but these are renewable energies, is set to gain importance in
Fig. 6 hardly possible in the urban context. The require- future. However, one of the biggest challenges in

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2.4 — Ecology 129
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7
§
Laws / Standards Vision Buildings Height Facade
Building Technical
technology intersections
(e.g. e-Mobility)
Climate Ambition
Neighbourhood Density Insulation
Energy
production
Economic models
Documents / Plans Criteria / Process
Quarter Orientation Shading
Light
Motivation & District / City / Building Materials,

Environment added value Region embedded energy Warm water Process
typologies
Foundation Objectives & Scale and Urban design Standards (Technical) Synergies
Analysis Strategy level of solution Details
Fig. 7
urban planning is that specialist energy plan- account for more than 41 percent of end energy
ning is not generally integrated planning yet, and consumed in Germany. In housing for example,
there is no standardised procedure for this. The space heating accounted for around 69 percent
“seven steps towards an urban energy concept” of end energy consumed.
80,000
Annual oil consumption per resident [l]

according to Grassl set out a route to objectively
finding a sustainable energy solution and are open In Germany, a noticeable trend towards greater Houston
to either centralised or decentralised solutions. comfort and more technological equipment is Phoenix
(see Fig. 7). tending to raise useful energy demand. For exam- Detroit
ple, consumption of living space in Germany in- 60,000
Los Angeles
creased from 41.5 m2 per capita in 2006 to 46.5 m2 San Francisco
per capita in 2016. This is mainly due to decreasing Washington D.C.
Energy household size and increasing demand for per-

sonally available living space. This is particularly
Chicago
New York
consumption true in rural areas, where living space per capita is

far above the national average in some cases. In
the field of electrical appliances, the use of infor-
40,000
Melbourne
Adelaide
Sydney
Primary energy consumption describes the energy mation and communication technologies (ICT) Toronto
content of all energy sources used. It is the key has increased significantly in recent years. For
indicator for resource consumption and for the example, the number of German households with 20,000
Paris
Zurich
Frankfurt / M.
causes of greenhouse gas emissions. Final energy PCs increased from around 39 percent in 1998 to London
consumption indicates the amount of energy con- 90 percent in 2017. In the same period, the number Amster- Vienna
dam Singapore
sumed by end users after primary energy sources of mobile phones increased from around 11 percent Hong Kong
have been converted to various energy forms such to 95.5 percent. In the passenger transport sector, Moskow
0
as electricity, heat, fuels and combustibles. Useful Germany has seen transport performance increase
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
energy describes the energy which provides end steadily by 2.9 percent between 2004 and 2010, Development density [residents/ha]
users with a specific function or service, such as whereby 40 % of this transport performance is Fig. 8
heating a room, heating water, providing light, dedicated to leisure activities.
etc. Around half of the final energy is lost when it
is converted into useful energy to provide energy The challenges outlined above are just some of
services. the central themes within the current focus on 9
DIW/EEFA 2012;
energy-related urban regeneration and neigh- AGEB 2012
Aside from mechanical energy, around 27 percent bourhood development. Energy is a cross-cut-
of final energy consumed in Germany in 2015 was ting theme which features in almost all fields of
used simply to heat homes (Fig. 6).9 Space heating action in neighbourhood design. Energy fuels our
Further information
• Meadows, Dennis et al.: The Limits to Growth,
accounted for a major share of consumption in cities and also impacts on their economic and A Report for the Club of Rome’s Project on the
retail, trade and service sectors which together social life. Predicament of Mankind, New York 1972

Authenticated
Action Area
Energy
Gregor C . Gras s l, Olaf Hildebrandt, Peter Mös le,
Christopher Vagn Philipsen
E
nergy efficiency is the key strat- no more waste but only material resources. These
egy to protect the climate: the in turn provide the basis for making the same or
goal must be to improve the different products. A circular economic system
1 BMU 2010
2 Braungart / McDonough quality of life with significantly driven by renewable energies would let far more
2002 less energy input. The energy people on our planet achieve an adequate stand-
3 Sachs 1993 efficiency strategy is based on ard of living than is conceivable today.
three pillars:
•• Save energy: reduce the amount All efforts to achieve efficiency must recognise
of useful energy consumed to deliver the same sufficiency and resilient systems as tasks set by
function (or more) society. Any evaluation of sustainability must
2010 baseline scenarios •• Improve efficiency: reduce losses in convert- include the long-term, ecologically compatible
In 2009, the German Federal Environment Ministry
ing final energy into useful energy use of natural resources. This involves recog
(BMU) commissioned a study on “Long-term
scenarios and strategies for the expansion of •• Use renewable energies as key primary energy nising the limits to exploiting the energy poten-
renewable energies in Germany, taking into sources tial of biomass resources. The use of biomass
account developments in Europe and globally”. A must be appropriately embedded in agriculture
first report was published in 2009 (“Leitstudie Combining these three pillars is crucial to achiev- and forestry, as food crops take precedence over
2009”), another interim report in 2011 (“Leit- ing climate protection targets. CO2 emissions in energy crops.
studie 2010”). The aim of the research project is
Germany could be reduced by 596 million tonnes On the other hand, lifestyle and consumer habits
to develop scenarios which show how a significant
increase in efficiency and a continuous expansion per year between 2010 and 2050 (Baseline scenario as well as pressures for growth should also be
of renewable energies can achieve or exceed 2010 A). Two strategies stand out in their import questioned. For example, efficiency gains can
the energy and climate policy targets set by ance: increasing the share of renewable energy in often generate rebound effects (cf. p. 76) with
the German government's energy concept. the electricity supply on the one hand, and sav- paradoxical results, leading to increased overall
The 2010 interim report set out three baseline ing energy and increasing energy efficiency for resource consumption. Continually improving
scenarios based on equal efforts to increase
heating on the other. Increasing efficiency in the energy efficiency in housing is offset by the on
efficiency:
• Baseline scenario 2010 A: The operating lives
electricity sector is a further important segment going consumption of living space per person. In
of nuclear power plants are not extended, the (Fig. 1). These moves would account for 75 percent the sustainability debate, sufficiency represents
remaining operating lives to date will be fulfilled. of the total reduction.1 a lifestyle change leading to a new sense of pros-
The share of electric mobility in private transport perity where the relationship between material
will increase to 33% by 2050. An efficiency strategy entails using less energy for goods and immaterial needs should be better
• Baseline scenario 2010 B: Assumptions for the
the same benefit. Population growth and rising coordinated. Changing thinking is generally more
remaining lives of nuclear power plants as per
living standards are driving our linear economy challenging than adapting new technologies, but
scenario A. The share of electric mobility in private
transport will increase to 66 % by 2050, with the – production, use, waste – to its limits in terms of the “efficiency revolution” will lack direction
increased electricity demand met from renewable material supply. Rather than the supply of energy, unless it is accompanied by a “sufficiency revo-
sources. it will be the increasing shortage of raw materials lution”.3
• Baseline scenario 2010 C: The operating lives of which will trouble mankind in the medium to long
nuclear power plants are extended by an average term. The only sustainable solution is to reuse and Implementing the energy transition is thus not
of 12 years, in line with the Federal Government’s
recycle materials in biological and technical only a technical and regulatory matter but must
decision of 28 September 2010. All other assump-
tions, in particular the expansion of renewables, cycles,2 but this means that our economic system also be tackled and implemented together with
correspond to the values of the baseline scenario must be completely changed and reconfigured in the people on the ground, especially in local gov-
2010 A. order to create a circular system in which there is ernments and regions. OH, GCG, PM

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2.4 — Ecology 131
Increasing share of renewable energies in the power supply
Improving energy efficiency in heating
Improving energy efficiency in electricity
Further efficiency improvements in transport
Increasing share of renewable energies in heating
Increasing share of renewable energies in transport
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Potential for CO2 reduction 2010 – 2050 [in M t/a]
Electricity generation
Transport
Heating
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Residual CO2 emissions [in M t/a]
Fig. 1
Generating Only few renewable energy sources can match

fossil energy sources in terms of performance per
Fig. 1 Individual German
energy supply segments’
contribution to reducing CO2
energy unit. Hence the building concept must be adapted

in order to ensure the efficient and economical
use of regenerative energy sources. Systems for
between 2010 and 2050
(Baseline scenario 2010 A)
and thus remaining residual
Since the 1990s, global consumption has ex- generating energy in use today are listed by cap emissions in 2050 by sector
ceeded the available biocapacity to degrade pol- acity and purpose in Fig. 2 (p. 132). PM
lutants and regenerate resources.4 The global
ecological footprint must be reduced in order to
restore the earth’s ecological balance (cf. Chal-
lenges Lifestyle and Behaviour, p. 73) Increased
use of renewable energy resources is a key move. Energy
Renewable energy resources fall into two cat
egories: natural energy sources and renewable
raw materials. Natural energy sources are avail-
distribution
able everywhere and differ in performance and Germany enjoys exemplary high energy supply 4 WWF 2008
volume depending on the region: sun, wind, geo- security (electricity, gas, district heating). This was
thermal energy, water, outdoor air. Renewable and is based on adequate network infrastructure.
raw materials are vegetable and animal substances The power sector distinguishes supply networks
which extract as much CO2 from the atmosphere according to their function and voltage levels.
during their growth as they later emit during com- Transmission networks operate at super-high
bustion and energy production. voltage, whereas distribution networks operate
at high, medium and low voltages. Transmission
Only the energy required for processing and trans- networks transport electricity from centres of
porting these materials for incineration contrib- generation (such as major power stations) to
utes to the overall energy balance as a non-re- centres of consumption (such as conurbations,
newable primary energy. Materials such as timber industrial sites, etc.) with as little loss as possible.
(wood chips, pellets), energy crops (cereal plants, Distribution networks, on the other hand, distrib-
fodder grasses) and biogas are usually available ute power regionally and locally and ultimately
within the region, so that energy-intensive trans- connect to end consumers.
port can be kept to a minimum and oil and gas
dependency reduced. Currently, more than 820 network operators (in-
cluding four transmission network operators) run
The advantages of regenerative energy resources more than 840 electricity networks in Germany.
(Fig. 3, p. 133) include having little or no environ- These networks have a total length of more than
mental impact, and often lower energy cost, but 1.7 million km, whereby cables account for roughly
they are also offset by disadvantages. Lower and 75 percent.
fluctuating outputs usually require large areas for
generating and storing energy and thus lead to The aftermath of the Fukushima nuclear catastro-
higher investment costs. phe sparked the energy transition in Germany. This

Authenticated
System Heating Cool- Elec- Description Usual Scope:

ing tricity performance Building/
Neighbour-
hood/ City
Fossil fuels
Oil-fired boiler x Generates heat by combustion 10 kW – 5 MW B / - / -
Gas-fired boiler x Generates heat by combustion 2 kW –10 MW B / N / C
Gas-fired CHP / Motor x (x) x Generates heat and power by combustion 2 kW – 2 MW central / local
Gas turbine x x Generates heat and power by combustion 500 kW –100 MW - / N / C
Combined cycle power plant x x Generates heat and power by combustion 50 MW – 600 MW - / - / C
Absorption chiller x Uses heat to generate cold 50 kW –1.5 MW - / N / C
Compression chiller x Uses electricity to generate cold 20 kW – 5 MW - / N / C
Fossil/ renewable fuels
District heating x (x) Uses heat from combined heat and power > 5 MW - / N / C
Air /Air heat pump x x Uses heat from outdoor air via heat exchanger 2 kW – 500 kW B/ - / -
Waste water heat pump x (x) Uses heat from waste water via heat exchanger 10 kW – 500 kW B / N / -
Regenerative energies
Biomass
Wood chippings x Generates energy by burning wood centrally and locally 100 kW – 2 MW - / N / C
Wood pellets x Generates energy by burning wood centrally and locally 10 kW –1 MW B/ N / -
Timber gas production x x Heats timber to extract gas which is burned in combined > 1 MW - / N / C
heat and power plants to generate electricity and power
Plant oil CHP x x Generates energy by burning plant oil 50 kW – 2 MW - / N / -
Biogas CHP x x Generates heat and power from biogas plants 50 kW – 2 MW - / N / -
(e.g. vegetative waste, manure)
Fuel cell x x Generates heat and power, usually powered by hydrogen 50 kW – 2 MW - / N / -
or methane
Solar energy
Photovoltaic x Generates electricity from solar radiation > 0.1 kW B / N / C
Solar thermal x (x) Generates warm water for consumption and supports heating > 1 kW B / N / -
from solar radiation
Hybrid photovoltaic /solar thermal x (x) x Combines photovoltaic (1st level) and solar thermal (2ne level) > 1 kW B / N / -
Wind energy
Large turbine x Generates electricity from wind-powered generator > 1 MW - / N / C
Small turbine x Generates electricity from wind-powered generator integrated 0.5 kW –10 kW B / N / C
into building (vertical or horizontal rotation)
Geothermal energy
Geothermal collectors (x) x Horizontal heat exchangers in ca. 1 m depth 20 W/m2 B / - / -
Geothermal probes / energy piles (x) x Closed, vertical water-filled heat exchangers reaching > 2 kW/probe B / - / -
depths of 20 to 100 m
Groundwater (x) x Wells accessing groundwater, fitted with heat > 5 kW/well B / N / -
exchangers
Deep drilling x (x) (x) Uses geothermal heat from great depths (> 1,000 m) 500 kW –10 MW - / N / C
to generate heat, or possibly also drive turbines to
generate power
Fig. 2
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2.4 — Ecology 133
30
Gross cost [ct/kWh]

28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Wood
chips
Rape
seed oil
Pellets
Night-time /
heat pump
electricity
Natural gas
District
heating
Household
electricity
Heating oil
Liquid gas
Fig. 3
will involve gradually decommissioning nuclear to gas”, is still being developed and not yet eco- Fig. 2 Fuels and their uses
power plants and using more renewable energies. nomical due to the relatively low efficiency of the Fig. 3 Domestic energy cost
This grid infrastructure will need to be compre- individual processes. in € cents/kWh for different
energy sources (including
hensively reconfigured. District heating networks mainly supply individ-
VAT and transport costs;
New high-performance connections in the trans- ual neighbourhoods, districts or individual con- electricity and local gas
mission network and intelligent medium and sumers (commercial, residential, hospitals) with costs may take output price
low-voltage networks (smart grids) will be needed. heat energy in the form of hot water or steam. This into account; price and
These intelligent networks should make it possible heat energy is usually provided by the combustion purchase quantity linked
to compensate for the high volatility of electricity of fossil or renewable energy sources (natural gas, in network fuels; storage
costs taken into account)
generation from renewable energies (in particular coal, wood chips or wood pellets, biogas, etc.) or
from sun and wind), for example by controlling waste incineration. Alternative technologies (e.g.
demand (Demand Side Management). deep geothermal energy) can also be used in par-
As with power lines, the gas sector also distin- ticularly suitable regions. CVP
guishes networks according to their function and
pressure levels. The transport network consists
of long-distance gas lines (pressurised up to 200
bar), whereas the distribution network consists
of regional medium-pressure lines (up to around
1 bar) and local low-pressure lines (up to around
Energy demand
0.1 bar). The high-pressure natural gas network Energy and climate policy goals can only be
in Germany currently has a length of around achieved if the considerable potential for energy
112,000 km, whilst the distribution network with saving and climate protection is exploited at the
medium and low-pressure lines has a length of local level.
around 363,000 km. In addition, some 47 natural
gas storage facilities with a storage capacity of
23.5 bn m3 are available to compensate for peaks Local government challenges
in daily and seasonal consumption.
Local governments play a key role in protecting
The gas network is particularly significant for the climate. In addition to reducing energy con-
the energy transition because of its considerable sumption in their own properties, municipalities
storage capacity. For example, the volatile elec- can initiate and facilitate local processes. They
tricity generated in solar and wind power plants are planning and approval authorities, sometimes
could first be used to generate hydrogen (by elec hold shares in regional energy suppliers or hous-
trolysis) and then methane (from converting CO2 ing developers and are important role models for
to methane). This methane can be stored in the their citizens. Global, European or national levels
gas network and used again to generate heat or focus on adaptation costs, whereas local govern-
electricity in corresponding gas power plants if ments benefit from regional added value. Install-
required. However, this process, known as “power ing renewable energy systems on roofs, in cellars,

Authenticated
Industry Private households Transport Business and other Civil administration
Year
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
0 200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 1,000,000

CO2 emissions [t]
Fig. 4
Fig. 4 CO2 emissions for the or on municipal land, and renovating building requires all residential buildings built after 1 Jan-
industrial city of Esslingen stock mainly creates jobs for local trade. Reducing uary 2021 to be Nearly Zero-Energy Buildings
am Neckar (DE), 2007– 2015 energy consumption and using “home-made” (NZEBs) (Fig. 5).
by sector and fuel
energy means that less money leaves the region. The major saving potentials in existing buildings
Fig. 5 Final energy demand
for heating and hot water, by Policies to protect the climate also promote a sus- are a central field of action for protecting the cli-
energy standard in Germany tainable local/ regional economy. mate. In Germany, more than three quarters of
The level and distribution of energy consumption buildings were constructed before 1978 and
depends on many factors: energy quality of build- were not subject to any thermal insulation re-
ings, applications and production processes, the quirements.
use and location of neighbourhoods, the structure
and availability of supply systems and energy Aside from various technical measures, hot water
sources, the transport network, and development demand presents major savings potential.
density (Fig. 4).5 Power consumption too, is essentially user-defined
The potential for saving energy, increasing effi- and can only be reduced to a limited degree
ciency and using renewable energy sources in through building specifications, e.g. with regard
urban development planning must be identified to daylight use in offices and housing, or through
in order to achieve climate protection targets. This more efficient building services (pumps, fans, etc.).
requires good local knowledge both for analysis The key factor is the efficiency of electrical devices
and concept planning, and engagement with local and equipment, and thus the link between buying
stakeholders, particularly in industry, commerce, decisions or procurement systems and efficiency
5 Ifeu 2010 trade and services. requirements. The aim must be to consistently use
only electrical appliances with the lowest possible
consumption, implement efficient lighting and
Energy-saving efficiency ventilation concepts, and replace electrical water
heating with energy-saving systems.
strategy
CO2 emissions can be reduced by consistent
energy savings, efficiencies in the energy and
transport sectors, and the increased use of re-
newable energy sources. Today’s technically and Neighbourhood
economically efficient “Effizienzhaus” homes, and
energy-efficient older buildings require less and
less heating to provide increased thermal comfort.
scale
“Passivhaus” homes have already become the Solar and climate-friendly urban development is
new-build standard in many places. timeless and dates back to antiquity. Climate-
Germany has introduced the Building Energy Act friendly construction shaped traditional building
(GEG) in order to implement the EU Energy Per- method in arid and mountainous regions, but also
formance of Buildings Directive (EPBD), which in windy northern countries. In classical modern-

Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 135
1
until mid-2010 2
as from 2010 3
as from 2021
300
Final energy demand [kWh/m2a]
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
Current KfW funding standards
100
75
50
25
0
Existing
WSVO84
WSVO95
EnEV 2002 – 2007
EnEV 2009
KfW Efficiency house 115

(existing only)
EnEV 2014 /
Energy efficiency house 100

(existing only)
KfW Efficiency house 55 2
KfW Efficiency house 40 Plus
Passivhaus
EU building standard3
(assumed Efficiency
house 40 Plus)
Fig. 5
ism, solar construction following the “light – air for solar thermal systems and photovoltaics
– sun” motto became the central theme and guid- in terms of orientation, pitch, and section
ing principle for a healthy lifestyle. The critique •• by integrating central and semi-central supply
of unhygienic living conditions in neighbourhoods facilities (e.g. woodchip plant, solar local heat-
built during the industrial revolution generated ing) and logistics
new concepts for urban, neighbourhood and build- •• by implementing orders to use local or district
ing design which were associated with a new atti- heating supply, or bans on burning certain
tude to life. fuels such as timber or wood products
Urban planning and regeneration offers many
opportunities to design, influence and control for An energy-efficient urban layout is an essential
climate-friendly urban development. For example, for effectively and economically implementing
Fig. 6 (p. 136) highlights possibilities to influence strategies to reduce pollution from buildings and
building area’s energy consumption (and thus also supply systems.
emissions) through urban development planning.
This involves integrating key planning principles
into the overall process at the right time. The fol- Solar urban design
lowing factors influence energy consumption in
the order in which they are mentioned: In the balance of overall heating demand in the
•• compact cities, development density and com- Central European climate zone, heat from solar
pact individual buildings gains through windows compensates for some of
•• buildings, main facades and windows orien- the heat lost by transmission through the building
tated according to the sun path envelope. Solar gains essentially depend on the
•• positioning buildings for optimum mutual orientation of the building, the shading situation,
shading in the urban context and the quantity and quality of windows. As the
passive use of solar energy requires heat gains to
Only a project-specific process which takes all be used and stored locally, only a limited solar
urban planning requirements into account to arrive heat supply can actually be used. Any oversupply
at the optimum solution can create the best urban must therefore be removed through ventilation if
design for low energy consumption. This urban it is not to lead to overheating. For this reason, the
design is also influenced by technical utilities, for proportion of glass surfaces cannot be indefinitely
example: increased without negative effects. Also, heating
•• by providing roof surfaces which are suitable demand rises from a certain proportion of glazing.

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Low-energy house Passive House Standard (EnEV)

160
Heating demand in relation to solar

(south-facing) orientation [%]
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
N NE E SE S SW W NW N
Orientation
Fig. 7
Solar exploitation (the degree of solar utilisation) frontal solar orientation is also more favourable
is expressed in terms of the ratio between solar in summer, whereas east-west orientation presents
gains to substitute heating and the total solar a high risk of overheating, due especially to the
energy radiated into a room. The aim is to achieve low angle of sunrays in the afternoon hours.
the optimum ratio and create urban planning In solar urban design, it also makes sense to min-
frameworks which can put gains to good use. imise shade.
In solar-oriented urban development, there is a It is nearly impossible to create large distances

clear preference for orienting buildings to allow between buildings, because they also contradict
all homes (if possible) to benefit from good sun- dense, land-efficient development. The aim is
shine and the best possible use of passive solar thus to find a good compromise: the design must
gains. In doing so, solar gains increase in direct consider the location of building components
proportion to building energy standards when (such as balconies, bay windows, loggias), vege-
buildings are oriented towards the sun. This is tation, adjacent buildings, as well as local topog-
especially true for Passivhaus homes. raphy in their effect on sunshine and shade. It
is not necessary to completely eliminate shade
Heating demand can increase considerably when because shaded locations can be visually appeal-
buildings are rotated away from full-frontal solar ing and comfortable, and because space-shaping
orientation. Heating demand in east-west oriented structures such as perimeter blocks inevitably
buildings deviates by 50 percent, whilst it deviates always include shady areas in building corners.
by a more moderate 20 percent in buildings which Ultimately, it is about striking an overall balance
are rotated by 45 degrees (Fig. 7). of heat losses and solar gains which takes the qual-
ity of urban space into account.
Terraced layouts are particularly sensitive to be-
Factors Influence
ing rotated away from full-frontal solar orienta-
• User behaviour none
tion. Heating demand in urban layouts such as Compact urban design
perimeter blocks deviates by only 10 percent in a
• Water and electricity demand
pure east-west orientation, whereas it deviates One of the most important factors influencing
• Airtightness
• Ventilation strategy during the
by around 20 percent in layouts with individ- buildings’ heating and cooling demand is their
• Thermal bridges design stage ual blocks or detached houses. However, heat- urban compactness, i.e. the compactness of
• Compact building volume ing demand in individual buildings within perim- their design. The smaller the surface of the build-
• Energy standards eter blocks may deviate very considerably, for ing envelope (A) is in relation to the volume (V)
• Shading by plants example, in corner situations oriented away from or the net floor area (NFA) enclosed, the less
• Wind shelter the sun. heat a building loses even with the same level
• Urban density / compactness good of insulation. The A/V or A/NFA ratio becomes
• Mutual shading
Generally, it can be said that full-frontal solar smaller and thus increasingly favourable as the
• Building position
orientation has energy advantages for heating and total building volume increases. Fig. 8 illustrates
• Energy supply very good
leads to longer sunshine hours in winter. Full- the dependencies between building compactness
Fig. 6
Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 137
]
1/m
E V [ 1.2
En 1.1
an) 1.0
( g erm 0.9
o 0.8
gt
c o rdin 0.7
ac
io) 0.6
V rat
(A /0
atio .5 1
er 9 00.
lum
Vo 0. 89 8.5 0 ² na]
- .4
4 82 h/m
A
c e .4
rfa [kW
Su 75
.3 E V
n
0.3 n) E
68
.2 e r ma
o (g
61 gt
.2 o rdin
0.2 c
ac
54
.1 m and
de
ing
lh eat
47
.1
annua
ible
iss
40 P erm
.0
Fig. 8
and heating demand in housing. Building com- only make buildings less compact, but also Fig. 6 Possibilities for urban
pactness is thus the urban design tool to reduce tend to increase mutual shading. design to influence energy
consumption and emissions
building heat loss. •• Roof shape: Roofs do not significantly influ-
in cities or settlements
ence A/V ratio, as long as they do not have Fig. 7 Change in annual
Typical A/V ratios vary within a certain range complicated protrusions and setbacks. How- heating requirement of
for each housing typology: A/V ratios in typologies ever, roofs define the shading silhouette which terraced housing based on
with a very low degree of compactness (e.g. could shade neighbouring buildings. energy standard and build-
detached bungalows) can be three or four times ing orientation (full-frontal
solar orientation as reference
as high as in very compact typologies (e.g. perim- It is appropriate and helpful to design compact
value 100 %)
eter blocks or big linear or point blocks). As a buildings for purposes where energy demand is
Fig. 8 Correlation of heating
result, heating demand in these “non-compact” dominated by heating, such as housing, schools, demand and compactness in
typologies can be twice as high as in very compact and some offices. Compactness is less important different building typologies
typologies, whereby heating and insulation meet in buildings where energy demand is dominated
the same specifications. This means that housing by electricity consumption or cooling. In these
should not be detached and should include at least buildings, other strategies for energy efficiency
two floors in order to be energy-efficient. Heating must be formulated and refined specifically for
demand in typologies which meet this description the purpose.
(e.g. terraced housing) is reduced by 20 – 25 with-
out any change to building specifications. Typolo
gies of this kind also meet the goals of reducing Solar and compact
cost and land consumption.
urban design
Beyond a certain range, changes to building geom- In temperate and northern latitudes, building
etry have less impact on energy efficiency: compactness has a greater impact on heating
•• Building length: Making buildings longer than demand than optimum solar orientation. In other
25 – 30 m does not significantly increase com- words, good solar orientation does not c ompensate
pactness or improve energy efficiency. for a lack of compactness. A lot of effort is required
•• Floor plan depth: Floor plans up to 12 – 14 m in in order to make buildings which are not compact
depth are favourable. Deeper floor plans cre- meet high standards of efficiency. This effort in-
ate central areas with poor daylight which cludes rigorously exploiting opportunities for
require more energy to light well. solar gains, which requires costly high-quality
•• Building height: Up to three storeys, each add building technology. The effort of compensating
itional floor leads to an over-proportional for the disadvantages of buildings with only a
improvement in energy efficiency. The added medium degree of compactness is easier to justify.
improvement begins to decrease on the fourth Compact structures have a positive effect on
floor, and is negligible as from the fifth floor construction cost for Passivhaus buildings and
(e.g. due to lifts). offer the freedom to create Passivhaus buildings
•• Building shape: Protrusions and setbacks not even in less favourable solar situations.

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Radiation Convection Evaporation

180
Heat loss [W]
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
Air temperature [˚C]
Fig. 9
6 Wirtschaftsministerium
Baden-Württemberg 2007
Heat density for local and Well-being and healthy 7
7 following text excerpt district heating systems indoor climate
from: Bauer / Mösle /
Centrally supplying heat to a whole area (district As our “third skin”, buildings are an essential
Schwarz 2013
8 ibid.
heating) makes sense if it can be shown to be more factor for human health and quality of life. Good
9 Spath/Bauer/Rief 2010 cost-efficient or environmentally friendly than working and living conditions, high performance,
heating each building individually (local heat- creative ideas and processes, and the human
ing). The key criteria for evaluating this are heat body’s ability to regenerate and heal are all de-
Acceptable Good Comfortable (demand) density, and the density of connections pendent on a high level of well-being. A wide range
28 28
Radiation temperature [˚C]
and supply pipelines. Heat density is defined by of factors influence human well-being and bio-
development density and by energetic density, rhythms. Some of these are measurable ambient
26 26
i.e. building energy standards. Literature gener- factors, such as lighting, air temperature, humid-
ally identifies a heat density of 250 MWh/ha as ity and indoor noise; physiological factors include
24 24
a minimum threshold for economically viable health and age, whereas cultural factors include
district heating.6 education (Fig. 12). Thermal comfort depends,
22 22
Urban layouts designed with energy in mind do among other things, on clothing and activity. In-
not in themselves reduce energy demand or pol- termediate criteria for social well-being include,
20 20 but they create good conditions for effect
lution, for example, positive or negative family or work
ively and cheaply implementing strategies to relationships. Some further influences only be-
18 reduce
18 pollution through building standards or come noticeable when humans are exposed to
supply technology. Defining building energy stand- them over a longer period of time (e.g. highly
16 ards16and embedding them in urban development emitting materials such as adhesives) and elec-
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 16
frameworks 18and processes
20 22 offers
24 the greatest
26 28 tromagnetic radiation, which are being given
Air temperature [˚C] Air temperature [˚C]
energy-saving potential. It makes sense to com- increasing importance.
a
ortable mission expert consultants to support the urban
28 development process with an eye to making best Human’s thermal sense of comfort is determined
possible use of the full range of possibilities to by their bodily heat flows. Heat generated within
26 save energy. the organism must be completely released into
the environment in order to maintain thermal
24 equilibrium (Fig. 9). The human organism can
keep its internal core temperature relatively con-
22
Building scale stant within a small range, regardless of ambient
conditions and/or different physical activity. How-
ever, extreme climate conditions can stretch the
20
Energy-driven urban development aims to initiate human control mechanism to a breaking point
18 energy efficiency measures and renewable energy beyond which body temperature decreases or rises.
use in buildings. Given the close links between Thus, clothing must be adjusted to the situation,
16 buildings and urban development, we will deal or the ambient temperature modified to ensure
28 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 with energy and indoor climate in buildings in the the desired comfort. Unpleasant sweating (high
ure [˚C] Air temperature [˚C] following. evaporation rate) can be largely avoided if the
Fig. 10 b
Authenticated
21 ˚C
min. 15
Surface temperature Surface temperature

min. 14 ˚C 2.4 — Ecology min. 14 ˚C 139
Surface temperature
max. 45 ˚C (100 % occupancy)
Winter

min. 15
21 ˚C min. 21 ˚C
Surface temperature
min. 14 ˚C
max. 45 ˚C (100 % occupancy) max. 28 ˚C (100 % occupancy)
max. 65 ˚C (50 % occupancy) max. 35 ˚C (50 % occupancy)
Summer

min. 21 ˚C max. 29 ˚C
Surface temperature
min. 14 ˚C
Surface temperature Surface temperature Surface temperature
max. 45 ˚C (100% occupancy) max. 28 ˚C (100 % occupancy) max. 45 ˚C (100 % occupancy)
max. 65 ˚C (50% occupancy) max. 35 ˚C (50 % occupancy) max. 65 ˚C (50 % occupancy)
Fig. 11

min. 21 ˚C max. 29 ˚C
skin surface temperature does not exceed around Rule 2: Arrange buildings and indoor zones for Fig. 9 Human heat loss
34 °C whilst ambient temperatures stay below optimum solar gain according to ambient air
about 26 °C (Fig. 10). The human body reaches Solar heat gains can be most effectively used in temperature
Surface temperature Surface temperature Fig. 10 Surface temperature
Comfortable indoor
highest surface
max. 28temperatures around the head,
˚C (100% occupancy) housing, asmax.
each
45home
˚C (100includes both warm zones
% occupancy) max. 28 ˚C (100 % occupancy)
temperatures with appropri-
with lowestmax.
temperatures around the feet, furthest
35 ˚C (50% occupancy) (living rooms)
max.and cool
65 ˚C zones
(50 % (bedrooms). If build-
occupancy) max. 35 ˚C (50 % occupancy)
ate clothing
from the heart. It can thus be concluded that the ings are correctly aligned and indoor zones appro- a summer (short-sleeved
surface temperatures of the room envelope must priately distributed, a massive amount of solar shirt): low temperature
be adapted to human needs, in order to provide energy can be captured through glazing oriented surface radiation compen-
Surface temperature
thermal comfort. towards the sun. Solid construction methods allow satesSurface
high airtemperature
temperature.
max. 29 ˚C b wintermax. 29pullover):
(light ˚C
this heat to be stored for use even on cloudy days.
higher temperature sur-
Solar energy can also be used in buildings of other face radiation compen-
Energy- and resource-
Surface temperature
uses. Heat requirements in hotels, hospitals, and
Surface
sates low air temperature.
nursing homes aretemperature
very similar to those in housing. Fig. 11 Winter and summer
efficient
max. building design
45 ˚C (100% occupancy)
max. 65 ˚C (50% occupancy)
8
Screen-based
max.work
35 ˚Cusually prevents extensive use
(50 % occupancy) surface temperature limits
The key goal for sustainable building is to use of solar gains in office and teaching buildings. for thermal comfort
Fig. 12 Factors influencing
natural resources in order to meet user’s needs. Buildings of this kind are usually “refuelled” with
indoor sense of comfort
The following seven rules must be observed as sunlight over the weekend. Attempts are often
instructions for an energy and resource-efficient made to capture solar gains in adjacent buffer
Surface temperature
design:9 max.
spaces, such as29 ˚C
atriums or lockable double-shell
facades, rather than letting them directly impact
Rule 1: Increase requirements for thermal in on day rooms.
enclosing surface temperature
sulation with rising
Surface requirements for thermal
temperature Defining and suitably arranging building volume
air temperature
comfort max. 28 ˚C (100% occupancy) is essential for achieving good passive solar gains.
max. 35 ˚C (50% occupancy) relative humidity
Requirements for thermal comfort are generally Increased shade leads to raised power demands air movement
Factors
expressed as minimum room temperatures in from artificial lighting and has a negative impact air pressure
winter, and maximum room temperatures in on psychological well-being. air composition
summer. For example,
Surface temperatures should not
temperature Increased shade results in higher power require- electromagnetic compatibility
acoustic influences
drop below 20 – 22 °C
max. 29 ˚C in winter, or rise above ments for artificial lighting, which also leads to
visual influences
approx. 25 – 27 °C in summer, in day rooms where less psychological well-being. Careful consider-
Clothing
people spend longer periods of time. Indoor tem- ation must be given to creating good conditions
activity level
perature is generally understood as the com for air exchange.
scope for individual control
bination of the inner wall surface temperature adaptation and acclimatisation
and air temperature. Indirectly, this means that Rule 3: Exploit potentials for natural ventilation daily and annual rhythm
Conditions
surface temperatures need to be high even in win- In central Europe, using the potential of outside occupancy
ter (Fig. 11 above), which can only be achieved air to ventilate and cool buildings reduces the need psychosocial factors
with very good thermal insulation. Similarly, com- for ventilation systems to less than 30 percent of food digestion
ethnic influences
fortable summer room temperatures indirect- the year, without any loss of comfort. Depending
age
ly need minimum surface temperatures (Fig. 11 on the design, user behaviour and comfort level, gender
below), which can only be achieved with efficient it is even possible to ventilate naturally all year physical fitness
sun protection. round. Frequent low night-time outdoor tempera building structure
Fig. 12
Authenticated
tures offer great night-time cooling potential, properties, i.e. low U-values, in order to achieve
Further information except during hot periods when night tempera- high indoor surface temperatures and prevent
• Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen e. V.: tures remain above 22 – 24 °C. Designs must thus cold air falling down the inside of external walls.
Energieverbrauch in Deutschland. Daten für das
be able to adapt to changings outdoor tempera- Thermal bridges must also be avoided as much
1.–4. Quartal 2017. Berlin 2018
• Bauer, Michael; Mösle, Peter; Schwarz, Michael: tures, wind speeds and wind directions. In modern as possible, because they reduce indoor comfort,
Green Building. Guidebook for Sustainable buildings, this is achieved by computer-controlled cause severe heat loss and can lead to condensa-
Architecture. Berlin 2010 or manually operated ventilation elements which tion. Improving airtightness in buildings is import
• Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau und can be opened to different widths according to ant in all climates: “leaky” buildings raise energy
Stadtentwicklung (BMVBS): Handlungsleitfaden outdoor conditions. demand for heating in temperate and northern
zur Energetischen Stadterneuerung. Berlin 2011
climates, for cooling in hot climates, and for de-
• Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Techno
logie (BMWi) : Energie in Deutschland. Trends und Rule 4: Use building structure and mass as a ther- humidification in humid climates. Windproof
Hintergründe zur Energieversorgung. Berlin 2013 mal store sunshades, fitted to glazing panels and adjustable
• Diefenbach, Nikolaus: Bewertung der Wärme Buildings’ thermal storage capacity defines the to follow the sun path, are important elements of
erzeugung in KWK-Anlagen und Biomasse-Heiz indoor climate and the required energy demand to sustainable buildings, because they keep energy
systemen. Darmstadt 2002 a considerable extent. Lightweight buildings (e.g. demand (kWh) and effort (kW) low. The extent
• Ecofys: Energieeffizienz und Solarenergienut
containers) replicate outdoor climate nearly per- of glazing and sunshades regulates the amount
zung in der Bauleitplanung. Rechts und Fach
gutachten unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der fectly. Very massive buildings, on the other hand, of daylight entering rooms and determines the
Baugesetzbuch-Novelle 2004. Nuremberg 2006 react sluggishly. They have the advantage of direct interaction between room cooling and arti
• Hausladen, Gerhard; Liedl, Petra; de Saldanha, “smoothing” room temperatures, because heat in ficial lighting. The requirements for sunshades’
Mike: Building to Suit the Climate. A Handbook. the room heats the building mass as well as indoor shading capacity are independent of location and
Basel 2012 air. This means that the indoor air temperature use. Of course, there are very different solutions
• Hildebrandt, Olaf (ed): Stadtplanung im Klima
rises less rapidly than in light buildings. Conversely, for various climates and design objectives, but all
wandel. Seminar im Masterstudiengang Stadt-
planung an der Hochschule für Technik Stuttgart
energy must be supplied for longer when heating of these must be able to provide effective shade
(HFT) zur energetischen Stadtplanung im WS the room, for it to reach the desired temperature, and regulate light.
2017/2018 because the building mass must also be heated.
• Ministry of the Interior, Schleswig-Holstein: In the northern and Central European climate, Rule 6: Integrate active renewable energy sys-
Klimaschutz und Anpassung in der integrierten buildings’ storage capacity can be used very effect tems
Stadtentwicklung. Wuppertal/Aachen 2011 ively for passive room cooling or for reducing cool- Integrating renewable energy systems must be
• Nissler, Diana; Wachsmann, Ulrike: Statusbericht
ing energy requirements. In order to achieve a related to the overall building design. Low-exergy
zur Umsetzung des Integrierten Energie- und
Klimaschutzprogramms der Bundesregierung. noticeable effect, buildings must have massive solutions with low-temperature heating and
Pub. Umweltbundesamt. Dessau-Roßlau 2011 components. Usually, the storage capacity of high-temperature cooling systems are ideal (see
• Oberste Baubehörde im Bayerischen Staats ceilings are used to noticeably flatten the indoor Material Flows, p. 108). Thanks to their operating
ministerium des Innern: Energie und Ortsplanung. temperature curve. As a rule however, only the temperature, systems of this type can be run eco-
Arbeitsblätter für die Bauleitplanung Nr. 17. mass up to a depth of 10 cm can be thermally acti- nomically with energy sources such as geothermal
Munich 2010
vated throughout the day. and solar thermal energy, as well as passive sys-
• Stadt Würzburg: Hubland auf dem Weg zum
CO2-freien Stadtteil. Würzburg 2011–2013 tems such as night cooling. Combined heat, power
• Umweltbundesamt (UBA): Energieeffizienzdaten Rule 5: Improve building envelope and cooling systems also make sense, as much of
für den Klimaschutz. Dessau-Roßlau 2012 All facade components must have highly insulating the electricity needed for IT equipment and light-

Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 141
Building 1: plot ratio 1.0;

footprint ratio 0.3
footprint ratio 1.0
footprint ratio 0.5
Building 1 Building 2 Building 3 Building 1 Building 2 Building 3 Building 1 Building 2 Building 3

Potential 100 % Potential 50 % Potential 25 % Potential 100 % Potential 100 % Potential 40 % Potential Potential Potential
Residential 100 % Residential 50 % Residential 10 %
Office 60 % Office 40 % Office 10 %
Geothermal (a) Solarthermal (b) Photovoltaic (c)

Fig. 13
ing must be provided jointly with heating and of domestic hot water heating in energy-efficient Fig. 13 Potential for geo-
cooling needed for indoor climate conditions for housing. (Fig. 13 b, c). thermal energy, solar ther-
many building uses. Current systems for linking In northern and central Europe, housing blocks mal energy and photovolta-
ics for different site areas
heat, power and cooling tend to be cogeneration, should have three to a maximum of five floors and
and building volumes in
or combined heat and power plants (CHP) with office blocks should have two to a maximum of housing and office buildings
absorption chillers. In future, fuel cells or Stirling four floors if photovoltaic systems are to provide a possible share of heating
engines could also take over these tasks. a large share of the electricity for indoor climate and cooling energy pro-
In order to provide a large share of renewable systems, household and IT equipment. This rule vided by geothermal
energy from sources on-site, certain plot ratios is based on the assumption that there is no space energy
b possible share of warm
and cubic building volumes must be observed. to provide photovoltaic panels on-site (other than
water energy demand
These descriptors help identify the extent to on the building itself ). met by solar energy
which natural energy sources such as the sun Buildings in areas such as southern Europe bene c possible share of electri-
and the ground can provide the energy needed fit from more solar radiation, but also have a city demand met by solar
for the building. The following rules of thumb greater demand for solar-generated electricity or energy
apply: solar cooling. As the scope to use geothermal
Near-surface geothermal systems up to a depth energy to cool buildings in these areas is limited,
of 200 m can only be integrated effectively if the rule of thumb for using photovoltaic systems
sufficient land is available to accommodate a to provide electricity is the same as for Central
very diverse range of ground heat exchangers. Europe.
Housing buildings should not exceed three to a
maximum of five floors. Office buildings should Rule 7: Ensure high-quality air that is free of pol-
range from three to a maximum of six floors. In lutants
northern and Central Europe, this means that Air is vital for human life. Air quality determines
the ground can provide a major share of heating the level of comfort we feel, but also our health.
and cooling energy in energy-efficient buildings Use and length of stay are the key determinants
(Fig. 13 a). of indoor air quality requirements. In very airtight
Generating heat through solar energy requires buildings, the necessary air exchange rate depends
sufficient roof surfaces to be available for solar not only on the density of occupants, but also on
collectors. Facade surfaces are less effective. Ten the quality of available outdoor air, the choice of
to a maximum of twenty floors are recommended ventilation system and the building materials 10 Braungart / McDonough
in order for solar energy to provide a major share used.10 PM 2002

Authenticated
Challenges
Emissions
Jürgen Baumül ler, Sigr id Bus ch,
Dietr ich Henckel, A ntonel la Sgobba
T Noise
he term “emission” describes
the release of a pollutant
from its source. Each emis-
sion also causes an “immis- In Germany, Article 47 b of the Federal Immission
sion” when the pollutant in Control Act (Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz
question enters into the en- BImSchG), defines “ambient noise” as “distressing
vironment. Many pollutants or harmful noise” within the frequency range of
have massive global as well human hearing. Noise poses often underestimated
as local impacts. For this reason, global environ- risks: it has a negative impact on health and causes
mental policy conferences and initiatives have sleep disorders, headaches, hormonal reactions,
long aimed to protect the environment from the nervousness, impaired hearing, lack of concen-
negative impacts of emissions, i.e. to control im- tration, learning and performance difficulties and
missions (cf. Visions, p. 181f.). even cardiovascular diseases. In 2011, the World
Health Organisation WHO arrived at a total of
The following tools can prevent, control, or limit more than one million healthy life years lost due to
pollutant emissions and immissions at different noise-related health issues in the EU alone. Noise
spatial scales: pollution can also cause economic damage, e.g. by
•• market-based instruments (e.g. emissions reducing the value of affected properties or adding
trading) cost for noise protection measures. According to
•• regulatory instruments (e.g. laws, ordinances, the German federal environment agency UBA,
regulations, directives and standards) housing property values decrease by 0.5 percent
•• planning instruments (e.g. spatial planning, for every additional decibel above 50 dB.1
urban and neighbourhood planning and de-
sign)
Noise sources
1 UBA 2008, p. 10 Market-based tools play only an indirect role in
sustainable urban and neighbourhood planning So-called “ambient noise” includes sound emis-
and design. However, regulatory and planning sions from the following source types:
tools are central to urban planning practice. The •• transport (road, rail and air traffic)
chapter “Action Area: Emissions” (pp. 146ff.) •• production (industrial, commercial and con-
describes these tools and how they can be used struction)
to control immissions in detail. The following •• other activities (neighbourhood, sport and
sections deal with fundamental aspects of noise, leisure)
air, heat and light and pollution, and point out the In 2010, the German federal environment agency
significance of the challenge they present to urban conducted a survey which found that more than
and neighbourhood planning. SB, AS half of respondents felt distressed by noise. Road
traffic was the most frequently criticised source,
followed by the neighbourhood and air traffic
(Fig. 1). People’s perception of sound is influenced
by subjective factors such as their psychological
and physical well-being and their attitude to sound.

Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 143
Air traffic Industry/commerce

Road traffic Rail traffic Neighbourhood noise
70
Proportion of population distressed by
different noise sources [%]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Fig. 1
This is why noise is often felt to be more distress- tribute to climate change as greenhouse gases. Fig. 1 Distress to population caused
ing at night than during the day. The human pain Air pollutants can be generated by natural pro- by different noise sources
threshold for noise is generally at a sound pressure cesses such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions Fig. 2 Sound pressure levels for vari-
ous noisy events and their effects
level of 120 dB(A), but sound pressure levels as but are largely the result of human activity – es-
low as 60 dB(A) can trigger stress reactions. Hear- pecially in cities. Key sources include car traffic,
ing damage can be expected at 85 dB(A) and sound domestic heating and industrial production. In
levels of 200 dB(A) can even be fatal (Fig. 2). Germany, the focus has now shifted to particu-
late matter (PM 10, PM 2.5) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2). Over time, both the main urban pollu
dB(A)
Evaluating noise and tants and their sources have changed considerably
(Fig. 7, p. 145). 180
protecting from noise The noticeable effects of climate change have
Firing a toy gun near the ear
170 Hitting the ear,

Germany has not implemented any nationally made the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions fire cracker at shoulder distance
standardised approaches or thresholds for total a serious issue, which was the subject of the 1997 160 Airbag opening in direct vicinity
noise immissions, because noise is perceived and United Nations World Climate Summit in Kyoto
evaluated in different ways. Instead, a range of (Japan) where the so-called Kyoto protocol was 150 Hammer blow in forge 5 m away (peak)
regulatory frameworks govern emissions and drawn up. This expired in 2012. The Paris 2015
immissions, whilst different procedures for evalu agreement is aimed at limiting global warming to
ating noise are applied to each noise source. Legal less than 2 ˚C. This means reducing net greenhouse 130
Loud clapping at 1 m away (peak)
upper limits for noise vary depending on its source, gas emissions to zero by the middle of the century.
120 Pain threshold: even short exposure
the land use affected, and whether the noise is can cause hearing damage
affecting a new-build project, the renovation of 110 Common nightclub noise level,
an existing building, or a planned project (Fig. 3, emergency siren 10 m away
p. 144). SB, AS
Heat
100 Common earphone noise level,
power drill 10 m away
85 Exposure for more than 40 hours

Man-made heat emissions vary greatly from city per week can cause hearing damage
Air pollutants to city. They depend on the economic structure, 70

Daytime noise at major traffic route
geographical location and topography, population, 65
traffic, and the population’s energy consumption. Increased risk of cardiovascular
disease at continuous exposure,
Air consists mainly of nitrogen (N), oxygen (O2), In northern latitudes, heat emissions increase in night-time noise at major traffic route
and the noble gas argon (Ar). These gases make winter as a result of heating. In southern countries, 50
Fridge 1 m away
up 99.9 percent of the air. Although the remain- heat emissions tend to peak in summer as a result
40
ing ingredients account for only 0.1 percent of of cooling buildings, particularly during high air Can disturb learning and concentration
35
Very quiet ventilator at low speed
the air, these trace elements are nevertheless temperature periods. Heat output in mornings
very important. Some of these, such as sul- and evenings can be up to 50 percent higher than 25
Breathing 1 m away
phur dioxide (SO2) or nitrogen dioxide (NO2), the daily average. Heat emissions are not evenly
can damage humans, animals and plants even distributed throughout the city. In some places,
in low concentrations. Others, such as carbon such as in street space, heat emissions can rise to
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide the order of several hundred watts per square 0
Hearing threshold
(N 2O) and chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), con meter (Fig. 4). JB
Fig. 2
Authenticated
Transport Facilities Planning

Noise source Road, rail, Motorways, Trade and Sport Leisure Transport, industry,
maglev federal highways industry leisure
Regulation Article 16. Noise remediation Technical instruc- Article 18. Recreational DIN 18 005
Federal immission tions for protection Federal immission Noise Directive
control act (BlmSchV) against noise control act (Freizeitlärm
(TA Lärm)1 (Blm-SchV) 2 richtlinie)2
Immission limits in dB (A) Immission benchmarks in dB (A) Guideline values
Land use Day Night Day Night Day Night 3
Day 4
Night 3
Day 5
Night 3
Day Night 6
Hospitals 57 47 67 57 45 35 45 /45 35 45 /45 35
Schools 57 47 67 57
Old people’s homes 57 47 67 57 n/a
n/a
Health spa homes 57 47 67 57
Health spa areas 45 35 45 /45 35 45 /45 35
n/a
Care homes 45 35 45 /45 35 45 /45 35
Pure housing areas 59 49 67 57 50 35 50 /45 35 50 /45 35 50 40 / 35
Weekend home areas 50 40 / 35
Holiday home areas n/a n/a 50 40 / 35
Campsite areas 55 45 /40
General housing areas 59 49 67 57 55 40 55 /50 40 55 /50 40 55 45 /40
Small-scale settlement 59 49 67 57 55 40 55 /50 40 55 /50 40 55 45 /40
areas
Special housing areas n/a n/a 60 45 /40
Village areas 64 54 69 59 60 45 60 /55 45 60 /55 45 60 50 /45
Mixed areas 64 54 69 59 60 45 60 /55 45 60 /55 45 60 50 /45
Urban areas 7 n/a 63 45 63 /58 45 n/a
Core areas 64 54 69 59 60 45 60 /55 45 60 /55 45 65 55 /50
Trading estate 69 59 72 62 65 50 65 /60 50 65 /60 50 65 55 /50
Cemeteries 55 55
Allotments 55 55
n/a n/a
Parks 55 55
Special areas 6
45 – 65 35 – 65
Industrial areas n/a 70 70 n/a 70/70 70 n/a
1
Special cases: Immission benchmarks for rare events, surcharges for especially sensitive times of day, criteria for individual noise peaks. TA Lärm last updated 01.06.2017
2
Special cases: Immission benchmarks for rare events, for individual noise peaks, very varied evaluation period. Article 18 BlmSchV last updated 01.06.2017
3
loudest (full) night-time hour 4 outside/inside quiet hours 5 outside/inside hours of rest and on Sundays and bank holidays
6
Where two values are indicated, the second value relates to industrial, commercial and leisure noise 7 New land use code category since 2017
Fig. 3
Light pollution and individual distress. Above all, it is associ-

ated with generating negative external impacts,
particularly on the environment. These include
Light pollution is usually defined as any negative disturbing natural plant and animal (including
Afternoon temperature [˚C]
33 effect caused by artificial light, especially in out- human) rhythms, reducing related ecosystem
32
door areas. services, and eliminating pristine night skies. An
31
30 This includes: estimated two thirds of Americans cannot see the
•• uncomfortable brightness (glare) Milky Way from their home. NASA photographs
•• distressing, unwanted light, e.g. from street document situations in which the moon is the only
lights shining into homes (light trespass) celestial body to be visible from Dubai.
Countryside
Industrial estate
City centre
Inner-city residential area
Suburbs
Agricultural land
Park
Suburbs
•• lighting which makes night skies glow (sky- However, light pollution is difficult to define,
glow) as light is generally considered a good thing.
•• excessive and/or redundant light (over-illu- Light improves the subjective sense of safety, even
mination) though the evidence on a positive relation between
(more) light and security is ambiguous to say the
Light pollution is linked to numerous negative least. Light is seen as an expression of prosperity
effects such as increased energy consumption and modernity; it liberates us from natural rhythms
Fig. 4
Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 145
Fig. 3 German limits, benchmarks and

guideline values for noise immissions
[in dbA]
Fig. 4 Urban heat island effect
Fig. 5 Air pollution along a main road
Fig. 6 Night-time light emissions in Europe
Fig. 7 Pollutants and their sources in
Stuttgart from 1700 to 2018
Fig. 5 Fig. 6
Year Residents Motor Main sources Pollutants Response Laws etc.

vehicles of pollution
1700 13,000 – Rubbish, faeces Smells
1800 15,000 – Rubbish, faeces Smells Kehrwoche (house cleaning
clause in rental contracts)
1900 180,000 – Domestic fuel, SO2, CO, Trade
industry dust, smoke regulations
1950 505,000 33,000 Domestic fuel, SO2, CO, Replacing coal with oil or Article 16, Trade
industry dust gas, monitoring air pollution regulations
1970 632,000 189,000 Domestic fuel, SO2, CO, Replacing coal with oil or Federal immission control act
industry, motor dust, NOX gas, banning certain fuels, BlmschG,
vehicles technical innovation Federal immission control
ordinance BlmschV
1980 602,000 244,000 Domestic fuel, SO2, CO, Catalytic converters Smog order
industry, motor dust, NOX
vehicles
1990 599,000 299,000 Domestic fuel, SO2, CO, Euro standards, Article 16, Trade regulations
motor vehicles dust, NOX clean air strategy
2000 587,000 343,000 Motor vehicles NOX, benzenes, Euro standards, Federal immission control act
soot, PM10 BlmschG,
Federal immission control
ordinance BlmschV
2010 582,000 350,000 Motor vehicles NOX, benzenes, Clean air strategy, EU guidelines
soot, PM10 action plan
2018 611,000 375,000 Motor vehicles NOX, benzenes, Temporary driving bans EU guidelines
soot, PM10
Fig. 7
and extends economic, cultural and leisure activ- Further information • Rich, Catherine; Longcore, Travis (ed): Ecological
ities into the night. Despite many current efforts Noise: Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting. Washing-
to reduce energy consumption and increase effi- • Baumüller, Jürgen: Städtebauliche Lärmfibel. ton D. C. 2006
• Posch, Thomas et al. (ed): Das Ende der Nacht.
ciency, light levels are expected to continue to rise Wirtschaftsministerium Baden-Württemberg. Stuttgart
1994 Lichtsmog: Gefahren – Perspektiven – Lösungen.
in the foreseeable future. This is partly due to Berlin 2013
• Umweltbundesamt (UBA), Europäische Akademie für
so-called rebound effects (lower cost leads to a • Held, Martin; Hölker, Franz; Jessel, Beate (ed):
städtische Umwelt: Umgebungslärm, Aktionsplanung
disproportionate rise in demand for additional und Öffentlichkeitsbeteiligung – Silent City. Berlin 2008 Schutz der Nacht. Lichtverschmutzung, Biodiversität
lighting) and lifestyle shifts towards continuous Air pollutants: und Nachtlandschaft. BfN-Schriften Nr. 336. Bonn
day and night activity. Mostly, however, it is due • Allen, L. et al.: Global to City Scale Urban Anthropo- 2013
to the ongoing pursuit of economic growth and genic Heat Flux: Model and Variability. Megapoli • Kyba, Christopher et al.: Artificially lit surface of
Earth at night increasing in radiance and extent.
the growth of major light-intensive infrastructure Scientific Report 1001. London 2010
• Hupfer, Peter; Kuttler, Wilhelm: Witterung und Klima. In: Science Advances 11/2017
in developed – and especially in developing – coun-
Eine Einführung in die Meteorologie und Klimatologie.
tries. Despite rapidly progressing conversion to
Wiesbaden 2006
significantly more energy-efficient LED technol- Light pollution:
ogy (light emitting diodes), economic growth, and • Hänsch, Robert et al.: Möglichkeiten der öko
rebound effects in particular, are contributing to nomischen Bewertung des Verlusts der Nacht. Vienna
an ongoing rise in lighting intensity. DH 2012

Authenticated
Action Area
Emissions
Jürgen Baumül ler, Sigr id Bus ch, Diet r ich Henckel,
Antonella Sgobba
T
he general objective is to and control” with EU Directive 96/61/EC. In the
avoid pollutant inputs into same year, the EU adopted Directive 96/62/EC on
the environment and to im- ambient air quality assessment and management.
plement targeted measures to In 2002, Directive 2002/49/EC (Environmental
reduce their negative impacts Noise Directive) set out the uniform identifica-
to a minimum. In doing so, it tion of environmental noise. In Germany, the
is important to consider what provisions of these EU directives were integrated
causes emissions and how into the federal immission control act (BImschG),
they interact. For example, transport planning which has existed since 1974, and thus converted
which enables more efficient and environmen- into national law. The federal immission control
tally friendly mobility behaviour can reduce both act and the legal regulations and administrative
noise and air pollution. In addition to planning, provisions based on it define limits for the input
regulation can also offer protection from pollu of noise and air pollutants into the environment,
tants’ impacts. and regulate water and soil protection as well as
recycling and waste management (cf. Protecting
We will make the following distinction between Water and Soil, pp. 96ff.; Material Flows pp. 106ff.)
emissions and immissions: When a source emits During planning approval, the “Technical instruc-
pollutants (“emissions”) into its surroundings, tions for protection against noise” (Technische
these same outputs are described as immissions Anleitung zum Schutz gegen Lärm, TA Lärm 1968,
when the focus is on their impact on human beings 1998, 2017) are applied in order to control noise
or on specific locations (Fig. 1). control; whereas the “Technical instructions for
air pollution control” (Technische Anleitung zur
Reinhaltung der Luft, TA Luft 1964, 2002) are
applied to control air pollution. There are currently
Preventing only guideline values and recommendations for

limiting the input of heat and light into the envi-
immissions ronment in Germany.
Immission control aims to reduce the impact that Planning tools

pollutants have on the environment. Various regu
latory and planning tools have been developed Specialist engineering (e.g. traffic, noise pro-
for this purpose. tection, light design, and technical supply and
disposal) can influence the release of noise, air
pollutants, heat and light into the environment.
Legal frameworks Importantly, these specialist tasks must be brought
together in integrated concepts and embedded in
In 1996, the European Union defined uniform legally binding planning instruments, such as land
regulations for “integrated pollution prevention use and development plans. SB, AS

Authenticated
2.4 — Ecology 147
65 62.5
67.5 57.5
60
55
Emission Transmission Immission 52.5
50
Source
0m 50 m 100 m Fig. 1 Noise distribution

Fig. 1
Measures term measures, such as reconfiguring street space,

re-surfacing roads etc.1 Some cities, such as Stutt-
1 UBA 2008
2 Vision Lärmschutz
Stuttgart 2030
against noise gart, have set rather higher limits for noise action
planning. Here, only noise levels above 70 dB (A)
during the day and 65 dB (A) at night require short-
Noise is harmful to health and impairs human term noise reduction.
well-being. As a result, noise also undermines
attractiveness and quality of life in cities and The City of Stuttgart, which has already imple-
neighbourhoods. This is why it is very important mented some measures as part of the first noise
to offer protection from noise immissions. action plan for 2009 (e.g. expanding and promot-
ing public transport, banning heavy goods vehicles
In Germany, measures to reduce noise emissions above 3.5 t from travelling through the city, resi-
must be implemented when limit values are dential parking concepts etc.), aims to achieve an
exceeded. At the EU level, the Environmental average noise level of less than 55 dB (A) during
Noise Directive also stipulates that as from 2007 the day and 45 dB (A) at night in residential areas,
every municipality with 250,000 inhabitants or when all noise sources are taken into account
more – and as from 2012 every municipality with (Vision Lärmschutz Stuttgart 2030).2 This deci-
100,000 inhabitants or more – must produce noise sion resulted from the noise map completed in
maps every five years. This helps identify problems 2012, which made it clear that around 16,000
and conflicts in order to implement appropriate people in Stuttgart live in areas with a night-time
protective measures. Where high noise levels are road traffic noise level in excess of 60 dB(A).
expected to cause harmful effects, conflicts must Both active and passive noise protection can be
be mapped and noise protection plans discussed implemented directly at source – e.g. road traffic
and brought up to date in public consultation every – as well as on at urban or architectural levels.
five years. Local governments are responsible for Active measures deal directly with the source of
prioritising and implementing measures required the noise, whereas passive measures deal with
to improve the situation according to the size of immissions, for example by fitting buildings with
the area in question, the number of persons af- soundproof windows. It makes sense to imple-
fected, and the extent of the noise pollution. If the ment passive noise protection where active meas-
daily noise index rises above 65 dB(A) and the ures to reduce noise are not sufficiently effective.
night noise index exceeds 55 dB(A) this can have
a damaging effect on health. For this reason, the
German federal environment agency UBA rec- Preventing noise through
ommends that local authorities initiate short-
term noise control measures (e.g. bans on heavy
urban design
goods vehicles, 30 kph/h at night, closing gaps Noise emissions are mainly caused by road traffic.
between buildings etc.). If the daily noise i ndex As a result, traffic planning plays a key role in pre-
rises above 60 dB(A) and the night noise index venting, reducing and relocating vehicle noise.
exceeds 50 dB(A), UBA recommends medium- Outside built-up areas, noise barriers and walls

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> - 99.0 dbA

> 35.0 dbA
> 40.0 dbA
> 45.0 dbA
> 50.0 dbA
> 55.0 dbA
> 60.0 dbA
> 65.0 dbA
> 70.0 dbA
> 75.0 dbA
> 80.0 dbA
> 85.0 dbA
Fig. 2
are most commonly used to control road noise. to noise. Uses which are sensitive to noise, such
These noise protection systems are more efficient, as bedrooms and living rooms, should be placed
the closer they are located to the source of the on the quiet side of a building, whereas kitchens,
noise (Fig. 1, p. 147). Where sufficient space is bathrooms, dining rooms, storage areas, stairways,
available, noise barriers can be integrated into the conservatories, access balconies, enclosed bal
landscape and can integrate functions such as conies or layered facades can provide buffer zones
neighbourhood car-parks on their “quieter” side, to noisy outdoor areas (Fig. 3). For example, lay-
even though this generates considerable cost. ered facades can reduce noise by up to 10 dB (A).
Unfortunately, aside from psychological effects,
In inner-city areas, the most effective measures planting provides very little soundproofing. At
to reduce noise include banning or restricting least 100 m of dense woodland is required for any
traffic, banning heavy goods vehicles, implement- effect to be noticeable.
ing Urban Traffic Management Control (UTMC,
or “green wave” systems), installing noise-redu Urban planners can use local planning authorities’
cing road surfaces, giving priority to public trans- urban development frameworks to manage and
port, reducing road widths, extending cycle paths, implement measures to reduce noise. Article 5,
promoting car and bike sharing, promoting elec- Section 2, No. 6 of the German building code (Bau
tric vehicles and managing parking. Reducing gesetzbuch BauGB) allows planners to provide for
speeds from 50 to 30 kph in inner-city areas can noise protection systems by identifying areas “for
reduce noise emissions by 3 dB (A). measures to offer protection against harmful envir
onmental impacts as identified by the federal
It makes sense to implement neighbourhood-scale immission control act (BImschG)” in land use
urban design measures if transport planning meas- plans, which also define uses and minimum dis-
ures are not sufficient to reduce noise. For e xample, tances to be kept free. Further details can be deter-
closing gaps between buildings can reduce the mined through development plans (Bebauungs
spread of sound to surrounding buildings. Suitable plan). For example, planners can use the land use
building placement and layout can influence the code (Baunutzungsverordnung BauNVO) to define
spread of sound in the design of new neighbour- and locate uses within development areas, placing
Fig. 2 Different building hoods (Fig. 2). Perimeter blocks shield courtyards, them according to their sensitivity to noise. Plan-
structures and their effect and linear buildings running parallel to the source ners can also specify building types and densities
on the spread of sound of noise protect areas behind from most of the which effectively counteract noise: closed build-
(simulation in CadnaA)
noise. ing typologies (e.g. perimeter blocks or courtyards)
Fig. 3 Noise protection
through linear buildings, Distributing uses appropriately within the build- provide better noise protection than open typolo
noise barriers and arrange- ing can respond appropriately to the varying extent gies (e.g. point blocks, detached houses), whilst
ment of rooms inside flats to which various parts of the building are exposed building height can also shield areas from noise.

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2.4 — Ecology 149
Through Boundary Industry / Interior Apartments

road
Through Boundary
distance Garages
Industry // Interior
courtyard Apartments
road distance Ateliers
Garages / courtyard
Ateliers
Noise
Noise-sensitive
Noise source protection
Noise rooms
Noise-sensitive
Noise source block
protection
rooms
block
Noise source Noise barriers Noise-sensitive

rooms
Noise-sensitive
Noise source Noise barriers
rooms
Noise reduction
Noise
0 dBreduction
20–5
dBdB
52–10 dB
–5 dB
10 –20dB
5 –10 dB
>1020 dBdB
–20
> 20 dB
In addition to these conditions, planners can also tants. These provide scientifically sound back-
specify further requirements for passive noise ground information for governments and author-
Balcony
Living /
protection in development plans. ities to assess risks to humans and vegetation and
Balcony
Kitchen Eating
Living /
establish legally binding air quality standards. The Kitchen Eating
Urban design, social, functional, ecological and Guidelines were updated in 2005 to include Par- WC
economic aspects must all be balanced in select- ticulate Matter (PM), Ozone (O3), Nitrogen diox- WC Room
ing appropriate noise protection measures. Redu ide (NO2) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2). Correspond- Bathroom Room
Bathroom
cing noise pollution can have important feedback ing guidelines for indoor air were also published
effects on urban attractiveness and quality of life. in 2010 (www.who.int). Room
Room
However, sustainable urban development concepts
such as compact cities, cities of short routes and Whilst measures to reduce pollutants initially Fig. 3
mixed use all require a more tolerant attitude to related to polluted work places, the need to reduce
noise: silent cities cannot be lively cities. SB, AS outside air pollution soon became evident as in-
dustrialisation progressed. During the post-war
period until the 1970s, the main air pollutants
were SO2 and suspended particulate matter. In
Measures against the absence of technical means to reduce pollu-

tion, attempts were made to reduce industrial air
air pollution pollution through high chimneys, as technical

measures were not yet state of the art. Key events
included the Great Smog of London in 1942, when
In 2000, the World Health Organization (WHO) sulphur in smoke from coal fires led to very high
published “Air Quality Guidelines for Europe” SO2 concentrations, causing severe pollution and
with air quality guidance values for 28 air pollu killing between 4,000 and 12,000 people. The

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NOx PM10
600
Emission values for diesel vehicles [mg/km]

500
400
300
200
100
0
1993 1996 2000 2005 2009 2011/14 2017 2020
EURO-1 EURO-2 EURO-3 EURO-4 EURO-5 EURO-6 EURO-6d EURO-6d
Fig. 4
UK responded by passing the Clean Air Act in more closely resembles real driving behaviour.
Further information 1956, to ban burning certain fuels in so-called (Fig. 4)
Noise: “smoke control areas”.
• Reuter, Ulrich et al.: Städtebauliche Lärmfibel. In the past, air pollution control measures were
Pub. Ministerium für Verkehr und Infrastruktur
In response to high air pollution, several Ger- aimed at reducing concentrations harmful to
Baden Württemberg. Stuttgart 2013
• German federal environment agency (UBA): man federal states issued smog regulations to health. Today, however, the focus is on preven-
Handbuch Lärmaktionspläne. Handlungsempfeh let authorities reduce factory production and tion, with the exception of some key stressed road
lungen für eine lärmmindernde Verkehrsplanung. ban vehicle traffic in the event of concentrations areas. Clean air plans are mandatory if pollution
Dessau 2015 harmful to health. These regulations have since exceeds limit values.
• UBA, Europäische Akademie für städtische been repealed. Clean air requirements for in-
Umwelt: Silent City. Berlin 2008
dustrial and commercial plants were integrated By definition, greenhouse gases are not regarded
• UBA: Maßnahmenblätter zur Lärmminderung
im Straßenverkehr. Dessau 2009 into the German industrial code and are now as air pollutants with a direct effect on humans,
• UBA: PULS Praxisorientierter Umgang mit embedded in the federal immission control act animals and plants. Nonetheless, the need to
Lärm in der räumlichen Planung und im Städtebau. (BImSchG). reduce the emission of these gases in order to
Dessau 2006 counteract climate change became apparent. In
Light pollution: First introduced in 1964 and updated on an on 1989, The Montreal Protocol adopted regula-
• International Dark-Sky Association (IDA):
going basis, the “Technical instructions for air tions to reduce CFCs which damage the ozone
International Dark-Sky Parks; www.darksky.org
• Köhler, Dennis: Künstliches Licht im öffentlichen pollution control” (TA Luft) set out emission and layer. Ratified in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol, expired
Raum als Aufgabe der Stadtplanung. Der Weg immission limits for each substance, as well as in 2012, is superseded by the 2015 Paris Agree-
zu einer integrierten Lichtleitplanung. In: Köhler, methods of calculation and measurement, espe- ment. JB
Dennis; Walz, Manfred; Hochstadt, Stefan (ed.): cially the calculation of distribution. TA Luft was
LichtRegion. Positionen und Perspektiven im last updated in 2002. A further update planned
Ruhrgebiet. Essen 2010, p. 181–198
for 2017 was cancelled. Instead, the plan is to issue
• Kyba, Christopher C. M. et al.: Red Is the New
Black. How the Colour of Urban Skyglow Varies
with Cloud Cover. In: Monthly Notices of the Royal
supplementary guidance with an update to limit
values. Planning authorities must follow the rules Measures against
Astronomical Society, 01/2012, p. 701–708
• TRILUX AG (pub.): Beleuchtungspraxis.
Außenbeleuchtung. Arnsberg 2009
set out in TA Luft when issuing permits for new
industrial and commercial development. Within
certain transitional periods, existing plants must
light pollution
• Verband der Netzbetreiber und Deutsche also reach the state of the art in order to reduce The control of outdoor lighting at night is gaining
Lichttechnische Gesellschaft e.V. – LiTG (pub.):
pollution. importance as awareness of the negative effects
Straßenbeleuchtung. Leitfaden für Planung, Bau
und Betrieb. Frankfurt/M. 2009 of light pollution grows. Energy-efficient technolo
• Kyba, Christopher C. M.; Hänel, Andreas: Hölker, Vehicle traffic is now the main source of pollu- gies also enable the more targeted use of lighting.
Franz: Redefining Efficiency For Outdoor Lighting. tion. In the mid-1980s, exhaust emission limits Rising energy prices, tight local government
In: Energy and Environmental Science. 07/2014 (Euro standard) for new cars were tightened to budgets, and the prohibition of old technologies
p. 1806–1809, dx.doi.org/10.1039/C4EE00566J such an extent that catalytic converters were (e.g. mercury vapour lamps, gas lamps) are lead-
• LoNNe: Statement of the EU COST Action
needed. Exhaust emission limits are generally ing many local governments to redesign outdoor
ES1204 LoNNe (Loss of the night network),
www.cost-lonne.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/ further reduced every four years. The Euro 6 level lighting. Lighting master plans or lighting plans
LoNNe-Statement-for-NPAs_2016_160722.pdf has been in force since 2014. Further levels apply for key urban areas or whole cities are becoming
(accessed: 07.01.2018) for 2017 and 2020 with a new test cycle which more common.

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2.4 — Ecology 151
Fig. 4 Exhaust pollution

limits for new petrol engines
Fig. 5 Fluorescent light
benches, Düsseldorf (DE)
2002, Stefan Sous
Fig. 6 Various types of street
light fitting shed more or
less light upwards and so
increase or reduce light
pollution.
3 LoNNe – Loss of the Night

Network (www.cost-lonne.eu/)
4 Kyba /Ruhtz 2012
5 Verband der Netzbetreiber,
Deutsche Lichttechnische
Gesellschaft 2009
Fig. 5
Aside from retrofitting technology and increasing countries such as Slovenia have passed legislation.
energy efficiency, these aim to contribute to urban In principle, wider consideration should be given
design and highlight important buildings and to regulating night-time outdoor lighting more
ensembles whilst taking environmental concerns clearly in terms of intensity, light temperature,
into account and exploring possibilities to control duration and radiation. This should also systemat
private lighting with an impact on outdoor space ically address the various sources and stakeholders
(e.g. illuminated adverts, screens). Local govern- relevant to outdoor lighting and light pollution.
ments are drafting these master plans on a volun- Regulation should set out not only minima (e.g.
tary basis. Depending on the legal framework, according to DIN) but also explicitly define maxi
these are normally only binding for the munici- mum street light levels.
pality itself.
Designating special protective zones, such as Dark
Key points for avoiding light pollution in planning Sky Parks, is a very radical, specific and locally
include:3 limited measure to significantly lower light levels.
•• do not light more brightly than necessary This is implemented by local governments, who
•• restrict light temperatures to 3,000 K or lower commit to reducing night-time outdoor lighting
in order to reduce particularly environmentally to a minimum, in order to be certified as Dark Sky
harmful blue components Park by the International Dark Sky Association
•• only light what really needs lighting and avoid (IDA). DH
unnecessary light reflection and overspill
(Fig. 5)
•• only light when necessary, i.e. depending on
demand and situation
It is important to install light fittings which sig-

nificantly reduce light shed upwards in order to
reduce light pollution (Fig. 6). In times without
much artificial lighting, cloudy skies used to make
nights darker. But recent studies4 show that clouds
now reflect extensive bright lights to make urban
nights lighter.
Despite some positive trends, lighting intensity

has continued to increase, although this varies
greatly between different cities. This is partly
due to the fact that light has so far been much
less regulated than other environmentally rele-
vant disturbing factors (e.g. noise). Whilst some
guidance notes are available in Germany,5 other
Fig. 6
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C H A P TE R 2
Challenges &
Action Areas
2 .5
Economics
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2.5 — Economics 153
Challenges
Economics
Ma r t in Al tmann, Gregor C. Gras s l, Guido Spars
T
he 2007 real estate and finan- tions are expected to change in future. As a result,
cial crisis in Europe and the neighbourhoods are seen as projects for planning
US finally made it clear that and development.2 Neighbourhoods are evaluated
only sustainable and long- against a wider range of design variables, such as
term investment strategies existing buildings, heritage and conservation,
are future-proof. Globally, infrastructure, transport, communities and social
nationally and in the local structures. Engaging residents and politicians in
government context, short- this process also gains significance, even with
term interests often lead to development failures. regard to economic development.
This is also reflected in urban and neighbourhood
planning. Partnerships between local governments and 1 F+B Beratung Hamburg
In Germany in particular, experts are currently investors are becoming more important for urban 2 Spars 2013
seeing a boom in real estate investment, focused development. As a result, economic viability is a
mostly on growth centres such as the top seven key factor in assessing the feasibility of real estate
locations (Munich, Hamburg, Berlin, Frankfurt development. However, public and private project
am Main, Stuttgart, Cologne and Düsseldorf ). By sponsors have very different views and needs in
the end of 2017, average prices for apartments in terms of expected returns, which must be taken
Germany had increased by 45 percent, and those into account in methods to evaluate sustainable
for single-family homes by 26 percent against a neighbourhoods and buildings. The mission is to
2004 baseline. During the same period, rents in create win-win situations which also meet quali-
new contracts increased by an average of 20 per- tative objectives. In this chapter, we will set out
cent and existing rents by 9.6 percent.1 All growth the different perspectives and challenges at the
centres lack sufficient space for additional and various levels.
accumulated demand. Short supply is causing
prices to rise in many sub-markets. And yet this
trend is not seen as evidence for a German real-
estate bubble, thanks to particularly high demand
and high investment pressure from many private Global and
and institutional investors. However, there is a
general need for development strategies which national
take both investors’ expected returns and local
governments’ and users’ goals and needs into
account. At the same time, local governments
perspectives
must ensure that districts and neighbourhoods Since the 1990s, the concept of sustainable devel-
develop in an orderly and sustainable way which opment has received particular attention in policy,
is in tune with the “inward before outward the public and scientific discourse.
development” principle. The focus is shifting First formulated by the Brundtland commission in
towards brownfields and unused (or underused) 1987 (Brundtland Report), and the United Nations
development sites. This is because land is getting Conference on Environment and Development
more scarce, and demographic and social condi- (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the guiding

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All development land Vacant development land Unprepared development land

160
Sale value for development land [€/m2]
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Year
Fig. 1
principle of sustainable development has become Management Concept”. The Government trans-
a touchstone shared by various political forces lated the mission statement into ten management
and social stakeholders. Agenda 21, one of the rules and worked with the German Council for
Rio Conference’s five concluding documents, Sustainable Development’s expert team to for-
comprises 40 chapters cataloguing objectives mulate 38 goals and indicators to measure their
and measures which also address cities and urban implementation in 21 thematic fields. This monit
development. In recent years, the concept of oring process regularly evaluates the state of play
sustainable development has become the low- and publishes a progress report every four years.5
est common denominator of national and inter The German Government views sustainable busi-
national consensus between governments, parties, ness management as a long-term competitive
politicians, non-governmental organisations and advantage for international trade, provided that
scientists. A long list of declarations of intent and German companies succeed in aligning them-
resolutions demonstrates that intentions are genu selves with sustainable development goals at an
ine, even if the meaning of the words remains early stage. The German economy has now also
vague. In Germany, results of the Rio Conference established sustainability as a relevant guiding
were implemented in updates to the building code principle. For example, Corporate Social Respon-
(BauGB) and spatial development code (ROG).3 sibility (CSR) is an important way for businesses
Legislation now explicitly mentions the objective to link responsible entrepreneurial practice to
of “sustainable development”. Article 1 Section social responsibility.
5 of the building code defines sustainability as The sustainability goal of transitioning to low-
a key principle for urban development. Future carbon, more resource-efficient production will
development plans (Bebauungsplan) must ensure require substantial investment, but can also offer
sustainable development. economic opportunities as part of the green econ-
3 Lendi 1998
The “Rio+20” conference in 2012 passed a 49-page omy. The economy as a whole is increasingly glo
4 Kuhn / Rok 2011
5 Deutsche Bundes resolution which included upgrading UNEP (the bal in character. This includes intensive inter
regierung 2012 UN Environment Programme) and equipping it national networking and division of labour, the
6 Spars 2012, p. 24f. with greater legal powers and resources, but failed growing importance of global players and increas-
to give UNEP the status of an independent UN ingly international market competition. As liber-
environmental organisation as demanded by Ger- alised capital markets gain significance, real es-
many and other Nations. To date, the resolution tate’s secondary asset function is increasingly
does not include any new or enhanced objectives important for real estate markets. This means that
for development and environmental protection. global financial flows obey their own rules in mov-
The intention is for these to be drawn up in the ing into certain investment segments (e.g. real
coming years. However, the aim is to more actively estate sub-markets and projects) which compete
engage business in sustainable development, fol- with each other for these investments. Generally,
lowing the green economy model. Sustainable cities and regions are facing the massive need to
development is a way of doing business which invest in future technical infrastructure, urban
“uses natural resources only within the extent of development and the sustainable economy. This
their ability to regenerate and absorb, whilst guar- will make them even more dependent on private
anteeing all people an ethically negotiated and investors and innovative financing models (e.g.
equal minimum quality of life”4 (Fig. 2). In this urban development funds) in future.6 According
context, politicians’ task is to ensure that all deci- to DIFU (Deutsches Institut für Urbanistik), Ger-
sion-making levels agree relevant standards and man local governments have accumulated a back-
penalise non-compliance. log of investment needs amounting to € 136 bn.
In 2012, the German government published a pro- DIW (Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung)
gress report on its National Sustainability Strategy points out that bottlenecks in planning and con-
and documented the success of its “Sustainability struction capacities in particular are hampering

Authenticated
cities and local government investments.7 Sus- using statutory powers and informal tools (e.g. 7 Gornig / Michelsen 2017
tainable urban and neighbourhood development contracts in civil law) to ensure that project object 8 Beckmann 2012
poses major challenges, which must be met by a ives are met. Even so, it is down to local govern-
structured approach to reusing buildings and ments to monitor and supervise the development
brownfields, reconfiguring and adapting social process, and to bear the risk of taking over and
and technical infrastructures (e.g. for demograph- managing infrastructure facilities. The political
ic change), and designing innovative transport risk of project failure always rests with local gov-
systems.8 Local authorities’ strained financial ernment. This means that local governments must
situation, often involving massive debt, is a serious find and join forces with reliable partners who
threat to implementing sustainable development can respond flexibly to their needs. Often, local
approaches. GS governments try to use contractual regulations to
shift costs and burdens to their private partners.
Local governments who are seeking to fund one-
off investment and follow-on cost to operate and
Local government maintain municipal infrastructure whilst seeking

to retain influence can include the following points
outlook in corresponding agreements:

•• defining urban structures and uses in urban
development plans
Social issues
(individual needs
and well-being)
First and foremost, neighbourhood development •• creating and handing over public areas free
presents local governments with an organisational of cost
challenge. Long time frames, the need to develop •• providing land or housing for key population Policy steer Economy Policy steer
basic strategies, complex planning procedures groups
and budgetary frameworks often place excessive •• delivering, and where appropriate, running
demands on local government structures. social infrastructures Ecology (ecosystems, raw materials etc.;
serving the public good)
Local governments seek to provide adequate pub- •• completing or repairing outdoor neighbour-
lic amenity when they opt to fundamentally re- hood infrastructure Fig. 2
develop neighbourhoods. This might include pro- •• defining target performance levels (sustain
viding affordable housing, attracting businesses, ability, energy supply) in contracts and in
or capturing purchasing power in designated urban development plans
special retail areas. Local governments can provide
framework conditions, but generally cannot act These aspects weigh down developers’ balance
as sole project developers. Cities can only invest sheets and relieve local government budgets. It
in and actively shape development if they can also becomes clear that the evaluation of neigh-
acquire subsidies or grants to kick-start key invest- bourhood development must take location, mar-
ment, e.g. in cultural or social facilities. Compet- ket conditions and respective economic situation
ing for funding from national or international into account in order to arrive at a shared, deliver
development programmes ties up financial and able solution.
Fig. 1 Average sale values
human resources and match funding during the for development land,
project start-up stage. Whereas comprehensive The withdrawal of WWII allied forces after Ger- Germany (2016)
urban development plans and project concepts man reunification and the reform of the German Fig. 2 Interactions between
can set out trendsetting ideas for the future, actu- armed forces led to many military sites being three pillars of sustainability.
ally delivering specific measures on the ground is decommissioned. Evaluating these sites’ develop The role of policy is to medi
ate between the three pillars,
far more difficult. Often, projects of this kind can ment potential became a key issue. Having taken
and balance ecological,
only be delivered by tying in private capital and ownership of these vacant sites, the German social and economic object
capacities, e.g. through development companies federal government offered them for sale to local ives on a project-by-project
or public-private partnership (PPP) models and governments at “more favourable” rates. The basis.

Authenticated
central concern was to provide sufficient scope from housing to crèches, and go on to operate
for future development. Even so, initial land price all neighbourhood services. Mostly, local gov-
expectations often contrasted with national and ernments focus on their sovereign task of set-
local government housing policy and urban devel- ting out planning and development rights and
opment objectives. MA pass the economic opportunities on to project
stakeholders (developers, investors, etc.), attach-
ing appropriate conditions. Often, local govern-
ments outsource planning tasks (e.g. to private
Project focus sector planning practices), or delegate these to

developers, thereby retreating from a leading role
and merely accompanying projects through the
Neighbourhood developments are long-term pro- municipal procedures. It is also common to pass
jects. This means that medium- and long-term the tasks of initial development (i.e. preparing
secondary and tertiary effects must be taken into land, access and infrastructure) including eco-
account, as well as initial investment cost. In economic dependencies and follow-on costs on to
nomic terms, the challenge is to take a wider view owners or developers. Public sector accounting
and evaluate neighbourhood’s long-term quanti- rules and practices, such as the requirement for
tative and qualitative development, rather than public sector development fees to cover no more
looking only at short-term cost and return on than cost, place local governments at a medium-
investment. A major problem is that many projects and long-term disadvantage against the private
are not individual, self-contained projects and sector, who are allowed to work to different rules
that they run longer than legislature periods. to generate profits.
Neighbourhood development begins with different Even though more stakeholders are involved: Local
motives. Political and social motives can include government remains responsible for developing
the desire to eliminate urban problems, to create neighbourhoods by bringing together numerous
or preserve municipal identity (e.g. by contrasting individual projects, each with complex economic
with adjoining cities or municipalities), or the conditions. This can only succeed if each individ-
need to meet an unfulfilled demand for housing, ual project partner’s interests and economic frame-
development land, or business growth. These work conditions are acknowledged and taken into
motives can be driven by macroeconomic object account. The current market conditions demand
ives, such as providing a basis for investment in that local governments pay particular attention
Conflicts of interest the built environment (and thus creating jobs), to creating housing which is affordable for a broad
at building level but they may also have no economic justification urban population. Housing models with fixed
“Neighbourhood development” projects are often at all. The private sector may also put forward quotas for subsidised housing can ensure low rents
repeatedly broken down into numerous individual ideas for neighbourhood development. These are even in privately financed neighbourhoods. GCG
projects, especially when it comes to the design usually motivated by the desire to pursue a specific
and construction of buildings. This is where very business model, or to generate income from large
different economic parameters and approaches
existing, but underused land ownership.
to economic viability collide. Whereas owner-occu-
piers such as home builders, building groups, or
small businesses usually take a long-term view
and interest and are driven to achieve high-quality
Visions only turn into actual projects when the
ideas mentioned above meet real markets and
specific development sites. The great challenge
Diverse interests
standard in their property and the wider neigh- in neighbourhood development often lies in co- The step-by-step process of development re-
bourhood, both major investors and public sector ordinating countless individual projects. Neigh- veals stakeholders’ diverse interests, which in
clients are also cost-driven. On the one hand,
bourhood development led and delivered purely turn reflect the complex parameters for sustainable
this is due to (perhaps institutional) investors’
expected return on investment, whilst municipal by local government in the public interest is now neighbourhood development. The more challeng-
clients have to demonstrate value for money to extremely rare. Local governments no longer de- ing a location is in character, and the weaker
taxpayers, or meet affordable housing targets. termine development rights, construct everything owners’ and local government’s economic per-

Authenticated
Ci
vic
Pr
p
oje
Supervised
Planning authority
ct
ro
by finance
pe
pre
ministry
rty
e
pa
/Jo
ric
rat
dp
bs
ion
National ate
Lan
Est Citizens’ polit-
+ re
spending laws eal ical will, through
side
(economy, R
elected repre-
ral
efficiency)
nts
Mu
sentatives
de
nic
Institute for Fe
ipality
Private Budgetary
land owner = guidelines
formance is, the more weight this gives to users entrepreneur (local authority,
state)
and developers representing investment capital.
Local government’s gain more weight in very
attractive areas and neighbourhoods, where Inv e stor
Intention to Market-oriented
development is a “self-starter”, and thus benefit generate profit products for users
from easier conditions to achieve higher goals of and end
Financiers’ consumers
sustainable urban development. (Fig. 3) and investors’
demands
Local governments’ fundamental interest is to
safeguard urban, architectural and social develop- Retur al
n / interest on capit
ment goals in site or neighbourhood development.
Where they cannot themselves own and develop
projects, due to a lack of economic possibilities, Project delivery
they must exert influence through municipal urban
development planning, contracts in civil law, or Fig. 3
– where necessary – take part in development
companies. Higher political objectives such as
safeguarding and creating jobs or creating attrac-
tively designed locations to live and work play an major obstacle to neighbourhood development. Fig. 3 Objectives and roles
important role, especially in developing major Processes of negotiation and land assembly are in the process of regenerat
sites. When military or industrial sites become often needed, and these reveal different percep- ing an urban brownfield
vacant, poor neighbourhood planning can lead tions of the value of land to be sold or bought.
to job losses, declining populations and econ Projects can fail because of the lack of develop-
omies, whereas sustainable redevelopment can ment sites. From the outset, it is important to
strengthen the local economy, even benefiting clarify the role of property owners, who – as vend
adjoining areas. ors – may have little interest in development (e.g.
as administrators or land disposal agencies).
Even in early planning phases, the different devel- Ideally, the entire development area should pass
opment parameters often put local governments into the ownership of a dedicated “new” devel-
at odds with owners and investors, thus causing opment body, which – based on clear agreements
project delays. Informal framework planning can – joins forces with partners to professionally ini-
help formulate key points and goals at an early tiate and control the development process.
stage, and enable a certain economic verification Funding and development strategies shape mar- Further information
(e.g. distributing land use, net development land, ket players’ roles as partners (investors, develop- • Burmeister, Thomas: Praxishandbuch städte
cost cover, sustainability etc.). In a sustainability- ers, finance institutions, planners and consult- bauliche Verträge. Bonn 2000
driven development process, the economic dimen- ants). The process of developing neighbourhoods • Gornig, Martin; Michelsen, Claus: Kommunale
sion must be given appropriate weight. In this over long time scales has different dimensions, Investitionsschwäche: Engpässe bei Planungs- und
Baukapazitäten bremsen Städte und Gemeinden
regard, the win-win principle gains importance: as different risk assessments apply to develop-
aus. In: DIW Wochenbericht 11/2017, pp. 211–219
achieving short- and medium-term returns on ing land and the buildings on it respectively. Pri- • Libbe, Jens; Köhler, Hadia; Beckmann, Klaus J.:
private partners’ investment, as well as qualita- vate partners’ drive to achieve a return on capital Infrastruktur und Stadtentwicklung. Technische
tively and economically benefiting local govern- invested makes consistent and predictable plan- und soziale Infrastrukturen. Herausforderungen
ments, residents and entire locations in the long ning particularly important. Clearly stating and und Handlungsoptionen für Infrastruktur und
term. evaluating these objectives is essential in order to Stadtplanung. Deutsches Institut für Urbanistik
(Difu) and Wüstenrot-Stiftung. Berlin 2010
facilitate phased, collaborative processes in the
• Trapp, Jan Hendrik et al.: Ressourcenleichte
Landowners are often unwilling to actively engage development sustainable neighbourhoods, which zukunftsfähige Infrastrukturen – umweltschonend,
in creating value because they lack capital, experi usually comprises large areas and takes many robust, demografiefest. Umweltbundesamt (UBA).
ence, or the willingness to accept risk. This is a years (five to eight years or more). MA Dessau-Roßlau 2017

Authenticated
Action Area
Economics
Marti n Alt mann, Gregor C . Gras s l, Guido Spars
U
rban planning and neighbour- quality in terms of leisure, recreation, culture and
hood development projects urban design, as well as a varied housing market
are subject to major econom- providing adequate value for money and the
ic pressure, not least because corresponding social infrastructure, such as good
of local governments’ gener- childcare facilities and schools. From this point
ally poor financial situation. of view, sustainable neighbourhood development
This chapter highlights ways can be a good way to start improving urban and
to improve projects in eco- regional competitiveness. The goal is to reinforce
nomic terms. This does not necessarily require cities’ strengths by rapidly planning and deliver-
reducing production costs and development qual- ing attractive, future-proof neighbourhoods to
ity. Key economic decisions at the local level set meet people’s key desires and housing needs.
the course, even before the actual neighbourhood
development begins. Only attractive settings can Strategic urban development planning helps iden-
successfully compete for the best, top-performing tify urban development goals and sensible ways
businesses. Strategic approaches such as local of dealing with the unavoidable competition be-
govenment land management are essential for tween different land use needs. Neighbourhood
actual project delivery. Economic viability includes development planning should be integrated into
funding, effectiveness, efficiency, value stability higher-level planning. This includes integrated
and of course, profitability. The following section urban development plans, action plans for specific
sets out strategies and calculation methods to plan districts or the city as a whole, and housing market
projects which are successful and profitable for all strategies. Progressive local government (building)
parties involved throughout their entire life cycle. land management supports a clear development
strategy and helps meet the investor market.
The new neighbourhood’s intended role within
the city as a whole, how it competes with other
Urban and sites within the city, and the appropriate location
and density of development are key considerations
regional economy which guide neighbourhood planning. Thinking

about target groups’ demands and financial pos-
sibilities and matching the housing offer to their
Cities and regions compete for residents and busi- needs can help identify new neighbourhoods’
nesses at the national level, throughout Europe appropriate target development density. Given
or even globally in the case of major cities. It is the move towards mixed-use neighbourhoods,
becoming apparent that businesses increasingly commercial users’ needs must also be met. Sus-
choose locations which can attract the highly quali tainable, resource-efficient development provides
fied employees they are looking for. This trend is an opportunity to offer innovative economic spaces
sure to increase at a time when skilled workers which help promote local businesses and thus
are becoming increasingly scarce. As a result, strengthen competitiveness.
modern places to live and and work must meet The urban or regional scale must also be given
these skilled workers’ demands. Cities must offer adequate consideration. Strengths, weaknesses

Authenticated
and conflicts with higher-level planning must be This results in false, underestimated project yields.
recognised and highlighted in good time. Urban When returns generated by the neighbourhood
policy must also have the appropriate means to and the city as a whole are not accounted for
resolve these conflicts and priorities. Thus it makes and investors exclude these benefits from their
sense to plan and think through options and alter- decision-making processes, this leads to fewer
natives in order to help reach a rational decision sustainable projects benefitting the wider surround-
for the whole city and the wider region. ings. Funding models which fail to include wider
beneficiaries or society as a whole (e.g. the public
sector) are always likely to lead to less sustainable
The place-making effect neighbourhoods. It would make sense to develop Local government land
new instruments and methods able to predict yields management in Baden-
One other aspect makes sustainable and high- generated from effects beyond tight project bound-
quality neighbourhood development more chal- aries and clearly spell out these benefits in negoti-
Württemberg, Germany
As part of implementation strategies for municipal
lenging in macroeconomic terms. Many neigh- ations between investors and local governments. land management, the Baden-Württemberg State
bourhood developments seen as poor and unsus- In macroeconomic terms, it is desirable to offer Institute for Environmental Protection is pursuing
tainable result from a false understanding of incentives directing developers and investors – who “quantitative land protection” by reducing land
economy in terms of developers pursuing an overly are driven by economic viability – towards optimum consumption and “qualitative land and open space
narrow concept of financial return. Real estate results for the urban economy. GS protection” to maintain and restore the functional-
ity of soil and open spaces. This approach targets
projects impact on their immediate surroundings,
the following objectives:
especially when they exceed individual buildings. • developing infill sites and mobilising building
This is due to the fact that their spatial character Local government land land potentials
and ambiance can pervade the whole neighbour- • improving land utility values
hood or even an entire city. Examples of this
management • reusing brownfields and dealing with contam
place-making effect include the so-called “Bilbao Forward-looking local government land man- inated sites
• handling soil carefully
effect”, named after the Guggenheim Museum in agement is very important in economic terms,
• reducing soil sealing to a minimum
the city of that name. This benefit of sustainable especially in the context of using land sparingly • protecting good soils
neighbourhood design only appears in calculating for development and construction, and it is a key • protecting and developing open spaces
the return on investment to the extent that tenants component in integrated action plans. Indeed,
or buyers may be prepared to pay a certain sur- given the limited scope for local government action,
charge for the property. it can be seen as an act of self-preservation. Local
government land management includes com-
Real estate developers do not account for the many prehensively listing the extent and use of infill
advantages of high-quality architecture and sus- building land and brownfields, as well as devel-
tainable urban development because these are oping strategies to buy land and actively promote
difficult to quantify. Even increases in predicted urban development. Naturally, these approaches
land value generally only capture a simple view are particularly relevant to major rail, military or
of income generated by the building (e.g. in terms industrial sites, which present cities with entirely
of the discounted cash flow method) whilst exclud- new challenges.
ing increased worth generated by surrounding Infill sites, underused or badly used land and
buildings or by the neighbourhood as a whole. buildings are key areas of urban and social devel-

Authenticated
opment for local governments actively seeking Adequate IT support makes it technically simple
to develop the inner city rather than the periphery. to establish a local government land management
Similar to portfolio management in the financial system. Communicating, sharing and consolidat-
sector, land management helps local governments ing data and clearly evaluating when what type of
and landowners assess development opportuni- use is possible in building law is a valuable strategic
ties and their potential to create value. The fun- urban development instrument. MA
damental goal is to define spatial and program-
matic priorities for an integrated sustainable
urban development which safeguards potential
returns for both private and local government
stakeholders. Economic neigh-
Activating land plays a key role in urban redevel- bourhood devel-
opment strategies, because improvement and
modernisation strategies must also be developed
for existing neighbourhoods. The associated
opment
funding models bring small-scale private and Neighbourhood-level economic assessments de-
public capital together for urban development. pend mainly on the scale and duration of devel-
A portfolio including a database of development opment and the risks associated with it. A neigh-
potential in land and buildings must include data bourhood can only be economically viable if de-
on plots and land surveys, access, heritage monu velopment risk can be reduced by making parts
ments, type and extent of existing buildings, as of it fully functional within a manageable time-
well as environmental and planning information. frame. This is essential, especially for entirely
On this basis, land cannot be valued in purely private sector development. The capacity to gen-
financial terms. Urban development objectives, erate appropriate returns remains the measure of
land owners’ and neighbours’ interests must also all things for private capital. As the key planning
be taken into account, especially in established authority, it falls to local government to set out
neighbourhoods. the legal planning framework for orderly devel-
Brownfields, land and buildings which are under opment.
used or not used at all are dead capital. Activating Local governments rarely have the capacity or
land is a key component in generating economic financial means to handle land development along-
and urban development value for inward devel- side their daily business. For this reason, local
opment. Cities which can position themselves governments may team up with, or delegate
effectively, make specific offers and respond to powers to municipal, private or mixed delivery
the market in a demand-oriented fashion will vehicles to ensure that urban development projects
gain a stronger competitive position. However, are delivered on time, on budget, and to the target
urban development plans which are elaborated quality.
in great analytic and conceptual detail often hit
the buffers in delivery. The ability to act effectively Financial goals and requirements, and the extent
requires a convincing and at least partly economic to which public funds can be used to offset costs
ally justified activation strategy. which do not deliver an immediate return, essen-

Authenticated
Development parameters Issues

Developer Who is the project lead?
Land price Uniting different concepts of value
Risks Sharing marketing risk and financing risk
Finance Who is providing funding for which costs, especially with regard to unprofit
able costs such as contamination, infrastructure and follow-on costs?
Local government influence Safeguarding implementation of objectives (framework plans,
public contracts)
Subsidies Early collaboration between possible funding agencies
Competing development Sustainable (long-term) political consensus / focus on urban development
areas (e.g. avoiding designating several development areas at the same time,
which can lead to prices dropping and development taking very long)
Developing land and Sharing tasks between project stakeholders (as planning authority, local
buildings government takes on access and infrastructure surfaces, whereas private
investors construct and market buildings)
Partnering Corporate structures which allow ease of entry and exit
Fig. 1
tially determine the organisational structure and must also be evaluated in qualitiative terms (e.g. Fig. 1 Criteria for developing
partners’ understanding of their respective roles improving neighbourhoods’ reputation or quality organisation and delivery
models
in the overall process. Thus, some key points of of life). Accompanying local government fiscal
departure must be clarified during initial project research can capture and take account of the long-
preparation (Fig. 1). term secondary and tertiary benefits.
Some financial and technical plans may be geared
towards specific development outcomes, such as
creating and protecting employment, supporting Safeguarding quality of place
and providing social and cultural offers, or creating
transport links or green networks. These outcomes
and value stability
require more public funding and resources because Debates and programmes around integrated urban Models for organisation
they cannot be funded from real estate proceeds development initiated in the last ten years have and development
alone. increasingly focussed on quality as a way of gen- The following models can be applied to neighbour-
Sustainable neighbourhood development focusses erating value. Anticipated demographic, social hood development. They differ in terms of ways
on brownfield sites or sites already in use as well and economic change is leading private investors to share risk and safeguard quality:
as on established neighbourhoods in locations and local governments to view neighbourhood • local government development
• 100 % local government-owned development
which integrate with their surroundings. This development as an opportunity to achieve lasting
company
makes it particularly important to carry out a site improvements in existing neighbourhoods’ urban • investor- or project-led development based on
sustainability survey. Reusing existing buildings design and their social and economic fabric, whilst urban development contracts
and infrastructure and improving urban design also initiating sustainable change in new neigh- • collaborative models / Public Private Partner-
concepts in terms of land consumption, using bourhoods. As a result, the basic objectives, and ship (PPP)
space efficiently and preserving resources are key the projects and processes which arise from them,
Developing, reviewing and coordinating organisa
points in sustainable development frameworks. provide the basis for generating value in develop-
tional and development models is one of the
One of the key financial optimisation tasks is to ment. key phases in urban project development. Basic
develop concepts for timed, spatial delivery phases Checking feasibility and tying in funding partners feasibility can be examined as soon as the first
which reflect the context and aspects of urban depends on working together to develop concepts urban-design and technical plans are available.
design whilst also achieving market viability. and plans, and on assessing the potential to gen- The associated evaluation of financial viability
Each project needs a starting baseline in order to erate value. Location quality and value stability has a major influence on organising and executing
identify and measure later changes. Even though are mutually dependent. This means that sustain- the project.
The developer determines the economic perspec-
it is impossible to provide fully comprehensive, able neighbourhood development is about uniting
tive. Economic considerations must be aligned
clear time schedules, financial and technical plans the interests of all partners and disciplines (Fig. 2, with the organisational form. In terms of sustain
from the outset, the basic plan sets out the p. 162). ability, however, cross-cutting methods such as
key urban design points and helps private and Life-Cycle Costing (LCC) should always be an
local government agencies’ conduct initial risk The quality of urban design and architecture, the integral part of projects' economic analysis.
assessments. mix of uses, the social mix, different forms of
Cross-cutting roles such as sustainable manage- engaging and collaborating, and an enduring posi
ment and providing documentation and informative reputation make a calculable contribution to
tion are important for generating value through- location quality in urban neighbourhoods – as well
out all of the project phases, whilst also ensuring the so-called classical hard factors with a direct
project reliability and consistency. impact on costs. A sustainable analysis will always
As well as these purely economic aspects, projects also consider changes in urban design frameworks,

Authenticated
Management
Managing organisation
and coordination Managing contracts Managing cost Managing deadlines
Preparing the site Conceptual advice Marketing and sales Sales support
Analysing urban
Surveying the site Market research Project branding
design concepts
Result: Planning conditions (framework) and overall development control Predicted return
Managing site
Creating value
Managing the site Marketing planning Project positioning
supervision
Result: Sites with planning permission and access Predicted return
Planning access Investor relations Sales planning Sales support

and logistics measures
Result: Land parcels and specific interested parties Predicted return
Making the site Preparing individual Sales support
Sales preparation
ready-to-build projects measures
Result: Ready-to-build development sites Predicted return Optimum

site exploitation
Fig. 2
Fig. 2 Managing neighbour social structures and political conditions which which reach the wider region beyond the city itself
hood development automatically impact on neighbourhoods’ popu- include investments generated by the planning
Fig. 3 Overview of possible larity, reputation, quality and thus its value. and construction process, rising resident numbers,
complex relationships in a
These parameters differ significantly from purely increasing tax revenues and an improved reputa-
cost-benefit analysis
privately financed and short-term two- to three- tion thanks to active communication.
year development, and calcluating them is par-
ticularly challenging for landowners, local gov- Well organised, funded, controlled and monitored
ernments and investors, if involved. urban development can bring developers, stake-
holders, residents and businesses together to share
Moreover, protecting location quality and value a common identity, initiating open and shared
stability requires engaging with and providing processes regarding neighbourhoods, business
advice to local governments, landowners and networks and identity. MA
residents, in order to initiate long-term monitor-
ing and supervision processes (e.g. land manage-
ment, neighbourhood management, energy man-
agement, construction advice etc.).
Financial
Which conditions offer the key to successfully
delivering neighbourhood development? The viability in neigh-
return on the capital invested is important for
private sector projects. This means that the loca-
tion must be excellent in terms of size, duration
bourhoods
and market demand. Alternatively, project burdens Reliable figures on the financial viability of a neigh-
such as the land purchase price, the cost of land bourhood can only be obtained once it is com-
preparation (e.g. contaminated sites, building pleted, i.e. when it is built, sold and leased. All of
land) or follow-on costs (e.g. infrastructure) must the project stakeholders measure the predictions
be appropriately shared between landowners, of those who are financially responsible for neigh-
local governments and investors. Investors will bourhood development against the actual return,
only take on the development risk they can actu- the sale price or rent achieved. Macro-economic
ally assess. As a result, the parties involved will aspects such as an attractive setting can encourage
generally enter into cooperation. investors, buyers or tenants to make certain allow-
ances in their financial calculation, but the income
In addition to urban design improvements, the generated is always the bottom line.
public sector can include secondary benefits in
evaluating neighbourhood development. Inward For this reason, new neighbourhoods’ financial
effects include creating jobs, generating business viability is also calculated backwards. This means
turnover, offering an adequate housing supply, that a building plot’s price reflects what the mar-
and creating social groups and initiatives. Effects ket, i.e. potential investors, buyers or tenants, are

Authenticated
Distribution policy Fairness
Utility Ethics
Process costs Utilitarianism Sensitivity analysis
Sunset-legislation Zero-base-budgeting Use value analysis Business planning
Budgeting Cost-benefit-analysis Cost-effectiveness-

analysis
Welfare economy External effects

New political economy
Employment market
theory
Production factors
Cost Market failure
Allocation Monetarism
Fig. 3
prepared to pay for the proposed neighbourhood evaluation which has the advantage of reflecting
plot. As a result, the actual cost, i.e. the initial many stakeholders’ interests (e.g. users, local
property value and all other costs for planning and government, investors). Given that urban neigh-
building the development, determines only the bourhoods’ life cycle can often extend over more
extent of profit or loss, rather than the sale price. than 100 years, a too broad view of the future is
This is why market and location studies as well as associated with major uncertainty. This is why a
SWOT analyses (Strengths, Weaknesses, Oppor- standard, roughly simplified calculation of life
tunities, Threats) are carried out (Fig. 4, p. 164). cycle costs for 50 years is commonly used.
They provide answers as to which rent and pur-
chase prices can be achieved, which risks can The life cycle calculation aims to represent built
be expected and whether there is any economic quality in financial terms, including costs for oper-
interest at all in the market. This in turn provides ation and dismantling as well as for construction.
the basis of all further calculations for developing This means that economic action is no longer
the neighbourhood in question. These feasibility limited to optimising construction cost alone.
studies calculate and compare the actual project For example, the production costs for expensive
development costs with the expected income from neighbourhood infrastructure measures such as
sale or income. If the result is negative and more central rainwater management systems or local
costs are generated than can be recovered from heating networks can be balanced by savings in
sale or rental on the market this usually ends the operation.
project. However, feasibility studies can also in-
form much more differentiated conclusions, e.g.
to provide more apartments and less office space, Methods for calculating
or to make a planned neighbourhood park a bit
smaller. Research can also recommend raising
economic viability
quality in order to reach a more affluent target Real estate economics distinguishes the following
group, or planning for a longer marketing period. key methods to assess financial viability:
In any event, these issues must be taken into ac-
count early in the planning process. Just like en- Cost-benefit analysis
vironmental audits, financial viability assessments In a simple comparison of a measure’s costs and
must be completed and necessary urban design benefits, benefits equate to income, e.g. from
measures implemented. rental or sale. The private sector also refers to this
as a simple static profitability calculation. The
Various forms of financial viability are also used difference between income and expenditure is
in project control throughout all further project profit.
phases. Specific figures allow for the entire devel- More complex models also attempt to reflect indir
opment cost to be controlled in detail, thereby ect revenues or cost savings which are not directly
preventing unexpected cost shifts or losses. reflected in the purchase price. As a comparative
The life cycle cost method provides a long-term evaluation of objects or alternative courses of

Authenticated
164 Chapter � — Action Areas
1 Zehbold 1996, p. 78f. action, cost-benefit analysis is based on principles cost calculation. However, with a certain amount
of welfare economics and used mainly in the pub- of effort, the DCF calculation’s dynamic long-term
lic sector (e.g. for infrastructure projects such as view can be extended to comprehensively calcu-
underground railways) (Fig. 3). late life cycle cost. In project development, it also
takes many more issues into account than the life
Project Developer Costing (PE) cycle cost calculations of real estate certificates
This static calculation over a fixed development which are customary in the real estate industry.
Opportunities
Business period (usually no more than two to three years)

Education
reflects all financial factors from the project devel- Life-Cycle Costing (LCC):
oper’s point of view. This includes the cost of The LCC costing method considers a product’s
Local
authority
finance for a certain period, i.e. it does not consider development throughout its entire life cycle. Ori-
Demog- Environ- associ- the flow of funds within the project into account, ginally developed in the 1930s for products such
raphy ment ation or when revenue from sales or costs for planners as agricultural machinery, the method has been
and contractors impact. Instead, related construc- used in the construction sector since the 1960s.
Threats
Migration tion cost (land acquisition, tax, planning, finance, It considers constructing, operating and dismant-
marketing, etc.), production costs (buildings, ling buildings in the long term. Life cycle costing
infrastructure, etc.), income (mainly from sales has been used increasingly in sustainable con-
Weaknesses Strengths and rentals) and sometimes operating costs are struction since the turn of the millennium because
calculated for a limited period. The project return of the great importance of use cost. Energy-saving
is the ratio of income to capital employed. legislation, the rapid increase in energy cost, and
the trend towards certification in the real estate
Fig. 4 Discounted cash flow method (DCF) sector has lent this topic greater importance. There
Fig. 4 Results of a SWOT DCF is an established method to reflect the via- is little standardisation of LCC methods for entire
analysis using the example bility of long-term development, usually over a neighbourhoods and the method is still not wide-
of a sustainable integrated
period of 10 to 30 years. It shows project cash flow spread.1
municipal development strat
in two development curves, one for cost and one
egy (NIKE) for Aalen (DE)
Fig. 5 Cashflow curve for revenue. The point at which the two curves In addition to these four essential valuation meth-
of an urban neighbourhood intersect is the so-called Break-evenPoint (BEP), ods for urban development projects, the real estate
(brownfield sites) or the point of Return on Investment (ROI). The industry is familiar with numerous other methods
development is profitable from this point onwards, from the fields of valuation, financing and invest-
i.e. revenue exceeds costs and generates profit. ment. In some cases these are variations of the
The net present value method takes the long four calculation methods described above. Invest-
period of development and the resulting loss in ment distinguishes static and dynamic methods
value due to inflation into account. This actually of profitability analysis. Except for project devel-
results in the cash-flow curve (Fig. 5). As a pure oper costing, these methods can also be used as
calculation of revenue/expenditure excluding dynamic methods and can also be expanded to a
operating costs, this is very far from a life cycle life cycle cost calculation.

Authenticated
Income (cumulative) Cost (cumulative) Balance (cumulative)

Capital [€]
Break-even
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Time [a]
Fig. 5
Calculating life cycle in German Sustainable Building Assessment System 2 Geissdoerfer 2009
buildings and infrastructure for Federal Buildings (BNB) and the certification
system of the German Sustainable Building Coun-
For sustainable neighbourhood development, it is cil (DGNB) have dedicated all their schemes to
important to recognise that the private sector gen- life cycle costs, providing auditors with a suitable
erally strives for the greatest possible profit rather tool. The DGNB system “New Urban Districts”
than the greatest possible efficiency. Depending on is presented in the chapter “Certification and
the type of market, this generally has far-reaching Evaluation Systems” (pp. 218ff.). In addition to an
consequences for the economy as a whole and LCC calculation for urban districts, it also includes
fundamentally contradicts sustainable develop- criteria to evaluate the fiscal impact on local gov-
ment. Work is currently underway to establish ernment.
new ways of calculating financial viability in real
estate, under the sustainable construction banner. Various applications of other instruments, such
In Germany, this has largely been achieved by as the municipal follow-on cost calculator or the
the debate around the BNB and DGNB systems’ WISINA project in Baden-Württemberg (Wirt
new life-cycle cost tools, as well as the debate schaftlichkeit der Siedlungsentwicklung als Beitrag
around energy costs and the so-called second zur Nachhaltigkeit), show that LCC tools now
rent (service cost). established in the real estate sector often do not
go far enough for urban development.
The very differentiated facility management (FM)
evaluation is currently gaining importance for life It is important to find the appropriate method for
cycle cost in the real estate sector, which is dom- the relevant point of view. Fig. 6 (p. 166) indicates
inated by existing properties. This evaluation aims project stakeholders’ often very disparate interests.
to safeguard budgets and optimise operating costs. It must be emphasised that planning-related LCC
The methods and procedures in the product and applications have fundamentally different object
FM area are generally regulated (e.g. GEFMA 200, ives from FM evaluations and municipal follow-on
DIN EN 60 30033 “Application Guide – Life Cycle cost calculators. The aim of planning with the LCC
Costs”, VDI 2884 “Procurement, Operation and method is to improve overall building cost, e.g.
Maintenance of Production Equipment Using Life through energy-efficient construction. The costs
Cycle Costing”). In planning, however, construc- in use are included as statistical parameters rather
tion costs are still the decisive determinant. A life than actual project values. Likewise, the total
cycle cost calculation according to the FM method income, incidental costs and general conditions
is often only commissioned after the planning has of the specific location are largely ignored.
been completed, although this has an influence
on the results.2 Cost calculations according to DIN 276 and other
Even international certification systems are largely cost classifications for roads and infrastructure
neglecting this issue. Since their foundation, the measures take local price differences into account,

Authenticated
Interests Functional Short- Long- Value Rental Yield Life Rent Residual Recharge External
quality term term stability income cycle level service able cost
risk risk and cost / costs service
value Full cost costs
Stakeholder generation
Developer ¥ ‡ ‡
Client / Buy-to-rent
¥ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ¥ ‡ ¥
owners
Clients /Owner-
‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
occupiers
Investors with
‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
long-term interests
Investors with
‡ ‡ ‡
short-term interests
Tenants ‡ ‡ ‡
Banks /Financers ¥ ‡ ‡ ‡ ¥
Fund managers ¥ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ¥ ¥ ¥
Society /
‡ ‡ ‡ ¥ ‡ ‡
Public sector
‡ direct interest ¥ indirect interest
Fig. 6
Fig. 6 Interests of selected but they do not consider parameters such as in- ject so far. It is important to note that the life cycle
stakeholder groups in evalu creased local government tax revenues from new cost calculation in urban neighbourhoods does
ating the economic viability jobs or additional residents. Similarly, the classic not include a simplified analysis at the building
of structural solutions
public sector follow-on costs, e.g. for additionally level. This analysis would be far too short-sighted.
Fig. 7 Differentiating life
cycle costs in the narrower required kindergarten places, are only taken into For example, although access and infrastructure
and wider sense (based on account in local government fiscal considerations costs are low in relation to total neighbourhood
ISO 15 6865) and tools for follow-on costs. However, these tools construction costs, the cost range is significantly
Fig. 8 Average development can only capture some of an urban neighbour- greater. Whereas neighbourhood construction
costs per housing unit hoods comprehensive life cycle cost. The various costs generally do not vary by more than 50 %,
calculation methods very accurately reflect the the variance in access and infrastructure costs can
different interests. From the point of view of sus- often be ten times greater. For example, a study
tainable urban and spatial planning, the way that conducted by the state of Bavaria in 2008 revealed
local government follow-on costs is calculated on that average access and infrastructure costs were
the basis of administrative districts, states or fed- around 100 % higher in single-family houses
eral borders often leads to economic distortions. (€ 20,000 per unit) than in apartment buildings
The competitive situation between different neigh- (€ 10,000 per unit) (Fig. 8). The difference in
bouring units often favours uneconomical and transport costs is even more pronounced. Whilst
unsustainable solutions, e.g. through an oversup- residents in a new housing estate on the edge of
3 Grassl 2008 ply of building land or price dumping. Subsidies a village in rural areas spend around € 700,000
can also lead to distortions in the market, but in on pure travel costs in relation to their lifetime,
most cases they are used in a target-oriented and suburban residents in a big city will spend less
economically sensible way. For urban development than € 200,000 on average. The lowest expenses
projects and larger neighbourhood developments, for travel costs are incurred by the inhabitants
it is essential to examine the scope for drawing on of a small town centre with an average of only
government funding support. € 20,000.3
Real estate economics distinguishes between

various life-cycle cost calculations: Recommendations for
•• Life-cycle costs in the narrower sense
(Life-Cycle Cost – LCC)
economically viable neigh-
•• Life-cycle costs in the broader sense bourhood development
(Whole Life Cost – WLC) Most areas of sustainable building such as energy,
urban-planning or social aspects are key to neigh-
These can be composed of different building bourhood quality and approval. Economics has
blocks to form individual methods (Fig. 7). only an indirect influence. However, it is the key
To date, a real Whole Life Cost view is hardly criterion for delivering an innovative master plan
known in the real estate industry. Further areas and implementing it in a built urban neighbour-
are usually only evaluated in separate studies, but hood, and must be taken into account throughout
have rarely been comprehensively applied to a pro- all phases of development. A step-by-step

Authenticated
Life-cycle cost in
the wider sense
Life-cycle
(Whole cost– in
Life Cost WLC)
the wider sense
(Whole Life Cost – WLC)
Life-Cycle Cost
Non-construction
Externalities Income in the narrow sense
cost
Life-Cycle
(LCC)Cost
Non-construction
Externalities Income in the narrow sense
cost
(LCC)
Local authority fiscal analysis
Classic real estate analysis

Local authority fiscal analysis
Classic real estate analysis
Construction Operation Maintenance End of Life

cost cost cost Cost
Construction Operation Maintenance End of Life
cost cost cost Cost
Classic real estate cycle cost calculation
Fig. 7 Classic real estate cycle cost calculation
20,000 Single-family
100 % dwelling
per dwelling
10,000 Apartment block

50 %
per dwelling Multiple-family dwelling
Fig. 8
approach and a methodology adapted to the pro- •• Financial viability must always be calculated
ject and its stakeholders are important. The fol- in terms of a discounted cash flow assessment
lowing points should always be observed: and should be accompanied by life cycle cost
•• The basic decision on the redevelopment, calculations. Ideally, both methods are com-
further development or new development of bined to form a comprehensive life cycle cost
an urban neighbourhood should be reviewed calculation.
in economic terms. Neighbourhood develop- •• Subsidies and alternative cost-benefit analyses
ment must be integrated into the development should always be examined for urban devel-
of the entire city and region in an economically opment projects. They can help to ensure
meaningful way. success in projects which are economical and
•• Each decision in favour of a given urban neigh- sustainable but, at first glance, not profitable
bourhood project must be based on a SWOT purely in terms of the free market.
analysis of the market and location, and the •• The expert responsible for financial viability
results combined in a feasibility study in order must be given a central project role, and should
to guarantee social and private-sector project be experienced in dealing with sustainable
incentives. evaluation methods. Pure cost control and
•• From the initial planning idea onwards, the profit maximisation should be avoided. Rather,
project’s economic viability must be examined the focus should be on quality assurance and
step by step. The level of detail of the viability a broad economic analysis which does justice
analysis must be adapted to the respective to all stakeholders rather than focusing on
project development stage. only a main stakeholder. GCG

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C H A P TE R 3
Implementation
Strategies

Authenticated
3.1 — Developing Holistic Concepts 169
3.1
Developing
Holistic Concepts
He l m ut Bott, Ste p han Anders
T
he preceding chapters dealt Currently, most planning processes still tend to
with different aspects of sus- be sequenced and linear. In Germany, the typical
tainable urban planning indi- process is as follows: first, the location and the
vidually. The challenge for market is analysed, then a land-use concept is
urban planning and design developed, discussed, and approved by the rele-
practice is to bring these indi- vant political bodies. Ideally, the next step is to
vidual objectives and meas- carry out an urban design competition and – if all
ures together in an integral goes well – commission the winner of the first prize
overall concept. The following section recaps to produce the full design and pass it on to special-
key statements from each of the different action ist planners, e.g. for transport, energy, utilities and
areas. waste disposal. The problem is that the entire urban
design may need to be revised if specialist planners
find that it is fundamentally unable to meet the
desired objectives. This leads to poor results.
Integrated Major projects such as the Stuttgart 21 urban devel-

opment project demonstrate how a poor informa-
planning and tion policy can hamper project progress and drive
up associated cost. It is urgently recommended
participation not only to communicate within the integrated

planning team, but to engage the general public
in dialogue as early as possible. This provides the
Planning sustainable neighbourhoods is com- opportunity to take all of the available knowledge
plex. It is essential to engage with the public and on board and gain broader public approval.
bring its knowledge and experience to bear on the It is also important to take social and psychological
process. It is also necessary to form an integrated aspects into account: engaging with all of the plan-
planning team including urban designers, land- ners and other involved stakeholders at an early
scape designers, transport planners, architects and stage increases their ownership of the project. The
energy consultants as soon as possible. Further parties involved are more willing to commit to
experts in law, finance, ecology, social issues or achieving and delivering project objectives – and
art may be required, depending on the scale and this in turn improves the chances for an optimal
complexity of the project and the goals it is seeking solution.
to achieve. An experienced facilitator should chair
coordination meetings and workshops.
It is very important to adopt this integrated ap-
proach from the earliest possible stage, as this is
when key decisions with a significant impact on
project sustainability are taken. The further a
Reciprocal effects
neighbourhood’s planning has progressed, the Sustainable urban planning addresses the many
greater the cost and effort associated with changes dimensions of designing space for urban life in
(Fig. 1, p. 170). the context of relevant technical, economic and

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170 Chapter 3 — Implementation Strategies
Influence Cost and emissions

100
[%]
75
50
25
0
Initialisation Planning Construction Use Decommissioning
Fig. 1
Fig. 1 Possibilities to influ- social conditions for integrated sustainable devel- the landscape, but – depending on the materials
ence cost and pollution opment concepts. Measures which make sense in used in wind turbines – this can be removed and
throughout neighbourhoods’
one dimension can have negative effects in other replaced by possible new forms of energy gener
life-cycle
Fig. 2 Urban neighbour-
dimensions, even though these are often dis- ation in future. Using pure materials allows these
hood by the water, Borneo- missed as “side effects” or “externalities”. to be reused. For example, this can be achieved by
Sporenburg, Amsterdam layering different materials in walls or construct-
(NL) 2005 This means that design features and new tech ing external walls in a single layer. Composite
Fig. 3 Length of pipes for nical developments may be sustainable in one thermal insulation systems make subsequent
water supply and waste
field, such as enabling energy savings, whilst recycling difficult or impossible.
water per home in develop-
having negative effects in another field. For ex-
ments of different densities
Fig. 4 Threshold densities ample, the energy-saving light bulbs introduced
for economic viability in some years ago caused toxic waste and produced No optimising of subsystems
district heating networks light which was too cold. In this example, the goals
1 detached, single occu of saving energy and recycling materials compete. It is difficult to deliver entirely synergetic concepts
pation housing, scattered Building conservation and building culture also and strategies. As systems, especially living sys-
2 village
often compete with, or contradict energy-saving tems, grow more complex, this makes it impossible
3 detached, single occu
pation housing, dense measures. Complementary objectives and mea to get equally optimum results for all subsystems.
4 terraced housing sures enhance each other without positive or neg- It is most likely that the overall system optimum
5 multiple occupation ative interactions. In terms of sustainability, the is achieved whilst not all sub-systems reach their
housing 90+ aim is to implement measures or systems which optimum. The “car-friendly city” paradigm is a
6 linear blocks have as few negative effects as possible, or which frequently cited example. Optimum traffic systems
7 perimeter block
induce further positive developments in other for private motor transport hamper other forms
8 linear block /slab block
9 slab block
fields. This is about generating synergies. of movement and ruin space for urban life. Simi-
larly, the aforementioned drive for maximum
energy savings in renovating old buildings can
destroy architectural character, whilst biodiesel
Reversibility production leads to agricultural monoculture.
The key is to consider all dimensions, weigh them

Above all else, any concept must be reversible. up and conduct careful, transdisciplinary research
Introducing technical systems or intervening in into counterproductive, negative effects in order
natural habitats must be reversible. It must not, to reduce the overall scale of intervention. Often,
for example, lead to the irreversible extinction of technical solutions dominate, because they are
natural habitats and species. This means that no supposed to contribute to “essential” economic
more non-degradable poisons, no more non-recyc growth. In many cases, the best outcome for sus-
lable materials and components may be used. For tainability would be a change in lifestyle and con-
example, nuclear energy produces life-destroying sumption. But social, psychological and political
residues which cannot be reversed in human life factors make it difficult to achieve this in the face
1 cf. e.g. Anders 2016 times. Financial debt can be paid off. Generat- of strong economic interests (cf. Lifestyles and
2 Zinser / Boch 2007, p. 123 ing wind energy has an unattractive impact on Behaviours, pp. 73ff.).1

Authenticated
Fig. 2
Interlocking
Dwellings per hectare Pipe length per dwelling
250 70
Pipe length per dwelling [m]
Dwellings per hectare

effects 200
60
50
Density is the prerequisite for using resources 150
40
economically. Density can relate to dense build-
ings or uses. 30
100
20
Density – benefits 50
10
Urban spaces and buildings can be used much 0 0

more densely, even if physical density remains the city compact urban rural dynamic traditional
same. If it is not “overdesigned” by fixed instal- village periphery scattered scattered
settlement settlement
lations, an urban square can be a market on two
mornings and a playground and outdoor eating Fig. 3
area on other days, offering space for other out-
door activities. A workstation can serve several After: Siedentop et al, 2006
people (shift use or hot-desking). Streets which After: Roth et al, 1980
Minimum density for economically viable neighbourhood heating supply
are closed temporarily, e.g. at midday, can be used Limit to economically viable supply after: Siedentop et al, 2006
for pedestrian recreation and street restaurants, 65
Energy consumption [MW/km2]
7
as has been practiced in Japan for many decades. 60
More recent shared space concepts focus on the
55 8
principle of using street space for a wide variety
of users and functions at the same time. Where 50
buildings and management regimes allow for 45
it, school and university spaces can be used for
40
various events during holidays, weekends and
7
evening hours. This means that businesses and 35
associations do not have to build their own event 30 6
spaces, and can reduce emissions and protect the 6
3/2 9
25
environment. The hot-desking example demon- 4
strates that up to 20 percent of space and thus 20 2 3
also heating, ventilation and equipment cost can
15
be saved, without any additional investment.2
10 1 5
1
Physical density too, is key to running a neigh- 5
bourhood efficiently (Fig. 2). Density is essential 0
for supplying neighbourhoods with local or district 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
heating (Figs. 3 and 4) and access to public trans- Fig. 4 plot ratio (GFZ)

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Public transport
Public transport
Economic viability
Improved public
Mobility through symmetrical
transport provision
Improved access to traffic loads
Emissions
facilities leads to a
Reduced noise, dust
higher proportion of
and CO2
pedestrians and cyclists
in everyday life Connection density
Improved conditions for
local heating networks,
e.g. via CHP plants
Space requirements
Public space Shared use of park-
Varied amenities and ing spaces by resi-
Density dents, customers and
lively public spaces
create quality of stay employees
Mixed use
Inconvenience
Businesses, deliveries
Utilities
and customers disturb
More dense provision
local residents
thanks also to number
of employees within the
neighbourhood
Water management
Reduced retention
Energy
areas lead to greater Urban climate Inconvenience
More building shading
rainwater run-off Reinforcing the urban Dwellings and other
heat island effect uses impair privacy
Fig. 5
Fig. 5 Positive (blue arrows) port, as a public transport stop requires a certain buildings and makes rainwater drain away more
and negative (black arrows) minimum passenger demand potential. Physical quickly due to increased sealing. Less ventilation
interactions between density density also improves access to and utilisation of and less free space reinforce the urban heat island
and mixed use, and other
existing social infrastructure such as schools and effect.
factors
Fig. 6 Drop-off point for
kindergartens, and allows for more private sector These disadvantages must be taken into account,
underground waste system. amenities which need a minimum demand and but they can be largely compensated for by suitable
Planted, slightly lowered footfall. measures. For example, roof and facade greening
swale in foreground, Stock- slow the run-off of rainwater and help retain rain-
holm Hjorthagen (SE) Urban density makes it more likely that more trips water. They also mitigate the heat island effect,
Fig. 7 Baugruppe Loretto,
are made by bike or on foot, thus reducing traffic increase evaporation and create additional habi-
Inner courtyard, Tübingen
(DE) 2006. Landscape
fumes and vehicle stress on urban space. This in tats for plants and animals. Introducing retention
design: frei raum concept turn improves the experience of spending time swales to high-density areas requires a greater
Fig. 8 Converted former in urban space, allowing for more contacts and effort, but soakaways can even be installed be-
barracks, Vauban, Freiburg richer experiences. These benefits go along with neath sealed surfaces (Fig. 6).
im Breisgau (DE) the planning objective of mixed use (housing, Design features, such as the way a building is
working, facilities). This makes it easier and more structured, or the provision of loggias or roof ter-
attractive to move through and spend time in urban races instead of balconies, can offset some of the
open space, e.g. by providing more room to play disadvantages of high physical density arising
or dine outdoors, which in turn generates further from the proximity of neighbouring buildings.
urban benefits. However, these features can undermine the goal
of making buildings more compact.
Density – challenges
However, higher density and mixed use are also
associated with negative effects. For example,
outdoor dining can conflict with housing (sleep).
Mixed use
Generally, noise is more likely to impair or disturb One of the basic principles of the European city
privacy, especially in private open space (gardens, was the close spatial relationship between living
terraces, balconies). and working, but also between different social
Density causes greater mutual shading between strata. Today, cities worldwide are extremely seg-
Fig. 6
Authenticated
regated, which causes well-known traffic problems. Conflicting uses

For decades, planners and social scientists have Mixed neighbourhoods can give rise to a number
criticised this functional separation, a dogma of of conflicts (e.g. housing – delivery traffic to shops;
modernist urban planning, calling for an appropri- housing – outdoor eating; housing – pollution from
ately dense mix of uses as the prerequisite for sus- workshops) which are to be taken seriously.
tainable urban development. Many urban renewal Intelligent concepts must be developed to take
projects have already implemented these goals, different user needs into account and reduce the
creating mixed neighbourhoods on industrial and potential for conflict to a minimum. Neighbour-
commercial sites which were previously used for hoods such as Loretto in Tübingen (Fig. 7) and
just one purpose, such as commerce and industry, Vauban in Freiburg (Fig. 8) demonstrate that this
former factories, freight stations or docks. can be done.
Fig. 7
Benefits Open spaces
Lively, mixed-use street spaces make neighbour- The quality and pedestrian accessibility of open
hoods more attractive and make residents and space is very important for attractive neighbour-
visitors feel safer. Mixed urban structures are hoods. Open space is a place for communicating,
essential for a city of short routes. It is easy to relaxing and cultural life and it makes a key con-
make short trips between home, work and leisure tribution to residents’ well-being and identifica-
on foot, by bicycle or by public transport. Reducing tion with the neighbourhood. Central Park in
private motor traffic and related noise and dust New York, St. Peter’s Square in Rome, or the beach
makes the public realm more attractive and allows promenade in Rio de Janeiro (Fig. 9, p. 174) clearly
more space for pedestrians and cyclists. Homes define these cities’ character to a much greater
and workplaces will certainly be remote from each extent than individual buildings.
other in future too. However, a mixed-use city Open space includes generous areas of green and
generates commuter patterns with mirrored ori- water, as well as paths, squares and street spaces
gins and destinations, where parking lots can be (e.g. Avenue des Champs-Élysées in Paris) as well
used more efficiently. On the other hand, pure as private gardens, balconies, (roof ) terraces and Fig. 8
housing or work neighbourhoods make poor use courtyards. Open space and neighbourhood dens
of resources: one-way traffic clogs up public trans- ity are mutually related. The higher the density,
port in the morning and in the evening, and twice the more usable open space is required, even if this
as many parking lots are needed to accommodate principle conflicts with profitability. Using space
cars both at home and at work. Finally, mixed use flexibly throughout the day or the seasons can
can be more easily adapted to changing parame- massively reduce the space needed, and reduce
ters (see Sustainability and Resilience, p. 13f.) and cost for constructing and maintaining open space.
are thus more stable and attractive for owners, For example, it is possible to use 70 percent of
residents and investors in the long term. Only street space for private motor traffic during hours
socially diverse neighbourhoods allow people of peak traffic, but use 70 percent for pedestrians,
from different social classes, life situations and cyclists and cafés at off-peak times (e.g. midday,
professions to meet, and engage in social learning. nights, weekends or holidays). The partial closure
Living side by side certainly also generates con- of Broadway in New York and shared space pro-
flicts, but it also provides the basis for an intact jects in the Netherlands demonstrate that these
society where people lead socially responsible concepts are both realistic and feasible. The task
lives, rather than living in isolated ghettos of of sustainable neighbourhood development is to
poverty or rich gated communities. strike a balance between densification (efficient

Authenticated
infrastructure, the city of short routes etc.) and Inward rather than
open space (well-being, health etc.) that suits the outward development
location and project objectives.
Land is a key resource which cannot be repro-
duced, especially in densely populated countries
Green spaces like Germany. The primary goal of sustainable
neighbourhood development must thus be to use
Green spaces have many positive effects on the the space which is still available sparingly. This
various dimensions of the city as a living space. can be achieved by using brownfield or under-
As places to meet and move, to play and relax, developed land, such as former military sites,
observe and gain social skills through spontaneous railway or commercial land, or by dense develop-
contact, they provide social functions which are ment patterns.
particularly important for residents without access Developing inner-city brownfields such as Vauban,
to private open space. Up to a certain size, green Freiburg or Loretto, Tübingen (Figs. 7 and 8, p. 173)
spaces promote communication and integration. has several advantages over greenfield develop-
Green spaces fulfil important ecological functions, ment, even if initial costs for decontamination
supporting biodiversity as plant and animal habi and more planning work can be higher than ex
tats. They influence the urban climate, lowering pected. This is because updating and reactivating
temperatures, raising humidity, and filtering and existing roads, buildings and technical infrastruc-
binding dust, all of which reduces the urban heat ture significantly cuts construction cost.
island effect. Green spaces also reduce transport At the same time, increasing density within exist-
and traffic pollution, as more urban residents make ing neighbourhoods allows existing energy, utility
use of leisure facilities instead of “escaping to the and waste disposal infrastructure, schools and
countryside”. kindergartens to be used more efficiently. In add
Urban green spaces fulfil even more functions, ition to these technical aspects, brownfield devel-
which overlap with other issues. In terms of water opment can also provide additional facilities for
management, unsealed, planted areas, swales surrounding neighbourhoods, and balance or
(retention) and appropriately landscaped areas prevent undesirable social trends in existing urban
(groundwater recharge, flood prevention) help areas.
Fig. 9 retain, clean, infiltrate and slow down rainwater
run-off. Water management retention systems
integrated into green space also provide further Using existing buildings
opportunities for biodiversity, as well as expand-
ing areas for movement and play. Finally, they By far the largest part of European cities has al-
help improve dry, hot and dusty urban climates. ready been built. The annual rate of new con-
Green spaces can also contribute to biomass pro- struction in Germany, for example, fluctuates
duction. Whilst generous green areas reduce de- between 1 and 2 percent of existing building stock.
velopment density, they are also indispensable, The ongoing transformation of highly developed
especially for high-density neighbourhoods. Very countries from industrial to knowledge econo-
large green spaces can disrupt the spatial conti- mies is releasing major inner-city commercial
nuity of the urban fabric, thereby forming a nat- and industrial areas with enormous urban de-
ural boundary between different urban neigh- velopment potential. This must be used for the
bourhoods. sustainable transformation of our cities. That is
Fig. 10
Authenticated
producing primary products manufacturing /

construction
Mining raw materials recycling / re-use
disposal
use
disassembly
Fig. 11
why it is necessary to look at existing building stock infrastructure, green and open spaces for people Fig. 9 Beach promenade,
more closely. This includes existing buildings and and animals. Each of these components has a Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro
streets, but also materials, plants or animals which certain service life and causes different costs and (BR) 1970, Roberto Burle
Marx
define local identity, even abstract elements such emissions during construction, use, repair and
Fig. 10 Works swimming
as (intermediate) uses or names (Fig. 10). Exam- dismantling. All of the individual components’ pool, former Zollverein coke
ples such as Hamburg’s HafenCity or Amsterdam’s life cycles thus jointly form a project- or object-spe- plant, Essen (DE) 2001, Dirk
GWL-Terrein (pp. 250ff.) highlight how the ex- cific constellation of continuous, ongoing pro- Paschke, Daniel Milohnic
isting built environment can be central to giving cesses.3 Fig. 11 Life cycle of
residents and visitors a sense of local identity. The buildings
massive, monotone, “problem” housing estates of The goal is to provide buildings and neighbour-
the 1970s demonstrate how important elements hoods with high-quality technical structures which
of character and identity are for neighbourhood are designed to be durable and easy to maintain.
development. For example, a building might be built almost
Where unrestored buildings are available at lower entirely from renewable resources and generate
cost, this offers opportunities to develop social more energy than it needs, performing well in 3 König et al. 2009, p. 20
and cultural life, for example, by providing neigh- terms of life-cycle analysis and overall life-cycle
bourhood space for musicians, artists or clubs. cost. And yet it might be demolished after only a
These groups and institutions are important for few years because of structural defects, very high
urban diversity, but are often unable to afford high maintenance cost, or because it no longer meets
accommodation cost. Making good use of existing new owners’ needs once the initial commissioning
stock is therefore central to planning sustainable owners move on. Long-term analysis of various
urban neighbourhoods. neighbourhoods and building types reveals that
some typologies are able to meet changing needs
and provide flexible space for different uses even
over many decades, allowing a very sparing use
Life-cycle analysis of resources. In Germany, good examples include

neighbourhoods of 19th-century apartment blocks.
These were built by wealthy merchants, craftsmen
DIN EN ISO 14 040 describes product systems’ or senior officials. The apartments had generous
entire life cycle: extracting or producing raw mater layouts, ample room sizes, and high ceilings to
ials, processing them, using them for the intended provide space for households and their servants.
purpose, and finally recycling or disposing of them. Unlike very functionally planned modern resi-
For buildings, this involves systematically record- dential buildings, these apartments are easy to
ing and evaluating all of the emissions and costs convert to flat-shares, small workshops or offices.
arising throughout the life cycle of the building as The comparison shows that matching current
a whole (e.g. energy demand in use) and doing needs too closely can often undermine buildings’
the same for the life cycles of individual compo- usefulness in the long-term.
nents such as doors, windows and walls (Fig. 11). This means that life-cycle-oriented planning must
Whilst this level of analysis is complex for build- also be forward-looking and flexible. Thus, it is
ings, it becomes even more complicated when highly recommended to assess all of the effects
applied to neighbourhoods. These include not associated with a neighbourhood and its use at
only buildings, but also a variety of physical com- an early stage, in order to develop sustainable
ponents, such as streets, paths, squares, technical concepts based on this analysis. BW, SA

Authenticated
Energy supply ing ownership of technical infrastructure provides

a degree of economic independence.
CHP units can be built in various sizes, e.g. for
The development of the German energy industry residential complexes, groups of houses or at
has been shaped by large corporations. This has neighbourhood level. Crowdfunding can provide
meant that decision-making about technologi- necessary funding by collecting even very small
cal development was concentrated in just a few sums to assemble different amounts of capital, a
places, and that it was primarily oriented towards strategy which is frequently used to finance busi-
large-scale technology. This dominant market ness start-ups.4 In extreme cases, “neighbourhood
4 Hornuf / Klöhn 2012 force also became a political force, as became utility companies” can be set up to join forces with
clear in the debate around nuclear power plants other neighbourhoods to run parts of the infra-
when energy suppliers took out full-page adverts structure, recycle materials, or engage in social
to campaign against phasing out nuclear power. neighbourhood management.
The need to transport wind-generated energy from
areas near Germany’s North Sea coast to inland
industrial regions highlighted the problems of Civic utility companies
large-scale technology. Subject to ongoing debate,
the structural need for massive capital investment Smaller towns and municipalities in particular
ultimately required major corporations to take the can generate benefits similar to those created
lead. The German government’s attempts to get by CHP plants by establishing, securing and ex-
citizens to fund the transport of electricity from panding municipal utilities: it makes them more
wind generation have proved unsuccessful. On the independent of market fluctuations and large
other hand, local energy supply concepts can offer corporations’ business decisions, creates safe and
a variety of benefits, as has been demonstrated by qualified jobs and helps develop local technical
the many energy cooperatives established to con- knowledge and experience. This means that value
struct wind turbines or solar plants, and individual is generated, and capital formed within the town
private investment in energy-saving technology or municipality itself. It also makes it possible to
such as combined heat and power plants. use regionally available energy sources which
might not be suitable for large technical business
organisations, such as combinations of renewable
Cogeneration units energy sources including sun, wind, water, and
waste water, biomass from urban woodlands,
Combined heat and power (CHP) plants burn agricultural residues or domestic organic waste.
biogas, natural gas or oil to generate electricity Local utility companies also fulfil the policy prin-
and feed resulting surplus heat into heating net- ciple that any decentralisation of power – includ-
works. The technical advantage is that heating ing economic power – safeguards and expands
and hot water supply pipes are very short, and this democratic structures. It some cases, smaller units
reduces heat loss along the line. The ecological may fail to achieve the economies of scale offered
benefit is that combined heat and power plants by large plants. But sustainable development is
can save more than 60 percent of primary energy, not just about economic aspects such as saving
ideally even achieving zero-emission standards cost, maximising profits and efficiencies – it is also
by using biogas generated from domestic organic about social and political aspects, such as where
waste. In addition, the possibility of citizens tak- decisions are made, and value is generated.

Authenticated
Good examples of this approach include the very required to accommodate a plethora of waste
successful Waldkirch Utility Company or the Elek containers. The objectives of decentralisation
trizitätswerke Schönau (EWS), both located in the can only be achieved with better technical sys-
Black Forest. Like many other smaller regional tems and social learning (cf. Hammarby Sjöstad,
utilities and energy cooperatives, these projects pp. 244ff.). And yet decentralised and semi-central
demonstrate that businesses of this kind can com- systems offer so many other advantages to make
bine many benefits, including efficiency, sustain- them unavoidable. For some time, the case for
ability, making economic power democratic, and resilient planning has been added to the afore-
economically stabilising rural regions. mentioned benefits, such as shorter pipes for
using waste heat from cogeneration plants, or
avoiding overloaded sewer systems and sewage
treatment plants through decentralised retention.
Decentralised Decentralised supply systems are more resilient,

as they cannot all be brought to a standstill easily
supply and dis- in the event of a catastrophe or terrorist attack.
posal – resilience
Historically, the structure of utilities in neighbour- Conditions
hoods, cities and regions has been concentrated
in large, central technical facilities , such as a mas- for social
sive waste incineration plant providing combined
heat and power, few large electricity works, central and economic
composting plants, large sewage treatment plants.
For decades, sustainable planning objectives have
driven pleas for greater decentralisation, promot-
sustainability
ing an approach similar to the subsidiarity prin Free access to a good public education system
ciple, i.e. that as many responsibilities as possible funded by general taxation achieves the social and
should be transferred to smaller social units – to economic optimum. It is the only way to ensure
individuals, families, house communities, or neigh- that as many talents as possible are discovered
bourhoods. Although this creates problems and and that all talented young people receive good
conflicts, especially in disadvantaged neighbour- training and support for their talents.
hoods, it also enables social learning and at least Pupils, students and trainees are the next gener-
a partial understanding of the processes which ation of more or less qualified skilled workers,
form the material basis for our social environment. engineers, scientists, artists and managers. They
In Germany, this principle has partially already have to be well-trained and educated in the spirit
been put into practice in recent years. For example, of social responsibility, if society as a whole is to
individuals or households (rather than central develop positively and offer each individual the
plants) separate waste, and developers are obliged best conditions for their path through life. This is
to retain rainwater on-site. It has become clear also an essential safeguard for democratic devel-
that these examples are associated with certain opment in a society where each individual has the
problems, such as social behaviour or the space right to vote and stand for election.

Authenticated
and psychosomatic problems which also impact

on higher-earning classes’ quality of life.5 One
reason for this is that they feel threatened and
withdraw into gated communities.
Evaluation and
monitoring
Sustainable neighbourhood planning is a flexible
notion. For this reason, project objectives should
be discussed with all relevant stakeholders as early
as possible and captured in (measurable) criteria.
Fig. 12 Regularly monitoring these goals and criteria dur-
ing the planning phase can identify and remedy
Fig. 12 “wagnisART” hous- Societies can only develop in socially and eco- failures at an early stage. This kind of criteria set
ing in Munich (DE) 2016, nomically sustainable ways if the vast majority of also helps point out and discuss conflicts of inter-
Arge bogevischs buero their members feel recognised and integrated, est transparently, with all stakeholders involved.
and Shag Schindler Hable
their work is adequately paid, and their contribu- The German Sustainable Building Council (Deut
Architekten
tion within the social community – from the fam- sche Gesellschaft für nachhaltiges Bauen, DGNB)
ily to the state – is respected. Adequate pay must has developed an exemplary certification system
5 cf. Picket / Wilkinson 2011 always be related to the level of economic devel- for city districts. This is based on a total of 30 cri-
opment and can never be aimed at egalitarian teria for evaluating neighbourhoods, which cover
redistribution. Major social tensions, conflict, the fields of ecology, economy, social culture and
violence and crime arise in societies, in which function, technology and process (see Certifica-
some people are unable to find work or to live in tion and Evaluation Systems, pp. 218ff.).
(relative) dignity from work, whereas others – Despite sustainable planning approaches, neigh-
despite or because of widespread poverty – are bourhoods often develop differently after comple-
extremely rich thanks to concentrations of wealth, tion. The reasons for this are manifold and range
assets and the availability of real estate. from simple planning errors and changing general
conditions to residents’ and visitors’ attitudes and
Further information Social problems and the high cost of policing, just behaviour. It is therefore advisable to establish a
• Anders, Stephan: Stadt als System. Methode zur ice and prisons systems grow as soon as earnings neighbourhood management system which regu
ganzheitlichen Analyse von Planungskonzepten.
between the richest and poorest income groups larly checks compliance with the set objectives
Lemgo 2016
• Vester, Frederic: The Art of interconnected begin to drift far apart. It is apparent that the sub- and, where there is justified doubt, works with resi
Thinking. Ideas and Tools for Tackling Complexity. jective sense of injustice, disrespect, danger and dents, local government and planners to develop
Munich 2007 fear in these tense societies causes psychological and rigorously implement remedies. SA

Authenticated
3.2 — Stakeholders, Visions and Tools 179
3. 2
Stakeholders,
Visions and Tools
Ste p han Anders, Helmut Bott, Dominic C hurch,
Gre gor C. Grass l, Rol f Mess ers chmidt,
Andreas v on Z adow
S
ustainable neighbourhood de- The tasks of urban development correspond to
velopment requires strategies game theory principles: they are dominated by
to influence the interaction of interdependent decision-making situations in
all stakeholders in the public which each player’s behaviour influences the other.
interest. Various tools can New urban development always takes place in
be used to implement these the context of tendencies and tensions in wider
strategies in order to meet set society. More than just an economic, technical
sustainability targets, from or administrative process, it is about continu-
planning to implementation and use. In doing so, ously evaluating diverse interests and concerns.
local government stakeholders in administration According to Article 1 of the German building
and politics face numerous challenges. Examples code (BauGB) these must be identified, weighed
such as Heidelberg and Ludwigsburg illustrate up, and brought into a fair balance. Stakeholders’
how these can be met to apply sustainable de- interests and concerns can be divided into three
velopment strategies in practice (cf. Local Gov- rough categories:
ernment Implementation Strategies, pp. 188ff.). •• Government stakeholders: On the one hand,
these include political decision makers who
– in democracies – are authorised to exercise
the delegated power of the people through the
Neighbourhood electoral process. On the other hand, govern-

ment stakeholders also include administrators
development whose job is to effectively implement strat

egies and measures specified by the political
stakeholders decision makers.

•• Stakeholders in civic society: These include
individuals, such as citizens or residents, as
Based on the laws of the federal and state gov- well as interest groups, such as citizens’ initia
ernments, urban development in Germany is tives, associations or religious communities.
local-government-led. Whilst cities and munic- •• Private sector stakeholders: These include
ipalities are state-constituted local authorities, businesses from a wide range of industries
urban stakeholders include various private and and scales which invest in local resources, or
public bodies and institutions, individuals and are involved in the use of local resources by
interest groups, companies and organisations, operating their business model. In a market-
each with different outlook and weight (Fig. 1, oriented society, individuals or interest groups
p. 180). The physical form of the city, its buildings, can also be viewed as private sector stakehold-
technical infrastructures and open spaces arise ers, for example as landowners.
from a complex interplay of private and public
actions, reactions and interventions. Democrat- Neighbourhood development is a comparatively
ically legitimate urban institutions are tasked lengthy process which involves the use of consid-
with directing urban development towards the erable resources (materials, financial resources,
complex objectives of sustainability. human labour, etc.) and affects the quality of life

Authenticated
Top-down Top-down
Local Local
Private sector Private sector
authority authority
Organisations
Individuals
Agenda 21
Residents / Residents /
Citizens Citizens
State Private State Private
Abb. 2 Bottom-up Bottom-up

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 1 Neighbourhood develop-

ment stakeholders
Fig. 2 Neighbourhood devel
of many people in the very long term. For this
reason, it must backed up by a sustainable con- Agenda 21 and the
opment stakeholders and
Agenda 21
sensus among the involved stakeholders. In demo
cratic societies, government must try to influence
the interaction between stakeholders’ often con-
lean state
flicting interests and behaviours and work towards In Germany, public engagement in urban devel-
an optimal overall result. This requires the for- opment planning has been embedded in federal
mulation of strategic goals and guidelines and the building law (BBauG) since 1960 and in the build-
expert use of tools to motivate the stakeholders ing code (BauGB) since 1987. Article 3 requires
in question to make decisions which generate citizens to be informed at an early stage, possible
wider benefits. consultation responses to be discussed in public,
and planning officers’ considerations to be pro-
Neighbourhood development always involves vided as a basis for political decision-making.
changing the status quo. Thus it makes sense in Since 1992, local governments have been given a
terms of social justice to strive for the Pareto op- far-reaching mandate, aimed at safeguarding
timum. This is a theoretical situation first de- sustainable development in operational and demo
scribed by the Italian engineer, economist, soci- cratic terms: “Because so many of the problems
ologist and founder of welfare economics, Vilfredo and solutions being addressed by Agenda 21 have
Pareto (1848 – 1923), where it is no longer possible their roots in local activities, the participation and
to improve the situation of one player without cooperation of local authorities will be a deter-
making that of another worse. In fact, this goal mining factor in fulfilling its objectives. Local
may never be achieved, but it works as a guiding authorities construct, operate and maintain eco-
principle to achieve the best possible result for as nomic, social and environmental infrastructure,
many people as possible. The goal can only be oversee planning processes, establish local envir
achieved if the parties involved are willing to reach onmental policies and regulations, and assist in
a good compromise and step back from pushing implementing national and subnational environ-
for their individual advantage against all other mental policies. As the level of governance closest
interests. to the people, they play a vital role in educating,
Urban development processes generally take con- mobilising and responding to the public to promote
siderably longer than elected representatives’ sustainable development.”1 The Agenda 21 mission
terms of office. Even individual projects can often is to reverse the flow of administrative processes
only be implemented throughout several terms (Figs. 1 and 2): instead of simply being informed
of office. Projects or strategies intended to meet about planning, citizens should also be able to
long-term sustainable development goals must provide input. Local governments then make a
not be too strongly tied to individual persons or decision in the interest of the common good (top-
parties, because they thus run the risk of failing down). At the same time, politicians and admin-
in the event of personnel or political changes. istrators are tasked with empowering citizens
This risk can be reduced if the administration can themselves to formulate visions, set objectives
engage relevant stakeholders in drawing up and and take part in decisions (bottom-up).
identifying with long-term strategies and object
ives to lend guidelines for urban development As from the 1990s, administrations’ previously
1 Agenda 21 1992, p. 285 political and operational continuity. implied authority to apply professional judgment

Authenticated
and act for the public benefit was increasingly neighbourhood development. For example, the Rio Conference
drawn into question, especially in Anglo-American Rotterdam Urban Acquis, adopted at an informal Following the UN Conference on Environment and
countries.2 This tendency went along with the ministerial meeting under the Dutch Presidency Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992,
neo-liberal model of the lean state and led to closer in 2004, identifies the following principles as key the member states of the European Union agreed
a series of declarations of principles which more
cooperation with individuals, civil society and to successful urban development:5
or less precisely spelled out the objectives and
private economic stakeholders, for example by •• “Policy should focus upon economic competi guidelines for sustainable urban development.
relying on private investment in public private tiveness, social cohesion and environmental These declarations include the Lisbon Strategy
partnerships (PPP, see pp. 197ff.). sustainability to achieve balanced develop- (2000), the Lille Agenda (2000), the Copenhagen
In principle, any one of the involved stakeholders ment. Policies have frequently focused upon Charter (2002), the Bristol Accord (2005), the
can influence neighbourhood development and one or the other goal. The experience is that Rotterdam Urban Acquis (2005), the Leipzig Char-
ter (2007) and the Toledo Declaration (2010).
play a more or less leading role in doing so. This this does not work.
leads to a growing need for more varied formal •• Policies should recognise that liveability as
and informal urban planning tools. From formal well as economic success is crucial to peoples’
to informal planning, a variety of hybrid forms of choice of places in which they want to live.
cooperation between governments and other •• Cities and neighbourhoods must become
stakeholders are emerging (Fig. 3, p. 182).3 places of choice and connection rather than 2 Healey 1997
compulsion and exclusion. 3 Kühn et al. 2002,
•• Cities are important as sources of identity, pp. 126 –152
cultural and connection between communi- 4 Reutlinger 2006
5 Dutch Ministry of the
Visions ties and cultures. Cites are more than eco-

nomic market places. They can encourage
social integration, community engagement,
Interior and Kingdom
Relations 2004
6 Council of the European
“Urban development visions and concepts always and cultural recognition.” Union 2005
include ideas about society and its desired condi-
tion”.4 Agenda 21 and the move towards more The described visions for sustainable neighbour-
liberal economic models call for government’s hood development emphasise soft location factors
role and its interaction with other stakeholders to (e.g. quality of life, identity) and the goal of pro-
be redefined. The relationship should be more moting stakeholder engagement and their joint
partnering, less patronising in character. This collaboration in urban development. In 2006, for
requires the challenges of sustainable develop- example, the renewed EU strategy for sustainable
ment to be discussed in all their complexity and development stated the desire to promote “coher-
incorporated into visions for neighbourhood ence between local, regional, national and global
development. actions” and “policy integration” to “promote
integration of economic, social and environmen-
tal considerations so that they are coherent and
Global visions for neighbour- mutually reinforce each other.”6
hood development In 2007, the “Leipzig Charter” called for “imple-

The European Union followed up on the Rio Con- mentation-oriented planning tools” to “coordi-
ference by adopting successive declarations and nate the different neighbourhood, sectoral and
visions for urban development policy, drafting technical plans and policies, and ensure that
increasingly precise objectives for sustainable the planned investments will help to promote a

Authenticated
Top-down
State Private
g An
rin aly
ito sis
on
M
ion
tat
en
m
ple
Investor
Im
Monitoring
Local
authority
Analysis
I m ple
Obje
me
ctiv
n ta
es
Citizens
Fo
ti o
rm
n
tio
ul a
n
of
go
als es
c ti v
O b je
F o r m u la ti o n o f g o al s
Bottom-up
Fig. 3
Fig. 3 Strategy for imple- well-balanced development of the urban area”, Amongst government stakeholders, this depends
menting project goals in five which should be “coordinated at local and city- on decision makers’ political views and priorities
steps. The outer cycle repre- regional level and involve citizens and other part- and the administration’s understanding of its own
sents the wider management
ners who can contribute substantially to shaping role: does it see itself in a purely authoritative role
cycle in the city as a whole,
whereas the inner cycle rep- the future economic, social, cultural and environ- or does it consider itself as a public service pro-
resents the management mental quality of each area.”7 vider, and does it prefer an informative, partici-
cycle for a specific project. pative or cooperative culture of communica-
Local government engages For government stakeholders, especially local tion?8 In order to engage with stakeholders in
with citizens to formulate government planners, these global trends and civil society, it is important to understand local
objectives, and subsequent-
guidelines present a growing challenge: How can residents’ demographic profile, their economic
ly monitors and analyses
implementation by investors,
they present the complex and diverse topic of situation, their level of education. Populations
communicating performance sustainable development to relevant local stake- with a high level of education and secure financial
back to citizens. holders in a way which gets them more engaged, circumstances can be easier to inform and mobil
and secure ongoing democratic legitimacy and ise in the way envisaged by Agenda 21. Social
backing, when the societal consensus on the role cohesion amongst residents and the extent of
of the state is shifting massively? their involvement in communities of interest
and faith, associations, initiatives or other socio-
cultural networks can also be decisive in formu-
Adapting global visions lating appropriate neighbourhood development
strategies.
to the location
7 Bundesministerium für The greater involvement of civil society and pri- Amongst private sector stakeholders, the local
Verkehr, Bau und Stadt vate sector actors called for by Agenda 21 and the business community’s structure and performance
entwicklung 2007, p. 3 European urban planning policy guidelines make play a key role for their willingness to commit
8 Selle 2010
local stakeholders’ characteristics and interests resources to neighbourhood development. For
interact closely. This means that general prin example, a fine-grain community characterised by
ciples have to be spelled out in ways which are very many medium-sized companies with strong local
specific to the location: as well as responding to ties may be more willing to get actively involved
the setting (topography, morphology of the build- than an economy dominated by global players for
ing structure, etc.) in terms of design, promising whom the location is interchangeable.
strategies for neighbourhood development must
also address stakeholders’ social, economic and Other parameters are also relevant for a prom-
cultural characteristics. ising neighbourhood development strategy. For

Authenticated
example, the historically established relation- Fig. 5 (pp. 186/187) identifies a variety of approach-
ship between stakeholders plays an important es to quality assurance, from instruments of build-
role. Where this is characterised by harmony ing law (e.g. development plans, urban develop-
and continuity, a consensus might be expected ment contracts) to agreements in civil law (e.g.
to be reached more easily, making it much easier sale contracts, contracts with operating compan
to formulate and implement planning goals. By ies) to voluntary acts (e.g. financial support for
contrast, conflicted or very unstable relationships land purchases).
between stakeholders might present a consider- A distinction is made between mandatory state
able challenge. building law and development plan (Bebauungs
plan) on one hand, and urban development con-
German cities such as Freiburg, Heidelberg, Lud- tracts and civil legal requirements, such as sale
wigsburg and Tübingen have come up with inter- contracts, on the other. It is recommended that
esting solutions to these challenges. These cities’ guidelines and recommendations are defined and
approaches to neighbourhood development high- a committee with an advisory or deciding role is
light different ways to implement similar prin set up. This is the only way to ensure that the
ciples. DC desired development quality is actually delivered.
The German building code requires climate and

nature conservation to be considered in develop-
Quality ment plans, which are the key urban development

planning document. Very comprehensive eco
assurance tools logical demands are often placed on green space

planning, e.g. including plant lists and specifica-
tions for roof greening. Depending on the legal
Often several decades pass before the initial pro- situation and legal interpretation, certain frame-
ject idea reaches completion and enters into use. works can be put in place with regard to energy,
Project objectives are continually revised and such as in terms of density, building orientation
adapted to changing conditions during this time. and avoiding shade from buildings, however it is
Objectives formulated at the outset must not be not possible to define obligatory specific targets
lost out of sight. This is not easy, especially when for compactness or increased energy standards.
objectives are first linked to specific measures and With regard to energy supply, the development
costs. Many local governments hesitate to make plan can and should include clauses for appropri-
use of legal possibilities for additional quality ate roof orientation and pitch to provide the basis
assurance because they do not want to impose for actively using solar energy, and take account of
additional burdens on potential new residents pipeline easements and reserve land for an energy
and businesses. And yet it is hard to deliver sus- centre where a local heat supply is intended. How-
tainable neighbourhood developments without ever, it is not possible to dictate the actual supply
determined local government decision makers type, e.g. photovoltaic, solar thermal or local heat-
and residents demanding these qualities. The ing networks. Thus it is recommended to embed
examples in Tübingen (Loretto and Südstadt) measures in the development plan where possible
and Vauban in Freiburg demonstrate what can and make recommendations with regard to further 9 Everding 2007;
be achieved. measures and supplementary instruments.9 www.nikis-niedersachsen.de

Authenticated
Decision-making
Developer basis
Building project
Interdisciplinary
Evaluation building commission
basis
Development plan Basis for building

commission
Urban planning and
Design manual
building commission
development control
Implementation by
Urban design
Basis for building commission Architecture
formulates design objectives Landscape design
and regulations
Energy plan
Mobility plan
Fig. 4 Overview of possible
approaches to ensuring
sustainability objectives Client and architect
in neighbourhood develop- Basis for
ment. further work
Fig. 4
10 Everding 2007 Article 9 of the German building code (BauGB) components which are recycled, sourced locally
11 www.nikis-niedersachsen.de sets out a catalogue of conditions which can be or within the region, or produced from renewable
12 DGNB 2012 included in development plans, but many raw materials.12
sustainable qualities require conditions which
go further and need to be written into supple- In addition to these points, design and sustain
mentary contracts in civil law. For example, en- ability manuals are important tools for managing
ergy standards over and above those set out in sustainability. Manuals can define design issues
the energy saving ordinance (EnEV) can be writ- such as an urban design code for facade mater
ten into, or attached in appendix to, contracts of ials, colours or associated areas. But they can
sale to occupants, by specifying a maximum also include guidelines and recommendations
energy consumption per square metre of usable for sustainability based on technical concepts
area, the requirement to connect to a local heat- and describe features which go beyond the condi-
ing network, or to fit a photovoltaic system. Cer- tions of development plans and sale contracts. For
tain concepts which go further than defining example, manuals can include guidance on con-
mixed-use areas in development plans can also structing energy-efficient Passivhaus buildings, on
be determined in this way, such as the exclusively building services and materials for healthy living,
commercial use of ground floor areas. However, or on using modern timber construction methods.
local governments or project developers can only Manuals are particularly helpful to offer advice
take this approach if they own the land in ques- on integrating ecological features such as solar
tion, for example if it has been acquired as a land systems in roofs, surface rainwater drainage in
reserve policy or is being developed by fully private and public open spaces, and green facades
owned subsidiary companies.10 into contemporary high-quality architecture. Yet
they can also help explain neighbourhood sustain-
As well as conventional points such as use, time ability concepts and demonstrate how they can be
scales and cost, urban development contracts implemented. Finally, presenting complex issues
between local governments and private investors and showcasing exemplary buildings, open spaces
can stipulate aspects important for sustainabil- or infrastructure technology completed elsewhere
ity.11 For example, contractual agreements can can also help promote and market a sustainable
address neighbourhood infrastructure, e.g. by urban neighbourhood.
requiring energy to be supplied by a biomass- Local governments can also adopt manuals of this
based local heating network, or stipulating grey kind as supplementary planning guidance, or
water purification, supply and disposal or reuse attach them to sale contracts, provided that they
as process water at neighbourhood level. Gen- are legally binding, and that contents cannot be
erally, the quality of infrastructure and access is changed over time.
specified in associated contractual agreements.
The materials specified for surfaces, pipes and Neighbourhood design and sustainability review
cables should meet the demands of resource- panels are another very useful and complementary
efficient infrastructure with regard to the use of instrument. Review panels should include town

Authenticated
planners, experts, local government representa- Operating companies can be municipal utilities,
tives and property owners, as well as external third-party service providers, or associations and
planners if necessary. It may also make sense to cooperatives supported or co-sponsored by neigh-
get neighbourhood residents involved, especially bourhood occupants. The many energy coopera-
during the later stages of development. tives founded by citizens in recent years demon-
Development plans and handbooks should include strate how to apply new or rediscovered organi-
only general guidelines which are flexible and sational models in response to sustainability
easy to implement. As a result, the process of in- challenges. As a result, the local community can
terpreting these guidelines and applying them to take part in decision-making and in some cases
sustainability objectives and specific architectural even benefit financially from neighbourhood
projects takes on crucial importance. management.
In particular, it must be possible to deviate from
guidance in order to implement innovative and as Furthermore, financial support for land purchases 13 DGNB 2012
yet unknown measures to achieve development can offer incentives for sustainable projects and 14 ibid.
goals. Thus it is an advantage if occupants and support the implementation of sustainable aspects. 15 ibid.
designers are offered voluntary or even compul- For example, this could include constructing
sory advice during the development process, and Passivhaus buildings, or supporting Baugruppe
if the jointly agreed quality assurance process client groups, taking part in car pools, or using
includes mandatory consent. This can include particularly ecological or biological materials. In
design competitions, procedures to select invest practice, subsidies of this kind can be implemented
ors or a design workshop with the landowner, by taking on the cost of energy advice, by offering Further information
Processes for concept design
the requirement to seek approval for buildings’ a flat-rate discount on sale prices, or through a
• Advice on competitions: www.byak.de/
preliminary or detail design, or even monitoring points system based on an evaluation of improve- planen-und-bauen/architektenwettbewerb.html
during construction and later use. ment measures.15 Public law requirements
• Bunzel, Arno; Coulmas, Diana; Schmidt-
Examples of monitoring sustainability measures In conclusion, it can be stated that sustainable Eichstadt, Gerd: Städtebauliche Verträge – Ein
during neighbourhood development include development and infrastructure construction Handbuch. Berlin 2013
• Lehr, Marc: Der Bebauungsplan. Praxishinweise
checking Passivhaus details for physical and struc- should be governed by urban development con-
für Architekten und Ingenieure. Berlin 2016
tural compliance, ensuring that materials are tracts. The development plan must then set out • Schwab, Karl: Städtebauliche Verträge. Grund-
healthy and environmentally friendly, carrying appropriate conditions, ideally supported by a formen, Rechtsschutz, Muster. Munich 2017
out a technical examination of energy certifi- civil-law quality agreement with buyers, which • Stüer, Bernhard: Der Bebauungsplan. Städtebau-
cates for required higher energy standards after safeguards implementation and monitoring recht in der Praxis. Munich 2015
completion, or even measuring actual energy through a neighbourhood advisory board. Expe- Informal planning
• Stadt Heilbronn: Gestaltungshandbuch –
consumption in use. In order to effectively monitor rience shows that successfully implementing
Modellquartier Neckarbogen in Heilbronn, 2015;
heat and electricity consumption, it is essential quality and sustainability management depends
www.heilbronn.de/fileadmin/daten/stadtheilbronn/
to provide adequate metering to compare annual on an integrated strategy which includes several formulare/buga/Gestaltungshandbuch_Neckar
consumption with predefined or generic neigh- or even all the instruments described. bogen.pdf
bourhood requirements.13 • Advice on Design Panels: www.akbw.de/
It should be noted that the list set out in Fig.5 service/fuer-staedte-und-kommunen/gestaltungs-
Utility contracts should aim to ensure the long- (pp. 186/187) cannot be applied to every project. beirat.html
• Advice on Design Panels: Design Review.
term neighbourhood sustainability. This can relate Each project is different and requires a specific
Principles and Practice. Design Council, CABE,
to energy supply, local waste water treatment, strategy for quality assurance, which must be Landscape Institute, RTPI, RIBA. 2013
maintaining and operating community facilities, developed with the support of appropriate legal • Baukulturbericht: www.bundesstiftung-bau-
and organisation of a car pool.14 advice. SA, HB, GCG, RM, AvZ kultur.de

Authenticated
Quality assurance tools Uses

Tool Objectives and opportunities Urban design Process, people, Open space, urban cli-
and public space society and culture mate, protecting habitats
Competition Raises design standards through competitive and Generating alternative Including stakeholders Generating alternative
collaborative processes. Especially successful for urban designs. Options in call for entries and open space plans.
Concept design
clearly defined design tasks, combination with consult appraisal. judging.

processes
ation desirable.
Consultative Information, consultation and inclusive decision-making Hosting design workshops Implementing stakeholder Promoting plant sponsor-
design raises and safeguards design standards. Extremely for the general public or inclusion models, setting ships, playground initia-
successful if it is authoritative and binding. for invited guests only. up neighbourhood initiatives, urban gardening.
tives, associations, or
cooperatives.
Development Sets out legal requirements as comprehensively Defining development Defining land use Issuing planting orders,
plan conditions as possible. Well-suited for specific spatial solutions, density (plot ratio, (mixed use, communal preserving vegetation,
(and environmen- but must offer sufficient scope for interpretation. footprint ratio), building areas), urban grain, limiting sealing of soils, bal-
tal report) lines, orientation, use, building types. ancing areas of intervention
open space. and conservation, creating
open space corridors (e.g.
for urban climate, habitat
networks), providing space
for urban gardening.
Guidance Addresses aspects which cannot be included Referencing design and Referencing community Referencing plant lists
in public law
Agreements
attached to in development plans. Of limited use for quality sustainability manual (e.g. facilities, e.g. work- (e.g. using indigenous
development assurance. design of subsidiary shops, event spaces, plants)
plan areas, lighting concept). play houses.
Urban develop- Enables local governments to safeguard quality in Requiring use of Design Including housing associ- Defining open space
ment agreement private sector development. Very useful tool for non- and Sustainability Manual, ations and social housing. character, planting plan,
public-sector development. Must be combined with and Design and Sustain Safeguarding environmen- neighbourhood squares.
other tools to enforce conditions in later project stages. ability Advisory Panel. tally friendly use after sale.
Local government Raises legal requirements with regard to specific Design Code. Detailed planting lists.
ordinance topics, throughout the whole local government area
or in defined areas within it. Suitable for general
requirements.
Contract of sale Enforces specific qualities which go beyond public law Enforcing compliance with Enforcing compliance with
in detail. Very useful for safeguarding quality in detail design and sustainability design and sustainability
and in depth. manual and with advisory manuals including open
panel advice. and subsidiary spaces.
Entry in land Safeguards qualities in the long term, even after Recording urban design Recording plans for open
registry deeds subsequent land sale. Very inflexible, but effective. codes for use of materials and subsidiary spaces.
Agreements
in civil law
Best suited to important, fundamental design and colours.

quality issues.
Operating con- Contractually governs arrangements after sale and Maintaining, operating Governing management
tract /other private development, i.e. in use. Usually tailor-made solution, and managing community and maintenance by
sector contracts offers major scope to regulate later use. facilities and organising resident association or
residents associations. third-party contractor.
Building contract Safeguards quality in design, construction and building Safeguarding quality in
systems. Can only be implemented by client role. terms of design, typology
and environmental per
formance.
Master plan / Defines overall development characteristics, going Urban design and overall Setting out development Setting out open
urban design / into greater depth in individual areas. Useful for design concept. Defining plans and neighbourhood space and landscape
development leading by example, but not legally binding unless building types and devel- communities. frameworks.
concept backed up by further contracts. opment phases.
Design and Sets out guidelines for design and sustainability stand- Setting out design Setting out guidelines
Informal
sustainability ards. Useful when supported by an advisory panel. Not guidelines. for open and subsidiary
design
manual legally binding unless backed up by further contracts. space plans.
Design and Discusses all aspects relevant to design and sustain Safeguarding design Integrating residents and Safeguarding quality of
sustainability ability. Resource-intensive, and thus mostly used quality in detail design users (with voting rights). open and subsidiary
panel for challenging and demanding projects. Not legally and delivery. spaces in detail design
binding unless backed up by further contracts. and delivery.
Financial Supports indirect quality assurance with little scope for Treating facades in Including building associ-
support for land enforcement. Useful for supporting quality in difficult existing building stock. ations, social housing,
Incentives and
acquisition market environments. families with children,

marketing
special housing types.
Certificates Compare and evaluate sustainability qualities. Very Promoting functionality Implementing socio- Promoting environmental
and awards well-suited for quality assurance, marketing, and and design quality in cultural process quality and functional quality in
documenting value retention. Resource-intensive. buildings and neighbour- in neighbourhoods buildings and neighbour-
hoods. and buildings. hoods.
Fig. 5 Overview of possible approaches to safeguarding sustainability goals in implementing neighbourhood development
Authenticated
Water, soil Material flows, Transport Energy Pollution Economy

construction materials (noise, air, light)
Generating alternative Generating alternative Generating alternative Generating alternative
water plans. transport and access energy-efficient layouts land use plans.
plans. and energy plans.
Raising awareness about Raising awareness Ensuring that processes

reducing water consump- about reducing energy meet needs efficiently.
tion and use technology use (information).
(information)
Securing adequate space Securing adequate Securing access and Securing adequate space Securing adequate space Defining land-use mix,
and conduits for sustain waste disposal areas. transport (e.g. for bus for facilities (e.g. CHP for noise protection, limiting certain uses.
able utility infrastructure. or tram routes), defining plants), influencing solar zoning uses, technical
number and location of gain, compactness/ building measures.
parking lots. efficiency of district heat-
ing networks (plot ratio,
footprint ratio, and urban
grain).
Referencing sustainable Referencing resource- Referencing shared Referencing building Referencing noise Recommending fine-grain
rain and grey water efficient infrastructure spaces, pedestrian energy standards, assessment and protec- mix of use (e.g. ground
management plans and and construction. streets. obligatory connection to tion measures. floor commercial use in
advice for use. district heating network. mixed-use areas).
Defining utility infrastruc- Defining resource-efficient Offering carpools, Defining building energy Defining noise Regulating costs for
ture (e.g. rainwater infrastructure (e.g. using bicycle rentals, and standards (e.g. construct- protection measures. eveloping and operating
d
management, grey water recycling materials, water- e-mobility charging ing and operating CHP neighbourhood and mix
purification, process water permeable surfaces), stations. plant and network). of uses.
network). construction methods
(e.g. timber), and waste
disposal methods.
Issuing waste water Parking orders, Fee orders.
orders. bicycle racks.
Enforcing rainwater man- Enforcing compliance with Safeguarding bicycle Safeguarding connection Safeguarding noise Regulating land cost,
agement and connection design and sustainability racks and inclusive to district heating, compli- protection measures fine-grain mix of use (e.g.
to grey water network. manuals including building access. ance with building energy in buildings. ground floor commercial
materials and building standard. use in mixed-use areas).
system catalogues.
Recording access and Embedding access to
maintenance for surface istrict heating networks
d
water drainage. and technical facilities.
Managing, maintaining Managing car pools, Organising energy

and preserving water bicycle rentals, and contracting including
management systems. e-mobility charging operating and billing.
stations.
Implementing catalogues Safeguarding building
of healthy and environ- energy standards.
mentally friendly materials.
Water management Transport and Energy use plans.

frameworks. mobility plans.
Guidelines for rainwater, Catalogues of healthy Guidelines for design Guidelines for energy-
grey water and process and environmentally and location of parking efficient construction,
water plan. friendly materials and lots, carports and integrating solar plants
building system guide bicycle racks. and building systems.
lines.
Integrating water manage- Safeguarding healthy Integrating transport Safeguarding building
ment systems into open and environmentally areas and buildings into energy standards in detail
space concept. friendly materials in detail open space concept. design and delivery.
design and delivery.
Points systems for imple- Points systems for Points systems for imple-
menting healthy and taking part in carpools. menting higher building
environmentally friendly energy standards.
materials and building
systems.
Promoting environmental Promoting environmental Promoting environmental, Promoting environmental Promoting sociocultural Promoting economic
and technical quality in and technical quality in sociocultural and technical and technical quality in quality in buildings uality in buildings and
q
buildings and neighbour- buildings and neighbour- quality in buildings and buildings and neighbour- and neighbourhoods. neighbourhoods.
hoods. hoods. neighbourhoods. hoods.

Authenticated
3.3
Local Government
Implementation Strategies
Domi nic C hurch, Manal M. F. E l-Shahat, Thors ten Erl
G
enerating lasting democratic In order to meet this complex challenge, some
support long-term consen- cities such as Heidelberg and Ludwigsburg have
sus about neighbourhood developed criteria sets for sustainable urban
development is especially development which allow them to regularly report
challenging because neigh- progress towards their identified goals. The wide
bourhoods are generally range of criteria makes it possible to comprehen-
neither formally defined nor sively depict the field of sustainability. Moreover,
politically constituted terri- formulating and agreeing goals and indicators
tories. This makes it necessary to clarify and jus- together with the stakeholders provides an oppor-
tify which persons or groups are linked to the tunity to give goals a democratic legitimacy which
Stakeholder theory neighbourhood’s development and thus have a lasts much longer than individual politicians’
The American philosopher R. Edward Freeman justified expectation to help shape it. In order to terms of office, thereby building a broad consen-
dealt with ethical and moral principles in corporate work this out, it may be important to look beyond sus to support local government planning.
management in his book “Strategic Management. the group of players (i.e. those actively involved)
A Stakeholder Approach”, which was published and include all those who might have a legitimate The City of Ludwigsburg takes a particularly ef-
in 1984. In addition to shareholders, he identified
interest in the neighbourhood’s development and fective approach: it invites groups of citizens who
various other groups with a legitimate interest in
the management’s approach and described ways in who are referred to as “stakeholders”. This term reflect the city’s demographic profile to take part
which management could respond appropriately to was first used by the Stanford Research Institute in so-called “future conferences”, where the city’s
their concerns. in 1963 and further developed as part of R. Edward development goals are formulated. Ludwigsburg
Freeman’s “stakeholder theory” in the 1980s.1 is also exemplary because it reformed its admin-
Unlike the more narrowly defined “players”, istration and established a sustainable urban
stakeholders could also include residents of neigh- development unit to deal with the following is-
bouring areas who are not actively taking part in sues: fundamental questions, the urban devel-
1 Freeman 1984 the neighbourhood’s development. opment plan, neighbourhood development, re-
generation projects, economic development, EU
It can be difficult to know whether the groups who coordination, the metropolitan region, and energy
get involved truly reflect the neighbourhood. In projects.
planning a new neighbourhood, this is further
complicated by the fact that the most important As well as setting out legal frameworks, govern-
group – its future residents – are neither present ments can also use financial incentives to influ-
nor known. This can lead to future residents’ inter ence other players in neighbourhood develop-
ests being neglected. Alternatively, local government. In Germany, federal and state funding can
ment may feel the need to give voice to a group be distributed according the 1987 Building Code
that is invisible or non-existent as far as the exist (Baugesetzbuch BauGB), which resulted from
ing local community is concerned, which is polit- the merger of the 1971 Urban Development Pro-
ically challenging. One way to avoid this dilemma motion Act (Städtebauförderungsgesetz) and the
is to debate the goals for developing a new neigh- 1960 Federal Building Law (Bundesbaugesetz
bourhood at a city-wide level, where they can be BbauG) as well as administrative regulations,
given legitimacy and authority by territorially and budget regulations and approval processes at
politically defined democratic entities. state (Länder) level.

Authenticated
3.3 — Local Government I mplementation Strategies 189
Objective Indicator 2000 2003 2006 2010 2013 Difference Evalu-

2010/2013 ation
Housing for all, 8,000 –10,000 additional 321
• number of homes completed 346 182 176 1) 630 + 454 ++
homes, delivering affordable housing, (2004)
concentrating on the affordable rental • percentage of subsidised homes 2) in
market 19.1 10.4 1.6 40.3 9.7 - 30.6 % Pt. - -
completed projects
• number of homes dedicated to social housing 9,766 9,570 7,205 5,766 5,415 - 351 -
• average rent per m2 according to rental map
7.08 7.05 7.28 7.63 8.13 0.5 -
[in Euro]
• m2 housing space 3), which can be bought
9.6 10.5 8.6
with the average annual income 4) per capita 8.2 9.3 - 1.9 - -
(2005) (2008) (2011)
in Heidelberg
Limiting increased consumption of • housing space per capita [in m2]
housing space per capita, reducing 36.5 36.5 36.8 37.2 37.2 0 �
land consumption, effective land use
Supporting environmentally friendly • approved applications for energy
93 107 192 237 1345 - 103 - -
building efficiency funding
• number of existing homes in low-energy
29 95 97 128 1,125 997 ++
and Passivhaus buildings 6)
1)
including 39 student dormitories, 2) proportion of homes with price and tenancy constraints, 3) rolling three-year average (current year, previous year, following year),
Source: Assessment panel; 4) available income according to macroeconomic calculation, Source: Statistisches Landesamt; 5) raised by one grade due to four-year cycle;
6)
sum total, excluding funding applications withdrawn
Fig. 1
Federal and state funding objectives are derived residents, gender equality, migration, local gov- Fig. 1 Example indicators
from the federal government’s urban develop- ernment collaboration on development and so on. in housing objectives for
ment policy goals, which in turn are based on the Regular reporting on achievements was called for Heidelberg urban develop-
ment plan
Leipzig Charter and other guiding principles (see from the outset.
Fig. 2 Bahnstadt develop-
p. 108). Since 1990, various federal governments ment, Heidelberg (DE) 2012
have set up different funding programmes, each of The first Urban Development Plan implementa-
which addresses specific problems of neighbour- tion report was published in 2002, titled: “Where
hood development (e.g. Stadtumbau Ost/West). are we, what have we achieved?”. It describes
Since 2000, the European Union has also offered initial results for individual target areas and dis-
programmes within the framework of European tinguishes between planned, started and com-
structural policy to promote neighbourhood devel- pleted projects. The report also identifies new,
opment, which are also geared to global models additional actions required and any conflicts of
and strategies. DC objectives that have arisen. The report concludes
with references to key projects, an overview of
important existing or missing data and the com-
pilation of selected decisions and projects.
Case study The “Heidelberg Sustainability Report 2004”
of urban published three years later introduced an in-

dicator-based performance review of the Hei-
development in delberg 2010 STEP Urban Development Plan.

This approach using indicators and metrics was
Heidelberg prompted by the realisation that achieving the

STEP’s defined goals requires a continuous effort.
It was proposed that the city should continuously
After two years of public consultation, the City of measure its performance against a simple, replic
Heidelberg adopted the “Heidelberg 2010 Urban able interim score sheet every two years. Given
Development Plan – Guidelines and Goals” (Stadt that some targets – such as “regional cooperation”
entwicklungsplan, STEP) in 1997. The policy or “urban development model” – cannot be cap-
document includes a commitment to socially tured with metrics, consideration was given to
responsible, environmentally compatible and adjusting or extending the indicator set from the
economically viable development. Based on outset. The complexity of issues such as CO2 sav-
Heidelberg’s 1974 Urban Development Plan, the ings or the social situation is particularly difficult
STEP enacts the 1992 UN Rio Conference’s call to capture with simple indicators, and requires
to pursue sustainable development at local level. detailed analyses and in-depth studies, which
To this end, the STEP identifies eight individ- are regularly evaluated and communicated in
ual target areas – urban design vision, regional independent reports.
cooperation, working, living, the environment, In compiling the indicators, the city used various
transport, and social and cultural issues – as well systems already introduced in Germany, including
as special cross-cutting issues such as engaging the indicators for sustainable urban development
Fig. 2
Authenticated
Lord Mayor – CEO of Administration
Sustainable Urban Department I Department II Department III

Development Unit Business, culture, Education, Construction, technology,
administration sport, society environment
Business support Lord Mayor First Mayor Mayor
Business relations, piloting, Executive department Executive department Executive department
locating business sites,
town centre promotion etc. Interdisciplinary Public transport, environ-
Lord Mayor’s office
coordination mental protection officer
Integrated urban development
Sustainable urban development, neigh Determining sustainability goals
bourhood development plans, projects
funded by “Social City” programme etc. • revision • civil engagement • citizens’ office for building
• organisation, • Safety, order • urban planning, surveying
Europe and Energy human resources • citizens’ services • building construction
Acquiring funding, EU coordination, • finances • education, family, sport and management
fundamental energy issues, • property portfolio • civil engineering,
energy projects etc. • art, culture green spaces
• film, media, tourism • technical services
Fig. 3
Fig. 3 Organisation of city

administration in Ludwigs-
burg after restructuring and
developed for the “Cities of the Future” research
stream within the Federal Office for Building and Case study of
further development
Fig. 4 Ludwigsburg energy
Regional Planning (BBR) “Experimental Hous-
ing and Urban Development (ExWoSt)” project. urban develop-
plan
The Sustainability Report is based on a total of 75
indicators, 42 of which address the STEP’s target ment in
areas and Heidelberg’s particular situation (Fig. 1,
p. 189). Ludwigsburg
In order to avoid costly new research, indicators In its approach to sustainable development, the
were scored against existing official statistics or City of Ludwigsburg focuses on tools and methods
2 Stadt Ludwigsburg / surveys were used as data sources. Each indicator to support local government decision makers
zafh.net 2010 was scored at two points in time. These two scores responsible for sustainable development, and on
helped chart development, or the progress of implementing efficient medium- to long-term
development against a five-step scale ranging energy strategies.2 Ludwigsburg’s implementation
from “significant deterioration” to “significant of Agenda 21 at the urban level is exemplary in
improvement / target met”. terms of economic and social goals, and especially
so in relation to environmental objectives. Guided
Unlike the “Heidelberg Sustainability Report by the leading global Agenda 21 objectives, the
2004”, the 2007 report included an indicator- “Local Agenda Ludwigsburg” group set up in
based evaluation of demographic change. Three 2001 to focus on environmental goals. Regrouped
years earlier, Heidelberg had still referred to a as the Ludwigsburger Energieagentur e. V. (LEA)
separate survey on this topic. The “STEP 2015” from 2007, the initiative is actively involved in the
update in 2006 included demographic change as city’s development even today.
a new chapter in the Urban Development Plan.
“Energy-efficient The city government adopted an urban develop-
Ludwigsburg” In the meantime, with the publication of the "Hei- ment strategy based on bottom-up resident par-
The International Energy Agency (IEA) in Paris delberg Sustainability Report", the indicator sys- ticipation. This strategy enabled residents, the
selected Ludwigsburg as a demonstration project tem has established itself more and more in Hei- private sector and regional stakeholders to get
for energy-efficient cities as part of the “Annex 51” delberg’s consciousness. Since 2005, in addition involved, building a broad and representative base
research project. The City of Ludwigsburg com-
to the sustainability reports, all information and for urban development. The city engaged in inte-
missioned the Centre for Sustainable Energy Tech-
nology (zafh.net) and the Centre for Sustainable decision proposals submitted to the local council grated debate and jointly developed a shared vision
Urban Development, both at the Stuttgart Uni by the administration also contain a sustainability for the future in order to collaborate with all of the
versity of Applied Sciences (HFT), to join forces assessment, which sets out the objectives of the involved stakeholders and formulate sustainabil-
with the City of Ludwigsburg’s Sustainable Urban STEP with the resolution/project and the advan- ity goals addressing economic development, social
Development Unit to carry out the “Energy-Effi- tages and disadvantages of the proposal. Sustain- balance and a healthy environment.
cient Ludwigsburg” study. Funded by the German
ability monitoring has become an important part
Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF),
this study analyses all of the City of Ludwigsburg’s of the orientation and success control of sustain- In a unique move, Ludwigsburg restructured the
activities in the field of energy efficiency and pre- able urban development for the administration, city administration to create a dedicated unit for
sents recommendations for action. politics and citizens of the city of Heidelberg. TE sustainable urban development. Responsible for

Authenticated
Industrial network module

Supported by the sustainability strategy working group
and environment ministry of Baden-Württemberg
Heat module Power module Transport module
Heat grid Power balance Climate balance/Transport

Status quo: heat consumption and Status quo: power consumption and Status quo: fuel and energy
generation, climate and environmental generation, climate and environmental consumption in transport, climate and
effects, potentials and use of effects, potentials and use of environmental effects, potentials, use
renewable energies renewable energies and production of alternative fuels
Goals and scenarios

Determining goals (e.g. energy efficiency, renewable energies, CO2 reduction,
other environmental effects, degree of self-sufficiency etc.)
Heat strategy Power strategy Transport strategy

Identity, effectiveness, implementation Identity, effectiveness, implementation Identity, effectiveness, implementation
steps, stakeholders, cost, steps, stakeholders, cost, steps, stakeholders, cost,
funding heat measures funding power measures funding transport measures
Overall strategy module: energy and climate in Ludwigsburg

Potential, climate and environmental protection measures, business, cost, stakeholders
Fig. 4
implementing, steering and coordinating the “Business Day” was launched to promote close
sustainable urban development strategy, this ties and cooperation between the city adminis-
unit oversees each of the individual innovation tration and local businesses, taking place since
projects. The unit networks horizontally and cuts 2004. The first city-wide “Future Conference”
across disciplines to pursue sustainability in eco- (Zukunftskonferenz, ZuKo) in 2005 focussed on
nomic development, integrated urban devel- engaging with residents. Their participation had
opment, European issues and energy across all already been tested at the 2000 and 2002 neigh-
sectors and levels. Created in 2008, the unit aims bourhood conferences in Ludwigsburg-Eglos
to improve coordination between the different heim, which had been part of the national “Social
political and administrative levels which influence City”( Soziale Stadt) programme.4 This partici-
sustainable development issues, and thus achieve pation provided input for the ongoing integrated
better vertical networking (Fig. 3). urban development, with further workshops for
residents hosted at regular intervals. Parallel to
The energy strategy includes a large number of this, other activities such as opinion polls and a
measures and activities relating to the climate, “summer of dialogue” also took place during 2005.
adaptation to climate change, energy, transport, After the second ZuKo future conference in 2006,
industry and land use plan. These were compiled a network was set up including administration,
by the Institute of Energy Economics and Rational elected city councillors, and expert committees.5
Energy Use (IER) at the University of Stuttgart This implemented the various visions and guid- Eleven SEK topics “Oppor-
(Fig. 4).3 This wide range of activities highlights ing principles contained within the development
the high priority the city has given to energy pol- strategies, and dealt specifically with eleven the-
tunities for Ludwigsburg”
• attractive housing
icy. In addition, Ludwigsburg successfully applied matically diverse topics. These picked up on the • cultural life
to the International Energy Agency (IEA) in Paris guiding principles and goals of sustainable devel- • business and work
to gain recognition as an “Energy-efficient City” opment and reflected a desire to address real • vibrant neighbourhoods
demonstration project within the international quality of life in all aspects of each of Ludwigs- • lively inner city
“Annex 51” programme. burg’s neighbourhoods. • generations and nations living together
• green in the city
• mobility
Ludwigsburg’s SEK Urban Development Plan has • education and care
Sustainable urban devel a strong social dimension, because it links a polit- • varied sports offer
ical programme with a programme for adminis- • energy supply
opment plan (Stadtentwick- trative action (master plan) and a close relationship
lungskonzept SEK) with residents and social groups. The SEK views
Managed and monitored by the elected council- urban space as a social space, and aims to help
lors, Ludwigsburg’s administration has been connect the city’s people, which it views as its key
driving forward the development of the “Oppor- stakeholders, across social, ethnic and gener
tunities for Ludwigsburg” Urban Development ational boundaries.
Plan (Stadtentwicklungskonzept SEK) since 2004.
3 Stadt Ludwigsburg /
Residents and representatives of the business In 2014, the city of Ludwigsburg received the zafh.net 2010
community are important stakeholders in this “German Sustainability Award” for the govern- 4 ibid.
process. A local business conference called the ment, administration, and residents’ exemplary 5 Spec et al. 2010

Authenticated
Fig. 5
and integrated approach to urban development, opment, even at the global scale. The seventeen
looking back on 10 years of successful collabor United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
ation on the Urban Development Plan. The award (SDG) were one of four focal points. As in previ-
celebrated the administration’s programme of ous years, outcomes were subsequently processed
work as well as the support it gained from vast and documented in order to further develop the
numbers of dedicated residents and broad sec- SEK Urban Development Plan.
tions of the city government.
The Federal Ministry of Education and Research
In 2015, Ludwigsburg set up a welcoming pro- (BMBF) also funds the “ZukunftsWerkStadt”
gramme to deal with population change and the (Future workshop city) programme in Ludwigs-
large number of refugees. On 26 March 2015, burg. As part of this programme, the city has
the German Association for Housing and Urban worked with the German Association for Housing
Development (Bundesverband für Wohnen und and Urban Development vhw to generate greater
Stadtentwicklung, vhw) hosted a number of group participation and help spread information and
debates on “a culture of welcome” to help prepare responsibility throughout all community groups,
the fifth ZuKo future conference in 2015.6 including new immigrants. The programme aims
to work with residents, retailers and industry to
Under the heading of integration and diversity, jointly develop digitalisation concepts which
the results of these group discussions were later address their needs and demands and which can
further developed together with refugees and be readily implemented. The digital agenda was
so-called KiFa mentors (KiFa – children and fam- also a topic at the 2018 future conference, high-
ily education) at the ZuKo future conference. In lighting Ludwigsburg’s journey towards a Smart
addition to the eleven main themes, the topic of City.
inclusion was discussed at two tables focussing
on welcome culture.7 Migrants and refugees
were recognised as members of a new resident Integrated energy plan
group, and members of these target groups were
regularly involved in workshops focusing on the Cities’ energy efficiency is determined by aspects
development process taking place in 2015 and such as urban planning, traffic systems, land use,
2016. urban density and urban context and user
demand. Ludwigsburg’s SEK addresses these
6 Stadt Ludwigsburg 2015, Amongst other topics, the sixth ZuKo future con- issues within the Energy Supply topic and area
p. 67 ference in 2018 explored possibilities for the city of work. The main objective is to balance energy
7 ibid., p. 16f. of Ludwigsburg to contribute to sustainable devel- consumption through greater energy efficiency

Authenticated
2006
2004
2014
Eglosheim City- SEK Ludwigsburg + STEP
neighbourhood level – 5 pilot neighbourhoods
2012
Agenda 21
Agenda 2030
2000
2005
2007
2018
2015
2009
10 years of sustainable urban development
(Business – Administration – Citizens)
2nd ZuKo
3rd ZuKo
4th ZuKo
5th ZuKo
6th ZuKo
1st ZuKo
Award
SEK “Opportunities for Ludwigsburg”
Sustainable urban development dept.
Future Workshop / digital agenda
objectives, sustainable transport

Citizen-led urban development
1. Neighbourhood conference
New administrative structure
Topics: Global sustainability

Topic: Welcome culture etc.
German sustainability prize
“Social City 2000 – 2008”
Civic engagement
1. Building block:
1. Business day
SEK adopted
Topic:
Topic:
Fig. 5 Wood-fired heating

plant in Ludwigsburg
Citizens’ Fig. 6 Participation process
workshops
in Ludwigsburg
Fig. 6
and using renewable energy sources and resources. Neighbourhood development 8 Stadt Ludwigsburg/
To this end, a city-wide energy strategy coordi- plan (STEP) zafh.net 2010
9 Stadt Ludwigsburg /
nates individual measures and approaches to zafh.net 2010
achieve the best possible overall effect. Sustainable urban development prioritises brown-
fields over greenfield development areas. The city
The municipal utility company (Stadtwerke Lud- of Ludwigsburg adopts this approach by imple-
wigsburg-Kornwestheim, SWLB) is developing menting integrated district development plans
an innovative plan for the sustainable, efficient to convert former barracks and redevelop inner-
energy use. The energy plan is about more than city housing estates. These adapt the SEK guide-
simply energy, it addresses quality of life and lines and strategic objectives to individual neigh-
future-proof habitats. bourhoods and include a detailed Neighbour-
hood Development Plan (Stadtteilentwicklungs
A local wood-fired power plant provides Ludwigs- plan, STEP) addressing the eleven SEK topics. The
burg with heat and electricity from biomass. The STEPs also define specific goals and measures
largest of its kind in the state of Baden-Württem- based on the SEK master plans.
berg (Fig. 5), this is a flagship for environmen-
tally friendly energy supply. In 2010, it was able to In 2006, Ludwigsburg started producing STEPs
meet 70 percent of Ludwigsburg’s district heating for four selected pilot neighbourhoods: City
demand.8 By April 2015, SWLB was saving a total centre, Eglosheim, Grünbühl-Sonnenberg (Fig. 7)
of around 41,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) and Karlshöhe. At the same time, Ludwigsburg
a year. The city is currently engaging with SWLB, succeeded in obtaining federal and state gov-
residents, and interest groups such as business ernment subsidies as part of the “Districts with
representatives and public institutions, in order to Special Development Needs – Social City” regen- Further information
assess the renewable energy potential for the city’s eration programme. The Grünbühl, Hirschberg • Bunzel, Arno; Coulmas, Diana; Schmidt-Eich
staedt, Gerd: Städtebauliche Verträge. Ein Hand-
energy strategy. In providing geothermal district and Schlößlesfeld neighbourhoods had been built
buch. Stadt – Forschung – Praxis. Berlin 2007
heating to the Grünbühl – Sonnenberg neighbour- very quickly and cost-effectively after the war and • Birk, Hans-Jörg: Städtebauliche Verträge.
hood, SWLB has become active in another import were given a high priority because the city had Inhalt und Leistungsstörungen. Stuttgart 2013
ant energy segment. Another important field of identified an urgent need for improvements to • Stadt Heidelberg: Heidelberger Nachhaltigkeits-
SWLB’s work includes sustainable mobility. In energy efficiency. In the city centre, specific goals bericht 2014. Indikatorengestützte Erfolgskontrol
2014, it set up three electricity charging stations included reducing CO2 emissions. Since 2004, le des Stadtentwicklungsplans Heidelberg 2015.
Reihe Schriften zur Stadtentwicklung. Heidelberg
in Ludwigsburg and Kornwestheim. By the end the city dedicated around € 50 m of federal and
2015
of 2016, this was extended to 18 charging stations state subsidies to around 100 projects and meas- • www.ludwigsburg.de/,Lde/start/stadt_buerger/
to provide electric vehicles with environmentally ures.9 In the following years, further STEPs were stadtentwicklung.html
friendly power. developed for districts in the eastern and western • www.heidelberg.de/hd,Lde/HD/entwickeln.html

Authenticated
Fig. 7
Reporting and evaluation

(Indicators)
Checking
Implementation local
in SEK Integrated situation
sustainability
masterplans
management
Refining Fig. 7 STEP development

strategic plan Grünbühl-Sonnenberg,
objectives Ludwigsburg
Adopting guidelines
and objectives Fig. 8 Urban Development
in thematic fields Plan management cycle
Fig. 8
areas, including Weststadt, Oßweil, Oststadt, cycle developed within the European “Managing
Poppenweiler, and Neckarweihingen. The city is Urban Europe” (MUE) programme. In September
currently running further workshops to engage 2009, Ludwigsburg’s city administration adopted
stakeholders in specifying STEPs. In 2015, the state a five-step management cycle adapted from this
of Baden-Württemberg awarded Ludwigsburg a model to secure and manage the further devel-
prize for the “Social City Grünbühl-Sonnenberg/ opment of the Urban Development Concept
Karlshöhe” project. (SEK) and the Neighbourhood Development
Plans (STEPs) (Fig. 8). Managing sustainable
urban development is regarded as a task which
Management cycle cuts across administration and politics, for which
community engagement is an essential pre
Since 2002, the Eglosheim neighbourhood has requisite. The final report evaluates results to
served as a pilot project, with intensive public review their contribution to achieving objectives
consultation to formulate the objectives for its set out in the catalogue of indicators. It also
future development. Since 2003, the local sustain- includes a feedback function to control or readjust
ability process is controlled by a management measures or projects in detail. MES

Authenticated
3.4 — Project-specific Implementation Strategies 195
3. 4
Project-specific
Implementation Strategies
D o minic Church
A
broad range of structures code (Handelsgesetzbuch). Control of the board
and models can be used to of directors enables local governments to super-
develop urban neighbour- vise the company’s executive management and
hoods. For public sector ensure that neighbourhood development meets
stakeholders, the challenge the defined objectives. This type of organisation
is to identify the approach also allows a diverse group of public bodies to join
which is most suitable and forces for neighbourhood development, such as is
most effective for the pro- often necessary for former military bases which
ject in question. Ideally, the choice of the devel- cut across different local government areas.
opment model is based an objective analysis of
local circumstances. Urban Development Companies are subject to
private law and can be more flexible and dynamic
Each model has advantages and disadvantages, than local governments because they do not have
and inevitably, each benefits one or the other to process decisions through local government
stakeholder group. This means that the approach approval procedures. The downside to this is that
to developing any given project is always also a local government may be less effective in super-
political issue. vising neighbourhood development, and that
project development targets may fall out of step
with development objectives for the wider urban
area. This can raise questions of democratic legit-
Organisational imacy, because public funding is used.
types and The approach can be justified as long as the bene

fits of greater agility outweigh the risks of weaker
structures local government control. HafenCity Hamburg

GmbH is an example of an Urban Development
Company which is fully owned (100 %) by the City
In Germany, local governments often set up single- of Hamburg (Fig.1, p. 196). Development Com-
purpose associations (Zweckverbände) to co- panies can also be partly owned by private busi-
operate with other municipalities, either volun- nesses, for example through Public Private Part-
tarily or by order of the federal state. Usually, nerships (PPP).
associations of this kind provide utilities, such as
water or public transport. The 100 % private sector development model is
more common in the Anglo-American world. This
In neighbourhood development, local govern- sees private developers provide both infrastructure
ments frequently set up Urban Development Com- and buildings, and market both as a combined
panies (UDCs) which operate as companies with package. In the best-case scenario, this allows for
limited liability (GmbH), and appoint a board of efficient delivery of a coherent overall concept.
directors according to the German commercial However, the model can put infrastructure at risk

Authenticated
if developers fail to remain financially viable constitution includes a commitment to support

throughout the economic cycle. One example of its members by providing good, safe and socially
this is the Carillion group, which led phase one of responsible housing. One of the advantages of
the redevelopment of the former Battersea Power this type of neighbourhood development is that
Station (€ 453 m) in London. Carillion filed for assets remain in cooperative ownership and can
bankruptcy in January 2018 after accumulating serve its objectives in the long term.3
debts of around € 1.47 bn. The bankruptcy put the
completion of various public buildings, such as The Baugruppe is another model for neighbour-
the Midland Metropolitan Hospital (€ 396 m) and hood development. The cities of Freiburg and
the Royal Liverpool University Hospital (€ 380 m) Tübingen both use this model, each in slightly
at risk. At the point of bankruptcy, Carillion was different ways. The basic principle is that a num-
involved in a wide range of PPP projects, including ber of interested individuals join forces to fund
50 prisons, providing 50,000 homes for the mili the design and construction of a building with
Fig. 1 tary, 11,500 hospital beds, 218 school catering several homes which subsequently become con-
services as well as parts of the HS2 high-speed rail ventional condominiums. In Freiburg, this model
link from London to Manchester and Leeds.1 for neighbourhood development was born when
squatters occupied a vacant building on a former
Fig. 1 Magellan Terraces, Unlike the public sector, which has a duty to the military site, forming the “Forum Vauban” resi-
HafenCity Hamburg (DE) public good, the objective of private sector busi- dents’ association in 1994. The association pushed
Fig. 2 School built within ness is to achieve as high a yield as possible for its for a comprehensive consultation process, which
PPP framework, HafenCity
owners. As a result, delivery of public facilities resulted in drawing up environmentally sustain-
Hamburg (DE) 2009, Speng-
ler Wiescholek Architekten such as schools, crèches and playgrounds etc. may able goals for developing a new urban neighbour-
take a back seat behind profitability, arriving only hood. A large proportion of homes were built
after housing has been fully completed or being according to the Baugruppe model.
1 www.bbc.com/news/busi- completed to a lower quality to safeguard overall
ness42744949 (accessed:
profitability. Britain’s Commission for Architec- In Tübingen, the city bought a former military site
21.01.2018)
ture and the Built Environment (CABE) has stud- in 1991 and instructed the city planning depart-
2 CABE 2004
3 www.moeckernkiez.de/ ied and documented quality issues in neighbour- ment to use the Baugruppe model to develop what
genossenschaft hoods built by private sector developers in some became known as the “French Quarter”. The
(accessed: 03.08.2018) detail.2 development plan allowed a range of design free-
doms not usually seen in Germany, such as a
Another model is for private individuals to group variety of building heights. This liberal design
together to form a registered cooperative company framework made the neighbourhood attractive
in order to develop a neighbourhood. A cooper- for people wanting to shape their own neighbour-
ative company of this kind can be described as a hood. The city has since further refined this ap-
business-oriented association, focused on fulfilling proach, using it in other neighbourhoods such as
the needs of its members –such as housing. Hous- the Mühlenviertel and the Alte Weberei. One aim
ing cooperatives are very common in Germany, of the Baugruppe model is to tie future residents
Switzerland and Austria. The model can be applied into neighbourhood development and thus con-
to the neighbourhood level. Berlin’s Möckernkiez tribute to a stronger sense of community and
is one current example. The mixed-use neighbour- identity.
hood provides 450 homes on a 3-ha former railway
site (pp. 246ff.). It was designed and built, and is Thinking about the possibility of transferring the
now managed by a cooperative (Möckernkiez approach chosen in Freiburg and Tübingen to
Genossenschaft für selbstverwaltetes, soziales other locations raises the question whether its
und ökologisches Wohnen eG). The cooperative’s success is linked to the particular character of the

Authenticated
local population. The social scientist Katharina or “developer-fostered building groups” (in Tübin- 4 Manderscheid 2004
Manderscheid researched this issue in Tübingen,4 gen, see Markus Staedt9). Kuhn and Harlander 5 ibid., p. 289
analysing the French Quarter’s demographic pro- identify three motives for taking the Baugruppe 6 Kuhn / Harlander 2010
7 Müller 2015
file and comparing it to the neighbouring Stutt- approach: Economically, the Baugruppe reduces
8 Kuhn / Harlander 2010,
garter Straße area. Manderscheid found a higher total cost by around 15 – 25 percent (Hubert Bur- p. 56
proportion of families with a high income and a denski10). Socially, the Baugruppe paves the way 9 ibid., p. 146
relatively high level of academic achievement for a wide range of models for consultative design 10 ibid., p. 129
living in the French Quarter. She also examined and communal living. Finally, it helps deliver al- 11 Müller 2015, p. 402
the extent to which residents were integrated into ternative and innovative concepts for housing 12 ibid., pp. 129ff.
13 ibid., p. 403
social networks locally and in the city as a whole, and construction, e.g. in terms of environmental
and the extent of their engagement in urban devel- sustainability.
opment processes.
Müller shares the view that economic, environ-
Manderscheid concluded that the French Quar- mental and social factors account for the popu-
ter’s mainly affluent and well-educated residents larity of the Baugruppe model. He sees it as a
were more frequently able to create physical and promising concept for implementing a fine-grain,
social spaces within their neighbourhood and thus decentral, locally-based sustainability strategy.11
tended to identify with their neighbourhood more Müller also touches on the homogeneous demo-
closely.5 Whilst the Baugruppe process supported graphic profile of many Baugruppe projects, fre-
by the city planning department clearly created a quently focused on young families with average
high-quality neighbourhood, Manderscheid’s to high incomes.12 Nonetheless, he sees the Bau-
research poses the questions whether the process gruppe as a model with growth potential, espe-
benefits affluent and well-educated residents more cially because of its economic benefits. Müller
than others. This in turn queries whether the allo- envisages obliging local government to ensure
cation of planning department resources can be that land disposal processes provide opportunities
justified if – just as in conventional approaches – for Baugruppe development models.13
this especially benefits the affluent and well-
educated. The issue is further accentuated when
homes designed and built with the substantial
support of the city government are placed on the
open market and sold to profit, generating major Public-Private
financial benefits. The Baugruppe mechanism
meets the objective of affordable housing only
once, whilst open market mechanisms later take
Partnerships
over again. Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) provide a frame-
work for public sector bodies to let private enter-
Further research on the Baugruppe has been prise fund and deliver measures or services. In
published by Gerd Kuhn, Tilman Harlander, and many projects, private businesses fund both the
Hannes Müller.6, 7 Kuhn and Harlander see the fed- construction of assets and their subsequent
eral state of Baden-Württemberg taking a pioneer- management, with the public sector entering
ing role in developing, supporting and shaping the into fixed-term rental or leasehold contracts for
Baugruppe approach from the outset, and making 20 – 30 years.
it an established force in south-western Germany.
They see the Baugruppe and other development The model’s appeal lies in the fact that it allows
models converging to spawn sponsoring models the public sector to make use of items or services
(in Esslingen am Neckar, see Wilfried Wallbrecht8) without the need for major up-front investments.
Fig. 2
Authenticated
There is no need to provide public finance for viability of each PPP project should be examined
conventional funding and construction. This in detail throughout the entire contract period
makes PPP particularly attractive for public bod- and life cycle .19
ies with limited funds, who are unwilling or un-
able to take on debt. In September 2011 the German national and fed-
eral state audit offices published a report on the
14 European Investment Around 1,750 PPPs with a total value of more than cost effectiveness of PPPs in which they evaluated
Bank, data.eib.org/epec € 355 bn were commissioned in the EU between 30 projects with a total volume of € 3.2 bn. They
(accessed: 20.01.2018)
1990 and 201614, 122 (7 percent) with a total value concluded that the principles formulated in 2006
15 Bundesministerium der
Finanzen 2007
of € 15.2 bn (4.5 percent) of which were in Ger- were not being given enough attention.20 The
16 European Investment many. In December 2007, the German federal audit offices further warned that PPP should not
Bank, data.eib.org/epec ministry of finance (BMF) set a target of raising be used to circumvent constraints on taking on
(accessed: 20.01.2018) the share of PPPs in public investments in the new debt, and criticised that services were with-
17 Krüger / Ugarte Chacon transport sector from 4 percent towards an inter- drawn from market competition for long durations
2006
national benchmark of 15 percent.15 Throughout by committing to private partners for 30-year
18 Mühlenkamp 2010
the EU around 56 percent of PPPs commissioned periods. In summing up, the audit offices described
19 Konferenz der Präsiden-
tinnen und Präsidenten between 1990 and 2016 related to transport pro- PPPs as a value-neutral procurement alternative
der Rechnungshöfe des jects.16 Over time, the range of PPP projects has to conventional construction and funding models,
Bundes und der Länder, grown to include other public sector projects, such but demanded that the advantages over conven-
3/4 May 2006, Munich as crèches, schools, universities and prisons. tional public sector procurement should be object
20 Rechnungshöfe des Bun- ively and transparently demonstrated on a case-by
des und der Länder 2011
Not all PPPs are equally successful: The part- case-basis.21
21 ibid.
privatisation of the Berlin Waterworks was par-
ticularly heavily criticised, after a private holding
took on 49.9 percent of its ownership in 1999. Neighbourhood development
Criticism focused on contractual clauses which
allowed the holding to influence the appointment There are two basic models for PPP in neighbour-
of the supervisory board, and issue directions to hood development. In the first model, private
the executive management. The part-privatisation businesses or investors deliver urban infrastruc-
was further discredited when it was followed by ture, buildings and spaces on a one-off basis. The
consumer price increases. These were seen as second PPP model sees private enterprise com-
being linked to 28-year yield guarantees offered missioned to provide or operate services for sev-
to owners in 1999.17 eral years. One of the possibilities to tie in private
businesses or investors on a one-off basis is to
This and other cases have made PPP procure- include them in an urban development company
ment controversial. The debate calls into ques- which is developing a neighbourhood.
tion whether PPP funding is primarily a means
of increasing economic efficiency or whether it This extends a conventional neighbourhood devel-
serves to conceal public sector spending.18 In opment vehicle to include private enterprise as
2006, German national and federal state audit well as public bodies as shareholders of the limited
offices adopted the principle that public bodies company. In most cases, the public sector retains
should not choose PPP models for projects they the majority share in order to secure project con-
could not fund conventionally, reasoning that trol. The EGP Gesellschaft für urbane Projekt
subsequent PPP payments were a future burden on entwicklung GmbH in Trier is an example of this
the public purse just like interest and redemption type, with both the city and private businesses
payments. The audit offices further stated that the holding a share.

Authenticated
Infrastructure and services frameworks which do exist require a minimum

number of landowners to agree to the funding and
The collection and sorting of waste around Berlin’s the planned measures, as well as local government
Potsdamer Platz is one example of private enter- support for creating a BID.
prise getting engaged in neighbourhood manage-
ment (see pp. 228ff.). Waste from businesses and The City of Hamburg has taken a leading role in
private households in the neighbourhood is col- setting up BIDs in Germany. A first example, the
lected in a central facility beneath Potsdamer BID Neuer Wall (Fig.3) was set up in 2005 and
Platz. The company operating the service has plans to spend € 13 m on marketing and public
installed plants to sort and quantify materials by realm design in three phases up to 2020.23 Neuer
type and prepare each material flow for subsequent Wall is one of Hamburg’s most exclusive shopping
transport. The machinery in use is provided by areas. It would be difficult for the city government
the company and will remain in its ownership even to justify spending public money on improvements Fig. 3
after the end of the contract. Employees collecting, in this area, rather than in socially disadvantaged
sorting and removing the refuse are employed by neighbourhoods. In such cases, BIDs provide
the private company rather than by the City of landowners with an opportunity to shore up the
Berlin. value of their real estate to mutual benefit. Land-
owners can invest in their direct vicinity, where
public funds are not available or where local gov- Fig. 3 BID Project Neuer
ernment has to set other spending priorities. Wall, Hamburg (DE)
Business Improve- Disadvantages to the BID model include the like-
ment Districts lihood of landowners passing added costs on in

rents and thereby increasing the financial burden
on tenants. In individual cases, this may pose a
Urban or Business Improvement Districts (BID) threat to the survival of smaller or financially less
present a further opportunity for private enterprise profitable businesses. This can contribute to a
to take on a role in a neighbourhood’s develop- profound change in the structure of local retail.
ment. The concept was first conceived for Bloor From local government’s point of view, BID mem-
Village West in Toronto, Canada in 1970. Busi- bers make a voluntary additional contribution to
nesses located within a certain area club together neighbourhood development, but BIDs circumvent
to fund improvements to make it more attractive. the democratic process for allocating tax-based
These improvements are aimed at increasing the funding according to neighbourhood or city-wide
amount of time and money passers-by spend there. priorities.
To set up a BID, a group of landowners must group In summary, it can be said that local government 22 Kreutz / Krüger 2011
together to ask local government to issue an order planning must focus on the long-term public good 23 www.hamburg.de/
requiring all of the landowners within a given area in formulating strategic approaches to neighbour- bid-projekte/4353324/
bid-projekt-neuer-wall/
to take a financial share in planned measures. A hood development which justify the use of public
(accessed 21.01.2018)
hybrid model, both voluntary initiative and funding. This requires a process of carefully bal-
state-imposed levy, the BID is sometimes also ancing the interests of the different stakeholders.
described as “voluntary self-taxation”.22 Continually, and with increasing intensity, public
sector stakeholders are required to engage in dia-
In Germany, it is up to federal states to lay out the logue with other stakeholders in order to ensure
framework for setting up BIDs. This has not yet that their approach is appropriate and democrat-
been implemented by all of the federal states. The ically endorsed.

Authenticated
C H A P TE R 4
Tools

Authenticated
4.1 — Computer-aided Design Tools 201
4 .1
Computer-aided
Design Tools
Ma r t in Al tmann, Ste p han Anders
S
ome of the numerous available This in turn makes planning complex, expensive
computer-aided planning tools and prone to errors. On the other hand, CAD pro-
are presented in more detail grammes – combined with graphics software – can
in this chapter. Basically, the be used to test designs and generate visualisations
tools differ depending on their quickly. This makes them particularly suitable for
intended use, in terms of the the early design stages.
functionality and the design
scale for which they were
developed (Fig. 1, p. 202 ). We will focus first on
design and delivery tools, and then move on to
simulation, visualisation and decision-making Building Infor-
tools as from page 206.
mation Modelling
(BIM)
Computer-aided BIM stores building geometries and available
design (CAD) building data such as cost, emissions, delivery

schedules and components’ tender specifications
in a central model. The information is always up
Computer-aided design (CAD1) is now established to date and can be called up by all members of the
in almost every architecture and planning practice planning team at any time (Fig. 2, p. 202 ).
and is an integral part of everyday working life.
CAD offers various specialist extensions for urban Changes to one parameter thus directly impact on 1 Bucerius et al. 2005,
planning use, e.g. in implementing labelling stand- quantities, costs and dates. In future, BIM tech- Vol. 2, p. 530
2 Pflüger 2000, p. 41
ards, automatically generating keys, capturing nology will also offer the potential to automati-
areas, and calculating urban development data cally generate optimum parametric 3D models
such as footprint ratio, plot ratio, or cubic volume in terms of cost, emissions and thermal comfort.
per square metre.2 BIM is set to develop towards mapping building’s
Today’s CAD programmes also offer various inter- diverse sustainability requirements, such as energy
faces for teamwork and for exporting drawing efficiency, comfort, biodiversity and accessibil-
data to software for budgeting, scheduling and ity in virtual building models. The “BIM-based
structural engineering software. Integral Planning” project at KIT in Karlsruhe is
one example of this. The project aims to develop
Usefulness for planning neighbourhoods: normalised interfaces to connect LCA tools with
Pure CAD programmes have one major disad- BIM m odels. This should make it possible to auto-
vantage in that they do not allow drawings to be matically generate Life Cycle Assessments (LCA)
linked to relevant calculations, specifications and from BIM models. BIM models may be able to
costs. This means that every minor change must be help simulate and evaluate other sustainability
tracked in all documents, which is very laborious. requirements automatically in future.

Authenticated
202 Chapter 4 — Tools
Project management software Architecture
Structural Social
Geo-information systems (GIS) engineering Science
3D-GIS
Energy
Client BIM
Building information modelling (BIM) technology
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Facility Lighting
management design
Building Neighbourhood City / Region Construction
management
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
3 Döllner 2007, pp. 2ff. There are also initial approaches to using digital cross-referenced and analysed with other data sets
4 ESRI 2009 models to manage schedules and budgets at the such as names, geometries, uses or soil types. For
neighbourhood level. For example, the need for example, GIS can help local governments manage
social infrastructure and subsidised housing can brownfields, businesses identify ideal locations for
be allocated in terms of space and time, based on new distribution centres, or researchers analyse
development density. Data on planning, sched- the relationship between land fragmentation and
ules and profitability can be connected by direct biodiversity.
import/export. Results can be visualised in 2D Aside from presenting information in two dimen-
and 3D. sions, three-dimensional information (3D GIS, 3D
urban models) and open source and online GIS
Usefulness for planning neighbourhoods: (e.g. Google Earth, Bing Maps) are becoming more
BIM technology is designed for the design of build- significant for urban planning. 3D city models are
ings and of limited use in neighbourhood design. regarded as the key to making the immense daily
Hopefully, tailored software solutions will soon urban data streams accessible for a wide range of
be developed for urban planning, combining the uses. For example, scientists at the University of
Fig. 3 advantages of BIM with geographic information Potsdam are working on bundling complex geo-
system (GIS) data at the appropriate scale. data from various sources and visualising it for
specific tasks.3 In future, these kinds of complex
3D city models, and the information they contain
will need to be made more manageable and easier
Geographic Infor- to use for urban design. The idea of “geodesign”

is to unite geographical information with active
mation Systems urban design.4 This allows planners to simulate

different options during the design process in
Fig. 4
(GIS) order to identify the optimum design.
In addition to traditional design uses, GIS systems

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are com- allow for the generation and structured transfer
puter-aided tools to capture, store, analyse and of data which developers use to control overall
visualise spatial data. GIS allows digital maps project timescales and budgets. Relevant mar-
such as road, city or hiking maps to be combined, keting data or qualitative information such as

Authenticated
Fig. 5
Fig. 6 Fig. 7
target groups, procedures, prices, social infra- •• Information, communication and consult Fig. 1 Computer-aided tools
structure and timescales can be depicted in maps ation (e.g. presenting urban development and their uses
and reporting systems in order to provide a basis plans, Solaratlas Berlin (Fig. 4), interactive Fig. 2 Connections between
project players in BIM
for committees’ and politicians’ decision-making landscape design7, visualising urban devel-
Fig. 3 UrbanSim software
processes. So-called GIS connectors can map data- opment) Fig. 4 Solaratlas Berlin,
base interfaces. Managers and consultants already •• Protecting nature and the environment (e.g. 3D-GIS application
use this function to control urban developments nature conservation and environmental Fig. 5 3D model of San
in a transparent way. information systems, hazardous substances, Francisco (US) generated with
geoecology) the Autodesk InfraWorks soft-
ware 2014
Uses: •• Managing safety, civil protection (e.g. evacu
Fig. 6 CommunityViz software
GIS has established itself in many fields thanks to ation plans, early hurricane detection)8 Fig. 7 Plug-In Grasshopper –
its universal applicability. These include: •• Research (e.g. archaeology, information sys- Generative modelling for
•• Local governments / surveying and land regis tems for sustainable land use9, embedding Rhino 3D
try (real estate, utility and transport grids, knowledge in 3D city models10, visualising
supply and disposal infrastructure, green space data in emotional city mapping, mapping
design, construction materials, e-government patterns of movement in urban space, mobile
portals)5 phone maps)
•• Urban, regional, traffic, landscape planning, •• Geomarketing / location-based services (e.g.
and civil engineering (e.g. environmental location-based advertising/information,
5 Heins / Kirchner 2009, p. 1
impact assessments, detailed geodata, spatial locating friends by mobile phone, mobile
6 Herzig 2007
decision support tools6, analysing spatial struc- work time sheets)
7 Oppermann 2008, p. 1
tures, planning major events, constructing •• Forestry and agriculture 8 Khemlani 2005
traffic routes, improving motorway or pipeline •• Criminology (e.g. crime maps) 9 Flacke 2004
routes) •• Aerospace and space exploration 10 Falquet /Métral 2005, p. 23

Authenticated
Fig. 8 CityCAD software

Fig. 9 Kaisersrot project:
automated modelling and
improvements for solar gain,
Grünhof building, Zurich
(CH)
Fig. 8 Fig. 9
CityCAD •• Tourism and real estate management and open spaces, traffic and other infrastructure.
The parametric CityCAD software allows the holis •• Advising investors, location planning, spatial There are so-called CIM (City Information Model-
tic analysis of urban designs in early planning market analyses, economic development ling) research approaches which supplement GIS
stages. To this end, specific cost, energy or water
•• Managing development projects’ timescales technology with additional planning information
demand values are assigned to each neighbour
and budgets (construction phasing strategies, (3D GIS, GeoDesign), but these initial approaches
hood building block (e.g. buildings, streets, paths
or trees), which can then be visualised (Fig. 8). marketing strategies, reporting, interfaces to are still far from operative use as a planning tool
Designers can thus directly see the effects of their economic planning) such as BIM is for buildings. CIM was used in the
design moves on selected indicators and improve •• Navigation / logistics (e.g. optimising routes) Urban IT Project at the University of New South
the design accordingly. •• Telecommunications, satellite image moni Wales in Australia11 and in research by the Hasso
Usefulness for planning neighbourhoods: toring Plattner Institute at the University of Potsdam, in
Even if CityCAD can only provide approximate
order to visualise complex 3D CAD, BIM and GIS
results, which do not take more complex inter
actions into account, the software provides an Usefulness for planning neighbourhoods: system geodata in a 3D city model.12
interesting functionality for urban design, because Within the complex topic of sustainable urban
it fills the gap between BIM for buildings and GIS and neighbourhood planning, GIS systems’ varied Example uses for parametric design tools include:
for urban and regional planning. uses make them an important tool for the ana •• Creating 3D urban models according to spe-
lysis of existing structures and the design of new cific rules, such as those already used in the
neighbourhoods. film industry
However, developing GIS into neighbourhood •• Visualising abstract urban design rules
data models offers the greatest potential. •• Improving urban development models, e.g. in
terms of land use or mutual shading between
Kaisersrot projects buildings
The so-called “Kaisersrot” projects pursued by
Ludger Hovestadt and his team at ETH Zurich •• Integrating and visualising residents’ wishes
demonstrate the potential uses of parametric plan
ning and optimisation tools. Parametric Tools/software:
planning tools In addition to urban design programmes, software

The spectrum of projects ranges from improving
floor plans in terms of natural lighting (Fig. 9), is also available to programme specific solutions.
improving exhibition layouts and structures, virtu
Examples include:
ally reallocating building land, engaging residents
in consultation processes, to the automated gener
Compared to CAD or GIS systems, parametric •• CityCAD (www.holisticcity.co.uk)
ation of initial urban development designs based planning tools offer the advantage that 3D models •• Modelur (www.modelur.com)
on existing topography, user demands and soil automatically adapt to change to design-relevant •• CityEngine (www.esri.com/software/city
conditions. variables. Combined with modern simulation engine)
tools, parametric planning tools can help improve •• Rhino Grasshopper (www.grasshopper3d.com)
existing 3D models, e.g. with regard to solar gain •• Processing (www.processing.org)
or use requirements (Fig. 9).
Usefulness for planning neighbourhoods:
This could form the basis for neighbourhood infor- Parametric planning tools are currently mainly
11 Randolph et al. 2010 mation models similar to BIM models at the build- used in research and occasionally applied to
12 Döllner 2007 ing level. It could also include data on roads, green ambitious architectural projects. Nevertheless,

Authenticated
they represent a promising possibility to improve Usefulness for planning neighbourhoods:

urban design in terms of sustainability when they Neighbourhood and urban development project
are combined with modern simulation tools. 3D needs vary greatly depending on the developer
city models can also help explain the effects of and the project scale. Developers who deliver
changes to planning laws, such as the maximum buildings as well as the neighbourhood as a whole
permissible plot ratio or minimum boundary dis- need to coordinate, control and monitor all of
tances to a broad public. SA the involved trades over a long period of time.
Professional software facilitates complete docu-
mentation. In addition to the actual construction
task, overall planning processes help deliver
Project manage- infrastructure and fulfil planning requirements

and building regulations. Thus, the number of
ment software intersections with relevant planners and author-

ities constantly varies throughout successive
project stages. In each case, software tools help
Further information
• Eastman, Chuck et al.: BIM Handbook. A Guide
to Building Information Modeling for Owners,
The most important uses for project manage- control and minimise risk in terms of economic,
Managers, Designers, Engineers and Contractors.
ment (PM) software in urban development and legal and time objectives. Comprehensive project Hoboken NJ 2011
construction are large, complex and long-term analysis and clear project organisation help select • Garber, Richard (ed): Closing the Gap. Informa
projects. In addition to monitoring budgets and the necessary tools. MA tion Models in Contemporary Design Practice.
timescales, PM software offers the opportunity Architectural Design. New York 2009
to support, coordinate, and document decisions • Krygiel, Eddy, Nics Bradley: Green BIM. Success
ful Sustainable Design with Building Information
throughout all project stages – even when the indi-
Modelling. Chichester 2008
viduals involved change.
Many applications include forecasting and risk

Summary • Eisenberg, Bernd; Brombach, Karoline: Geoinfor
mationssysteme in der Stadt- und Landschafts
planung. In: Lehrbausteine Städtebau. Basiswissen
assessment modules in order to help prevent Designers have far fewer software solutions at für Entwurf und Planung. Bott, Helmut; Jessen,
unclear responsibilities, escalating cost and delays. their disposal for neighbourhoods than for build- Johann; Pesch, Franz (eds). Städtebau-Institut
Professional software programs are supported by ing or for urban and regional planning. Some Stuttgart, 2010, pp. 353–366
• Höffken, Stefan: Google Earth in der Stadt
databases and servers to provide clear structures programmes are too detailed whilst others are
planung. Die Anwendungsmöglichkeiten von
and data security. Data can be accessed at any too inaccurate to be used for neighbourhood Virtual Globes in der Stadtplanung am Beispiel
time and can be allocated project-based access planning. The further development of tools for von Google Earth. Institut für Stadt- und Regional
rights. Systems often feature an interface to busi- the neighbourhood level would be helpful. In planung, TU Berlin, 2009
ness-specific systems. Project management pro- particular, BIM and parametric tools are prom- • Wilson, John Peter: The Handbook of Geo
grammes include: ising technologies which enable experts from graphic Information Science. Malden MA 2008
• Liebchen, Jens H.: Bau-Projekt-Management
•• MS Project (www.microsoft.com) different areas to work together on a 3D model
Grundlagen und Vorgehensweisen. Wiesbaden
•• Project Communication Management – PKM at the same time in an integrated way, saving 2010
(www.conclude.com) time and money in finding well thought-out and • www.entwurfsforschung.de
•• Oracle Primavera (www.oracle.com) sustainable solutions. SA • www.kaisersrot.com

Authenticated
4.2
Simulation
Ste p han Anders, Jürgen Baumüller, Sigrid Busch, Gre gor C . Gra s s l,
Jürgen Laukemper, Antonel la Sgobba, Bas t ian Witts tock
S
imulation is the practice of using ous planning programmes have or using research
models to imitate real process programmes.
es. The quality of simulation The following three points must always be clar
results strongly depends on the ified in advance:
underlying model (Fig. 2). This •• Scope of energy flows
does not necessarily mean that •• Energy effect boundaries
more complex models provide •• Simulation level
better results, but it is import
ant to select the current system-relevant param The first issue to address is to identify which
eters and calibrate the system properly. neighbourhood energy flows should be consid
ered. Depending on the type of neighbourhood,
1 Ehorn-Kluttig et al. When describing complex systems, the com a distinction is often made between heating,
2011 puting power required for simulation increases cooling and electricity demand to be defined
exponentially the more complex the model is. in detail. For example, production-dependent
Therefore, most models are limited to simulating process cooling may be required in industrial
only a partial aspect of the real world (energy, areas. Electricity demand is gaining significance,
traffic, noise, urban climate, etc.). Although there and it is necessary to specify precisely whether
are the first software solutions for the building items such as e-mobility, infrastructure facilities
sector that simulate various aspects in parallel, or street lighting are taken into account.
these can only be used to a limited extent at the The next step is to identify boundaries for simu
neighbourhood level. lating neighbourhood impacts, defining gener
For the planning of sustainable neighbourhoods, a ation, distribution and consumption or demand,
suitable simulation tool must be selected, depend in spatial terms. Demand must always relate to
ing on the problem, which quickly leads to reliable the defined neighbourhood boundaries. How
results and can therefore be used effectively in the ever, generation facilities such as wind turbines
respective planning process (Fig. 1). SA are taken into account where they relate directly
to the neighbourhood, even if they are located
outside it. Networks must be simulated in close
coordination with the prospective operator. Local
Simulating energy heating networks are relatively easy to simulate,

but many external conditions gain relevance
when they are connected to large higher-level
Various tools are available for simulating optimum networks. This may only allow a simplified
energy performance in new and refurbished cities analysis.
and neighbourhoods. However, the currently avail Finally, the level of simulation must be defined.
able energy simulation programmes hardly do full This requires a model of the urban neighbour
justice to the complexity of the topic. Generally, hood and a variety of parameters, usually meas
they very selectively address individual energy urement data collected hourly throughout a
issues, such as buildings’ heating demand (Fig. 3), one-year period. The model should include
passive and active solar gains, or simulating grids building volumes, topography and landscaping.
or systems.1 This can be fixed by combining vari Parameters must include weather data records

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4.2 — Simulation 207
Integrated simulation
LEGEP, ECOTECT Analysis, TAS
Energy simulation
TRNSYS, EnergyPlus SolCity, GOSOL ECORegion, MESAP PlaNet,
TIMES LOKAL, PERSEUS, POLIS,
deeco
Life-Cycle Analysis Material Flow Analysis
SimaPro, SBS, GaBi, BASIS, GEMIS, KEApolis, LEGEP, UMBERTO, GaBi
eLCA
Pedestrian simulation Traffic simulation
PTV Viswalk PTV VISSIM, IRPUD, MATSim, Aimsun, Corsim
Noise simulation
EASE SoundPlan, CadnaA IMMI, FLULA
Fig. 1 Simulation tools
Urban climate according to their field of use
CFD Simulation, Fluidyn PANAIR, MISKAM ENVImet, MetPhoMod
Fig. 2 From real systems
Spatial contexts to models as a basis for
UCL Deothmap, depthmapX, AJAX, Confeego simulation and subsequent
evaluation
Buildings Neighbourhoods Cities / Regions Fig. 3 GOSOL software for
simulating neighbourhood
Fig. 1 heating demand
and relevant building data. User profiles capture computer-supported 3D urban development
different groups’ habits in terms of energy, such as models have now become standard, so that simu
when they are present. Traffic data or production lation can today generate a major knowledge
process data can be just as informative. gain with reasonable effort. GCG
To date, there is no single software to map both
the simulation level and the extents of the neigh
bourhood’s energy flows. As a result, various soft
ware tools are combined to simulate a neigh
bourhood comprehensively. This makes is very Material flow
important to define objectives very clearly. An
accurate simulation must combine the underlying analysis and life-
parameters (e.g. outside temperature) with the
relevant geometry (e.g. building with windows)
and the corresponding physical properties (e.g.
cycle analysis
heat loss through the wall and heat input through Simulation tools are applied to neighbourhood Real system
solar radiation, heat storage through components, planning based on tried and tested methodical
etc.) in as much detail as possible (measured analyses. Material Flow Analysis (MFA) is a Abstraction
Model
hourly), and map the results as data sets or graphs, method for investigating and representing mate
usually over a period of one year. Simulations rial movements within a value chain. Generally,
which accurately calculate only two of these three this analysis takes all of the relationships between Calculation
points (parameters, geometry or physical prop supply, trade, processing and storage of one indi Improvement
erties), for example by using overall grid length vidual material into account (Fig. 4, p. 208).2
instead of exact geometry to simulate local heat Other closely related methods to examine and Analysis
Evaluation Simulation
networks, are described as simplified simulations. describe various material flows3 are Substance
Simulations which use a simple factor to capture Flow Analysis – SFA, which focuses on individual Fig. 2
two of the three above-mentioned properties are substances or chemical elements, or material
described as extremely simplified simulations. intensity per service unit (MIPS).4
Where all three properties are simplified, it must
be pointed out that the neighbourhood simulation The Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) method ana
only addresses the relevant aspect on the basis lyses material and energy flows in order to iden
of key data without simulation. tify products’ environmental impacts throughout
Neighbourhood energy simulations should be their life cycle (see Material Flows, pp. 108ff.).
geared to meet individual project demands and For example, using energy from fossil sources
should be carried out at an early stage. As no rec generates emissions with a range of environmen
ognised standards are currently in place, scope, tal impacts (e.g. greenhouse effect, ground-level
boundaries and level of analysis must be coordin ozone, acidification of soils, over-fertilisation of
ated precisely in advance of the simulation. The surface waters, etc.). Each of these emissions is
simulation takes into account the individual pro thus related to the product in question, or to the
ject geometry, the site-related project framework function it fulfils.5
data and the exact physics of the components Life-Cycle Assessment helps support decision-
used. Detailed climate and weather data, and making, e.g. by comparing the environmental
Fig. 3
Authenticated
demand design development raw material waste / raw material

emissions
waste /
emissions secondary recycling
materials
re-use / production
recycling
waste
products collection
raw material recycled
used products
products raw material waste /
emissions
waste /
raw material
emissions
use phase /
collection / sorting addressing demand
waste
waste treatment waste
raw material
raw material land fill /
disposal
raw material emissions
Fig. 4
impact of two products with the same function, or •• UMBERTO (www.umberto.de)

by highlighting ecological weak points in a product •• GaBi (www.gabi-software.com)
life cycle.6 Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) tools/software:
•• GaBi
2 Ilg/Lindner 2011 Areas of use: •• SimaPro (www.simapro.de)
3 Brunner 2003 Various industries use both material flow analysis •• SBS (www.sbs-onlinetool.com; Buildings and
4 Schmidt-Bleek 1994 and life-cycle assessment to different extents. For structures only)
5 DIN EN 15 978
example, MFA can show how a certain resource •• LEGEP (www.legep.de; buildings only)
6 DIN EN ISO 14 040
is distributed throughout an urban area and help •• eLCA (www.bauteileditor.de, buildings only)
7 BMVBS 2013
8 Ebert 2010 identify resource shortages and development
9 European Commission: trends. Life-Cycle Assessment, on the other Usefulness for planning neighbourhoods:
Single Market for Green hand, presents the environmental impacts of an It is difficult to provide universally applicable mod
Products Initiative. entire process and helps identify which materials els because of the many industries involved in
Environment Directorate or process steps contribute to an environmental neighbourhood planning, and the multitude of
General of the European
impact (e.g. global warming potential) – and to tools and simulations which need to meet spe
Commission. http://ec.
europa.eu/environment/ what extent. cific demands in use. In future, the assessment
eussd/smgp/index.htm In the construction sector, Life-Cycle Assessments and evaluation of neighbourhoods will require
(date: 01.02.2018) are well established practice for construction prod simulation models and tools which help make
ucts and buildings – especially for Environmen accurate predictions and provide planning support
tal Product Declarations (EPD)7 and sustainable for complex topics.
building certification.8 The European Construc The supply of resources to neighbourhoods and
tion Products Regulation (CPR) introduced in illustrating the flow of materials and substances
2013 provides the basis for placing construction involved will be decisive for neighbourhood
products on the European internal market. The planning. In Germany, Life-Cycle Analysis will
CPR also refers to the Environmental Product become more important for evaluating individual
Declaration as an instrument for CE labelling con neighbourhood functions thanks to European
struction products. As a consequence, harmonised Union and national government climate protec
European product standards will be extended tion strategies. At the same time, illustrating and
to include specifications for the preparation of evaluating substance and material flows is set to
life-cycle assessment calculations in the course of provide the foundation for implementing resource
their regular revision. Various circular economy protection strategies in a qualified way.
initiatives, such as the European Commission’s Aside from initial applications in the context of
Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) initiative neighbourhood certification, MFA and LCA are not
are also making increasing use of the Life-Cycle yet common practice in current urban neighbour
Assessment method. Standardised rules, data hood planning. But even today, these methods can
and instruments are being developed within the significantly contribute to making environmental
European Commission’s “Single Market for Green quality and the input and whereabouts of resources
Products Initiative” in order to enable all consumer transparent. It is to be expected that further devel
goods on the European market to be evaluated in opment will deliver tools and instruments which
terms of LCA.9 are easier to use, especially for neighbourhood
Material Flow Analysis (MFA) tools/software: planning. BW

Authenticated
Simulating traffic ••
••
••
MATSim (Multi-Agent Transport Simulation)
VISSIM (multi-modal transport simulation)
Aimsun
Traffic simulation programmes are indispensable •• Corsim
for planning and developing large neighbour
hoods. They need the following information: Current simulation programmes have only limited
•• a matrix of origin and destinations and descrip ability to map parameters which ease the transition
tion of uses, whereby expected traffic volume from one mode of transport to the other, such as
is much easier to estimate in residential areas the real-time effects of traffic guidance systems.
than in other areas such as commercial areas However, future programmes should be able to Fig. 4 Material flow analysis
to present product life-cycle
(limited predictability of delivery traffic and reflect other systems such as car sharing, car2go
issues
production type) or control systems in real time, even if these cur Fig. 5 Multimodal transport
•• networks for various transport modes rently play only a minor role in comparison to simulation with VISSIM soft-
•• location and amount of the parking lots other parameters. ware
•• currently preferred means of transport in Transport simulation programmes can also test
existing areas measures to regulate traffic, especially individual
•• anticipated public transport offer traffic. For example, these can simulate the effects
of planned new traffic lights and traffic restrictions,
Simulations can demonstrate: such as road closures, speed restrictions or various
•• the choice of transport mode, i.e. the share levels of parking space provision. Simulation shows
of each mode of transport (modal split); the how traffic spreads across other areas intended to
modal split is controlled by pressure on park remain free of through traffic, unless for example
ing spaces the roads are categorised. This allows measures
•• the routes on offer (tracks, lanes, cycle paths, and effects to be examined effectively within
traffic lights) and public transport offer (quan neighbourhood planning. JL
tity, frequency) Fig. 5
•• the traffic load on individual traffic routes
(choice of route) throughout the day or dur
ing peak hours
•• how traffic is distributed over a given area Simulating noise
The main area of inaccuracy lies in predicting new Since the mid-1980s, various digital tools available
neighbourhoods’ development. It is therefore on the market have enabled users to draw on exist
necessary to use scenarios to determine different ing data bases to calculate, analyse and display the
impacts or react to results in areas marginal to indi distribution, reflection and absorption of sound
vidual modes of transport (e.g. if two-lane roads from specific sources. This allows designs to be
need to be expanded to four lanes, or if predicted improved in terms of noise distribution and impact
passenger numbers are at the threshold of eco – even for urban development planning. Simulation
nomic viability for rail rather than bus transport). results can be displayed from the building to the
urban scale, such as in noise maps according to
Transport simulation tools/software: EU environmental guidelines.

Authenticated
Software Area of use Area of use

Noise simulation Distribution of air pollution
SoundPlan • Noise from trade and industry Software module “SoundPlan Luft”
• Noise from road traffic
• Noise from rail traffic
• Calculating air traffic noise
CadnaA • Noise from trade and industry Added module “Option APL”
• Noise from road traffic
• Calculating air traffic noise (with
added module “Option FLG”)
IMMI • Noise from trade and industry Added module “IMMI Luftschadstoffe”
• Noise from road traffic (Air pollutants)
• Calculating air traffic noise (with
added module “IMMI-Fluglärm”)
FLULA 2 Calculating air traffic noise only
Fig. 6 Fig. 7
Examples of noise simulation software are shown

in Fig. 7. Some of the software solutions are suit Simulating
able for mapping noise according to EU Directive
2002/49/EC and thus provide an important basis
for design measures to reduce noise. During the
urban climate
urban design process, these programmes can The city’s specific surface climate must be mod
also help improve building layout, plan active elled in order to simulate the urban climate.10
measures for better noise protection such as noise This involves simulating thermal mass, the bal
barriers and walls, and suggest passive noise pro ance of radiation, heat produced from human
tection measures where necessary (see Action sources, and the unevenness of the urban struc
Area Emissions, pp. 146ff.). ture. Medium-scale and micro-scale models are
distinguished according to their resolution. For
Noise is simulated on the basis of a digital model example, medium-scale models consider settle
of a city or urban neighbourhood, imported into ment structures only parametrically (rather than
the respective programme or generated directly considering individual houses in detail), whereas
in the programme. Noise emission data must micro-scale models require details of building
already be known, and can then be linked to the structures.
model’s elements: Digital models of elevations and land use are
•• Road traffic (average daily traffic) / proportion important basics for medium-scale models.
of heavy goods vehicles / maximum speed / Increasingly, results are further processed
road surface using geographical information systems (GIS,
Fig. 8 •• Rail traffic (number of trains / train class and see p. 202f.). Key results include city-wide maps
type) depicting air temperature, wind speed, cold air
flows, bioclimatic loads, air pollution, synthetic
Data from industrial estates, sports facilities or wind roses etc. at around 50 m resolution. This
car parks can also be entered. Based on this data, modelling also allows statements to be made
noise maps can be generated by interpolating about future development, which is important
sound levels at calculation points on a predefined for adapting cities to climate change.11
grid. Additional receiver points can be placed at Results are often summarised in climate atlases or
building level to identify noise input at a specific climate analysis maps, and developed for planning
point, such as the facade, in detail. This allows advice maps. Available models can be applied to a
any change in the design, or any added active wide variety of urban development and planning
noise protection measure to be visualised and issues.
assessed in terms of its effects, both on the noise Unlike medium-scale diagnostic models, micro-
10 Helbig et al. 1999 map in general and on a specific point of impact scale models with resolutions of around one
11 VRS 2008 (Figs. 6 and 8). AS, SB meter (Fig. 10) need predictive approaches. This

Authenticated
Fig. 9
requires the solution of complex motion equations of urban paths and networks helps identify loca Fig. 6 24-hour noise map
(Navier-Stokes equations), which lead to long tions which are particularly easy to reach from for road transport in Stuttgart
computing times at high resolution. Although others (Fig. 9). For example, it is possible to find (DE), weighted for daytime,
evening, and night-time
this limits these models’ spatial scale, they never attractive and well-attended retail locations.
levels
theless play an important role in neighbourhood Space Syntax can also be used to analyse which Fig. 7 Examples of noise
planning. JB wall surfaces are particularly visible from other simulation software
locations within a building or neighbourhood. Fig. 8 Noise simulation for a
This can provide the basis for signage concepts student neighbourhood
or adverts. design project using CadnaA
software
Space Syntax Space Syntax can be used in the following pro

grammes:
Fig. 9 Space Syntax
analysis of accessibility for
method •• UCL Depthmap (original)

•• depthmapX
•• AJAX
Munich (DE)
Fig. 10 Micro-scaled urban
climate analysis of Frankfurt
Space Syntax is a method for the analysis of spatial •• Confeego (plug-in for MapInfo Professional am Main (DE) using EnviMet
software
relationships. GIS)
These can include the accessibility or centrality
of streets, patterns of movement in urban space, Usefulness for planning neighbourhoods:
the integration or segregation of urban spaces, The method is not uncontroversial in scientific
the visibility of spaces, or building plot sizes etc. discourse because it massively simplifies com
Developed by Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson plex contexts, but it can make an important
at UCL’s Bartlett School in London during the contribution to the more sustainable design of
1970s, the method has since been used worldwide cities and neighbourhoods, especially during
for spatial issues at the scale of the individual the early design stages when other simulation
building, the city and the nation. Compared to tools are simply too complicated, or the data is
other simulations, Space Syntax can be performed insufficient. Due to the fact that Space Syntax
with little effort, does not require in-depth expert simulation neglects a large number of issues
knowledge or large computing capacities, and however, its results must be critically examined
it is available free of charge. This makes space and debated. SA
syntax attractive for many software applications.
Areas of use:
The Space Syntax method can help analyse
urban places and simulate visitor flows in order
to identify the most frequented points and draw
conclusions for planning. Moreover, the analysis Fig. 10

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Home Workplace Home
Weak load Heavy load Weak load Heavy load Weak load
Charge Charge Vehicle feeds energy Charge Charge
back into grid
100
[%]
80
60
40
20
0
0:00
0:45
1:30
2:15
3:00
3:45
4:30
5:15
6:00
6:45
7:30
8:15
9:00
9:45
10:30
11:15
12:00
12:45
13:30
14:15
15:00
15:45
16:30
17:15
18:00
18:45
19:30
20:15
21:00
21:45
22:30
23:15
Fig. 11
Integrated Tools meeting these requirements are called

SCIM tools.
simulation The restructuring of energy infrastructure is

making the issue of electricity demand more
Further information In future, more and more integrated simulation important. It is becoming apparent that energy
• Beckenbach, Frank; Urban, Arnd I. (eds): tools will be required to do justice to the com simulation programmes available to date essen
Methoden der Stoffstromanalyse. Konzepte, plexity of planning sustainable neighbourhoods. tially only take the solar thermal energy balance
agentenbasierte Modellierung und Ökobilanz.
These allow interactions between buildings such into account, whereas integrated simulation
Marburg 2011
• Katzschner, Lutz; Campe, Sabrina; Kupski, as mutual shading, or long distance pipeline losses programmes can also include energy production
Sebastian: Innenraumentwicklung in Frankfurt am in power grids, or technical supply and disposal in buildings and traffic flows with e-mobility as
Main unter Berücksichtigung stadtklimatischer infrastructure to be analysed holistically. Single- a possible use for renewable energy.
Effekte. Maßnahmen zur Minderung der Wärme purpose neighbourhood simulation tools geared Data processing is becoming easier and easier
belastung in verdichteten Räumen. Fachbereich towards solar optimisation lead to more contro thanks to geoinformation systems and the use of
Architektur, Stadtplanung, Landschaftsplanung,
versial, monotonous urban development, such as 3D building data (CityGML; Fig. 14). Combining
Universität Kassel, 2011
• Klöpffer, Walter; Grahl, Birgit: Ökobilanz (LCA).
purely south-oriented compact terraced buildings. databases, data sets, designs and 3D models with
Ein Leitfaden für Ausbildung und Beruf. Weinheim new simulation tools helps further develop cur
2009 Tools/software: rent simulation programmes. Data can be used
• Schnabel, Werner; Lohse, Dieter: Grundlagen Product development of an integral 3D simula for subsequent monitoring. To date, work on
der Straßenverkehrstechnik und Verkehrsplanung. tion model to combine all of the essential areas such complex models has only been carried out
Bd. 2: Verkehrsplanung. Berlin 1997 such as energy, mobility, material flows, noise by experts using software they have developed
• Steierwald, Gerd; Künne, Hans-D.; Vogt, Walter:
and urban climate is still in its infancy and can themselves. It is only a matter of time before
Stadtverkehrsplanung. Grundlagen – Methoden –
Ziele. Heidelberg 2005 be compared with BIM models for buildings. The major providers make new tools available.
• VDI-Richtlinie 3787, Blatt 2: Umweltmeteoro variety of neighbourhood planning tasks leads
logie. Methoden zur human-biometeorologischen to a corresponding range of required functions. Examples of integrated simulation tools: 12
Bewertung von Klima und Lufthygiene für die Future-proof simulation tools should meet the •• Ecotect Analysis (Autodesk)
Stadt- und Regionalplanung. Teil I: Klima following four basic requirements: •• Thermal Analysis Software – TAS (Environ
• www.staedtebauliche-klimafibel.de
•• Sustainability, i.e. the holistic, integral mental Design Solutions Limited)
• www.citygml.org
approach to energy, water, transport, etc. •• Dymola-Modelica: open, object-orientated
•• City, i.e. mapping interactions between indi model language, often a basis for SCIM
vidual buildings in spatial terms approaches (Dassault Systems)
•• Information which is detailed and linked •• EnergyPlus: combines DOE-2 and BLAST
to specific locations (e.g. climate data sets, building simulation programmes (supported
U-values for components, traffic volumes etc.) by US Department of Energy)
•• Model of the specific urban design in 3D •• Virtual Environment Pro (VE-Pro): includes
interface for individual LEED real estate
certification requirements (Integrated

Authenticated
Fig. 11 Electric vehicle as

a virtual power plant
Fig. 12 Analysis of solar
radiation on building facade
using Autodesk ECOTECT
Fig. 13 Simulation visual
isation for solar gain in
neighbourhood buildings
Fig. 14 Levels of detail for
CityGML data
Fig. 12 Fig. 13
LoD 1: City models using

Environmental Solutions Limited)
•• Transient System Simulation (TRNSYS):
well-established in German market, can be
Summary topography with buildings as
cubes with flat roofs.
further developed for SCIM simulations (Uni Using simulation tools in urban planning practice
versity of Wisconsin in Madison) usually requires comprehensive external know
LoD 2: Including precise roof
ledge. Integrated simulation tools, which take
shapes
The simulation tools listed above share the char several issues into account and which are easy
acteristic that they are much closer to reality than to use alongside the planning process, would be
usual data-based planning approaches. This makes helpful for neighbourhood planning in future,
it possible to react to problems at an early design because they can provide information relevant LoD 3: Including differentiated
stage. To date, excellent CO2-neutral and energy to early design stages and thus prevent costly and facades with openings and
self-sufficient neighbourhoods have generally undesirable development. SA closed surfaces (simply apply-
been calculated on an annual balance sheet. But ing facade elevations does not
even these neighbourhoods cannot do without match LoD 3)
connection to the public grid, since renewable Fig. 14
electricity from sun and wind is generated with a
time delay to demand, and there is currently no 12 Münzner 2012
realistic storage option. Converting to a renewable 13 Guideline values in
energy infrastructure makes it all the more import VDI-Richtlinie 3787
Blatt 2
ant to use simulations to identify peaks early on in
order to help plan compensating measures such as
using storage technologies or integrating electric CityGML
mobility (Fig. 11). CityGML (City Geography Markup Language) is a
standard file format for representing, storing and
Beyond the technical component of planning, exchanging virtual 3D models of cities and land
simulations are an important tool to create quality scapes. It makes it possible to describe items such
as the terrain, buildings, water and traffic areas,
of stay. Wind speed, temperature, radiation con
vegetation, urban furniture and land use in a uni
ditions and humidity are important factors influ
form way. In addition to visualising 3D models,
encing perceived temperature and thus influence CityGML can be used for a wide variety of tasks
people’s well-being in neighbourhoods. such as environmental simulations, identifying
energy demand, urban facility management or
In addition to assessing these thermal or bio- pedestrian wayfinding.
climatic conditions 13, further comfort issues such Urban 3D models present different levels of detail
(LoD grades 1- 3). LoD 1 models (simple cubes)
as noise or traffic volume must also be simulated
are now available almost everywhere. LoD 2
very precisely during the design stage in order to models (cubes with actual roof shapes) are also
avoid surprises when building work is completed widespread, whereas LoD 3 models featuring exact
and neighbourhoods are occupied. GCG facades can only be found for individual buildings.

Authenticated
4 .3
Visualisation
Ste p han Anders, Rolf Mes s ers chmidt
I
n this context, visualisation refers to the improving the spatial distribution of structurally
practice of using two- and three-dimen- defining elements (e.g. placing neighbourhood
sional images to make often abstract garages, green areas as climate zones or decen-
parameters visible and illustrate them in tralised grey water treatment areas). Above all
order to evaluate and improve planning. however, integrating these plans with classic urban
The fields of modelling, simulating and design aims can lead to a holistic, multilayered
visualising are closely related and difficult and sustainably oriented overall concept which
to distinguish from each other because supports the development of a functioning neigh-
each visualisation is based on a simulation, which bourhood “metabolism”.3
in turn is based on a planning model. In the fol-
lowing, we will present computer aided tools with Method:
a focus on visualisation which have the potential First, graphic structures are developed for indi-
to set new standards in planning and controlling vidual sustainability plans and projected on to the
sustainable cities and neighbourhoods. SA planning area independently from one another
and from the urban design plan concept. They can
then be evaluated and improved by criteria and
key indicators.4 Interdependencies and mutual
Graphic influences between the information presented

naturally lead to it being modified (retaining initial
overlay tools key criteria) before being fed back into the result-
ing design. Visually, individual concepts can be
presented as abstract structural graphics, or they
Graphically overlapping different thematic maps can be embedded into a master plan.5
to represent a specific spatial situation (overlay
mapping) is a common method for gaining new The interaction between individual concepts
insights at a higher level of aggregation (Fig. 2). and the sustainability of the plan as a whole can
Maps are selected on the basis of the thematic be evaluated by using information compression
focus in question. For example, one question with techniques to aggregate different indicators
respect to environmental planning could be which according to linking rules in order to support the
populations of species are intersected by a road decision-making process.6
route.1
Tools / software:
Areas of use: Using light boxes or slides to superimpose ana-
Areas of use range from identifying “residual logue spatial information has been replaced by the
1 Scholles 2008, p. 324 areas” to superimposing noise maps on current layer structures of today’s CAD and GIS systems.
2 ibid. pp. 330ff. land-use plans. Intersections can also identify Technically, there are no limits to computer-aided
3 Battle 2001
deviations from objectives.2 superimposition – but interpreting the information
4 Gaffron 2008; Daab 1996
5 Messerschmidt 1999/2003 is a different issue. For this reason, superimposed
6 Daab 1996 Using these tools can help prepare qualified sec- information should always answer a specific ques-
7 Scholles 2008 toral sustainability concepts and contribute to tion in a targeted way.7

Authenticated
4.3 — Visualisation 215
Fig. 1 Developing structures

by overlaying various struc
tures and scenarios in Karls
ruhe Südost (NetzWerkZeug)
Fig. 2 Intersecting maps for
interpretation
Fig. 3 Noise simulation using
an interactive VR tool for urban
planning
Fig. 1
Usefulness for planning neighbourhoods: enhancing the existing world with additional Ground
Graphic overlapping tools support the neighbour- information. AR provides the possibility to visual-
hood planning process, help improve the commu- ise a planned object (building, street, plant etc.) B
nication of results and ensure that all relevant in the real environment or in a model of its sur- A
planning parameters are taken into account in roundings. AR users can view the object from
an integrated neighbourhood plan. The inher- different perspectives using a mobile device, such
ent complexity of neighbourhood planning can as a smartphone, tablet PC, or AR goggles etc. The
be better managed by first reducing it to develop possibility of selecting different planning options Vegetation
individual plans, before overlaying them to recon- and comparing them to each other helps lay people
stitute it in an integrated and transparent way. to experience and evaluate a planned object’s 1
2
RM, SA impact. Moreover, AR goggles provide building
workers with the possibility of visualising infor-
mation from a 3D model – such as wall positions
and cable routing – by superimposing it on the
Virtual and built object, on site. It is also feasible for architects Integration
1– B
or master craftspeople to demonstrate something
augmented reality to workers on site without being there themselves.

This lends AR technology great potential, espe-
cially with respect to informing and engaging
1– A
2– B
2– A
Virtual reality (VR) refers to representing real residents.
ity in a computer-generated environment in real Fig. 2
time. This technology was originally developed
for the military and is now used for various pur-
poses. These include flight simulators, computer-
aided design and construction methods, and
production planning and virtual worlds for com-
puter games. The use of VR goggles and other VR
technologies such as CAVEs (cave automatic vir-
tual environments) has become increasingly af-
fordable in recent years. It has now also reached
the construction industry, where VR technolo-
gies are mostly used to represent the spatial ef-
fects and materials. VR technologies are also used
for the interactive simulation of pollutant and
noise distribution in urban areas (Fig. 3).8 The Fig. 3
technology will become increasingly important
in the future because of the complex issues in-
volved in planning sustainable neighbourhoods,
and the demand for new models of engagement.
Unlike VR, Augmented Reality (AR) focuses on 8 Schubert 2004

Authenticated
Fig. 4 “In the Air”, visualising

invisible microparticles in the
air, Medialab-Prado
Fig. 5 Potential urban heat
effect (Urban Heat Island)
in Singapore, developed by
combining energy demand
and local wind speed in real-
time, Screenshot
(MIT Senseable City Lab
Fig. 6 City Cockpit, Siemens
Fig. 7 Control centre, Rio de
Janeiro (BR)
Fig. 4
Data analysis, by analysing real-time energy sector data and local

wind speed (Fig. 5).
9 Jander et al. 2010, p. 22
10 Spudich 2012 real-time The Medialab-Prado “In the Air” project in Madrid
11 www.intheair.es
12 www.valuelab.ethz.ch simulation and is another example of using real-time data for
analysis.11 In this study, micro-components in
visualisation the air (such as gases, particles and pollen) invis-

ible to humans were measured and visualised in
real time, and their interactions with other urban
Cities generate vast amounts of unstructured parameters analysed (Fig. 4).
data every second: statistical data from public
administration, data from traffic and infrastruc- Researchers at ETH Zurich initiated the Value Lab,
ture, measurement data from sensors, data from an interdisciplinary platform for sustainable urban
GPS devices and mobile phones, text and video planning.12 This is a laboratory which is equipped
data, data from financial transactions, and so with five large touchscreens to enable parallel
on. This data volume is expected to double every simulation and visualisation of urban planning
one and a half years.9 Companies and renowned options. The idea is that an interdisciplinary plan-
research institutes hope that real-time data ana ning team can work together to develop different
lysis, simulation and visualisation will provide planning options during a workshop, simulating
them with important information immediately. and discussing their effects on traffic, urban cli-
Fig. 5
mate and so on. The laboratory also provides the
Carlo Ratti, Director of the SENSEable City Lab possibility of video conferencing for simultaneous
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology collaboration with experts from all over the world.
(MIT), explained an example of this in a 2012 In addition to these research projects, the first
interview: “The analysis of data volumes [...] practical uses of real-time data analysis and visual-
[can] help control social processes. Traffic infor- isation are already in place. Examples include two
mation, for example, which results from move- technologies of particular interest for managing
ment data from numerous mobile phones: For sustainable urban development:
instance when major events in cities come to an
end, people turn on their cell phones and make The first tool to mention is the City Cockpit devel-
phone calls or use data services. This makes it oped by Siemens, which is currently being tested
possible to send more taxis and public transport in Singapore (Fig. 6). This is a system which bun-
Fig. 6
to such hotspots.”10 dles information from various administrative
systems in the city, visualises it in a clear way
Ratti and his team also developed a project to depending on the topic in question, and enables
estimate Singapore’s potential urban heat effect better and faster decisions. The application is also

Authenticated
4.3 — Visualisation 217
Fig. 7
expected to improve communication between

residents and administration. For example, any
resident who finds a damaged park bench or a
Summary
poorly cleaned public toilet and reports this to the Drawing overlapping methods are already an 13 Bartsch 2011, pp. 94ff.
city council via smartphone will receive a response integral part of planning practice, but technolo- 14 Singer 2012
within 24 hours to explain how the issue is being gies for virtual and augmented reality are often
dealt with.13 still breaking new ground. These technologies
offer great potential for the desired greater resi
The control centre developed by IBM and installed dent engagement. Especially in existing cities,
and tested in Rio de Janeiro in preparation for companies and research institutions have high
the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016 Olympic hopes for analysing and visualising data gener-
Games goes one step further (Fig. 7). Data from the ated in the city in real time in order to use and
city government, from sensors, surveillance cam- control urban systems more efficiently. In today’s
eras, weather services and police radio converge increasingly image-conscious and networked
in a central control centre for real-time analysis. world, the use of visualisation methods and
The system uses this data to produce overview technologies will continue to increase, because
maps indicating current problem hotspots in the it offers the possibility to communicate even
city (traffic accidents, overcrowded underground complex interrelationships to all planning partici
stations etc.) and enabling decision makers to act pants in a way which is easy to understand, thus
in a targeted way. The City of Rio de Janeiro hoped functioning as a kind of universally applicable
that this technology would ensure the smooth language. SA
Further information
• Gaffron, Philine; Huismans, Gé; Skala, Franz
running of the two major events and an efficient (eds): Ecocity Book 2. How To Make It Happen.
distribution of emergency forces.14 Hamburg/Utrecht/Vienna 2008
• Höhl, Wolfgang: Interaktive Ambiente mit Open-
Value / usefulness for planning neighbourhoods: Source-Software. 3D-Walk-Throughs und Aug
City Cockpit in Singapore bundles and visual- mented Reality für Architekten mit Blender 2.43,
DART 3.0 und ARToolKit 2.72. Vienna 2009
ises data already available in the city. The Rio
• Lee, David; Robinson, Prudence (Ed.): Copen
de Janeiro example also includes some sensi- hagen 2 – SENSEable City Guide. Cambridge, MA
tive personal data and is therefore questionable 2011
under data protection law. Nevertheless, these ex- • Messerschmidt, Rolf: NetzWerkZeug. Thesis
amples show that there is vast potential in ana project. Städtebau-Institut. University of Stuttgart
lysing and visualising urban data. A fully net- 1999. www.netzwerkzeug.de
• SENSEable City Lab: http://senseable.mit.edu
worked city would open up the possibility of get-
• Future Cities Laboratory: www.fcl.ethz.ch
ting residents more actively engaged in decision- • Value Lab: www.valuelab.ethz.ch
making processes, e.g. via smartphone and the • Medialab Prado: www.medialab-prado.es
Internet, in order to share more responsibility. • Sidewalk Lab: www.sidewalklabs.com

Authenticated
4.4
Certification and
Evaluation Systems
Ste p han Anders
Tight public budgets result in calls to measure their products and services such as traffic man
and quantify impacts in ever more sectors of agement systems, energy management systems
society. Somewhat belatedly, this trend has also and smart grid technologies (intelligent power
reached the construction industry 1, resulting in grids) to cities and municipalities.
a plethora of certification systems for buildings
and even entire cities, each with its own specific Some initiatives seek to certify as well as sim
focus. This chapter is devoted to current devel ply evaluate sustainable urban development.
opments relating to the certification of urban Examples include the European Energy Award5,
neighbourhoods. presented to cities or municipalities which have
made special efforts for energy efficiency and
protecting the climate. International develop
ments such as the Swiss 2000-watt society 6 or
Evaluating cities Japan’s “CASBEE for Cities” 7 certification system

highlight the growing importance of indicators
as a whole for urban competition.8
All of these certification and evaluation systems

Recent years have seen the development of vari for entire cities are very complex and include
ous indicator systems for sustainable operations only rough, open access data (e.g. from statistical
in cities and municipalities.2 For example, the offices). This makes it difficult to transfer these
ExWoSt “Städte der Zukunft” (Future cities) systems to neighbourhood planning level.
research compiled a set of indicators to help local
1 Pahl-Weber et al. 2009, governments monitor the success of sustainable
p. 12
urban development in practice (Fig. 2).3 Inter
2 Infante-Barona 2002,
p. 91
3 Fuhrich 2004
nationally, ISO 37120 “Sustainable development
of communities” addresses efforts to evaluate Evaluating urban
4 Economist Intelligence
Unit 2011
5 Federal office of
urban sustainability.
At the same time industry is taking more interest

neighbourhoods
the European Energy
in sustainable cities and their evaluation. For Compared to systems for buildings, the number
Award 2011
example, Siemens AG developed the “German of different certification systems for neighbour
6 Stulz 2010
7 CASBEE 2012 Green City Index” and applied it to a range of hoods is currently still manageable. Existing
8 Bauriedl et al. 2008, major German cities.4 Another example is the systems such as the LEED for Neighborhood
p. 179 “Morgenstadt City Index” developed by Fraun Development (LEED-ND)9, One Planet Commu
9 U.S. Green Building hofer IAO, which includes 28 indicators intended nities or BREEAM Communities,10 are entering
Council 2009 to measure cities’ future viability. It should be the market from the Anglo-American region
10 Desai 2010;
noted that businesses such as Siemens, IBM or (Fig. 1)11. The German Sustainable Building
BRE Global 2008
11 Pahl-Weber et al. 2009, Deutsche Telekom are primarily interested in Council system for neighbourhoods (DGNB),
p. 8 establishing themselves as market leaders in which leads the German market,12 is described
12 DGNB 2012 their respective technology sectors and selling in more detail below.

Authenticated
4.4 — Certification and Evaluation Systems 219
One Planet Communities [GB, 11]

BREEAM Communities [GB, 43]
DGNB-Quartiere [DE, 51]
HQE –
Aménagement
LEED-ND [FR, 24]
[US, 190] CASBEE-UD
SMEO-Quartiere [JP, 4]
[CH, 18]
2000-Watt-
society
[CH, 22]
Estidama Community
[AE, 6]
BCA Green
Mark for
Districts
[SG]
GreenStar Communities [AU, 35]
Fig. 1
Objectives Standard indicators Additional indicators Fig. 1 Distribution of neigh-

Efficient land use 1. Settlement and transport area 13. Settlement growth within existing bourhood certification sys-
development and on greenfield sites tems (Blue countries have
certified neighbourhoods.
2. Intensity of land use 14. Redevelopment of infill sites
System of origin, version,
3. Protected areas
number of certified projects,
4. Redevelopment of brownfield as per 04/2018)
sites Fig. 2 Overview of indica-
Urban-compatible transport 5. Kilometres travelled by 15. Total length of bicycle routes tors from ExWoSt “Städte
rail and bus der Zukunft” (Future Cities)
6. Car density 16. Car use in urban area (modal split) research
17. are of settlement accessed by
public transport
18. Traffic safety (victims of accidents)
Preventive 7. Residual waste 19. CO2 emissions
environmental protection 8. Drinking water consumption 20. Energy consumption
Socially responsible 9. Moves to surrounding areas 21. Basic provision
housing 10. Housing benefits 22. Burglaries
Promoting business and 11. Unemployment rate 23. Space demand per work place
safeguarding locational 12. Number of commuters 24. Local business profile
competitiveness
Fig. 2
However, certification systems for city dis tem, has only (pre-) certified four neighbourhoods 13 Anders 2012
tricts based on very different approaches are since 2006.
also being used and developed in other parts The One Planet Communities approach is particu
of the world,13 these are compiled in a table on larly interesting. This is not really a certification
pages 220/221. system, but rather a planning tool which aims to
In terms of certified projects, the US certification monitor neighbourhoods continuously throughout
system LEED-ND, which has been in place since their entire life cycle. At the beginning of the plan
2009, is currently the global market leader with ning process, an action plan is drawn up together
190 projects. The DGNB Urban Districts system with members of the One Planet Communities
(market version) established since 2012 follows programme. An independent committee reviews
in second place with 51 neighbourhoods. Intro performance at annual intervals and initiates plan
duced in 2009, the United Kingdom’s BREEAM ning measures to remedy problems if they arise. ExWoSt
The German federal government’s “Experimental
Communities System introduced in 2009 ranks Developing the action plan incurs a one-off cost.
Housing and Urban Development” (ExWoSt)
third with 43 (pre-) certified neighbourhoods. It The organisation charges further fees for annual research programme promotes innovative design
is remarkable that the longest-standing system, reviews, technical advice and other services, such solutions and measures for key issues of urban
Japan’s “CASBEE for Urban development” sys as publicising projects. development and housing policy.

Authenticated
LEED – Neighborhood DGNB – Districts BREEAM – Communities HQE – Aménagement

Development (ND)
System
Organisation U.S. Green Building German Sustainable Building British Research Establishment Association pour la Haute Qualité
Council (USGBC) Council (DGNB e. V.) (BRE) Environnementale (HQE), Cerway
(international system)
Organisation
Information Headquarters in Washington Headquarters in Stuttgart (DE) Headquarters in Watford (GB) Headquarters in Paris (FR)
(US) NPO, NGO NPO, NGO Private sector NPO, NGO
Established 1993 Established 2007 Established 1921 Established 1992
www.usgbc.org www.dgnb.de www.bre.co.uk www.behqe.com
System type International International International International

certification system certification system certification system, certification system
New build and refurbishment New build and refurbishment New build and refurbishment New build and refurbishment
Launched 2009 Launched 2011 Launched 2008 Launched 2011
Distinguishing features
System range One system for various Urban districts, commercial One system for mixed use, One system for mixed
types of neighbourhood districts, industrial sites, housing and commercial use neighbourhoods
event locations, resorts and neighbourhoods (HQE Aménagement)
vertical cities
Boundaries to Focus on neighbourhood Holistic assessment (environ- Holistic assessment Focus on environmental and
other systems location and use mental, economic, social), life Focus on environmental social aspects
cycle assessment (LCC, LCA), and social aspects
target-orientated, additional
schemes for commercial
neighbourhoods and industrial
locations
Total / completed / inter 190 / X / 61 51 / 16 / 14 43 / 16 / 19 24 / 6 / 1
national neighbourhoods
Project locations USA, Canada, China, Germany, Denmark, China, United Kingdom, France, New Caledonia
Malaysia, other countries Luxembourg, Austria, Poland, other countries
Switzerland, Spain, Mongolia
Well-known projects Dockside Green (Victoria, CA), Maidar EcoCity+ (MN), Urban
Use
MediaCityUK ZAC Pompidou

Twinbrook Station (Rockville, Tech Republic (Berlin, DE), (Manchester, GB), Qinlong (Bois-Colombes, FR),
Maryland, US), Emeryville Belval (LU), Potsdamer Platz Mountain International Eco-City Ecoquartier de Monconseil
Marketplace (California, US) (Berlin, DE), Carlsberg (CN), Urridaholt, Gardabaer (TOURS, FR)
(Copenhagen, DK) (IS)
Certificate levels Platinum, Gold, Silver, Certified Platinum, Gold, Silver Outstanding, Excellent, Outstanding, Excellent,
Very Good, Good, Pass Very Good, Good, Adequate
Minimum requirements 1. Smart location 1. Min. 2 ha area Specific minimum requirements n /a
2. Imperilled species and 2. Public access for climate & energy, community
Ecological Communities 3.10 – 90 % housing & governance, identity, ecology
3. Wetlands and waterbody 4. Agreement of all owners and biodiversity, and transport.
conservation 5. Further minimum thresholds Resources, economy, and build
4. Agricultural land conservation within criteria for protecting ings
5. Floodplain avoidance nature and the climate,
6. Walkable streets location, infrastructure,
7. Compact development public transport and
8. Connected to open engagement.
community
9. Certified green building
10. Minimum building energy
performance
11. Indoor water use reduction
12. Construction activity
Details
pollution prevention
Certification phases 1. Review: Buildings max. 50 % 1. Pre-certificate: 1. Pre-assessment (optional) 1. Initial audit (Audit initial)
complete (optional) urban design 2. Certificate (interim): Initial 2. Annual reaudits (Audits de
2. Development Plan: buildings 2. Infrastructure certificate: design complete, Approval suivi une base annuelle)
max. 75 % percent complete min. 25 percent infrastruc- not necessary 3. Certificate (Audit final)
3. Development Built Project: ture 3.Certificate (final): detail
buildings and infrastructure 3. Neighbourhood certificate: design complete
100 % percent complete min. 75 percent buildings
and open spaces comple-
ted
Certification fees for 10 ha 1. Registration fee: € 1,215 Phase 1: € 4,500 1. Registration: € 567 n/a
neighbourhood (excl. tax) 2. Optional review: € 1,823 Phase 2: € 12,000 2. Fees:
3. Phase 2 /3: € 14,580/8,100 up Phase 3: € 17,000 Interim (Step 1): € 3,175
to 20 ha + € 284 for each (for DGNB Members, fee Final (Step 2): € 2,834
additional ha, individual fixed depends on project size) (Exchange rate £ 1 = € 1.13)
price as from 320 ha (for
USGBC Members, exchange
rate US $ 1 = € 0,81)
Publications LEED for Neighborhood Develop- DGNB criteria for districts, BREEAM Communities, Technical a démarche HQE
Publications
ment Reference Guide Version 2016 Guidance Manual, Version 1.2 Aménagement
Online documents www.usgbc.org www.dgnb-system.de www.breeam.com/communi- www.behqe.com/schemes-

tiesmanual and-documents
Fig. 3 Comparison of systems to evaluate sustainability in urban neighbourhoods (as per 08/2018)
Authenticated
CASBEE – Estidama Pearl Com GreenStar SMEO – Quartiere 2000-Watt-Areal One Planet Communities
Urban Development (UD) munity Rating System Communities
Japan Green Building Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Green Building Council ARE Federal Office for SFOE Swiss Federal Office Bioregional
Council (JaGBC), Japan Council Australia (GBCA) Spatial Development of Energy (CH)
Sustainable Building (CH)
Consortium (JSBC)
Headquarters in Tokyo Headquarters in Abu Dhabi Headquarters in Headquarters in Headquarters in Berne (CH), Headquarters in Wallington
(JP) (UAE), Government Sydney (AU), Berne (CH) Government organisation (GB)
NPO, NGO organisation, NPO, NGO, Government – NPO, NGO
Established 2006 Established 2007 Established 2002 organisation 2000watt.ch Founded 1992
www.ibec.or.jp/CASBEE/ http://upc.gov.ae www.gbca.org.au – www.bioregional.com/
english www.smeo.ch oneplanetliving
International National certification National certification National International process-oriented International planning
certification system system, system, planning tool certification system method (Preparing and
New build and New build and New build and New build and New build, use and refurbishment evaluating “Action Plan”)
refurbishment refurbishment refurbishment refurbishment Launched 2012 New build, refurbishment,
Launched 2006 Launched 2010 Launched 2012 Launched 2011 and existing buildings
Launched 2009
CASBEE for Urban – – – – Can be applied to various
Development, CASBEE uses
for Cities
Holistic assessment Tailored to regional climate, Tailored to regional Online planning tool. Holistic assessment, focus on Monitoring neighbourhoods
legislation and culture, climate, legislation environmental (energy) and social for 20 year period, including
government accredited, and culture. factors (community). Life cycle lifestyle assessment, no
integrated development assessment. economic assessment.
process.
4 / 2 / 0 6 / X / 0 35 / k. A. / 0 18 / k. A. / 0 22 / 5 / 0 11 / 7 / 4
Japan Abu Dhabi (AE) Australia Switzerland Switzerland United Kingdom, USA,
(north, west) Portugal, France, Canada,
Australia, Luxembourg
Koshigaya City Saitama, Al Bateen Park, Al Sila’a The Loop (Canberra), EUROPAN 9 – Gros Hunziker-Area (Zurich), BedZED (London, GB), Les
Koshigaya Lake Town (JP) Residential, Al Ghareba Barangaroo South Seuc (Delémont, CH) Kalkbreite (Zurich), Villages Nature (Paris, FR)
Housing, Military Officers (NSW), Ginniderry (ACT), Greencity (Zurich),
Accommodation, Curtin University Master- Erlenmatt West (Basel),
Al Shahama Residence, plan (WA), Aura (QLD), Opération les Vernets (Geneva)
Al Raha Gardens (AE) University of Melbourne
Parkville Campus (VIC)
Excellent, Very Good, 1 – 5 pearls 4 – 6 stars none none Action Plan (yes /no)
Good, Fairly Poor, Poor
n/a 1. At least 1,000, no more 1. At least 4 buildings, no none Minimum requirements None (each project is
than 30,000 residents maximum • minimum area ca. 1 ha assessed individually)
2. Integrated development 2. Mixed use • Plenipotentiary landowner
process Qualitative requirements
3. Natural systems Minimum 50 percent score in:
4. Liveable communities 1. Management system
5. Low water consumption 2. Communication, cooperation,
6. Renewable energy participation
7. Resource efficient 3. Land use and urban design
materials 4. Infrastructure and access
5. Buildings
6. Mobility
Quantitative requirements:
Construction, operation and mobility
meets targets on trajectory towards
2000-Watt society.
1. Pre-certificate 1. Pre-certificate: 1. Initial certificate – 1. Auditing and certifying 1.One Planet Action Plan
2. Certificate Framework plan 2. Recertification (every 2. Re-certifying (every 2 years (Developed with BioRegi-
3. Post occupancy 2. Certificate: Construction 5 years) during development / every 4 onal representatives)
Evaluation 3. Post occupancy years in use) 2. Expert evaluation
evaluation: 2 years after 3. Annual review of action
completion plan and its implementa
tion
€ 23,800 – € 35,200 n/a € 29,300 (for GBCA none For initial certificates Fees for annual monitoring,
for projects In Japan Members, Exchange rate • € 8,010 for 2000-Watt Area with promotion and technical
(¥ 2.3 – 3.4 m) AUS $ 1 = € 0.65) up to 100’000 m2 floor area advice
• € 10,680 as from 100,000 m2
For re-certification
• € 6,675 for 2000-Watt Area with
up to 100,000 m2 floor area
• € 8,010 as from 100,000 m2
(Exchange rate CHF 1 = 0,89)
CASBEE for Urban Deve- The Pearl Rating System for Submission Guideline – • 2000-Watt-Area One Planet Communities: A
lopment (2014 edition) Estidama – Community (Shop) Mein Lebensraum von morgen Real Life Guide to Sustain
Rating System Design & • 2000-Watt-Area certificate able Living
Construction , Version 1.0
www.ibec.or.jp/CASBEE/ www.estidama.org/pearl- www.greenstar www.nachhaltige www.2000watt.ch/fuer- www.bioregional.com/one-
english/download.htm rating-system-v10/pearl-com- communities.org.au quartiere-bysmeo.ch areale/2000-watt-areale planetliving
munity-rating-system.aspx

Authenticated
Environmental Social Process

Economic Technical Special issues
Fig. 4 Comparison and focal 35
[%]
areas of DGNB, LEED and
BREEAM neighbourhood
certification systems, weight 30
ed by topic (LEED and
BREEAM criteria are assign
ed to DGNB topics)
Fig. 5 Weighting of quality 25
sections within the DGNB
Scheme for Urban Districts
Fig. 6 Certificates according
20
to the DGNB Scheme for
Urban Districts
Fig. 7 Overview of criteria
for DGNB Scheme “New 15
Urban Districts Version
2016”, rounded percentages
10
0
DGNB LEED BREEAM
The ten One Planet Fig. 4
principles
1. Zero carbon
2. Zero waste
3. Sustainable transport
4. Sustainable materials
5. Local and sustainable food DGNB system for Evaluation
6. Sustainable water
7. Land use and wildlife sustainable urban and weighting
districts
8. Culture and heritage
9. Equity and local economy
Neighbourhood development takes a long time,
10. Health and happiness
during which owners often change. For this rea
The system for sustainable urban districts devel son, DGNB added a certificate for infrastructure
oped by the DGNB takes a holistic view of eco (phase 2) to the pre-certificate for the urban design
logical, economic and social aspects. This makes stage (phase 1). The final certificate for urban
it the only system to pay special attention to the districts (phase 3) is awarded when the project has
economic dimension of sustainability. In looking reached 75 percent completion (Fig. 6).
at the entire life cycle, all emissions and costs The weighting of topics for urban neighbourhoods
Further information associated with the neighbourhood development corresponds to the DGNB building system and is
• Danish Building Research Institute: Guide to
Sustainable Building Certifications. Copenhagen are systematically recorded and evaluated – from based on a balance of ecological, economic, socio
2018 (available online) extracting raw materials through production and cultural and functional quality (Fig. 5).
• German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB processing to recycling of individual components.
e.V.): Mehrwert zertifizierter Gebäude. Stuttgart The evaluation is linked to specific targets, such
2018 (available online)
as undercutting the legal requirements for build
• Mösle, Peter et al.: Green Building, Guidebook
for Sustainable Architecture. Berlin 2010
• Mösle, Peter et al.: Praxishandbuch Green
ings’ primary energy by 30 percent. This allows
solutions to be individually tailored to the project, Objectives
Building: Recht, Technik, Architektur. Berlin 2017
• Ebert, Thilo; Eßig, Natalie; Hauser, Gerd:
Zertifizierungssysteme für Gebäude. Nachhaltig-
rather than specifying standard system solutions,
thereby promoting design innovation. Alongside
the certification system for mixed-use urban dis
and criteria
keit bewerten, internationaler Systemvergleich, tricts, adapted systems are now also available The overriding goals of the DGNB scheme for
Zertifizierung und Ökonomie. Munich 2010
for commercial districts, industrial sites, event urban districts are to protect the environment
• RICS Deutschland Ltd. (03/2015): Going for
Green - Sustainable Building Certification locations, resorts and vertical cities. and natural resources, to enhance comfort and
Statistics Europe 2015, rics.org/sustainability well-being for neighbourhood residents and to
• www.transformativetools.org (Overview of minimise cost throughout the entire life cycle.
certification systems for cities, neighbourhoods To this end, a neighbourhood-based criteria set
and infrastructure) picks up the main features of the DGNB system,
• http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/
whereby the content of the criteria has been com
buildings.htm (Level(s) – European evaluation
framework for sustainable buildings) prehensively overhauled. The system pays special
• www.dataforcities.org attention to Life-Cycle Analysis and Life-Cycle
• www.worldgbc.org Cost analysis. Further criteria address the urban

Authenticated
Environmental Economic Sociocultural

quality quality and functional Pre-certificate Certificate Certificate
22.5 % 22.5 % quality (Phase 2) (Phase 3)
22.5 %
Design Access / Infrastructure Neighbourhood
Technical quality 22.5 % Urban design min. 25 % infrastructure, min. 75 % buildings and
or planning framework and public space
urban design contracts
Process quality 10 %
valid for 3 years valid for 5 years unlimited validity
Fig. 5 Fig. 6
climate, biodiversity, transport infrastructure or Number Criteria /Indicator Weighting Share of total

result in %
rain water management. The criteria and their
weighting in the overall system for urban districts ENV Environmental Quality 22.5
are depicted in Fig. 7. ENV 1.1 Life-cycle impact assessment 3 3.4

ENV 1.4 Biodiversity 2 2.3
ENV 1.5 Urban climate 3 3.4
ENV 1.6 Environmental risks 1 1.1
ENV 1.7 Groundwater and soil protection 2 2.3
Summary
ENV 2.1 Life-cycle assessment – Resource 3 3.4
consumption
ENV 2.2 Water cycle 3 3.4
ENV 2.3 Land use 3 3.4
Even if certification for cities or neighbourhoods ECO Economic quality 22.5
still meets with criticism from some experts, ECO 1.1 Life-cycle cost 3 6.1
objective criteria offer an opportunity to evaluate ECO 1.2 Local economic impact 2 4.1
projects at each stage of development and com ECO 2.1 Resilience and adaptability 2 4.1
ECO 2.2 Land-use efficiency 3 6.1
municate quality transparently. The certification
ECO 2.4 Value stability 1 2.0
process forces all participants to define binding,
SOC Sociocultural and functional quality 22,5
common goals when the project is conceived, and
SOC 1.1 Thermal comfort in open spaces 1 1.4
evaluate progress at regular intervals. Criteria
SOC 1.6 Open space 3 4.2
and process thereby also serve as a planning and SOC 1.9 Noise, exhaust and light emissions 3 4.2
control tool to evaluate the effects of planning SOC 2.1 Barrier-free design 2 2.8
decisions on project sustainability. SOC 3.1 Urban design 2 2.8
SOC 3.2 Social and functional mix 3 4.2
At the same time, certification systems offer the
SOC 3.3 Social and commercial infrastructure 2 2.8
opportunity to compare projects nationally and
TEC Technical quality 22.5
internationally, which is of particular interest to
TEC 2.1 Energy infrastructure 2 5.6
investors and large corporations.
TEC 1.2 Resource management 1 2.8
The cost of certification is low compared to overall TEC 1.4 Smart Infrastructure 1 2.8
neighbourhood development cost – and yet it offers TEC 3.1 Mobility infrastructure – motorised 2 5.6
clear advantages. Of course, the certification pro transportation
TEC 3.2 Mobility infrastructure – pedestrians 2 5.6
cess cannot take all the credit for energy savings and cyclists
or improved quality of life in public space, but it
PRO Process quality 10.0
can ensure that all of the relevant issues are taken
PRO 1.2 Integrated design 3 2.7
into account at an early stage, and that intelligent PRO 1.7 Consultation 2 1.8
plans are developed to address them. In economic PRO 1.8 Project management 3 1.8
terms, certified projects can achieve higher returns PRO 1.9 Governance 2 1.8
PRO 3.5 Monitoring 2 1.8
than non-certified projects.
Fig. 7
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C H A P TE R 5
Case Studies

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Introduction
T
he preceding chapters outline that most projects concentrate on only one aspect
challenges, action areas and of sustainability and that none fully and compre
implementation strategies hensively lives up to our holistic understanding
for sustainable urban and of sustainability. Whilst many other aspects are
neighbourhood planning. also important for a neighbourhood’s success, the
Depending on the location 14 case studies deliberately focus on individual
and specific context, indi aspects which have been particularly well-imple
vidual approaches need to be mented within each project.
developed to address and balance environmental,
economic criteria. As a rule, rural neighbourhoods Each neighbourhood’s strengths and weaknesses
cannot offer the same level of transport connect are presented in a network diagram. This is based
ivity or social infrastructure as metropolitan, on the topics set out in the chapter “Challenges
inner-city neighbourhoods. On the other hand, & Action Areas” and a qualitative evaluation
rural neighbourhoods offer other potential, such (1 = average, 2 = above average, 3 = best practice).
as providing residents with generous green and The following table (p. 227) lists the seven most
open spaces which benefit biodiversity and the important parameters exerting a key influence
microclimate. over contents, planning and development strat
egies, as well as construction processes in neigh
There can thus be no “one-size-fits-all” sustainable bourhood development. The issues listed in each
neighbourhood. For this reason, the case studies category are drawn from current literature and
deliberately feature very different neighbourhoods have been further developed to allow an inter
– examples of top-down development, such as the national comparison.
Dockside Green project in Victoria, Canada; as
well as bottom-up development, such as Amster The featured neighbourhoods are intended to
dam’s NDSM shipyard; from extremely densely provide suggestions as to how individual projects
populated areas such as Berlin’s Potsdamer Platz can address global sustainability issues within
to rural projects such as the ecoQuartier in Pfaffen their respective project parameters. The case stud
hofen; and low-tech projects such as Ethiopia’s ies aim to show how project planners can adopt
NEST (New Ethiopian Sustainable Town) project. holistic approaches to meet the specific challenges
presented by their project.
We will present a total of 14 case studies, each of
which is sustainable in its own way. Our selec
tion is drawn from a comprehensive study of 140
sustainable neighbourhoods conducted as part
of the “Sustainable neighbourhood planning –
projects, strategies, approaches” seminar during
the 2012/2013 winter semester at the Stuttgart
University Urban Development Institute. More
detailed information on the case studies exam
ined during the seminar follows as from page 262.
The case studies demonstrate how neighbour
hoods can be developed in innovative and sustain
able ways even now. However, it is also apparent

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Chapter 5 — Case Studies
Projects documented (pp. 228 – 261) in the case study section

Further projects (pp. 262 – 265)
Fig. 1 Location of neighbourhoods analysed

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Overview
Bo01 – Western -Harbour
Berlin TXL - The Urban

NEST – New Ethiopian
Tech Republic, Berlin
Viertel Zwei, Vienna

Hammarby Sjöstad
-Sustainable Town
Potsdamer Platz
Dockside Green
GWL-Terrein
Neckarbogen
Möckernkiez
NDSM-Werft
ecoQuartier
Barangaroo
Carlsberg
Climate zone
Tropical ‡
Subtropical ‡
Temperate ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
City type by population
Rural village (population < 20,000) ‡
Small town (population 20,000 – 49,999) ‡
Medium-sized town (population 50,000 – 499,999) ‡ ‡ ‡
Major city (population 500,000 – 9,999,999) ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Location within urban area
Stand-alone outside urban area ‡
Satellite connected to urban area
Peripheral location ‡ ‡ ‡
Urban location ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Inner-city location ‡ ‡ ‡
Previous land use
Nature (incl. forest) ‡
Agricultural ‡
Brownfield (mining, distribution, transport etc.) ‡ ‡ ‡
Urban brownfield (incl. existing buildings) ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Infill regeneration (existing high-density urban

‡ ‡
development)
Built environment
New buildings ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
New and some existing buildings ‡ ‡ ‡
Mainly existing buildings ‡ ‡ ‡
Existing regeneration area with few new buildings ‡
Land use
Housing ¥ ¥ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ¥ ‡
Commercial ‡ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ‡ ‡
Leisure / Special use ‡ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ‡ ‡ ¥ ¥
Project scale
Neighbourhoods ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
District ‡ ‡ ‡
New town ‡
‡ primary use ¥ secondary use

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228 Chapter 5 — Case Studies
B E R LI N , G E R M A N Y
Potsdamer Platz
Key data
Project type New urban centre in historical location Urban design
Key access Alte Potsdamer Straße, Eichhornstraße, Linkstraße, Potsdamer Platz, 3
Economy Processes,
Reichpietschufer, B 96
sociocultural
Size 13 ha 2
issues
Gross Floor Area (GFA) Approx. 500,000 m2 (above ground) 1
Emissions Open space,
Plot Ratio 2.8 urban climate
Users 1,000 residents, 10,000 jobs, up to 100,000 visitors on a daily basis
Team Hilmer & Sattler (coordinating plan), Renzo Piano and Kohlbecker (urban Energy Soil,
design), Kollhoff, Lauber & Wöhr, Rafael Moneo, Richard Rogers, Arata water
Isozaki (architects), Drees & Sommer (project management), DS Plan (envir
onmental management), Atelier Dreiseitl (landscape design and integrated Mobility Material flows
water management), Daimler AG (client), SEB Asset Management (owner)
Construction 1994 –1998
Website www.potsdamerplatz.de
1991 Hilmer + Sattler design: plan Piano and Kohlbecker competition Improved Piano and Kohlbecker
Key developer’s site before plot coordinating developers, shifting design, 1992: key developer con plan 1993: user-oriented block
reconfiguration negotiations 1989 plot boundaries cept, boundaries shifted once again layout, plot adaptations
At the beginning of the 20th century, Potsdamer

Platz in Berlin was considered one of the largest
and most important transport hubs in Europe. With
the destruction of the Second World War and the
subsequent division of the city, Potsdamer Platz
and the Leipziger Platz to the east became periph-
eral zones of both West and East Berlin. The fall of
communism was swiftly followed by calls for the
area to be dedicated to a new use. A major German
corporation bought the site and joined forces with
other businesses and the State of Berlin to develop
the Potsdamer Platz and Leipziger Platz area. As
from 1994, a revised master plan governed the
creation of Berlin’s so-called new centre.
The professional community met the project
with heated debate from the outset. Even the
outcome of the 1991 competition was contro-
versial, when jury members disagreed about its
urban design plan. The winning design dedi-
cated only a small share of the overall building
volume to housing. This was subject to particu-
lar criticism, because mixed use was even then
generally accepted as essential for sustainable
urban planning. However, water management,

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Potsdamer Platz 229
Construction site
Potsdamer Platz
the energy concept and the waste disposal and Even during its construction, attention was paid Landwehrkanal
recycling system proved to be groundbreaking to low energy consumption and appropriate con-
for a high-density neighbourhood of this kind. struction logistics. At that time, there was virtually Potsdam freight station
Sustainable design was a defined project objective no storage space for building materials anywhere Loading bay
Barge
right from the start. The aim was to develop an near Potsdamer Platz. Access to what was Europe’s Logistics centre
environmentally friendly energy supply and a largest construction site was very challenging Gleisdreieck
resource-efficient use of water and soil, combined because of the lack of adequate infrastructure, and
with climate-friendly construction methods and this led to fears of a transport chaos. In response, Anhalt freight station
healthy and environmentally friendly building the city and developers formed a company author-
materials. Key features include extensive roof ised to issue instructions and regulate the complete
greening, an overall rainwater use plan, and an building traffic specifically for this project. All of Road access Rail access
energy supply system which was unique at that the logistics were provided ecologically by rail and
time and which included a neighbourhood heating ship, providing quick delivery of building mater Opposing page:
above Sketches for developing the
and cooling centre to supply various buildings. ials from a marshalling yard near the Kreuzberg
project area
The innovative energy concept reduces energy Gleisdreieck via the Anhalt freight station. This
below Master plan
consumption and costs, as well as climate-dam- helped avoid around 42,000 heavy goods vehicle This page:
aging CO2 emissions. This was achieved thanks kilometres per day during construction, equating left This was Europe’s biggest
to the best possible thermal insulation and the use to 160 tonnes of CO2 per year. building site: aerial views during
of passive solar energy. High-rise buildings have It was also necessary to link individual construction construction
naturally ventilated dual shell facades. Small venti- companies and integrate their respective computer right (from top to bottom)
Delivery by barge; Construction
lation systems and cooled ceilings for temperature programs and file formats for deadlines and con-
work in the water, Construction site
control help create a near-natural indoor climate struction plans. A bespoke CAD program was spe- logistics diagram: Delivering mater
in certain areas. Heat recovery helps achieve fur- cially developed to ensure that all parties involved ials via the Landwehr canal and the
ther savings. in the project were able to access the same data. Gleisdreieck marshalling yard

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delivery
and colle
ction
chip card
registration
cleaning
containers in separating waste
hygiene station
supply and weighing waste
infrastructure
compacting centre
cardboard etc. interim storage
with waste press hazardous waste and
reducing data protection material
weight by
dehydration
above left Underground
waste disposal below
left Underground goods
delivery terminal above
right Waste disposal:
underground refuse collec
tion by electric vehicles,
delivery via the B96 tunnel
below left Pedestrians at
the Potsdamer Platz traffic
junction below right
Water as a design element
to experience
Logistics Water Traffic

The entire Potsdamer Platz is connected via a Even today, the rainwater management system Europe’s first traffic light system was installed at
complex, three-storey underground transport at Potsdamer Platz is one of the largest in Europe. Potsdamer Platz in 1924. Today, a replica high-
system, which is its supply and disposal centre. This system consciously uses rainwater in build- lights the square’s former importance as a traffic
Deliveries for the commercial areas are made ings and outside in order to help permanently junction. Today, Potsdamer Platz once again offers
via a terminal on the third basement. From there, reduce drinking water consumption and make excellent transport connections including an ICE
electric cars or lift trucks transport the delivered a positive contribution to the urban climate. The train station, S-Bahn, underground trains and bus
goods to the respective recipients on underground system aims to collect surface water from all stops as well as being close to federal highway
supply routes with a length of 5 km in total. This sealed surfaces, especially the roofs. This water number 1. The excellent public transport offer
keeps the area above ground free of disruptive runs through various purification processes, helps achieve a modal split of around 80/20, i.e.
delivery traffic. In addition, this access supports including planted purification biospheres such 80 percent of road users are non-motorised
advanced waste disposal logistics to separate a as the reed-planted neighbourhood lake, before it whereas 20 percent remain motorised. Under-
total of 13 different waste types from each other. finally reaches one of five underground cisterns. ground transport facilities, non-motorised private
Aside from glass, paper and packaging, these There it is stored until it is transferred to the transport (pedestrians and cyclists), and numer-
include foils, treated and untreated timber, food buildings for use in open spaces or as grey water ous new means of transport contribute to this
waste, cooking oil and polystyrene. Before further to flush toilets. On average, this can save around result. Charging stations for electric cars, car
disposal, so-called waste checks are carried out 20 million litres of drinking water per year. Aside sharing etc. offer users an attractive, individual
to ensure that waste streams have been carefully from these ecological aspects, water is also used and flexible transport service. This is environmen-
separated so that only sorted recyclable materials as a design element which can be experienced tally friendly, but it also helps avoid time wasted
leave the site. along a total length of 1.7 km. Smaller water- in traffic jams and – most importantly – contributes
courses are designed as central recreation areas to social and cultural life. Shifting motor traffic,
and cool the neighbourhood climate by approx. including delivery and logistics, rail and main
3 °C in summer. roads underground, frees up streets and squares

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Potsdamer Platz 231
rain water collection

on green roof
Landwehr canal
urban water bodies
use for replenishing emergency overflow

flushing toilets artificial water bodies
and irrigation
retaining variable
amounts of water
storage in cisterns
purification through bio-habitat vegetation
sealant drainage (gravel) filter substrate

pump
to provide recreational areas and open spaces for ning and advice, and construction logistics for left Water management
urban life once again. all phases of development, are hugely significant plan: Rainwater collected in
for successfully implementing and delivering cisterns feeds the water sup
ply, Planted biospheres bio
Even in the 1990s, great importance was attached innovative and sustainable projects of this kind.
logically purify the water.
to the focal points described above. However, there At the time, sustainability advisors were given a right Reed-planted purifica
were different opinions about the urban design: the ring-fenced budget of 3 percent for sustainability tion biospheres
exact reconstruction of Berlin’s old street profiles measures. Even today, this would help make many
was not modern enough for some, whereas others projects sustainable.
viewed the high-rise buildings as too modern.
This tension highlights the difficulty of finding the
right design path. At Potsdamer Platz, the design-
ers tried to unite and deliver tradition, progress,
ecology and economy. Almost 20 years after plan-
ning started, the German Sustainable Building
Council (DGNB) awarded the neighbourhood a
Silver Certificate for new buildings in 2011. Thus it
still meets today’s sustainability standards. Some
buildings have now even been awarded a DGNB
Gold Certificate for existing buildings.
Further information
• Daimler Chrysler Immobilien – DCI (pub.):
Potsdamer Platz Project. Berlin 2002
Potsdamer Platz highlights that parameters, such • Drees & Sommer (pub.): Potsdamer Platz.
as organisational structures, professional plan- General Management. Stuttgart 2004

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C O PE N H AG E N , D E N M A R K
Carlsberg City District

Key data
Project type Former brewery site regenerated with interim uses Urban design
Key access Carlsberg Vej 3
Economy Processes,
Size 33 ha sociocultural
2
issues
Gross floor area (GFA) 567,000 m2 total (50 % housing, 35 % office and retail, 15 % education,
culture and sport), 110,000 m2 existing building stock Emissions 1 Open space,
Plot ratio 1.7 urban climate
Users 7,000 – 8,000 residents (3,100 dwellings), 10,000 jobs, 10,000 students,
ca. 200,000 visitors per annum, 1–2 hotels, 30 – 40 restaurants Energy Soil,
Team Entasis (masterplan/urban design), Vogt Landschaftsarchitekten Zurich water
(landscape design), Henning Larsen Architects, Tegnestuen Vandkusten,
Ladner Meier Arkitekten, C. F. Möller Architects (architects) Mobility Material flows
Construction Interim use since 2008, completion planned for 2024
Website www.carlsbergbyen.dk
This page:
left Master plan
below Bird’s eye visualisation
Opposing page:
left Street space allocation
right (from top to bottom)
Various interim uses:
Dansehallerne; beach bar;
pedestrians on Ny Carlsberg Vej
The Danish brewery group Carlsberg left its Public realm / process The planners want to observe which activities
Copenhagen premises at the end of 2006 to are particularly popular, generating dynamics
produce in Fredericia, which is more centrally The master plan envisages 3,000 apartments as to inspire further plans.
located on the Danish mainland. The business well as office and retail space. The fact that the
leaves behind a 33-hectare site in the middle of neighbourhood was activated before construc- The developers are hoping to attract a vibrant
Copenhagen with many listed 19th- and early tion began sets the development strategy for this mix of residents from different social groups,
20th-century factory buildings, some of which are area apart from strategies for other areas. Varied generations and backgrounds. The idea is that, as
currently in temporary use. The area is to be trans- public space offers lured Copenhageners to Carls- the different cultures meet, interactions between
formed into a mixed-use urban neighbourhood berg, even before construction of new buildings residents should generate a lively neighbour-
with a distinctive sense of place within the next began. The network of streets, gardens, squares hood. The design aims for a dense development
15 – 20 years. and existing buildings provides space for various with interesting interiors and attractive open
The “Our city” master plan focuses on multifunc- uses such as flea markets and art exhibitions. spaces. To this end, buildings will be individually
tional open space and social sustainability. The Located in a former mineral water factory, designed and ground floors will be dedicated to
neighbourhood was pre-certified by the German the 9,000 m 2 “Dansehallerne” centre for a mix of uses including cinemas, studios, cafés
Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) in 2013, in modern dance enjoys great popularity. The Ny and shops. Upper floors are dedicated to apart-
recognition of its quality and innovative design Carlsberg Glyptothek is an important art ments and offices. The intense mix of uses aims
approaches. museum in the city, attracting many visitors. to ensure that residents can live, work, shop and

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Carlsberg City District 233
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
short access streets, 40 kph speed limit
short access streets, 40 kph speed limit

connecting streets. 30 kph speed limit connecting streets. 30 kph speed limit
shared space, traffic-calmed areas, 15 kph
vehicle-accessible spaces, 15 kph
one-way-street
access to parking
P underground parking shared space, traffic-calmed areas, 15 kph
experience culture within the neighbourhood. The dents to use environmentally friendly means of
building layout is based on the classic Copenha- transport.
gen block, with additional buildings set within
courtyards and towers placed at corner points. The aim is to achieve a varied mix of residents
Architecturally, new buildings should be care- by offering apartments for rent and to buy within
fully integrated in order to preserve the location’s individual buildings. Between 8 and 10 percent of
special identity. apartments are rented at very favourable rates. In
return, tenants of these apartments are offered the
Most of the traffic area is based on shared space opportunity to work, for example as caretakers,
principles with everybody using the same space and improve their financial situation in the long
and having to respect each other. There are no term. The idea is that these tenants might one
dedicated paths, signs or other regulations. Sev- day be able to buy an apartment and join the com-
eral underground car parks aim to keep vehicle munity of owners, making low-cost apartments
traffic as far away from the area as possible. Short available to new tenants.
routes around the perimeter provide access.
Further information
• http://www.bauwelt.de/themen/bw_200724_
The location in the middle of the city and good Carlsberg-Areal_Kopenhagen-2101154.html
public transport access enable most of the resi- • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlsberg_(district)

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23� Chapter 5 — Case Studies
PFA F F E N H O F E N A N D E R I LM , G E R M A N Y
ecoQuartier Pfaffenhofen
Key data
Project type Suburban fringe project providing residential, employment and agricultural Urban design
use 3
Economy Processes,
Key access Ludwig Hirschberger Allee sociocultural
2
Size 217,000 m2 gross development land including 50,200 m2 net housing area, issues
32,300 m2 trading area, 27,600 m2 village area 1
Emissions Open space,
Gross floor area (GFA) Approx. 63,000 m2 (total) urban climate
Plot ratio Approx. 0.65 in residential area, approx. 0.85 in employment area (estimates)
Users Approx. 200 dwellings, approx. 20 employment units, kindergarten, Energy Soil,
sheltered housing, care home, hotel water
Team Eble Messerschmidt Partner (Urban design, overall concept and some archi-
tecture), Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl (landscape design and water circulation Mobility Material flows
system), Areal – Gesellschaft für nachhaltige Wasserwirtschaft mbH (Terra
Preta concept and material flow management), Architekt Kleinschmidt (Eco-
logical construction consultancy and some architecture), ecoQuartier GmbH
& Co. KG (landowner, developer, access and infrastructure)
Construction Access and infrastructure completed 2012–2014, buildings completed
in 2014
Website www.ecoquartier.de
Gewerbegebiet
Energie-
zentrale
Kramerbräu Hof
EP
V
Pfo
am rten
Pla hau
tz s
Taldorf
Whg
2
Zimmer
1
Whg
4
Zimmer
n
1
Whg
4
Zimmer
2
Whg
4
Zimmer
3
Kinder
Spielplatz
Ökologisches
Wohngebiet
Bergdorf
Solardorf

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Ecoquartier Pfaffenhofen 23�
Opposing page:
Layout plan
This page:
above Simulated aerial view,
3D housing area model
(view from north)
below (from left to
right) Detached houses in
solar village; planet house in
the solar village (both Eble
Messerschmidt Partner);
Terraced houses in valley
village (LMT3 Architekten)
The private-sector ecoQuartier in Pfaffenhofen ability features which go further than the require- still under construction. Tailored marketing and a
aims to demonstrate how sustainable urban ments of planning and building law, both in build- targeted placement strategy aim to attract envir-
development can meet high standards in terms ings and at the neighbourhood level. onmentally sustainable businesses to the trading
of protecting resources and the climate. estate. The objective is to attract businesses with
ecological know-how and to establish links with
Its planners want to make an important contri- Rural location institutions for awareness-raising, training and
bution to the future economic development of further education, and to provide a hotel to create
Pfaffenhofen, a town located in the Hallertau The ecoQuartier Pfaffenhofen aims to exploit and a centre of excellence in sustainable design and
hop cultivation area north of Munich, and pro- fuse specific local opportunities in order to create construction.
mote new housing types and sustainable lifestyle a holistic sustainability plan.
choices. Based on the existing Kramerbräuhof ’s Starting with the existing Kramerbräuhof, the The ambitious energy plan aims to achieve massive
wide ranging agricultural activities in biomass development structures the site to create a village CO2 savings. Heating and hot water is generated
production and research, the development sets area, a trading estate and a residential area includ- from regenerative energy sources. To this end, a
out to provide connected live and work spaces ing so-called valley, mountain and solar villages. local heating network connected to a biomass CHP
in the surrounding area. The project aims to Developed by architects and specialist planners plant will supply most of the residential buildings
generate synergies between agriculture and in an integrated process, the urban design derives (after an initial start-up phase). The operation is
environmentally-friendly housing and industry. from the site topography. Developers, individual heat-controlled, i.e. device output is driven by heat
Ecological building techniques and innovative clients and building groups worked together to demand. At the same time, the plan is to generate
supply and disposal systems are intended to make develop a wide range of residential typologies. electricity within the neighbourhood, and – at a
this a demonstration project for sustainable rural Neighbourhood facilities, such as a community later stage – to make use of waste heat from the
development. house or a camping site, were also developed in a pyrolysis plant, which will be part of a terra-preta
process of engagement with neighbourhood resi- plant to produce charcoal through a thermochem-
The fact that the developer owns all of the devel- dents. A kindergarten has already been completed, ical process. Individual homes not connected to the
opment land helps implement design and sustain- whilst a conference hotel with seminar facilities is local heating network must also generate energy

Authenticated
private household,
businesses
central
drinking retaining landscaping,
water supply rain water evaporation
(roof and emergency overflow
surface run-off) (10-year rain event)
Versickerung evaporation
control unit
plant-based water treatment disinfection,
facility, biological purification UV radiation
grey water emergency overflow
UV
infiltration
tap water process water storage
purifed black water

black water
Terra-Preta plant use and sale of Terra Preta
standard connection
to sewage system optional Terra Preta plant
3
1
2
1 Plant-based water
treatment facility
Rainwater run-off 2 Process water
Retension area and soakaway reservoir
(variable humidity) 3 Terra-preta plant
Permanent retention area (optional)
Underground gravel trenches Grey water system
providing rainwater buffering Process water
supply system
from renewable sources, such as wood chip stoves cycle-oriented construction methods, such as The open-space design accounts for nature con-
or heat pumps. Heating systems using fossil fuels glulam timber board stacks and other biogenic servation and landscape management, including
are banned. In the solar village, all roofs must be construction techniques. An obligatory pro- compensatory measures to balance any disruption
equipped with photovoltaic systems to supple- ject-based catalogue lists environmentally to nature and landscape within the development
ment electricity generated in the CHP plant and friendly materials and systems which must be site. An obligatory open and subsidiary space
provide a significant share of the neighbourhood’s used to make sure that buildings are high-qual- plan safeguards the delivery of high-quality open
electricity from renewable sources. Planners also ity, healthy and comfortable. Neighbourhood space in terms of ecology and design. The project
required buildings to meet a higher energy stand- open spaces must remain near the natural con- aims to reduce drinking water consumption by at
ard, in excess of statutory requirements. Residen- dition, and ground sealing kept to a minimum. least 50 percent by innovatively managing the
tial buildings primary energy demand must not The design and planting scheme, and the tran- entire water cycle and making use of rainwater
exceed 70 kWh/m2a, whilst specific transmission sition to open landscape takes its lead from the and grey water. It also aims to treat grey water and
heat losses must be at least 15 percent below ENEV agricultural landscape. black water on-site with no waste water leaving
2009 values. In addition, the plan is to construct the site via the sewage system. More than half
a large number of buildings to an even higher Buildings, public spaces and experiential paths of the water consumed is used for irrigation and
energy standard, and some buildings meeting are laid out according to geomantic expertise. flushing toilets etc. (rather than for drinking,
the Passivhaus standard. This corresponds to the This provides an opportunity to experience bathing and showering) and can be substituted
Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW) 55 and 40 nature in a wide variety of low-maintenance by process water. To this end, most of the grey
efficiency house funding conditions. open spaces. Visible, surface-level water treat- water is purified in a plant-based treatment facil-
ment helps understand the natural rainwater ity and disinfected by ultraviolet radiation before
As well as energy consumption in use, special cycle, and creates an atmospheric and charac- joining rainwater to be fed back into the process
attention must be given to primary energy content terful water landscape. The project includes the water cycle. During the initial project stage, black
and protecting resources during the construction renaturalisation of the Schindelhauser brook water is fed into the conventional sewage sys-
of infrastructure and buildings. For example, this running along the site’s northern edge, thereby tem. In a later project phase, a terra-preta plant is
includes the use of CO 2-improved and life also implementing flood protection measures. planned to treat black water on site in order to

Authenticated
Ecoquartier Pfaffenhofen 237
1 3
Opposing page:
above Integrated water 1 Terra Preta plant
concept: schematic water 2 agroforestry system
cycle including optional integratingg shrubs
and trees in agriculture
terra-preta plant 2 3 organic supermarket
below left Rainwater system 4 gardeners shop
below right Grey and kitchen waste and black water
process water system compost and cutting from
This page: housing and commercial area
above Visualisation of solar agricultural waste
regional biomass
and mountain village with
local food supply
water landscape ground activating,
below Biomass cycle organic fertilizer
including terra-preta plant biomass from agroforestry
make the area nearly free of waste water for off- of a holistic ecological food cycle, the develop- approach to sustainability and achieve a good
site treatment. The plan is also to use waste water ment of an environmental education centre, and environmental balance. The project also demon-
to generate energy and return nutrients to the transport measures such as car sharing. The plan strates how an agricultural business with a key
agricultural material cycle. is to establish one or more utility companies to supply and disposal function, such as the Kramer-
The terra-preta plant is to become a central elem operate technical infrastructure. bräuhof, can be successfully integrated into a rural
ent of the overall plan, transforming organic neighbourhood. As a result, this concept for the
black and grey water components and organic Quality assurance tools such as a typological suburban fringe benefits residents and businesses
households and agricultural residues to produce building pattern book, a design handbook and as well as the agricultural business itself.
exceptionally fertile black earth. This can be used an ecological and design quality agreement will
to activate soils or to organically fertilise sur- support the implementation of the above men-
rounding agricultural areas. Treatment stages are tioned features.
designed to allow all of the valuable ingredients The planning team provides support to ensure
in waste water to be used, for example to produce that these requirements are met, with the over-
biomass. This, in turn, can be used directly to pro- all urban development management actively
duce terra-preta. The plan to include greenhouses supporting the individual architectural projects
for cultivating useful plants is a particularly inter- and certifying them according to the so-called
esting option with regard to a zero-emission ecoQuartier building standard.
material flow management strategy, and results
in a sustainable land-use system with CO2 storage An integrated planning approach has helped
potential. The exact plant operation model has develop a tailored approach to neighbourhood
not been defined yet. development which responds to this rural loca-
tion’s specific local and regional opportunities.
The comprehensive approach to sustainability is The project demonstrates how synergies between
rounded off with further plans such as the pursuit innovative concepts can implement a holistic

Authenticated
M A LM Ö, SW E D E N
Bo01 – Western Harbour

Key data
Project type Sustainable regeneration of harbour and industrial site Urban design
Key access Stora Varvsgatan 3

Economy Processes,
2
issues
Gross floor area (GFA) ca. 110,000 m2
Emissions 1 Open space,
Plot ratio 0.5
urban climate
Users 2,343 residents, 1,400 dwellings (2013)
Team City of Malmö, Bo01 project office with Klas Tham
Energy Soil,
Construction 1997 – 2001
water
Website www.malmo.se/Nice-to-know-about-Malmo/Sustainable-Malmo-/
Sustainable-Urban-Development/Western-Harbour.html Mobility Material flows
This page:
Master plan
Opposing page:
above Aerial photograph
below (from left to right)
Beach promenade; design
integrating rainwater retention
basins; neighbourhood viewed
from the water
Malmö’s economy, which used to be dominated environmental policy for decades. The Bo01 Open space
by industry, has changed considerably in recent project office founded in 1997 to plan the Inter-
decades. The economy of Sweden’s third-largest national Building Exhibition (IBA) seized the The waterside location lends the site a distinct-
city is now based on smaller companies in the opportunity to build a sustainable model neigh- ive, special quality. Facing the Öresund to the
service, trade and IT sectors. In 2001, the city bourhood to benefit Malmö and other cities. west, a spacious beach promenade invites cyclists
hosted the International Building Exhibition The project office worked with the construc- and passers-by to linger, whilst tall buildings
(IBA) Bo01, in a former dockland and indus- tion companies involved to develop a quality around the neighbourhood’s perimeter shield
trial area. The Swedish word “bo” means “ to assurance programme to specify requirements inner areas from the wind. There, the varied
live”. Today, the area is the first development and ecological objectives. For example, these high-quality parks, courtyards, streets, paths
phase of the overall urban development project guidelines define architectural quality, materials and squares lend the neighbourhood its special
called Västra Hamnen (Western Harbour). As is and energy standards for buildings, as well as the character. Green spaces closely resemble nature
typical for urban brownfields, the soil is heavily characteristics of the technical infrastructure. in order to be able to offer as many different
contaminated, and decontamination poses a Bo01 is a pilot project for implementing new habitats as possible for different animal and plant
major challenge. However, the area also offers approaches and technologies. species and thus establish or ensure long-term
potential such as its proximity to the city centre The quarter thrives on contrast. Landowners biodiversity. In addition, colonies of rare species
and its waterside location. The Bo01 neighbour- are obliged to commission different architects and bird hatcheries have been introduced. Rain-
hood covers an area of 25 ha and offers space for to design individual buildings. This creates a water runs through the neighbourhood in open
1,400 apartments and 2,343 residents. The entire neighbourhood with a colourful mix of different channels before seeping into the ground or, in the
Western Harbour area extends over 160 ha, of forms and colours. In terms of energy, build- event of heavy rainfall, running into canals. This
which 76.5 ha are due to be developed. In 20 ings respond to sustainability requirements with offers residents a high recreational value as well
years, around 10,000 people should be able to different approaches ranging from low-tech to as providing environmental benefits. The major-
live in the area which currently has about 4,300 high-tech. Great importance is attached to recyc- ity of buildings feature green roofs and facade
residents. At 26 dwellings per hectare, density lability and to avoiding noxious substances in greening, which further improve the microcli-
is relatively high. choosing building materials. Designers and con- mate. Commissioning different landscape plan-
The project was initiated by the City of Malmö, tractors are provided with a dedicated catalogue ners for all the major open spaces – some through
which has attached particular importance to of building materials. competitions – made an essential contribution to

Authenticated
Bo01 – Western Harbour 239
ensuring a varied, high quality design. Individual energy consumption. Organic waste is converted Further information
building developers were required to implement into biogas, which is used to heat apartments and • www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/projects/bo01-
at least 10 out of a list of 35 measures to increase drive vehicles. A vacuum pipe system transports city-of-tomorrow-malmo-sweden/
biodiversity on-site or within buildings. waste directly to the biogas plant. • www.energy-cities.eu/resources/cities-actions/
sustainable-neighbourhood-bo01-city-of-
tomorrow-malm~1073
• www.collegepublishing.us/jgb/samples/JGB_
Energy Mobility V8N3_a02_Austin.pdf
In order to achieve the project goal of 100 per- In order to promote environmentally friendly 1 Foletta 2011, p. 92
cent local and renewable energy supply, a major means of transport, neighbourhood parking fa-
share of heating demand is covered by heat pumps cilities were deliberately kept low, whilst pro-
using groundwater as a heat source during winter viding excellent public transport links and at-
months. In addition, 10 percent of the neighbour- tractive footpaths and cycle paths. On average,
hood’s heating demand is met by 1,400 m2 of solar only 0.7 parking spaces are available per apart-
collectors distributed over ten roofs. The electricity ment. One of the consequences of this is that
for heat pumps and for apartments is generated by the electric vehicles provided at specially desig-
120 m2 of rooftop photovoltaic panels and a wind nated parking spaces are very popular. There is a
power plant in the nearby Norra Hamnen (North- bus stop no more than 300 m from every apart-
ern Harbour). In order to keep building’s energy ment, served by biofuel buses every 7 minutes
consumption low, each home can consume up to a during peak hours. Whilst 60 percent of residents
maximum of 105 kWh/m2 per annum – including use footpaths and cycle paths or public transport
household electricity consumption. This is around in the city of Malmö as a whole, this rises to 80
40 % lower than the Swedish average for energy percent in the Western Harbour area.1
consumption. A meter in each home shows current

Authenticated
V I C TO R I A , CA N A DA
Dockside Green
Key data
Urban design
Project type Sustainable regeneration of harbour brownfield
Key access Harbour Road, Tyee Road 3
Economy Processes,
Size 6.1 ha sociocultural
2
issues
Gross floor area (GFA) 120,100 m2 (planned)
Plot ratio 2.0
urban climate
Users 2,500 residents (planned)
Team Perkins + Will, DYS Architecture, Warner James (urban design, architec-
Energy Soil,
ture), Edibella Organic Landscapes, Small & Rossell, Mammoth Landscap-
water
ing, PWL Partnerships and Shibusa Ponds (landscape design)
Construction Dockside Wharf (Project phase 1) completed 2010, further phases currently Mobility Material flows
under construction, completion planned 2027
Website www.docksidegreen.com
The Dockside Green neighbourhood is located centre conclude the neighbourhood at the south- ture deserves special mention. Both the waste
on a 6.1 ha former dockland site located around ern end. Further plans include more retail space, water treatment and biomass power plants are
1 km from the centre of the city of Victoria in a fitness centre and a crèche. The developer was prominently located within the neighbourhood,
south-western Canada. The environmentally also contractually obliged to build a sustainabil- rather than being hidden at its edge. Conspicu-
friendly, resource-efficient sustainable urban ity centre to inform residents and visitors about ous signage and diagrams make residents and
neighbourhood is planned to offer residents a the neighbourhood’s sustainable features, and to passers-by aware of their resource consumption
high quality of life. “Dockside Green” is based support it with a donation.2 and encourage them to keep it under control.
on principles of the “New Urbanism” movement,
founded in the USA to combat urban sprawl and Phase one, Dockside Wharf, was completed in In order to reduce individual motor traffic, the
anonymous neighbourhoods.1 20103 and comprises four residential buildings, a neighbourhood places special emphasis on
total of nine townhouses, three commercial build- high-quality footpaths and cycle paths as well as
The neighbourhood comprises two rows of buildings as well as a waste water treatment and bio- public transport connections to the city centre.
ing plots. The eastern row facing the Upper Har- mass power plants. The buildings accommodating Car sharing is available throughout the entire
bour accommodates two- to three-storey com- residential and retail uses are oriented east-west neighbourhood. The neighbourhood’s waterside
mercial buildings arranged in rows parallel to and sit on top of an underground parking garage. location makes it accessible by small boats or kay-
the street. The western, inland row faces the road In order to achieve a social mix, 10 % of all apart- aks. A connection to Victoria’s ferry network is
which connects to the city centre, and accommo- ments are dedicated to affordable housing spe- also planned.
dates residential buildings up to a height of to 30 m. cifically for low-income earners. Housing cost in An annual sustainability report including appropri-
A green corridor and canal runs between the two these apartments should amount to no more than ate resident satisfaction measures reviews progress
rows of buildings and will connect to a large pub- 30 percent of annual gross income, and thus be towards the targets set for the neighbourhood,
lic space in the south once the neighbourhood is affordable for residents with household incomes e.g. in reducing water consumption or using the
completed. The master plan envisages building of around € 30,000.4 In addition to this, a three- car-sharing system. 5
heights increasing continuously towards the south. storey building has gained planning approval to
Grouped around a circular public space, office provide apartments with less than 40 m2.
towers up to 40 m in height and a large shopping The structural integration of the supply infrastruc-

Authenticated
Dockside Green 241
building within
neighbourhood
green roof
possible surplus for garden
other neighbourhoods irrigation
flushing toilet
heating
water treatment plant

collection
membrane / disinfection, receptacle for “rain gardens”
filter UV radiation treated water channel system
biomass
infiltration
plant
channel
waste water
(grey / black water)
septic sedimentation Dockside Green
draning
tank basin and other
neighbourhoods
rainwater
grey / black water
treated water
heat
Opposing page:
left Master plan
right Neighbourhood
viewed from the water
This page:
left Schematic representa-
tion of neighbourhood rain-
water use
right Water conduits and
“rain gardens”
Open space, water, green roofs and plants into the water treatment Further information
material flows circuit. This filters out coarse dirt and lets it be • General Electric: ZeeWeed MBR Water Reuse
absorbed by bacteria. Water is then infiltrated into Process, Dockside Green. Flash animation
The park-like green strip and watercourse, and the “rain gardens”, an open canal system. explaining General Electrics water treatment
system, 2007
the lush greenery along streets and between the
• Hart, Sara: Dockside Green. A Platinum Setting:
buildings lend the neighbourhood an attractive Dockside Green is currently the first project world- This 15-acre, mixed-use, harborfront development
recreational quality. It boasts a comprehensive wide to be awarded the LEED Platinum certificate in Victoria, B.C., will set records for sustainability
water circulation system with a central water for sustainable neighbourhood development. The at the neighborhood scale. In: GreenSource
treatment plant at its heart. The 100 % recycled early involvement of the project developer and 03/2010.
water is returned to the individual buildings, the cooperation of all parties involved (developers, • www.terrain.org/unsprawl/25
• www.theatlantic.com/international/
where it is used for flushing toilets and irrigating planners and authorities) was a key contributor
archive/2011/08/is-this-the-worlds-greenest-
private green areas. If there is a surplus, the water to implementing its ambitious ecological and neighborhood/244121/
can also be sold to surrounding industrial enter- technological objectives. The innovative green
prises. The neighbourhood thereby contributes neighbourhood has so far been able to thrive on
1 Pätz 2012
to intensive water reuse, even beyond its bound- the real estate market – unlike many other major
2 City of Victoria & Dockside
aries.6 projects in the Victoria region, which had to be
Green Limited 2009,
In order to reduce water consumption to a min abandoned in the course of the economic crisis. pp. 1– 3
imum, buildings are fitted with highly efficient 3 Dockside Green/Vancity
sanitary facilities. Together with the aforemen- 2011
tioned water treatment, these aim to reduce 4 City of Victoria & Dockside
drinking water consumption by 55– 60 percent.7 Green Limited 2009, p. 1
5 Dockside Green / Vancity
2011
Due to its location on the Pacific coast, Victoria 6 General Electric; Pirie
is often hit by storms and heavy rainfall. Conduits 2010
feed precipitation which cannot be absorbed by 7 www.docksidegreen.com

Authenticated
H E I LB R O N N , G E R M A N Y
Neckarbogen
Key data
Project type Exemplary connection between town and river Urban design
Key access Güterbahnhofstraße (current name) 3

Economy Processes,
Size ca. 52 ha; 17 ha excluding BUGA exhibition areas sociocultural
2
issues
Gross floor area (GFA) 135,000 m2
Plot ratio 0.8
urban climate
Users 1,500 (planned)
Team Steidle-Architekten, t 17-Landschaftsarchitekten (urban design master plan,
competition), Sinai (BUGA open space plan, competition), Drees & Sommer Energy Soil,
(consultancy, sustainability), City of Heilbronn (planning office) water
Construction 2010: council approval for urban design masterplan

Mobility Material flows
2019: completion of BUGA open spaces and first building plot
Website www.buga2019.de
BUGA site
Urban neighbourhood
Along with the railway station area, the site is

located between the canal docks and the Stadt-
neckar river facing Heilbronn’s old town centre.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the site was dom-
inated by docks and railway tracks. Since these
have now moved on, the site is currently being
developed in a sustainable, future-proof process
according to the German Sustainable Building
Council (DGNB) certification scheme for new
urban districts. The development will extend the
city centre north-west along a tributary to the
Neckar river (Neckarbogen), which flows through
the city. After carrying out a feasibility study, the
city made a successful bid to host the 2019 na-
tional horticultural show (Bundesgartenschau
BUGA) in this area and subsequently engaged
with residents to launch an ideas competition.
The city council approved the urban development
framework plan in 2010. Some spaces are designed
to remain open permanently, whereas others are
due to be built on after the BUGA exhibition.
Accordingly, some BUGA flower beds match the
building layout for later development. One build-
ing plot will be completed for the BUGA. Aiming
to be CO2-neutral in use, the building sets out to
achieve a low overall energy use, reduce drink-

Authenticated
Neckarbogen 243
Opposing page:
left Master plan
right Aerial photograph,
2010
This page:
above Aerial visualisation
of the new urban neigh-
bourhood within the urban
context
below left Holistic neigh-
bourhood concept including
varied housing offer and mix
of uses
below right Neighbourhood
microclimate: section
through embankment and
lake
housing
day care cente Aktiv-Plus-Haus Neckar backwater new embankment and small
neighbourhood micro-housing copse: major water evaporation
community space
living by
and cold air generation
the Neckar lawn: minor water evaporation
backwater
dockland and and cold air generation access road
industrial area
supervised new urban
apartment
childrens
housing lake: medium water evaporation district
gardening
supported and cold air generation
courtyard workshop
building cooperative
housing
Neckar
“lakeside living” temporary
bicycle
shop
canal
city lake cafe living
mobility
bistro point
laundrette cafe bar
ing water consumption and recycle all waste and becoming the city of Heilbronn’s actively used
grey water. The entrance to the site will be marked leisure area.
by what is due to be the tallest timber building in Around 70 percent of sealed surfaces have been
Germany with ten storeys and a height of 34 m, opened up. This partial renaturation helps reduce
currently under construction. As part of a research outside air temperatures by up to 1.5 °C, and also
project, autonomous vehicles will drive through helps avoid flooding after heavy rainfall thanks Further information
the new urban neighbourhood during the BUGA. to easier infiltration. Trees on the embankment • http://bundesgartenschau.de/buga-iga/
between the neighbourhood and the Neckar canal kommende-gartenschauen/insel-im-fluss-die-
Planners are also aiming to create high-quality improve air quality by generating cold air through buga2019-und-der-neckarbogen/?PHPSESSID
=23cb49df12b5d345f9eafce8521ad5a1
outdoor space. The Karlshafen and Floßhafen har- evaporation and shading building’s external sur-
• https://www.heilbronn.de/bauen-wohnen/
bour basins, which had been filled in after World faces. Buildings are oriented towards prevailing bundesgartenschau-2019-stadtausstellung-
War II, have been reopened in order to create gen- winds in order to channel fresh air through the neckarbogen/stadtausstellung-neckarbogen.html
erous open spaces. The design of the area around neighbourhood. Following the BUGA, open • www.heilbronn.de/umwelt_klima/nachhaltigkeit/
the urban lake (previously the Floßhafen) has an spaces will be adapted for neighbourhood use. nachhaltigkeit_stadtentwicklung/
urban character. Thanks to the triangular site, with However, they will remain important far beyond
the lake inside and adjacent green areas around its neighbourhood boundaries and fulfil an overriding
edges, each of the three building plots connects to role within the wider urban fabric.
high-quality outdoor space on two sides and thus
benefits from high-quality urban space. The former The project shows how neighbourhood develop-
Karlshafen is being reconfigured as a lake linking ment can be integrated with major projects such as
the BUGA site to the southern city. Its shoreline the BUGA from an early stage to generate win-win
and embankment shield the “Stadtsee” from the benefits. It also testifies to the great importance of
active city harbour on the Neckar canal. open space – and green space in particular – within
the urban setting.
The newly designed river basin, which runs
through the city as an ecological corridor, is

Authenticated
S TO C K H O LM , SW E D E N
Hammarby Sjöstad
Key data
Project type Sustainable regeneration of dockland and industrial brownfield Urban design
Key access Hammarby Allé 3

Economy Processes,
Size 150 ha + 50 ha water area sociocultural
2
issues
Gross floor area (GFA) ca. 1,200,000 m2
Plot ratio ca. 0.8
urban climate
Users 25,000 residents, 11,000 dwellings, 10,000 jobs planned for completion in
2016
Energy Soil,
Team Stockholm urban planning office in cooperation with White Architects, water
Nyréns architects and Erséus architects
Construction 1999 – 2016 Mobility Material flows
Website www.hammarbysjostad.se
combined heat
indoor waste and power plant
collection points
public waste
collection points
electricity and
neighbourhood heating
flammable waste underground conduits
Hammarby Sjöstad (Hammarby lake-city) is about rounding areas. A new tram line and two new
Further information 3 km from the centre of the Swedish capital. Stock- bus routes connect Hammarby Sjöstad with
• Brick, Karolina: Report summary – Follow up of holm was Europe’s first environmental capital in other parts of the city. All-year municipal ferry
environmental impact in Hammarby Sjöstad: Sickla
2010 and has reduced CO2 emissions by 25 percent services provide further water-bound public
Udde, Sickla Kaj, Lugnet and Proppen, Grontmij
AB, Stockholm 2008 since 1990.1 The dockland and industrial brown- transport options. A pool includes 46 electric
• Ceeney, Lynne: Sustainable Developments in field was designated as a mixed-use development cars for residents to rent in order to reach des-
Sweden: Lessons for Ecotowns (Br 507), 2010 area in 1993 in response to major population and tinations beyond the public transport network.
• Foletta, Nicole; Field, Simon: Europe’s Vibrant urban growth. Hammarby subsequently became These measures make a major contribution to
New Low Car(bon) Communities. 2011 Stockholm’s largest urban development project, the fact that only around 20 percent of residents
• Fränne, Lars: Hammarby Sjöstad – a unique
reaching completion in 2016. use private cars today.3
environmental project in Stockholm; Booklet,
GlashusEtt. Stockholm 2007
www.hammarbysjostad.se The master plan sets out the quality of urban space
• GlashusEtt, Development Office: Hammarby and integrates environmentally friendly tech- Energy, material flows
Sjöstad – a new city district with emphasis on nologies with the aim of reducing the ecological
water and ecology; Alfaprint, Bumling AB, Stock- footprint by 50 percent in comparison to other dis-
and water
holm 2011 tricts in Stockholm.2 Individual building plots were Hammarby Sjöstad features a purpose-built
• Vernay, Anne-Lorene et al.: Systems Integration:
given to the developer who demonstrated the most integral energy and material flow system, which
Condition for Success. The Case of Hammarby
Sjostad and Eva-Lanxmeer; ICONDA®Bibliographic, innovative design approach. This practice targeted is now being copied by other cities. The core idea
2011. http://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/ investors wishing to implement experimental and is to recreate a zero-waste natural cycle within
CIB22082.pdf environmentally friendly technologies or concepts the neighbourhood. For example, a system of
• www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/projects/ham- in the neighbourhood. Canals provide 180 boat vacuum pipes collects combustible waste which
marby-sjostad-stockholm-sweden moorings and serve as local recreation areas. They is used to generate neighbourhood heat and
• www.futurecommunities.net/case-studies/
also act as a buffer for rainwater and storm surge electricity in a CHP plant. Biogas produced as a
hammarby-sjostad-stockholm-sweden-1995-2015
• https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov. water, slowing its discharge into Hammarby Lake. by-product from waste water treatment is used
uk/20110118150127/http://www.cabe.org.uk/ The mobility plan focuses on a dense network to operate buses and cars in the neighbourhood,
case-studies/hammarby-sjostad of footpaths and cycle routes connecting to sur- and to generate heat, cooling and electricity 4.

Authenticated
Hammarby Sjöstad 245
Energy
Biofuel
Sewage sludge
Combined heat and Hammarby
power plant (CHP) Solar, Wind, and Water District Heat plant
energy plant heating and
Remote heating
cooling
and power Environmentally-friendly Purified
Biofuel Flammable electricity generation waste water
waste Biogas Purified
waste water
Organic Public busses
Fields Compost plant Buildings
waste and cars Meer
Sea
Biogas
Building
New packaging
rainwater Waste water Sewage
Soil
Drinking water run-off treatment plant
Paper, glass,
Recycling and tin waste etc.
Canal
Hazardous waste Precipitation
Hammarby
Electronic waste Sealed surfaces
Waste Lake
Specialised
disposal Drinking Sedimentation
water treatment
Water
As a by-product from biogas production, sewage heavy rainfall is stored in cisterns and used to 1 Foletta 2011, p. 42
sludge is dried and used as agricultural fertiliser. irrigate gardens and flush toilets. In addition to 2 Sandelin 2008
3 Foletta 2011, p. 43
Above ground, collection points for paper, metal, using rainwater, individual buildings include
4 Fränne 2007, p. 7
glass and plastic waste are located on each build- various grey and black water recycling systems 5 ibid., p. 24
ing block. Non-flammable components are to reduce drinking water demand to 100 litres
collected and fed into the recycling cycle. per person per day, which is 50 percent lower
Hazardous waste such as paints or batteries are than the average for the entire city of Stockholm.
collected centrally for appropriate disposal.
Residents themselves and their consumer
The energy and material flow model also creates choices make a significant contribution to this
a natural neighbourhood water cycle. Water for sustainable, resource-efficient neighbourhood.
domestic cooking, drinking and washing is drawn The neighbourhood environmental information
from the water treatment plant fed by the nearby centre, GlashusEtt, hosts events to explain the
Lake Mälaren. Heat energy stored in grey and concept of the neighbourhood to residents and Opposing page:
black water is extracted and used to support the raise their awareness of a sustainable lifestyle. left Master plan
right Underground waste
local heating system before sewage is cleaned
conduit system
in an experimental sewage treatment plant and
This page:
naturally infiltrated. above Integrated energy
and material flow system for
The design of the open space includes open energy, waste and water
conduits to channel rainfall from sealed areas below left One of many
through the neighbourhood into Hammarby mooring points
below centre Waterside
Lake. Many roof areas are greened, which con-
leisure opportunities
tributes to mitigating flood peaks and improv- below right Rainwater
ing the neighbourhood’s microclimate and infiltration integrated into
biodiversity. Water draining from roofs during the open space concept

Authenticated
Möckernkiez
Key data
Project type Model for a cooperatively planned urban neighbourhood Urban design
Key access Yorckstraße / Möckernstraße 3

Economy Processes,
Size 27,100 m 2 sociocultural
2
issues
Plot ratio 1.7
urban climate
Users 330 residents / ha, 850 users (planned)
Team Baufrösche Architekten und Stadtplaner (master plan), Baumschlager
Eberle Berlin, Rolf Disch Solar-Architektur, roedig.schop Architekten, Energy Soil,
water
Schulte-Frohlinde Architekten (architects), Drees & Sommer (project
management, sustainability), Möckernkiez Genossenschaft für selbst-
verwaltetes, soziales und ökologisches Wohnen eG (owners) Mobility Material flows
Construction 2008 initiative founded, Construction started end of 2013, Completion from
June 2016 to August 2018
Website www.moeckernkiez.de
When the first terminus stations were built in ing and managing the neighbourhood, and the access. Other important objectives identified by
Berlin 170 years ago, a triangle of tracks (“Gleis- “Verein Möckernkiez” association, who promote the Möckernkiez Association were to promote and
dreieck”) was built in Kreuzberg on the approach social and cultural coexistence. strengthen social cohesion amongst neighbour-
to the Anhalt station. The triangle has since been hood residents, and to engage future residents
transformed into the Gleisdreieck Park open space Sustainability was of central importance for the and residents of surrounding existing buildings
and a new urban neighbourhood, the Möckern- project, which focussed on sociocultural and in the process of designing the neighbourhood.
kiez model project, built along its south-eastern ecological aspects. In social terms, the project
perimeter. The sustainable, intergenerational addressed all age groups, aiming to create an urban In environmental terms, the main focus was on
residential area provides 471 rental apartments, neighbourhood with a family- and child-friendly living in tune with nature. The plan was to seal
approx. 20 commercial units and an underground environment whilst providing self-determined only few areas and to protect biodiversity. Keep-
car park with 98 parking spaces, as well as com- living for the aged. The project also prioritised ing resource consumption low to protect nature
munity spaces. the inclusion of people with disabilities in the and keeping costs down for tenants was equally
sense of the UN Convention on the Rights of Per- important. The entire neighbourhood was to be
The concept of the urban neighbourhood was sons with Disabilities. Generally, the design of the built to Passivhaus standards and rely on the use
developed together with its future residents. Möckernkiez followed the “Design for All” prin- of renewable energy and grey water. The initia-
An initiative founded in 2008 included the ciples of respect for diversity and quality of life for tive also wanted to offer an attractive, car-free
Möckernkiez cooperative, responsible for build- all people, paying consistent attention to inclusive residential setting with access to facilities nearby.

Authenticated
Möckernkiez 247
General assembly of members:

Co-decision making • agrees key principles
• elects Board of Directors
• discussions, votes in membership assembly

• workshops
• developing and initialising concepts and proposals
Consultation • taking part in surveys
• committee work
• steering group of house group representatives mediates between
residents and Board of Directors
Opposing page:
• Board of Directors reports and opportunities for questions
Planning submission
in membership assembly
indicating open space plan
• regular member information by mail
Information This page:
• exhibitions
left Forms of participation
• information events
below Visualisation: urban
• advisory sessions
living in the neighbourhood
Process and social fabric presents a modern and viable way of financing
neighbourhood development.
The project developed its own financing model Further information
• www.berlin-maximal.de/branchen/immobilien/
in order to facilitate delivery. Anybody wanting The Möckernkiez initiative’s model project is a art87,2327
to occupy an apartment is required to put around rare example of planning a user-specific urban • www.netzwerk-generationen.de/index.
€ 920/m2 into the cooperative. This equates to neighbourhood by means of new organisational php?id=490
30 percent of construction costs and corresponds forms and financing concepts which go beyond • www.tagesspiegel.de/berlin/steigende-
to € 119,500 for a 130 m2 apartment. The remain- conventional model of participation. The project mieten-im-moeckernkiez-sollen-400-wohnungen-
ing 70 percent was financed by bank loans. This shows that alternative project organisations can entstehen/6541518-2.html
funding model achieves very moderate rents per generate large-scale neighbourhood projects, over
square metre (excluding services), which should and above the well-established Baugruppe.
be affordable for a broad public. There is some
opposition to this model, because people on low
incomes remain unable to contribute the initial
contribution. The fear is that the funding require-
ment could make it a purely middle-class neigh-
bourhood. Nevertheless, the cooperative model

Authenticated
A M H A R A R E G I O N , E TH I O P I A
NEST – New Ethiopian Sustainable Town

Key data
Project type Exemplar for third-world sustainable urban development Urban design
Key access n/a (new town) 3

Economy Processes,
Size Entire city, size undefined sociocultural
2
issues
Gross floor area (GFA) Undefined, depends on development process
Plot ratio Undefined, depends on development process Emissions 1 Open space,
urban climate
Users 15,000 (model town)
Construction NESTown Group: Franz Oswald, Peter Schenker, Benjamin Stähli, Fasil
Giorghis (Project management), working with Dieter Läpple, Monika Energy Soil,
Oswald, Zegeye Cherenet, Roland Walthert, Philippe Block, Marc Angelil, water
Dominik Langenbacher, Tibebu Daniel, Peter Schmid, Jean-Pierre Kuster
Construction 2015 – 2017 (BuraNest model project)
Website www.nestown.org
Unlike European cities, most of which develop mined lives, independent of imported goods. The hut for supplies and building materials (energy),
according to long-term plans, urban growth in model is based on the “4E” urban design themes: a market and transport area (exchange) and a
Asia, Africa and South America tends to be rapid Ecology, Energy, Exchange, and Education. community facility, including a nursery, med-
and mostly uncontrolled. People move from rural ical station, administrative centre and church
areas to cities, which lack the adequate social and Skilled craft qualifications and university degrees (ecology). Each core area thus embodies one
technical infrastructure to keep pace. In Ethi are rare and often of poor quality. This is why one of the activities and institutions necessary for
opia, the population has doubled in just 25 years. project focus is on education. In addition to con- building a town. Core area 1 (education), which
The NEST project – an acronym for “New Energy ventional schooling, building the town by hand includes the vocational school, and core area 2
Sustainable Town” or “New Ethiopian Sustaina- aims to practice manual skills and consolidate (energy), where experiments are carried out on
ble Town” – explores the outlook for sustainable professional pride and a sense of belonging to building prototypes are particularly important.
development in small rural towns before the exo- a new, modern society. Collaboration and the Dimensions and proportions can be adapted to
dus to the city sets in. division of labour is to be set on a cooperative meet local needs and conditions.
basis. This approach aims to instil and reinforce
Initiated by a team surrounding a Swiss-Ethiopian a sense of community even in preparation and Residents are organised in cooperatives, building
group of architects, the project aims to develop construction, and later provide the basis for using their houses together on defined plots of land and
self-reliant small towns in rural Ethiopia, which and cooperatively running the town. adapting the given two-storey building structure
have the necessary infrastructure (schools, urban to meet their own needs. A so-called Rain Water
construction works including water, energy and Along with a terrace and pergola, a tree, which is Unit (RWU) – common roof area for up to eight
waste management, community facilities and considered sacred in Ethiopian culture, defines dwellings – collects rainwater and channels it
medical station, administration, market) and the the town centre square. This centre is surrounded into cisterns and a system of overflow gutters.
ability to provide their own food, energy and water by four core areas, each dedicated to one of the The master plan maps out areas for growing
supply. The aim is for residents to lead self-deter- four design themes: a school area (education), a vegetables, for livestock, for shops, workshops

Authenticated
NEST – New Ethiopian Sustainable Town 249
Opposing page:
Possible development
phases
This page:
above Fig tree on the town
centre square
below left Completed
cisterns in front of the
housing
below centre Building
cisterns to irrigate the fields
below right Irrigation water
channel
and rows of houses each with their own garden. omous town. A first rural neighbourhood (Close Further information
The plan also includes areas for joint activities, One) with 22 rainwater units (RWU) or 180 house • Angélil, Marc; Hebel, Dirk (ed): Cities of Change.
sports and games as well as for infrastructure units was completed by 2016. Addis Ababa. Basel/Boston/Berlin 2009
and transport. • Post Oil City, Arch+ 196/197 02/2010
And yet the project also highlights that there can be • Giorghis, Fasil: Challenges of New Towns in
Ethiopia. In: Construction Ahead 17, Addis Ababa
The concept envisages using only locally avail- more than one model for sustainable urban devel-
2009
able materials. Building components combine opment. Simply transferring a planning approach • Oswald, Franz: Der urbanisierte Globus. In:
locally extracted materials such as stones, logs, for sustainable neighbourhood development from Die Stadt der Zukunft. ETH Globe 2, 06/2010,
and grasses, air-dried clay bricks (adobe) with Europe to Africa (or vice versa) would probably be pp. 14–19
industrial waste such as plastic bottles, tin cans, doomed to failure. It therefore remains to be seen • Oswald, Franz: The Idea of a Town. In: Construc-
plastic containers, tyres or cables. how successful NEST will be in Africa and whether tion Ahead 20, Addis Ababa 2009
• Oswald Franz: The Making of Urban Ethiopia. in:
other projects will follow this principle.
Construction Ahead 17, Addis Ababa 2009
The cooperative construction of houses and • Oswald, Franz; Schenker, Peter: NESTown: New
associated infrastructure is another important Ethiopian Sustainable Town. A Real Life Experi-
aspect. Residents commit to help building the ment. In: ATDF Journal 7, 01–02/2010
neighbouring buildings, and gain support in • Cherenet, Zegeye; Sewnet, Helawi (ed): Building
building their own houses in return. The NEST Ethiopia. Addis Ababa 2012
model is being used for the first time in Bura on • www.nestown.coop
• www.menschenfuermenschen.ch/projekte/stadt-
Lake Tanas, north of Bahir Dar in the north-west
der-zukunft-buranest
of Ethiopia. BuraNEST is a “Real Life Experi-
ment” which aims to create an ecologically and
culturally balanced, self-sufficient and auton-

Authenticated
A M S TE R DA M , N E TH E R L A N D S
GWL-Terrein
GWL-Terrein
Urban design
Key data
Project type Car-free neighbourhood on site of former drinking water treatment plant 3
Economy Processes,
Key access Haarlemmerweg, Van Hallstraat, Van Hogendorpstraat sociocultural
2
issues
Size 6 ha
Gross floor area (GFA) ca. 70,000 m2
urban climate
Plot ratio ca. 1.2
Users ca. 1,400 residents, ca. 600 dwellings
Energy Soil,
Team KCAP Architects & Planners (urban planners), West 8 (landscape plan- water
ners), DKV, Neutelinger & Riedijk, Meyer & van Shooten, Zeinstra, Van der
Pol (architects)
Construction 1994–1998
Website www.gwl-terrein.nl
This page:
Site plan (grey = existing,
coloured = new build)
Opposing page:
above left Aerial photo-
graph
above right: Green space
with playground
below (left to right) Neigh-
bourhood playing field – with
landmark former water tower
in background; car-free
neighbourhood access
routes; brick housing block
The GWL-Terrein is located on the site of a for- industrial buildings. The former waterworks now of a car-free neighbourhood where traffic areas
mer drinking water treatment plant on the outer house a café, a restaurant, a pub, some business are reduced to a minimum. Providing only a
edge of the dense Westerpark district about 3 km premises and a community centre. small amount of parking around the edges helped
north-west of Amsterdam city centre. It forms Two long, slightly kinked buildings in the north- dedicate much of the site to private and public
the transition between an industrial area and west enclose the building layout and shield it green spaces – including four playgrounds. The
the dense 19th-century Staatsliedenbuurt resi from the noise of the heavily trafficked road to basic idea was to individualise the management
dential area. the north and the adjacent industrial estate to the of green spaces as much as possible by placing
west. The terraced building typology breaks up it in the responsibility of the residents. Resi-
The aim of the project was to provide new homes the surrounding perimeter block development dents use and take care of rented gardens and
and attractive outdoor space, particularly for to create varied views in and out of the area. balconies, thereby taking on responsibility for
families from diverse social backgrounds. At these areas.
the same time, the development’s impact on the GWL provides approximately 600 dwellings,
environment was to be kept as low as possible. around half of which were built as part of the
Building density and use lend the neighbourhood state social housing programme. Target density Mobility
an urban character. The layout reflects the street was pitched at 230 persons per hectare, and a
layouts and floor heights of the surrounding plot ratio of around 1.2. Despite this high urban The neighbourhood is completely car-free, offer-
urban grain. Each surrounding street is extended density, the intention was for the neighbouring only emergency access to fire services or
as a pedestrian route through the site and ties hood’s character to be defined by as many green ambulances. Parking provision has been reduced
residential buildings in with the different existing spaces as possible. This resulted in the design from the usual 2.5–3.0 spaces to only 0.2 spaces

Authenticated
GWL-Terrein 251
per apartment. In fact, only about 20 percent of and concrete blocks. Rigorous, straight east-west 1 Foletta 2011, p. 18
residents own a car.1 Residents drew lots for the connections and curved north-south routes help 2 Christ/Loose/Hübner
140 resident spaces located at the neighbour- people find their way. 2001, p. 27
hood’s western boundary, alongside 10 visitor

parking spaces and two car-sharing vehicles.2 GWL-Terrein exemplifies the successful design
More car-sharing spaces are planned on the and delivery of a car-free urban quarter. Excel-
eastern boundary. The absence of underground lent public transport links, with stops within easy
car parking helped reduce construction cost walking distance from all parts of the neighbour-
considerably. hood are a key factor contributing to the success Further information
• a+t 19, 2002: Density I
of projects of this kind. Access to existing or new
• Christiaanse, Kees; Geipel, Kaye; Sauerbruch,
As a result, public transport links are very import local amenities, leisure and educational facilities is Matthias; Wohlhage, Konrad: Kees Christiaanse.
ant. A tram terminus provides a direct connection also essential. At GWL-Terrein, these are available Rotterdam 1999
to the city centre whilst extending the line to the in the nearby Westerpark area. • www.energy-cities.eu/db/amsterdam_579_en.pdf
leisure area to the north is under discussion. A • www.gwl-terrein.nl/files/artikelen/low%20
bus route links the neighbourhood to the main carbon%20communities%20GWL%20only.pdf
• www.kcap.eu/en/projects/v/gwl_terrein/
railway station. Both stops are located on the
• https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.
neighbourhood’s eastern boundary. The neigh- uk/20110107171236/
bourhood itself is accessed by shared foot and • http://www.buildingforlife.org/case-studies/
cycle paths paved with water-permeable bricks gwl-terrein/introduction

Authenticated
SY D N E Y, AU S TR A LI A
Barangaroo
Key data
Project type New housing and business neighbourhood on brownfield dockland site Urban design
Key access Hungry Mile, High Street, Kent Street 3

Economy Processes,
Size 12.8 ha (South = 7.5 ha, Central = 5.3 ha) sociocultural
2
issues
Gross floor area (GFA) 564,000 m2 (total), 400,000 m2 (offices), 120,000 m2 (residential),
44,000 m2 (retail, other) Emissions 1 Open space,
urban climate
Plot ratio 4.4
Users 23,000 (jobs), 3,000 residents, 2.5 million visitors to neighbourhood and
adjoining “Barangaroo Reserve” park (2015 –2017) Energy Soil,
water
Team Hill Thalis Architecture+Urban Projects, Paul Berkemeier Architects, Jane
Irwin Landscape Architecture (urban design competition winners), Sacha
Coles, Aspect and Oculus (landscape architects), Richard Rogers, Ivan Mobility Material flows
Harbour (Barangaroo South), Peter Walker & Partners (Headland Park),
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP, Anderson Hunter Horne (Central Barangaroo)
Construction Construction started in 2011, completion due 2025
Website www.barangaroo.com
Headland Park Barangaroo Central Barangaroo South
At 22 hectares, Barangaroo Waterfront is Syd- around 5,000 apartments from a nearby solar 2017, rooftop photovoltaic systems were produ
ney’s largest urban regeneration project. Located park. Public transport and a dense street grid cing 803 kW.
east of the central business district, the now is seen as particularly important. The intention
disused container ship loading berths had been is that most of the food sold in the neighbour- Around 96 percent of people living and working
used for shipping and industry for 200 years. hood should be produced organically within in the neighbourhood make daily trips by public
Since 2011, a new nearly car-free neighbour- the region, and that more than 80 % of waste transport, bicycle or on foot, contributing to a
hood has been under construction here. Around should be recycled. Appropriate training is to positive CO2 balance. This is made possible by a
30,000 people are expected to live and work here encourage local businesses to reduce packaging dense public transport network, which includes a
when the development is completed, planned and general waste. ferry service connecting Barangaroo to the existing
for 2025. water network, a metro or train station and further
This is one of only 19 neighbourhoods worldwide bus or tram stops. The plan is also to provide more
to participate in the C40 Cities “Climate Positive Energy and mobility than 1,000 bicycle parking spaces and attractive
Development Program”. The four overriding foot and cycle paths through the car-free zones.
sustainability goals are to be CO2-neutral, to Various measures are implemented in order This aims to revitalise the public realm and define
produce more clean water than is needed, to gen- to make the neighbourhood CO2-neutral. For neighbourhood identity.
erate zero waste and emissions and to improve example, the orientation of the three office
residents’ well-being. The plan is to generate towers reduces heat gains on western facades to Materials and logistics are selected with care, even
solar power for the public realm directly within a minimum. Seawater used for cooling contrib- during construction, with local sandstone being
the neighbourhood, and to provide electricity to utes to energy-neutral air conditioning. By June used on a large scale. The intention is also to use

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Barangaroo 253
Opposing page:
left Master plan
right Headland Park
harbourside now
This page:
above left Aerial view
of the neighbourhood,
November 2017
below Current harbourside
use
around one third of the 330,000 m3 of material footpaths and cycle routes, as well as the re-
excavated for building the office towers to create designed shoreline. The design includes artificial
the Headland Park at the northern end of the site. rock pools, sandstone basins which fill with water
All other building materials will be brought to the at high tide. “Barangaroo Central” combines areas
construction site, mostly by ship. for recreation and commercial development, pro-
viding space for open air events, art and cultural
The water recycled in Barangaroo will also supply events and educational activities. “Barangaroo
drinking water to other parts of the city. As well South” will extend the central business district
as consistently using water-saving devices, rain to the waterfront, providing a mix of commercial
water and treated waste water will be used to flush and residential buildings as well as public areas.
toilets, for irrigation and fire-fighting. Rainwater The new, 14 km long waterfront promenade aims
Further information
• www.barangaroosouth.com.au
is stored in water tanks on rooftops and beneath to connect the entire neighbourhood to the sur- • www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/development/
the adjacent Barangaroo Reserve park. rounding urban areas. The area is already being major-developments/barangaroo
used regularly for a variety of events. • https://thestreetsofbarangaroo.com
The master plan sets aside more than half of the
development site for public space and recreational
areas, especially in “Headland Park”, the first
planning phase, where there is also a cultural
centre. The area will be defined by green spaces,

Authenticated
A M S TE R DA M , N E TH E R L A N D S
NDSM Wharf
Key data
Project type Dockland brownfield transformed by interim use Urban design
Key access Neveritaweg 3

Economy Processes,
Size 68 ha including waterbodies sociocultural
2
issues
Gross floor area (GFA) To be defined, depending on development process
Plot ratio To be defined, depending on development process
urban climate
Users Artists, start-ups, creative industries, ca. 2,100 residents
Team Project office Amsterdam Noordwaarts, De Architekten Cie,
Kinetisch Nord (artists’ group) + Dynamo Architekten Energy Soil,
water
Construction Interim use and conversion as from 2000
Website www.ndsm.nl Mobility Material flows
This page:
below Aerial photograph
Opposing page:
above Urban life on the
streets of the “Kunststad”, a
former shipbuilding hall
now housing workspaces
for artists and creative
industries
below left Open space use
next to former dockland
crane and shipbuilding hall;
student housing in converted
freight containers
below centre “Kantine”, one
of the neighbourhood's bars
and cafés
below right “Kraanspoor”
office block on 270 m long
gantry tracks
NDSM wharf is a dockland brownfield in north set to house more homes and start-ups in future. fundamentally when the 270 m long “Kraanspoor”
Amsterdam, just a 10-minute ferry trip from the The plan is for the neighbourhood to continue office building was built on an old crane track 13 m
main railway station. NDSM wharf has recently growing according to the guiding creative urban above the surface of the water.
become one of the most sought-after creative and development principle, and the contract for use
cultural hotspots. of the site, initially limited until 2011, has been The design of the open spaces aims to preserve the
extended to 2027. character of the neighbourhood as a wharf, add-
Most of the former industrial and dockland site’s ing only the bare minimum needed for cleaning,
buildings have been vacant since the 1990s. maintenance, security installations and lighting. A
The area’s shipyard character is still very well- Focus: urban design and central north-south street, provides space for tem-
preserved in the eastern part of the site, and these porary exhibitions, numerous concerts, festivals,
parts of the complex, including a large shipbuilding
open space flea markets and other events, which contribute to
hall are now listed. In 1999, a group of various The neighbourhood’s urban development master revitalising the neighbourhood and raising aware-
artists and designers won an ideas competition for plan sets out building plots, open spaces and con- ness of the neighbourhood as a creative centre.
the entire area organised by the City of Amster- nections, but leaves a lot of room for manoeuvre The whole area is traffic-calmed. A ferry service
dam. Work on the site began in the year 2000, in the design and delivery. The entire site is mixed- every 30 minutes and three bus routes ensure that
when the Kinetisch Noord Foundation started to use, with 30 % of new-build apartments dedicat- the area is connected to the city centre. Both are
use and manage the 20,000-m2 shipbuilding hall. ed to social housing. Previously, most changes set for further expansion in future.
The building came to house a self-contained small were driven by the conversion and interim use of
town called the “Kunststad” including alleys and existing buildings. As well as the central shipbuild-
squares and soon attracted more and more creative ing hall, an old forge and a f ormer joiner’s work-
people from the entire Netherlands. The City of shop are being converted to house new business-
Amsterdam views this cultural project as a kind of es (a manufacturer of energy drinks and a music
seed cell for the entire development site, which is station). Outsiders’ perception of the area changed

Authenticated
NDSM Wharf 255
Focus: process and nities, for example by installing large-scale solar

Further information
collectors on the shipbuilding hall. There are also
participation plans to use organic waste from households and
• Brinkmann, Ullrich: Interior Urban Design. In:
Bauwelt 22/2008, pp. 32–35
The vision is to create an urban neighbourhood restaurants to fuel a biogas plant. • Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung Berlin:
without boundaries between living and working, Urban Pioneers, Berlin: Stadtentwicklung durch
culture and commerce, old and new. In particular, An “Energy Café”, hosted several times a year, Zwischennutzung. Berlin 2007
• Ziehl, Michael et al.: second hand spaces. Über
the neighbourhood is intended to strengthen cre- provides information and the opportunity to dis-
das Recyceln von Orten im städtischen Wandel.
ative industries in the city. The route to achieving cuss possible courses of action. It aims to draw Berlin 2012
this goal is deliberately kept open. NDSM wharf up an energy map in order to help manage shared • www.evadeklerk.com/kunststad
is growing organically and slowly, generating a activities. The neighbourhood’s residents have set • www.ndsmenergie.nl
high degree of urbanity and diversity. Quickly themselves a goal of meeting their entire energy • https://wonenopndsm.nl/home
and without much red tape, interim uses spring demand from renewable sources by 2020. The
up in vacant spaces, generating massive potential construction of wind turbines will make a major
for improving the area. contribution to meeting this objective.
There are also the first community-led initiatives At present, it is difficult to predict how the neigh-
in the neighbourhood to promote greater use of bourhood will develop and whether it will achieve
environmentally friendly technologies. For ex its goals, however the measures implemented
ample, efforts are being made to implement a so far can be said to have made a very positive
system to reuse grey water and allow rainwater to contribution to this end.
infiltrate slowly on-site. The plan is also to organise
a joint energy supply and thereby offer former
industrial and factory workers new job opportu-

Authenticated
Berlin TXL – The Urban Tech Republic

Key data
Project type Research and industrial park on a former airport site Urban design
Key access Westliche Trapezstraße 3
Economy Processes,
2
Gross floor area (GFA) ca. 150,000 m2 existing buildings, up to 1.3 million m² new buildings issues
Plot ratio ca. 0.59 – 0.68 Emissions 1 Open space,

urban climate
Users 17,500 workers, 5,000 students (planned)
Team Reicher Haase Assoziierte GmbH (urban design master plan), LOIDL
(landscape design), TOPOTEK 1/MVRDV (design manual), Drees & Energy Soil,
Sommer (project management, sustainability, infrastructure and transport ), water
IBT.PAN, Argus (urban and transport planning), EIBS (transport planning),
GRAFT Architects, West 8 architecture, gmp Gerkan Marg und Partner Mobility Material flows
architects, Tegel Projekt GmbH
Construction Construction expected to start in 2022, completion expected 2042
Website www.berlintxl.de

Authenticated
Berlin TXL – The Urban Tech Republic 257
Introduction and history The development plan for the 495-ha site includes Opposing page: Urban
221 ha of building plots and 245 ha of green space. design prequalification of
the central area, July 2014
“Berlin TXL – Urban Tech Republic” is the vision The central, iconic terminal building will house
This page:
for the future of the site now used for Berlin’s the Beuth University of Applied Sciences. Out- above: Visualisation, aerial
“Otto Lilienthal” airport. The airport with the buildings will accommodate the “Gewerbeband” view
IATA code “TXL” is scheduled to close six months (commercial cordon), whilst the area between below: Visualisation,
after Berlin Brandenburg Airport, currently today’s runways will house the “Industriepark” Campus square
under construction, has been opened. At 495 ha, (industrial park). Existing structures such as the
Europe’s biggest inner-city development site in terminal, parts of the runway, and the technical
the middle of Berlin’s western centre will then be infrastructure will be integrated and converted
open to new urban development. for urban use. Plots between 3,000 m 2 and
First used for air traffic in 1896 and expanded in 200,000 m2 offer flexible locations for businesses
order to help break the Berlin Blockade in 1948, ranging from start-ups to multinational corpora-
the site was opened for civil aviation in 1960. The tions. An experimental 10-ha area will be dedi-
distinctive hexagonal terminal building designed cated to academic and industrial research facili-
by Gerkan, Marg und Partner architects was com- ties. At the eastern edge of the site, the mixed
pleted in 1974. residential “Schumacher” neighbourhood (29 ha)
with up to 5,000 apartments ties into adjoining
existing residential neighbourhoods. The “Land-
Spatial structure schaftsraum Tegel” (Tegel landscape area) extends
through the area from east to west, where it meets
The plan envisages a vital industrial and research Jungfernheide forest. Housing, jobs and leisure
park for around 17,500 workers and 5,000 stu- facilities are closely linked to create a “city of short
dents. The objective is to create a place where routes”.
science, research, industry and commerce can
closely collaborate to generate future industries
for tomorrow’s cities. The focus is on six “urban Process
technology” fields: energy, mobility, water recyc
ling, (new) materials and information and com- Right from the start, planning the redevelopment
munication technologies (ICT). Importance is of the airport was a discursive process which had
given to networking with the urban environment to take many interests into account. In 1996, the
and landscape. federal government and the affected states of

Authenticated
Phases
Existing + Phase 0 Waste water access
Phase 1 Drinking water access
Phase 2 Pumping station
Phase 3 Optional in small-scale
Phase 4 access network /development
This page: Innovative infra-

structure: water, access and
canal network
Opposing page: Diagram of
future rainwater scheme
1 www.stadtentwicklung.
berlin.de/staedtebau/pro-
jekte/tegel/de/konzept/
leitsaetze.shtml
Berlin and Brandenburg unanimously decided Quality Assurance In 2015, an Integrated Urban Development Con-
to close of the airport. Currently, 33 % of the air- cept (Integriertes Städtebauliches Entwicklung-
port site belongs to the state of Berlin. The federal Tegel Projekt GmbH was founded as a 100 % sub- skonzept ISEK) was drawn up for Tegel Airport
government, represented by the federal agency for sidiary of the state of Berlin in 2011. It is tasked and the surrounding area. This promotes the
real estate, owns 67 % but will give up its share of with managing the delivery of the development new neighbourhood’s integration with its sur-
the ownership during the redevelopment process. vision. Based on preliminary work, the “Master roundings. Various workshop events focussed on
plan Berlin TXL: Reuse of Tegel Airport” was developing measures for the surrounding areas,
The process of discussing and developing the adopted in 2013, and it provided the basis for the including the Cité Pasteur neighbourhood, which
reuse concept started with an initial conference urban planning competition, won by RHA Reicher has close spatial links to Berlin TXL. These meas-
hosted by Berlin’s Senate Administration for Urban Haase Assoziierte GmbH in the same year. The ures will be implemented whilst the Urban Tech
Development and Environment in 2008. Numer- winning design retains many existing buildings Republic is being built.
ous other conferences stimulated the debate by which create a sense of identity – including the
providing the general and professional public with “Highflyer” terminal access, both A and B termi-
an insight into the ongoing process. The idea of nals, and several hangars. Subsequently, Topotek1 Infrastructure
making the site a beacon for sustainability, innov and MVRDV developed a design handbook which
ation and the economy was expressed from the sets out clear and flexible design guidelines for In 2013, Drees & Sommer’s “Innovative Infrastruc-
outset. A phased, cooperative workshop process buildings, exterior spaces and vegetation, ensur- tures” study laid the foundation for integrating
was carried out in 2009 and 2010. Six renowned ing that different building developers adhere technical innovations into the Berlin TXL project.
planning teams gave shape to these ideas, defining to a harmonious design. The project’s quality The unprecedented tendering of an integrated
the target vision of a “research and industrial park requirements were further reinforced through infrastructure system plan (a contract for all infra-
for future technology in the Jungfernheide land- certification of the central “Campus West” phase structures from water and energy to mobility and
scape”. This was the basis for a structural concept according to the DGNB Commercial Districts ICT solutions), helped an integrated planning
and nine principles1 to guide the development system (Pre-certificate 2016). team generate new synergies. The feasibility study
of the area. The idea to transform the site into a The redevelopment of the site affects adjoining examined the suitability of a range of common and
“Smart City” was born. neighbourhoods which also need regenerating. unconventional infrastructure solutions for the

Authenticated
Berlin TXL – The Urban Tech Republic 259
Private Public
Optional rainwater treatwment for

Covered settlement basin /retention basin (new)
use in flushing toilets
Rainwater channel
UV-radiation Fine filter
Open water course Evaporation Recirculation
Hybrid control, pressurising plant
Rainwater use
Open rainwater
basin
Optional adsorption reactor(s)
for rainwater treatment
Open water course

Membrane
drum filter
Covered settlement
basin/retention basin Optional
(existing) adsorption
reactor(s) (iron
hydroxide) Adsorption circulation
Rainwater channel
Phosphate
Optional extraction of Overflow into Overflow into

canal water to balance Berlin-Spandau Berlin-Spandau
water level ship canal ship canal
project’s supplies and infrastructure. This resulted Economy

in plans to allow industrial waste heat and heat/
cooling from renewable energy sources to be fed Berlin TXL must be seen in the context of Berlin’s 2 www.berlin.de/sen/
into a low-temperature network (low-exergy net- reindustrialisation. Economically, Berlin has been wirtschaft/wirtschaft/
technologiezentren_
work) for use by residents. A proposed lake gained relatively weak in recent decades. Berlin’s Sen-
zukunftsorte-smart-city/
a technical function for rainwater management. ate Administration for Economics, Energy and zukunftsorte/
An infrastructure “backbone” is supplemented Enterprises has adopted the “Future Places”2 artikel.109346.php
by a wide range of possible innovation building (Zukunftsorte) strategy in order to create an image 3 empirica 2014
blocks, where new urban technologies still in associated with innovation, creativity and science
development can be tested. The 2013 mobility and make it an attractive business location in the
plan provides a dedicated lane through the site long term.
for rail-free autonomous public transport. The A study of Berlin TXL’s economic impact (empir-
mobility strategy focuses on intermodal and ica, 2014) estimates that it could generate a total
multifunctional mobility hubs, which combine gross added value of € 2.2 bn and € 150 m in tax
various modes of transport (e.g. people movers, revenue per annum.3 Aside from primary eco-
bicycles, electric cars, car sharing, freight bikes, nomic effects such as jobs, this is also due to con-
and taxis) with supplementary functions such siderable secondary regional economic effects.
as parcel stations, restaurants, ATMs and public Berlin TXL is estimated to create 34,000 jobs in
toilets. Combining these offers makes mobility total, around 17,500 located on-site.
hubs highly useful nodes which offer maximum The aim is to create a range of functional and
individual flexibility. attractive spaces and continually integrate the site
into city life during its entire development period.
Further information
• www.berlintxl.de
• www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/staedtebau/
projekte/tegel/stadtumbau/

Authenticated
V I E N N A , AU S TR I A
Viertel Zwei
Key data
Urban design
Project type Mixed urban neighbourhood of homes, businesses and a hotel
Key access Trabrennstraße 3
Economy Processes,
2
issues
Plot ratio 2.7
urban climate
Users 4,000 (now), 10,000 (planned)
Team IC Development GmbH, U2 Stadtentwicklung GmbH, WES (landscape
Energy Soil,
design), StudioVlay, Delugan Meissl (architecture), SHA + Josef, Tillner &
water
Willinger, Rajek Barosch (landscape design), Rosinak (transport planning),
Drees & Sommer (sustainability consultancy)
Construction 2007– 2021
Website www.viertel-zwei.at
This page:
Aerial view of the neighbour-
hood with race course in
background
Opposing page:
above Site plan
centre
Student apartments
below Round point blocks
providing around 200 apart-
ments, each with at least one
terrace
IC Development is creating a mixed urban neigh- Wien Holding, IC Development and IG Immo- phases II and III. Subsequently, architectural
bourhood next to the historic Krieau horse race- bilien Invest, founded to develop areas along the competitions were held for individual buildings.
course, opened in Vienna’s District 2 in 1878. The U2 metro line extension. The neighbourhood’s design appeal lies in the
development aims for an ideal work-life balance. contrast between listed existing buildings and
The new neighbourhood is near to the U2 metro Each of the three phases within “Viertel Zwei” modern, high-quality buildings.
line and directly adjoins the Prater park and the has a different character. Phase I “An der
new, architecturally ambitious campus of the Trabrennbahn” (“Trackside”, 40,000 m2, com-
Vienna University of Economics and Business pleted 2007–2011) is dominated by offices and Visions
Administration. The heart of this “U2 City” is a hotel, but also provides social housing and a
called “Viertel Zwei”, and is being developed in kindergarten. Phase II “An den Tribünen” Among other awards, Viertel Zwei has received
three construction phases. (“Grandstand”, 36,700 m2, completed 2015–2017) the Real Estate Brand Award 2011, the CÄSAR
High density and lively ground floors lend the provides a much larger share of residential real estate award 2009, the ZVAÖ Association of
neighbourhood a very urban character. This con- space as well as student housing and business Architects Client Award 2009, as well as the first
trasts with the listed, and still used racecourse and premises. Phase III “An der Meierei” (“Stables”, DGNB/ÖGNI Platinum pre-certificate for urban
the adjoining, near-natural Prater recreational 44,000 m2, completion due 2021) includes two districts (2014). Viertel Zwei includes various
area, which acts as an urban green lung. office and residential towers as the “highlight” residential concepts, developed for different tar-
of the development and plans to attract creative get groups, such as student apartments, studios
industries and start-ups to the listed stable and large apartments with terraces. The devel-
Process blocks. Even before phase II was developed, a opment benefits from excellent public transport
temporary creative and organic market held on thanks to its location near metro line 2. The neigh-
U2 Stadtentwicklung GmbH and the administra- the site around the racecourse revived the area, bourhood itself is completely car-free, which
tion of District 2 are closely collaborating to indicating possible future uses. helps create lively ground floors with a broad
develop Viertel Zwei. U2 Stadtentwicklung GmbH A collaborative urban planning workshop in 2013 spectrum of restaurants and businesses. The gym,
is a public-private partnership (PPP) including prepared the ground for the development of running track and fitness trail by the racecourse,

Authenticated
Viertel Zwei, Vienna 26�
V RGA
VO
RTENSTRASS
Station E
Krieau
Plus Biz
Zwei Zwei Stella Station
Zwei Stadion
Hoch
Zwei
Viertel Weit
Messe Zwei Blick
Wien
Hotel
Rund Grün
Courtyard Blick
Vier
By Marriott
Denk
Drei Studio Korso
Zwei
Meiereisstraße
MIilestone
Parkhaus
Denk
Drei
BUS 82A
Trabrennbahn
WU
Krieau
Campus
Denk
Drei
Rondo
RONDO
Tribünen
Straßenbahn Grüner Prater Änderungen vorbehalten

Linie 1
the adjoining Prater, as well as an adventure play- of neighbourhood services by enabling registered
ground built especially for the new neighbour- interested residents to express their wishes, feed-
hood provide a wide range of opportunities for back and ideas about what the neighbourhood
exercise. has to offer in workshops, events and surveys.
Initial services on offer include smart electri-
city tariffs, new mobility options and fibre-optic
Services broadband. Further products and services in the
fields of energy, mobility and smart living are to
Thanks to the neighbourhood management sys- follow.
tem, new and existing residents can contact a
member of staff at any time. In an effort to IC Development also regards the management
improve the work-life balance, a service plan for and maintenance of outdoor facilities as a ser-
businesses and private residents offers wide rang- vice, and this is reflected in a special ownership
ing services such as cleaning, laundry, childcare structure. Whilst apartments and buildings are
and tyre changes. A Viertel Zwei Facebook page predominantly offered for sale, the outdoor facil-
and a community newsletter regularly announce ities and underground car parks remain within
events and activities organised in the neighbour- the ownership of IC Development. This means
hoods – such as organised runs, Christmas parties that the public realm will continue to be main-
and so on. tained by IC Facility Management in order to
ensure a consistent standard of quality and main-
The neighbourhood management and electric tenance, and maintain the neighbourhood’s good
utility Wien Energie have joined forces to create reputation.
the innovative “Urban Pioneers Community”.
This co-creative project aims to develop the future

Authenticated
Further Projects
Name Country City Key access
Open space / urban
Process/ social
Material flows
Urban design
Water /soil
Emissions
Economy
Mobility
climate
aspects
Energy
solarCity AT Linz Heliosallee ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Kabelwerk AT Vienna Am Kabelwerk ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

The Green Capital BR Curitiba Av. Presidente Kennedy ‡
Carré Vert CH Geneva Bd. de Saint-Georges ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Les Plaines-du-Loup CH Lausanne Route des Plaines-du-Loup ‡ ‡ ‡
Malley, Prilly and Renens CH Lausanne Route des Lausanne ‡ ‡

sectors
Ecofaubourgs CH Schlieren Badenerstrasse ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Green City CH Zurich-Manegg Bruchstrasse ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Kraftwerk 1 CH Zurich Hardturmstrasse ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Glattpark CH Zurich-Opfikon Glattparkstrasse ‡ ‡ ‡
Le Quartier Central DE Düsseldorf Marc-Chagall-Straße ‡
Neue Weststadt DE Esslingen am Neckar Südtangente ‡ ‡
Inner-city Passivhaus DE Fellbach Ginsterweg ‡
neighbourhood
Vauban DE Freiburg im Breisgau Vauban-Allee ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
“Am Schlierberg” Solar DE Freiburg im Breisgau Rosa-Luxemburg-Straße ‡
neighbourhood
Rieselfeld DE Freiburg im Breisgau Rieselfeldallee ‡ ‡
HafenCity DE Hamburg Überseeallee ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Kronsberg DE Hannover Johanneskamp ‡ ‡
Bahnstadt DE Heidelberg Langer Anger ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Smiley West DE Karlsruhe Indianaring ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Stellwerk 60 DE Cologne Nippes Am alten Stellwerk ‡ ‡
Freiham-Nord DE Munich Bodenseestraße ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Messestadt Riem DE Munich Willy-Brandt-Allee ‡ ‡ ‡
Theresienhöhe DE Munich Theresienhöhe ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Ackermannbogen DE Munich Ackermannstraße ‡ ‡ ‡
WagnisART DE Munich Fritz-Winter-Straße ‡ ‡ ‡
Amorbach II DE Neckarsulm Bordighera-Allee ‡ ‡ ‡

Harbour DE Offenbach am Main Nordring ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Scharnhauser Park DE Ostfildern Niemöllerstraße ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Artilleriekaserne St. Arnual DE Saarbrücken Nell-Breuning-Allee ‡ ‡
Killesberghöhe DE Stuttgart Stresemannstraße ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Petrisberg DE Trier Auf dem Petrisberg, ‡ ‡ ‡
Max-Planck-Straße
French Quarter DE Tübingen Aixer Straße, ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
and Loretto Loretto-Platz
Mühlenviertel DE Tübingen Paul-Dietz-Straße ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Alte Weberei DE Tübingen Nürtingerstraße ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Im Sonnenfeld DE Ulm-Eselsberg Selbertstraße ‡
Arkadien DE Winnenden Silberpappelstraße ‡ ‡

Authenticated
Further Projects 263
Construction begin Area Planning team Website

and completion [ha]
1990 – 2005 60 READ-Group (Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, www.solarcity.at

Renzo Piano, Thomas Herzog)
2004 – 2010 8 Rüdiger Lainer + Partner www.kabelwerk.at
As from 1965 Whole IPPUC www.curitiba.pr.gov.br
city
2009 – 2011 3 City of Geneva www.ecoquartierjonction.ch
2010 – 2020 33 TRIBU Architecture www.lausanne.ch/plainesduloup
2015 – 2021 70 SDOL – Schéma Directeur de l’Ouest Lausannois www.2000watt.ch/malley-gare
2009 – 2014 19 Ecofaubourgs; HKA Finance www.ecofaubourgs.com

2013 – 2015 8 Diener & Diener Architekten ; Vogt Landschaftsarchitekten www.greencity.ch
1998 – 2001 2 Stücheli Architekten; Bünzli & Courvoisier Architekten AG www.kraftwerk1.ch
2001– 2020 67 City of Opfikon www.glattpark.ch
2006 – 2014 36 ASTOC www.le-quartier-central.de
as from 2011 12 lehen 3 www.esslingen.de
2007 – 2009 0.5 brucker.architekten www.fellbach.de
1997– 2006 41 Kohlhoff & Kohlhoff www.vauban.de

1999 – 2005 1 SolarArchitektur, Rolf Disch www.solarsiedlung.de
1993 – 2010 50 Projektgemeinschaft Rieselfeld; B.E.M.S architecture group www.rieselfeld.org

as from 2000 165 KCAP Architects; ASTOC www.hafencity.com
1993 – 2000 60 SWW Architekten www.hannover.de
as from 2001 116 Trojan & Trojan www.heidelberg-bahnstadt.de
1998 – 2007 7 Volkswohnung GmbH; City of Karlsruhe www.siedlungen.eu/db/baugebiet-smiley-west
2006 – 2013 6 Rößner und Waldmann Architekten www.stellwerk60.de
as from 2014 73 West 8; O & O Baukunst www.freiham-bau.de
1997– 2009 560 Frauenfeld und Partner consortium www.muenchen.de/stadtteile/riem
2002 – 2010 47 Steidle + Partner; TDB landschape architects www.werkstatt-stadt.de
1996 – 2014 40 Christian Vogel Architekten www.ackermannbogen-ev.de
2014 – 2016 1 bogevischs buero architekten und stadtplaner gmbh, shag, udo schindler, www.wagnis.org
walter hable architekten gbr
1997 – 2004 51 Hans-Joachim Ziltz www.werkstatt-stadt.de
2008 – 2017 25 Offenbacher Projektentwicklungsgesellschaft (OPG), City of Offenbach www.mainviertel-of.de
1996 – 2003 140 Janson + Wolfrum www.ostfildern.de/scharnhauser_park
2003 – 2008 3 Wandel Hoeffer Lorch Architekten www.artilleriekaserne.de
as from 2011 3.5 O & O Baukunst www.killesberghoehe.de
2002–2012 70 Bachtler Böhme + Partner / City of Trier (master plan) www.petrisberg.de; www.egp.de;
www.wip-trier.de
1996 – 2007 65 Development department, former urban regeneration office www.franzoesisches-viertel.net
2005 – 2009 4 Hähnig & Gemmike www.muehlenviertel.de

2011– 2014 6 Hähnig & Gemmike www.alte-weberei-lustnau.de
1999 – 2003 3.5 City of Ulm www.expo.ulm.de
2007– 2011 3.4 Eble Messerschmidt Partner, based on WTB Dreibund www.landschaftsarchitektur-heute.de/projekte/
details/2756

Authenticated
Name Country City Key access
Open space / urban
Process/ social
Material flows
Urban design
Water /soil
Emissions
Economy
Mobility
climate
aspects
Energy
Grünwinkel, Am Albgrün DE Karlsruhe Zeppelinstraße 52 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Lærkehaven Lystrup DK Aarhus Lærkehaven ‡
America Plads DK Copenhagen Kalkbrænderihavnsgade, ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Dampfærgevej
Nordhaven DK Copenhagen Nordhaven ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Sluseholmen DK Copenhagen Sluseholmen ‡ ‡
FredericiaC DK Fredericia Svovlsyrekaj ‡ ‡ ‡
Eco-City Montecorvo ES Logroño – ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Confluence FR Lyon Quai Antoine Riboud ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
ZAC Bottiére Chénaie FR Nantes Route de Sainte-Luce ‡ ‡
ECOZAC Clichy-Batignolles FR Paris Rue Cardinet ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Masséna FR Paris Rue Marguerite Duras ‡ ‡ ‡
ZAC de Beauregard FR Rennes Rue Gabriel Germain ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Les Rives du Bohrie FR Strasbourg Étang Bohrie ‡ ‡ ‡
Quartier de la Brasserie FR Strasbourg Cronenbourg Place Mathieu Zell ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Ecoquartier Danube FR Strasburg Neudorf Pont du Danube ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Harbour Jätkäsaari FI Helsinki Tyynenmerenkatu ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Eco-Viikii FI Helsinki Viikintie ‡ ‡
Vuores FI Tampere Takamaanrinne ‡ ‡
One Brighton GB Brighton New England Street ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Graylingwell GB Chichester Connolly Way ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Bed Zed GB London Sandmartin Way ‡
Citta dell altra economia IT Rom Largo Dino Frisullo ‡ ‡
Belval LU Esch-sur-Alzette Siderurgistes ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
De stad van de Zon NL Alkmaar Evenaar ‡
(Sun City)
KNSM Eiland NL Amsterdam KNSM Laan ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Borneo-Sporenburg NL Amsterdam Piet Heinkade ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Ijburg NL Amsterdam Cor van Weelehof ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Java Eiland NL Amsterdam Sumatrakade, Javakade ‡ ‡ ‡
Eva Lanxmeer NL Culemborg Bertus Aafjespad ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Ypenburg NL Den Haag Boorlaan ‡ ‡
High Tech Campus NL Eindhoven High Tech Campus ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Cradle-to-cradle Park 20I20 NL Venlo Sint Jansweg ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Haizhu Eco-City CN Guangzhou Guangzhou South Av. ‡ ‡
Ecological City Jingyue CN Changchun – ‡ ‡ ‡
Eco-Town CN Suzhou – ‡ ‡
Eco-City of Agriculture CN Wanzhuang – ‡ ‡ ‡
Hongqiao Commercial CN Shanghai Shenhong Rd. ‡ ‡
District
Dongtan CN Shanghai Liuxiao Hwy ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Villa Cuatro Alamos CL Santiago de Chile Elizabeth Heisse ‡ ‡
Ecoregion Pemongkong, Eco ID Pemongkong, Lombok – ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Resorts Tanjung Ringgit
Royal Seaport SE Stockholm Södra Hamnvägen ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Masdar City AE Abu Dhabi – ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Shahama & Bahia AE Abu Dhabi 49th St – Al Rahba ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Xeritown AE Dubai – ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Greensburg US Kansas City West Kansas Avenue ‡ ‡
High Line Park US New York 10th Avenue ‡
Mountain Village US Sonoma, CA Valley House Drive ‡

Authenticated
Further Projects 265
Construction begin Area Planning team Website

and completion [ha]
as from 2011 1 Kränzle + Fischer-Wasels Architekten www.am-albgruen.de

2008 – 2010 1.2 Schmitt Hammer Larsen Architects; Herzog & Partner www.bf-ringgaarden.dk
2004 – 2015 24 West 8
2012 – 2022 100 COBE Architects www.nordhavnen.dk

2005 – 2008 8 Arkitema Architects; Soeters Van Eldonk Architekten www.sluseholmen-online.dk
as from 2011 21 KCAP Architects www.fredericiac.dk
planned 56 MVRDV, GRAS
2003 – 2020 150 SPLA Lyon Confluence (urban planners); MVRDV, Pierre Gautier, Jacob + Mac www.lyon-confluence.fr
Farlane, West 8, Coop Himmelb(l)au, Christian de Portzamparc, etc. (architects)
2003 – 2009 30 J. Pierre Pranlas-Descours Architecte www.nantes-amenagement.fr/projet/bottiere-
chenaie
2011– 2017 50 Péripheriques Architects www.clichy-batignolles.fr
1995 – 2010 13 Atelier Christian de Portzamparc (AECDP)
as from 1995 71 Architecture Team Ellipse www.territoires-rennes.fr
as from 2011 50 – www.lesrivesdubohrie.fr
as from 2007 3.6 Naos Atelier d’Architecture www.ecoquartierbrasserie.sers.eu
planned 7 KCAP Architects www.ecoquartierdanube.sers.eu
2009 – 2025 100 Helsinki City Planning Department www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/areas/6/jatkasaari
1999 – 2004 1400 Petri Laaksonen www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/viikki
2012 – 2020 1256 Atelier Dreiseitl www.vuores.fi
2007– 2010 0.4 Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios www.bioregional.com/one-brighton
2008 – 2011 34 John Thompson & Partners www.jtp.co.uk/projects/graylingwell-park
2000 – 2002 0.1 ZED Factory; Arup www.zedfactory.com
2005 – 2007 0.4 domus www.cittadellaltraeconomia.org
as from 2005 120 Jo Coenen & Co.; Lubbers www.belval.lu
1993 – 2006 210 Kuiper compagnons www.heerhugowaardstadvandezon.nl
1990 –1996 14 Jo Coenen & Co www.oostelijkhavengebied.nl

1995 – 2001 22 West 8
1999 – 2001 170 City of Amsterdam Planning Department
1995 – 2000 16 Soeters Van Eldonk Architekten
1999 – 2008 35 Joachim Eble Architektur www.eva-lanxmeer.nl
1998 – 2003 2 West 8
2003 – 2006 103 Juurlink + Geluk; Stedenbouw + Landschap BV www.hightechcampus.com
planned 215 – www.park2020.com
as from 2012 790 Communal
2007– 2020 5,300 Albert Speer & Partner (AS & P)
2007– 2020 600 John Thompson & Partners; Joachim Eble Architektur www.jtp.co.uk/projects/suzhou
2006 – 2020 8,000 Arup; Shanghai Industrial Investment Corporation (SIIC); Kragh & Berglund
2011– 2018 140 SBA; Shanghai Planning & Design Institute
– 8,600 Arup
2003 – 2012 10 Residents’ initiative
as from 2011 3,200 Joachim Eble Architektur www.ecoregions.co.id
2010 – expected 236 Project planning group www.stockholmroyalseaport.com

2030
2006 – 2025 600 Foster + Partners www.masdar.ae
planned 1,770 Gillespies; John Thompson & Partners; Joachim Eble Architektur www.jtp.co.uk/projects/shahama-and-bahia
as from 2010 59 SMAQ – architecture urbanism research www.smaq.net/2008/05/xeritown
as from 2007 383 BNIM architects www.greensburgks.org
2006 – 2011 160 Diller Scofidio + Renfro www.thehighline.org
as from 2009 81 Colding

Authenticated
266 Appendix
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Michael J. (eds): Stadtklima und 2009, p. 43 P. 141 after: ibid p. 65f. P. 174 below Roman Mensing,
Luftreinhaltung. Berlin 1999, p. 136 P. 122 above after: Daimler Technicity P. 143 above after: Umweltbundes Münster
P. 94 centre www.flickr.com /SantiMB 01/2012, p. 57 amt, Umweltbewusstsein in P. 175 Fraunhofer IBP
P. 94 below Jürgen Baumüller, P. 122 below Lit Motors Corporation, Deutschland 2014 P. 178 Michael Nagy

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Image credits 277
P. 180 Dominic Church, Stuttgart sche Informationssysteme und ihre Marianne Wehlast, Copenhagen P. 255 above www.flickr.com /Jan-
P. 182 Dominic Church, Manal Anwendung in MAB-Projekten, P. 234/235 Eble Messerschmidt Derk Koudijs, Amsterdam
El-Shahat, Stuttgart Ökosystemforschung und Umwelt Partner, Tübingen P. 255 below left www.flickr.com /
P. 184 Stadt Heilbronn: Gestaltungs beobachtung. Bonn 1990, p. 42 P. 236 above after: Atelier Dreiseitl, andynash
handbuch Modellquartier Neckar P. 215 below Schubert, Frieder: Neue Überlingen P. 255 below right Rob Hoekstra,
bogen Heilbronn, p. 11 Rolle der Virtuellen Realität in der P. 236 below left and right Atelier Kalmhout
P. 186/187 Stephan Anders, Helmut Architektur und Stadtplanung. In: Dreiseitl, Überlingen; Eble Messer P. 256 http://stadtentwicklung.berlin.
Bott, Gregor C. Grassl, Rolf Messer Schrenk, Manfred (ed): Computer schmidt Partner, Tübingen de/staedtebau/projekte/tegel/
schmidt gestützte Raumplanung. Vienna P. 237 above mokastudio, Hamburg planung/masterplan.shtml
P. 189 above after: Heidelberger 2004 P. 237 below Eble Messerschmidt P. 257 above A. Schiebel Multimedia
Nachhaltigkeitsbericht 2011 P. 216 above www.intheair.es Partner, Tübingen; Areal – Gesell Design
P. 189 below Christian Buck, Heidel P. 216 centre senseable.mit.edu schaft für afterhaltige Wasser P. 257 below Atelier Loidl Land
berg P. 216 below Bartsch, Bernhard: City wirtschaft mbH, Hengstbacherhof schaftsarchitekten Berlin GmbH
P. 190 after: Stadt Ludwigsburg Cockpit. Regieren in Echtzeit. In: P. 238 Malmö City Planning Office P. 258/259 Drees & Sommer
P. 191 after: Institut für Energie Siemens AG. Corporate Technology P. 239 left https://makinglewes. Advanced Building Technologies
wirtschaft und Rationelle Energie (Hrsg.): Pictures of the Future. Die org/2014/01/25/bo01-malmo- GmbH
anwendung (IER), University of Zeitschrift für Forschung und Innova sweeden/ P. 260 centre/261 above OLN / value
Stuttgart tion. Munich 2011, pp. 94ff. P. 239 right above www.flickr.com / one development
P. 192 Blattmann + Oswald Archi P. 217 Singer, Natasha: Mission Con Henric Bjärehäll, Halmstad P. 261 centre/below Moritz
tekten, Markgröningen trol, Built for Cities. I.B.M. Takes P. 239 right centre www.flickr.com / Reitmeier / value one development
P. 193 Manal El-Shahat, Stuttgart “Smarter Cities” Concept to Rio free range jace
P. 194 above Stadt Ludwigsburg de Janeiro. The New York Times, P. 239 right below www.flickr.com /
P. 194 below after: Stadt Ludwigs 03.03.2012 Matt Moore, Allegany
burg P. 219 above Stephan Anders, P. 240 left Perkins + Will, Vancouver
P. 196 Foto: ELBE&FLUT, source: Stuttgart P. 240 right Julius Grill, Sydney
HafenCity Hamburg GmbH P. 219 below Fuhrich, Manfred et al.: P. 241 right above Vince Klassen,
P. 197 Spengler Wiescholek Architek Kompass für den Weg zur Stadt der Victoria, BC
ten Stadtplaner, Hamburg Zukunft. Indikatorengestützte Erfolgs P. 241 right centre and below
P. 199 Daniel Sumesgutner, Hamburg kontrolle afterhaltiger Stadtentwick www.flickr.com /Lotus Johnson,
P. 202 above left and right Stephan lung. Eine Orientierungshilfe für die ngawangchodron
Anders, Stuttgart kommunale Praxis. Bonn 2004, p. 21 P. 242 left sinai, Gesellschaft von
P. 202 centre UrbanSim P. 220 /221 Stephan Anders, Gregor Landschaftsarchitekten mbH, Berlin,
P. 202 below www.businesslocation C. Grassl, Stuttgart Stadt Heilbronn/BUGA Heilbronn
center.de /solaratlas P. 222 Gregor C. Grassl, Stuttgart 2019 GmbH
P. 203 above Autodesk InfraWorks P. 223 below DGNB: Neubau P. 242/243 above BUGA Heilbronn
2014 Stadtquartiere. DGNB Handbuch für 2019 GmbH
P. 203 below left CommunityViz afterhaltiges Bauen. Stuttgart 2012 P. 243 below left BUGA Heilbronn
P. 203 below right Grasshopper P. 223 above left and right Stephan 2019 GmbH: Stadtausstellung
(Rhino 3d) Anders, after DGNB Heilbronn, p. 48
P. 204 left CityCAD P. 228 above Hans Sommer / Drees & P. 243 below right after: TRANS
P. 204 right www.kaisersrot.com Sommer, Stuttgart SOLAR Energietechnik GmbH,
P. 207 above, centre Stephan Anders, P. 228 below Renzo Piano Building Stuttgart
Stuttgart Workshop, with Christoph Kohl P. 244 right after: www.hammarby
P. 207 below Gosol becker sjostad.se
P. 208 Rebitzer, Gerald et al.: Life P. 229 above left Renzo Piano Build P. 245 below centre www.flickr.com /
Cycle Assessment. Part 1: Frame ing Workshop, Genoa Stefan Sthlm
work, Goal and Scope Definition, P. 229 above right Atelier Dreiseitl, P. 245 below left Malena Karlsson,
Inventory Analysis and Applications. Überlingen www.hammarbysjostad.se
In: Environment International P. 229 centre Vincent Mosch /Renzo P. 245 above after: The Hammarby
30/2004, pp. 701–720 Piano Building Workshop, Genoa model, www.hammarbysjostad.se
P. 209 Vissim P. 229 right above Gianni Berengo P. 245 below right www.flickr.com /
P. 210 above left Landeshauptstadt Gardin / Renzo Piano Building Work Bessmert
Stuttgart, Amt für Umweltschutz shop, Genoa P. 246 hochC Landschaftarchitekten,
P. 210 above right Sigrid Busch, P. 229 right below after: Drees & Berlin; Möckernkiez eG, Berlin
Antonella Sgobba, Stuttgart Sommer, Stuttgart P. 247 above after: Möckernkiez eG,
P. 210 below student project, Univer P. 230 left above + below PPMG Berlin
sity of Stuttgart, Software CadnaA Potsdamer Platz Management P. 248 below left, centre and right
P. 211 above www.spacesyntax.com GmbH, Berlin Möckernkiez eG, Berlin
P. 211 below Katzschner, Lutz; P. 230 right above after: Drees & P. 248 NESTown Group / Franz
Campe, Sabrina; Kupski, Sebastian: Sommer, Stuttgart Oswald, Berne
Innenraumentwicklung in Frank P. 230 below left www.flickr.com / P. 249 Rainer Kwiotek, Menschen für
furt /M. unter Berücksichtigung stadt Anthony Gurr Menschen Schweiz
klimatischer Effekte. Maßnahmen zur P. 230 below right J. Lee / Atelier P. 250/251 above right, below centre
Minderung der Wärmebelastung in Dreiseitl, Überlingen KCAP Architects & Planners,
verdichteten Räumen. University of P. 231 left after: Atelier Dreiseitl, Rotterdam
Kassel, 2011 Überlingen P. 251 above left Gemeente Amster
P. 212 Ralf Wagner / Drees & P. 231 right above and below PPMG dam, DRO
Sommer, Stuttgart Potsdamer Platz Management P. 251 below left Giesbert Nijhuis,
P. 213 above left Autodesk ECOTECT GmbH, Berlin Amsterdam
2012 P. 232 left Entasis, Carlsberg Group, P. 251 below right Jan Bitter, Berlin
P. 213 above right Drees & Sommer, Copenhagen P. 252 left www.barangaroo.com
created with IES VE-Pro P. 232 right Entasis, Carlsberg Group, P. 252 right, 253 above Barangaroo
P. 213 below Drees & Sommer, Copenhagen Delivery Authority
Stuttgart P. 233 left Vogt Landschaftsarchitekten, P. 253 below left
P. 215 above Rolf Messerschmidt, Zurich www.barangaroo.com
Tübingen, www.netzwerkzeug.de P. 233 right above www.flickr.com/ P. 253 below right
P. 215 centre after: Ashdown, TheKaneda www.flickr.com / Barangaroo
Michael; Schaller, Jörg: Geographi P. 233 right centre and below P. 254 NDSM, Amsterdam

Authenticated
278 Appendix
Authors
Authors ment since 2017, and within the “Smart City Manage
ment” Master’s degree course since 2018. He was
University in 1993, where he held a teaching post for
environmental protection technology as from 1995.
appointed to the International Fraunhofer Academy’s He is now retired, but continues to teach at Stuttgart
technical committee for the “Smart Society Profes University.
Helmut Bott, Professor Dr.-Ing. (Editor) sional Academy” in 2017. Grassl is an expert within
Helmut Bott studied Architecture at TU Darmstadt the “National Future City Platform” set up by ministries Julia Böttge, Dipl.-Wirt.-Ing.
from 1967 to 1974 and subsequently worked for the of the German Federal Government. He is a founding Julia Böttge studied Real Estate Technology and
Saarbrücken City Planning department and for Stadt member of the “Morgenstadt” research network and Economics at the University of Stuttgart from 2007 to
bauplan GmbH in Darmstadt. From 1977 to 1981, an expert member of professional groups such as the 2012, subsequently working as a research assistant
he lectured at the University of Kassel and at TU Association of German Engineers (VDI) “Stadt Denken” within the Holistic Accounting unit at Stuttgart Univer
Darmstadt. Bott worked freelance for various private committee. sity’s Institute for Building Physics until 2014. Since
practice partnerships as from 1981, and was Profes
2016, she has worked within the Construction
sor for Urban Planning and Design at Cologne Univer
Accounting department of the Max Bögl group.
sity of Applied Sciences (TH Köln) from 1985 to 1997.
Stephan Anders, Dr.-Ing. (Editor)
Bott was appointed as Director of the SI Urban Design
From 2003 to 2008, Stephan Anders studied Architec Sigrid Busch, Dr.-Ing.
Institute at Stuttgart University in 1997, where he was
ture and Urban Design at Stuttgart University and at Sigrid Busch studied Architecture and Urban Planning
Professor for Urban Planning and Design until 2015.
ETH Zurich. During his studies, he worked for KCAP at Stuttgart University of Applied Sciences (HfT), at
He has been a Director of the International Centre for
Architects and Planners, Ippolito Fleitz Group and the the École nationale supérieure de création industrielle
Cultural and Technical Research (IZKT) at Stuttgart
Chair for Information Architecture (IA) at ETH Zurich. in Paris, at the University of California in Berkeley, and
University since 1999. Between 2000 and 2005, Pro
His degree project entitled “Zero Emission City” was at Stuttgart University. She worked in private practice
fessor Bott held visiting professorships in China and
awarded within Stuttgart University’s degree awards in Germany and the Netherlands before taking up a
South Korea. From 2006 to 2010, he was Dean of the
programme. From 2009 to 2015, Anders worked in teaching position at the SI Urban Design Institute at
Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning at the Uni
teaching and research at the Urban Design Institute the University of Stuttgart in 2002 where she subse
versity of Stuttgart. Professor Bott held further visiting
at Stuttgart University whilst completing his Doctorate, quently completed her PhD. Dr Busch lectures on
professorships at Zhejiang University in Hangzhou
focusing on concepts for sustainable urban and simulating and visualising noise protection and en
and at Jiaotong University in Xi’an from 2007 to 2014,
neighbourhood development. His PhD “Cities as Sys ergy efficiency in urban neighbourhoods.
and is co-editor of the “Community Design” publica
tems” was published in 2016. He has worked for the
tion at Tsinghua University in Beijing. As founding
German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) since Dominic Church, Dipl. Ing., M.Sc. (LSE)
Dean of Cairo German University (GUC), and as a
2012, initially as product manager for the DGNB certi Dominic Church studied Architecture at Stuttgart
member of the University Council, Professor Bott has
fication systems for sustainable neighbourhoods and University from 1991 to 1997 and went on to work in
been engaged in developing the Architecture and
industrial locations. During that time, he was also private practice in Gothenburg, Tel Aviv and London
Urban Planning Institute in Cairo and Berlin since
responsible for DGNB Auditor training for sustainable until 2001. He completed a Master’s in City Design
2010. He has chaired the Board of Directors at Stutt
neighbourhood and the DGNB university cooperation and Social Science at the London School of Econom
gart University’s IZKT since 2013, and in 2018 was
with more than 60 universities. Since 2017, Dr Anders ics (LSE) Cities Programme in 2001, where he subse
appointed visiting Professor at the Sino-German
has led the DGNB Certification department, focusing quently worked in research, teaching and consultancy
Research Center (SEU) in the Department of Urban
on national and international application of the DGNB until 2005. From 2005, he was Senior Policy Advisor
Planning at Nanjing Southeast University’s School of
certification systems for sustainable urban districts, at the Commission for Architecture and the Built Envi
Architecture in China.
buildings and interiors. Dr Anders is a lecturer for ronment (CABE) in London, leading housing policy
Urban Energy Planning at Stuttgart University of and the Building for Life programme. Since 2011,
Applied Sciences (HfT). Church has been engaged in teaching and research
Gregor C. Grassl, M. Eng., Dipl.-Ing. (Editor)
Gregor Grassl studied Architecture at Munich School at SI Urban Design Institute at Stuttgart University,
of Applied Sciences (MUAS) from 1998 to 2002, with at the Sustainable Urbanism Institute at TU Munich,
and at Nürtingen Geislingen University (HfWU). From
visits to the Universities of Prague and Cairo. In 1999,
Grassl was awarded the “Honor al Merito” for his
Co-authors 2011 to 2015, he led the international application
engagement in development aid in Cochabamba, of the DGNB system. Church now leads strategic
Bolivia. From 2003, he worked in architectural prac planning for the City of Lucerne’s key urban develop
Martin Altmann, Dipl.-Geograph ment sites.
tice in Bad Reichenhall. From 2006 to 2008, Grassl
Martin Altmann studied Geography at the University
completed a Master’s degree course in Urban Plan
of Trier from 1986 to 1992 and subsequently worked Thorsten Erl, Dr.-Ing.
ning at Stuttgart University of Applied Sciences (HfT).
as research assistant to the Federal Office for Building Thorsten Erl studied architecture at TU Berlin, TU
He joined Drees & Sommer in 2007, initiated the
and Regional Planning. He has worked in the real Darmstadt and at the Faculdade de Arquitectura
development of the Urban Districts certificate at the
German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) and is estate sector since 1993, joining Drees & Sommer da Universidade in Porto (FAUP). He completed his
a Senior Auditor for the DGNB and ÖGNI systems. Development Management team in 1997. Altmann has diploma in 1999 and has since worked for metris
Grassl qualified as a specialist planner in Energy Effi been a member of the Board of Directors at Drees & architects and urban planners, based in Darmstadt
ciency at the Academy of the Chamber of Engineers Sommer since 2008, leading development manage und Heidelberg. Since 2002, Erl has been active in
in the State of Hesse in 2013, and has led the Blue ment in North Rhine Westphalia since 2015. teaching and research at the SI Urban Design Insti
City programme since 2011. He has provided sustain tute at Stuttgart University, where he completed a
ability advice to numerous national and international Jürgen Baumüller, Professor Dr. PhD on “The city and harbour of Porto” in 2011. Since
urban development projects, and has prepared tech From 1964 –1971, Jürgen Baumüller studied Meteor 2012, Dr Erl has been a lecturer in environmental
nical masterplans in collaboration with renowned ology at the Universities of Karlsruhe and Hamburg development planning at Nürtingen Geislingen Uni
design practices such as KCAP Architects and Plan and went on to work as an Urban Climatologist for the versity (HfWU), and has worked as a DGNB Auditor
ners, Albert Speer & Partner, ASTOC, and Zaha City of Stuttgart from 1971 to 1973. He was engaged for Sustainable Urban Districts.
Hadid. Grassl has worked on many research projects, in research at the Institute of Physics at Stuttgart’s
including the development of a City BIM tool. He has University of Hohenheim from 1973 to 1978, where Manal M. F. El-Shahat, M.Sc., Ph.D
taught in the DGNB Academy since 2012, and was he completed his PhD in 1979. From 1978 to 2008, Manal M. F. El-Shahat is director & founder of EZBET
a lecturer for the international Resource Efficiency in Dr Baumüller was the leading Director of the Urban Project. She is a senior researcher at the department
Architecture and Planning (REAP) Master’s degree Climate department at the City of Stuttgart. From of International Urbanism / Städtebau Institut (SI) at
course at Hamburg HafenCity University (HCU) 1982, he was a lecturer at Stuttgart University’s Insti University of Stuttgart. She is also faculty member at
from 2013 to 2016. At Stuttgart University of Applied tute for Landscape Planning and Ecology (ILPÖ), and Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University in Cairo
Sciences (HfT), Grassl has held teaching positions he lectured at Stuttgart University of Applied Sciences (on leave). EZBET Project is an academic initiative
within the international “Sustainable Urban Building (HfT) from 1988 to 1993. Professor Baumüller was aims to provide the basic urban and social facilities
Design” Master’s degree course in project manage appointed to an honorary professorship at Stuttgart in the informal area in Cairo through engaging all

Authenticated
Authors 279
stakeholders in the process. As part of this project, Thomas Haun, Dipl.-Ing. schmidt is a lecturer SI Urban Design Institute at Stutt
she developed an academic course entitled “Participa Thomas Haun studied Architecture at Bauhaus Uni gart University and has been a DGNB Auditor since
tory Needs Assessment (PNA)”, which links the theory versity Weimar from 2000 to 2007. Since then, his 2010, joining the DGNB technical committee in 2011.
and practice and shows a real tool for participatory professional work has focused on sustainable con
development in informal settlements in the global struction. Since 2016, he has been the Strategic Peter Mösle, Dr.-Ing.
south. Dr. El-Shahat has different academic publica Buyer for EnBW Energie Baden-Württemberg with Peter Mösle studied Mechanical Engineering at Stutt
tions on topics related to the treatment of urbanisation responsibility for the procurement of construction and gart University, focusing on energy technology, and
problems of informal settlements, and participatory contracting for buildings, civil engineering and off gained a scholarship for the University of Arizona
planning. Currently, she is the project manager of an shore foundations. Thomas Haun has since qualified before completing his degree at the Fraunhofer Insti
interdisciplinary research project “Integrated Housing as a Building Biologist at the Institute of Building Biol tute for Solar Energy Systems in Freiburg im Breis
with Immigrants” at Department for Sociology of Archi ogy and Sustainability (IBN), as a DGNB Auditor, as gau in 1996. Mösle has worked for Drees & Sommer
tecture and Housing, which is a cooperation with the a LEED Accredited Professional, and as a BREEAM Advanced Building Technologies since 2006. He was
German Institute of Urban Affairs (DifU) in Berlin. Licensed Assessor and BREEAM In-Use Auditor. appointed managing director for Energy Design /
Sustainable Construction in July 2010 and has been
Johannes Gantner, Dr.-Ing., M.Sc., Dipl. Ing. (FH) Dietrich Henckel, Professor em. Dr. a partner at Drees & Sommer since 2012. Dr Mösle
From 2004 to 2011, Johannes Gantner studied archi Dietrich Henckel studied Economic and Social Scienc completed his PhD “Developing a method to interna
tecture at OTH Regensburg University (OTH), and es and Law at the University of Konstanz, gaining a tionalise a certification system for sustainable build
Sustainable Energy Competence (SENCE) at Stuttgart degree in Economics in 1973. He went on to complete ings” in 2009. A member of the DGNB Board of
University of Applied Sciences (HfT), the University of a PhD in Social Sciences in 1976. From 1976 to 1979, Directors, he is Chair of System Development.
Applied Forest Sciences Rottenburg and Ulm Univer Dr Henckel was engaged in teaching and research at
sity of Applied Sciences. Since 2011, he has held a Stuttgart University’s Institute of Building Economics. Marcel Özer, M.Sc.
research and teaching post at the Fraunhofer Insti From 1979 to 2004, he was a project manager at the From 2008 to 2016, Marcel Özer studied Environmen
tute for Building Physics (IBP) at Stuttgart University, German Institute for Urbanism (Difu). From 2004 to tal Engineering at Stuttgart University and at the École
where he completed his PhD in 2017. Dr Gantner has 2017, he was professor for Urban and Regional Eco Spéciale des Travaux Publics du Batiment et de l’Indus
project-managed various European research projects nomics at TU Berlin’s Institute for Urban Regional plan trie (ESTP) in Paris. During his studies, he worked
since 2011. He is a Life Cycle Assessment Certified ning, where he was managing director from 2005 to for Stuttgart University’s Institute for Urban Drainage,
Professional (LCACP) and member of the American 2009 and Dean from 2009 – 2013. Professor Henckel is a Water Quality and Waste. Özer joined Drees & Sommer
Center for Life Cycle Assessment (ACLCA) member of numerous committees and advisory boards. in 2016 as a cradle-to-cradle project engineer, focus
ing on holistic sustainability concepts for construction.
Philipp Groß, M.Eng. Olaf Hildebrandt, Dipl.-Ing. Since 2016, he has gained further qualifications as a
Philipp Groß studied infrastructure management at Olaf Hildebrandt studied architecture at Hanover Building Biologist at the Institute of Building Biology
Stuttgart University of Applied Sciences (HfT) from University, focusing on urban planning issues, and and Sustainability (IBN), and as a DGNB Consultant.
2009 to 2013 and completed a Master in Energy- completing his Diploma in 1982. From 1980 to 1983,
oriented Ecological Urban Redevelopment at Nord he worked freelance for the Institut für angewandte Christopher Vagn Philipsen, Dipl.-Ing.
hausen University of Applied Sciences in 2016. He Systemforschung und Prognose (now the Eduard- Christopher Vagn Philipsen studied Process Engineer
joined Drees & Sommer in 2011 to work in the Blue Pestel Institut). In 1983, Hildebrandt co-founded the ing at Stuttgart University from 1981 to 1987, and sub
City team, focussing on holistic project development ARENHA Energy advice working group in Hanover. sequently worked for the Fichtner Group until 1997. He
in Germany and abroad as well as Smart Cities In 1988, he joined the ebök planning practice in joined Drees & Sommer Infra Consult and Development
including smart planning tools and processes. Groß is Tübingen, and has been managing director of ebök Management in Stuttgart in 1997 and has been the
a DGNB Auditor for Sustainable Urban Districts, and Planung und Entwicklung GmbH since 2006. His work Managing Director of Drees & Sommer since 2000.
BREEAM Communities Assessor. From 2016 to 2018, focuses on energy-oriented urban development, cli Christopher Philipsen became a partner at Drees &
he was engaged in training DGNB Registered Profes mate protection concepts, building management and Sommer Stuttgart in 2012, focusing on project manag
sionals in Mongolia. He co-initiated and tutored the structural thermal insulation. Since 2010, Hildebrandt ing plants to produce, distribute and store energy.
Eco City Planner Mongolia training. has been a lecturer for energy-oriented urban plan
ning within the Master’s degree course in urban plan Waltraud Pustal, Professor Dipl.-Ing.
Tilman Harlander, Professor Dr. rer. pol. habil. ning at Stuttgart University of Applied Sciences (HfT). Waltraud Pustal studied landscape management at
From 1967 to 1972, Tilman Harlander studied Soci Nürtingen Geislingen University (HfWU) from 1983 to
ology, Economics and Political science at Munich and Jürgen Laukemper, Dr. 1987 and worked in various planning practices until
Berlin Universities and went on to gain a Doctorate Jürgen Laukemper studied building engineering at 1993. From 1996 to 2000, she took up visiting profes
from Oldenburg University in 1978, habilitating at Stuttgart University from 1979 to 1985, subsequently sorships at Nürtingen-Geislingen, Hohenheim, and
Aachen University (RWTH) in 1994. From 1989 to working as a highways and civil engineering construc Tübingen Universities. As from 2000, Pustal taught
1997 he was Chairman of the Supervisory Board of tion manager until 1986. He then took up a post in landscape planning as well as nature conservation and
the Aachen municipal housing company GEWOGE. teaching and research at Stuttgart University, where environmental law at Nürtingen-Geislingen University,
He took up a visiting professorship in Lima in 1999 he completed a PhD in 1991. Dr Laukemper joined where she was appointed honorary professor in 2013.
and was Professor for the Sociology of Architecture Drees & Sommer in 1991, where he has been a Part She also tutored landscape planning within the Urban
and Housing at the Institute for Housing and Design ner and acted as Chair of the management board for Planning Master’s degree course at Stuttgart Univer
within Stuttgart University’s Faculty of Architecture Drees & Sommer Infra Consult and Development sity of Applied Sciences (HfT) from 2008 to 2017. Pro
and Urban Planning from 1997 to 2011. Professor Management since 2000. He is also a lecturer in Pro fessor Pustal has owned a landscape and urban plan
Harlander was Faculty Dean from 2002 to 2006. ject Management at Stuttgart University of Applied ning consultancy in Pfullingen since 1993, and has
Emeritus since 2011 he continues to be involved in Sciences (HfT). been a member of the technical subcommittees on
numerous scientific associations, advisory boards landscape planning and certification at the German
and Jury committees. Rolf Messerschmidt, Dipl.-Ing. professional chambers’ committee on fee codes.
Rolf Messerschmidt studied architecture and urban
Gerhard Hauber, Dipl.-Ing. (FH) planning at Stuttgart University. In 1999, his degree Christina Sager-Klauß, Dr.-Ing.
Gerhard Hauber completed his studies in Landscape project was a web-based planning tool for sustainable Christina Sager-Klauß studied architecture at Kassel
Architecture at Beuth University of Applied Sciences urban development. He went on to work for Joachim University (Gesamthochschule Kassel) from 1994 to
in 1994, going on to work for Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl Eble Architects in Tübingen from 1999 to 2017, where 2002, and completed a PhD at TU Delft in 2016. From
landscape architects from 1996. Since 1998, he he has led the urban planning team since 2001. 2002 to 2005, she was engaged in research and
has led projects in Germany and abroad, acting as Messerschmidt became a Partner in Eble Messer teaching at the Chair of Building Technology and Cli
managing director since 2008. From 2011 onwards, schmidt Partner in 2017. From 2002 to 2008, he mate Responsive Design at TU Munich. From 2005 to
Hauber collaborated on the development of the DGNB worked on the EU research projects ECOCITY and 2007, Dr Sager-Klauß worked at the German Energy
System for Sustainable Urban Districts. SNOWBALL – Energy Smart Urban Design. Messer Agency (dena), focusing on building construction.

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280 Appendix
Case Study
Collaborators
From 2007 to 2017, she led units at the Fraunhofer Quartier: Nachhaltigkeitstransformation, kollaborative Potsdamer Platz: Gregor C. Grassl, Alexander Sailer
Institute for Building Physics (IBP) and Fraunhofer Konsummodelle und Wohnungswirtschaft”, Fraunhofer Carlsberg: Stephan Anders, Isabelle Willnauer
Institute for Wind Energy and Energy System Technol IRB-Verlag, 2018) and “Raumunternehmen – Wie ecoQuartier: Rolf Messerschmidt
ogy (IWES). As from 2018, Dr Sager-Klauß has led a Nutzer selbst Räume entwickeln” (Jovis-Verlag, 2014).
Bo01: Stephan Anders, Isabelle Willnauer
unit within the Fraunhofer Institute for Energy Econom
Dockside Green: Stephan Anders, Calvin Kühn,
ics and Energy System Technology (IEE). Stefan Siedentop, Professor Dr.-Ing.
Peter Pratter, Isabelle Willnauer
Stefan Siedentop studied Spatial Planning at Dort
Daniela Schneider, Dipl.-Ing. (FH), M.Sc. mund University from 1988 to 1994, where he com Neckarbogen: Gregor C. Grassl, Alexander Sailer
Daniela Schneider studied architecture at Stuttgart pleted his PhD in 2001. Dr Siedentop was active in Hammarby Sjöstad: Stephan Anders,
University of Applied Science (HfT) from 2003 to 2008. research and teaching, and project manager at the Lisa Gänsbauer, Isabelle Willnauer
From 2010 to 2012, she completed the Environment Leibniz Institute of Ecological Urban and Regional Möckernkiez: Gregor C. Grassl, Alexander Sailer
and Architecture Master’s degree course at Wismar Development (IÖR) in Dresden. From 2007 to 2013, NEST: Stephan Anders, Hristina Safranova,
University of Applied Sciences, focusing on construc Professor Siedentop led the Institute of Spatial and Isabelle Willnauer
tion material cycles. From 2008 to 2016, Schneider Regional Planning (IREUS) at Stuttgart University. He
GWL-Terrein: Stephan Anders, Evangelos Solakis,
worked as a construction and project leader for sus was appointed as Professor for Urban Development
tainable construction. In 2016, she joined Drees & at the Technical University of Dortmund in 2013 and Isabelle Willnauer
Sommer to work in the cradle-to-cradle team. A project leads the Research Institute for Regional and Urban Barangaroo: Isabelle Willnauer
partner since 2018, Schneider is also a member of the Development (ILS). Petrisberg: Martin Altmann
DGNB expert group “Ease of recovery and recycling”, NDSM Wharf: Stephan Anders, Anna Ilonka Kübler,
and a DGNB Auditor. Since 2017, Schneider has lec Antje Stokman, Professor Dipl.-Ing. Isabelle Willnauer
tured on “cyclical planning and construction” as part From 1993 to 2000, Antje Stokman studied Landscape Berlin TXL – The Urban Tech Republic:
of the Master’s degree course in Architecture at Stutt Architecture at Hanover University and at Edinburgh Gregor C. Grassl, Alyssa Weskamp
gart University of Applied Sciences (HfT). College of Art. From 2000 to 2001, she was engaged in
Viertel Zwei: Gregor C. Grassl, Alyssa Weskamp
teaching and research at Hanover Leibniz University.
Mario Schneider, Dipl.-Ing. From 2001 to 2004, Stokman led overseas projects at
Mario Schneider studied architecture at Stuttgart Rainer Schmidt landscape architects in Munich. She
University from 2006 to 2012. During his studies, has held various teaching posts in China and in Ger We would also like to thank the following students at
he worked for the university’s Institute for Structural many. From 2005 to 2010, Stokman was Junior Profes Stuttgart University for developing the basis for the
Engineering and Design and at the Fraunhofer Insti sor for the Design and Management of Flowing Water case study section of this book:
tute for Industrial Design. From 2012 to 2016, he was Catchment Areas at Hanover Leibniz University. From Andrea Balestrini, Alexander Becker, Julia Bührle,
engaged in teaching and research at Stuttgart Univer 2010 to 2018 she was Professor for Landscape Plan
Feng Chen, Yongrae Cho, Tahira Deniz, Viola
sity’s Institute for Foundations of Planning (IGP) whilst ning and Ecology, leading the Institute for Landscape
Fonnesu, Lisa Gänsbauer, Melanie Houben Garcia,
completing his PhD. In 2017, Schneider joined DGNB Planning and Ecology (ILPÖ) at Stuttgart University.
to focus on system development for neighbourhoods Stokman was appointed Professor for Architecture and Michal Hloupy, Olga Ivanova, Anna Kübler, Calvin
and DGNB academy in Germany and abroad. Landscape at HafenCity University in 2017. Kühn, Lee Jungin, Dominika Lis, Erika Loria, Julia
Maisch, Peter Pratter, Tana Qamar, Eliza Rubena,
Antonella Sgobba, Dr.-Ing. Alyssa Weskamp, M.Sc., M.Arch. Ann-Kristin Rüter, Alexander Sailer, Hristina
Antonella Sgobba studied architecture at the univer From 2007 to 2011, Alyssa Weskamp studied archi Safronova, Jeong-Nook Seo, Rebecca Scholz,
sities of Florence and Madrid (ETSAM), where she tecture at TU Berlin. From 2011 to 2013, she studied Evangelos Solakis, Jun Tan, Serap Topel, Simone
completed the diploma in 1997. From 1999 to 2000, Urban Design TU Berlin und Tongji University Shang Vielhuber, Yeon Kyoung Yoo, Sandra Zenk,
she completed a Master’s degree course in Urban hai. In 2013 /2014, Weskamp took up a visiting fellow
Hongmei Zhai, Juliane Zindel
Planning at UPC Barcelona. Sgobba worked in private ship within the Urban Design and Sustainable Urban
practice in Barcelona and Stuttgart from 1997 to 2007, Development unit at TU Berlin. She joined Drees &
including Arribas Arquitectos, IDOM ACXT for Toyo Sommer Advanced Building Technologies GmbH
Ito, and Behnisch Architekten, and took part in various in 2014 to work in Stuttgart and Berlin. Weskamp is
freelance planning competitions. From 2007 to 2013, a DGNB Auditor for Urban Districts and LEED AP
Sgobba was engaged in teaching and research at the Neighborhood Development.
SI Urban Design Institute at Stuttgart University, lec
turing on issues such as sustainable urban planning Bastian Wittstock, Dr.-Ing.
and noise protection simulations. In 2011, she com From 2000 to 2006, Bastian Wittstock studied Environ
pleted her PhD on “Architecture, the city and the auto mental Technology at Stuttgart University, where he
mobile industry”. From 2014 to 2016, Dr Sgobba completed his PhD in 2012. From 2011 to 2014, Dr
worked for the Karlsruhe City Planning office, where Wittstock led the Sustainable Building Group within
she worked on urban development concepts and led the Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP). He
the Spatial Framework project. In 2017, Dr Sgobba joined thinkstep AG (previously PE INTERNATIONAL
was appointed as advisor to the government of Upper AG) in 2014 leading the Building & Construction team
Franconia in Bayreuth, with responsibility for urban and the Sustainable Buildings field. From 2011 to 2015,
design and urban planning support. Dr Wittstock was appointed as a lecturer in Engineering
Science at Stuttgart University. He is a DGNB Auditor
Guido Spars, Professor Dr. habil. for buildings and urban districts and has been a mem
Guido Spars studied economics at Cologne University, ber of the DGNB technical committee since 2015.
completed a PhD on the land market and land duties
at TU Berlin in 2000, where he habilitated in 2007. Andreas von Zadow, M.A.
Dr Spars has led the field of economics of planning Andreas von Zadow studied Communication Science
and construction at Wuppertal University (BUW) since at TU Berlin. He worked for the Berlin Senate Depart
2006, where he is also Vice Dean of Research and ment for Urban Development and Housing, and he
leads the Master’s degree course in Real Estate Man was deputy head of the European Academy for the
agement / Construction Project Management. He is a Urban Environment (EA.UE). Von Zadow is working as
member of various scientific committees and asso independent advisor since 1993. He coaches and
ciations and published several books and papers, facilitates the development of projects, organisations
including Sharing-Approaches for Housing and and urban design processes. He is managing partner
Neighbourhoods (“Sharing-Ansätze für Wohnen und of Von Zadow International – VZI.

Authenticated
Strategies for the future
Sustainability remains an acutely topical issue. With

the effects of climate change no longer in any doubt,
discussions about the future keep returning to this
key challenge.
First published in German in 2013, this book presents
the first comprehensive overview of the complex chal-
lenges and action areas in sustainable neighbourhood
planning. The book demonstrates how to integrate over-
arching sustainable urban design principles into the
planning process and sets out a full range of planning
strategies and tools for designing living neighbourhoods
with a human focus. This completely revised new edition,
now also available in English, addresses further issues
and models such as resilience and smart cities and
relates them to the wider principles of sustainability.
The central point at the heart of this book is integrated

planning. This is the process and practice of analysing,
balancing and uniting the most wide-ranging social,
cultural, and environmental objectives in order to forge
holistic concepts.
A selection of international case studies illustrates ways

to implement aspects of sustainable planning within a
variety of different specific frameworks.
ISBN 978-3-95553-462-2
DETAIL Business Information

GmbH, Munich
9 783955 534622 detail-online.com
Authenticated

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Sus­

Collaborators (first German edition)

Illustrations: Ralph Donhauser

Translation into English:

Proofreading (English edition):

Cover and design:

Reproduction: ludwig:media, Zell am See

Printing and binding: Grafisches Centrum Cuno

This work is protected by copyright. The rights based

The German National Library lists this publication in

DETAIL Business Information GmbH, Munich

Editors’ preface to the 2nd Edition 6 CHAPTER 3 — IMPLEMENTATION

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Sustainability – an Old Hat?

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maintenance of built structures, to their eventual a fundamental understanding of the complex

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Making visions reality requires collecting experi­

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Aims and Objectives

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A substantive interpretation of sustainability The syndrome approach presents an alternative:

Safeguard human existence Safeguard potential for Preserve capacity for

Resource demand believed to have had more than a million inhab-

view plies from far-reaching catchment areas. This in

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The awakening and the exploitation of natural resources were to

awareness of nomic growth, the absolute limits to global growth

­sustainability The first oil crisis, triggered by the OPEC oil

ment of parameters in the

Space heating demand (source: Munich RE)

Global oil production (source: King 1971, p. 39)

UN Environment Conference in Stockholm / “The Limits to Growth” Study 1972

Number of natural disasters per annum (source: Munich Re)

Development of global temperatures (source: World Bank 2010)

Seveso (IT) dioxin disaster / UN Habitat Conference, Vancouver 1976

World Nature Charter / “Ökologisch bauen” publication (DE) 1982

2. Wärmeschutzverordnung (WSchV; DE), Bhopal disaster (IND) 1984

Piper Alpha disaster (North Sea) / Foundation IPCC 1988

Enquete-Commission report / Article 20a (DE) /Aalborg Charter 1994

6. + 7. Climate conferences, Bonn + Marrakesh (Negotiations) 2001 CASBEE

UN Climate conference Nairobi / “An Inconvenient Truth” film 2006

EU Nearly Zero Energy Buildings for public buildings 2019

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Frequency Path Edge Node District Landmark

Neighbourhoods 4. putting built structures which no longer meet

as activity areas 5. dismantling built structures which cannot be

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Historical redeveloped and extended Paris, dividing the city

development hall and administrative tasks (Fig. 4, p. 24). These

And yet within CIAM, the core group at the heart

Finally, the onset of professional criticism of func-

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1. Objectives 2. Action areas 3. Technology

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Added Value of Sustainable

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Sus

Making visions reality requires collecting experi

sustainability The first oil crisis, triggered by the OPEC oil

Neighbourhoods 4. putting built structures which no longer meet

as activity areas 5. dismantling built structures which cannot be

Finally, it is important not to forget the effects 9 Blaser / Buser / Borer

lements, components and systems able to

This is particularly true for sustainable plans pursu