PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2017 (v17.

0)
1.0 Statistics Mode

Mean Place data in ascending order.

xi xi Mode = most frequently occurring value
μ=
(1.4)
(1.1a) x= (1.1b)
N n
If two values occur with maximum frequency the data
µ = population mean set is bimodal.
x = sample mean If three or more values occur with maximum
Σxi = sum of all data values (x1, x2, x3, …) frequency the data set is multi-modal.
N = size of population
n = size of sample
Standard Deviation
2
Median xi - μ
σ= (Population) (1.5a)
N
Place data in ascending order.
If N is odd, median = central value (1.2) 2
xi - x
If N is even, median = mean of two central values s= (Sample) (1.5b)
n ‒1
N = size of population σ = population standard deviation
s = sample standard deviation
Range (1.5) xi = individual data value ( x1, x2, x3, …)
𝜇 = population mean
Range = xmax - xmin (1.3)
x = sample mean
xmax = maximum data value N = size of population
xmin = minimum data value n = size of sample

2.0 Probability
Independent Events
P (A and B and C) = PAPBPC (2.3)
Frequency
P (A and B and C) = probability of independent
nx events A and B and C occurring in sequence
fx = (2.1)
n PA = probability of event A

fx = relative frequency of outcome x

nx = number of events with outcome x Mutually Exclusive Events
n = total number of events
P (A or B) = PA + PB (2.4)

P (A or B) = probability of either mutually exclusive

event A or B occurring in a trial
Binomial Probability
PA = probability of event A
(order doesn’t matter)

n!(pk )(qn-k )
Pk = (2.2) Conditional Probability
k!(n-k)!
𝑃 𝐴 ∙𝑃 𝐷 𝐴
Pk = binomial probability of k successes in n trials 𝑃 𝐴𝐷 =𝑃 (2.5)
𝐴 ∙𝑃 𝐷 𝐴 +𝑃 ~𝐴 ∙𝑃 𝐷 ~𝐴
p = probability of a success
q = 1 – p = probability of failure
P (A|D) = probability of event A given event D
k = number of successes P(A) = probability of event A occurring
n = number of trials P(~A) = probability of event A not occurring
P(D|~A) = probability of event D given event A did not occur

ES/BE
IED POE DE CEA AE CIM EDD 1
© 2017 Project Lead The Way, Inc.
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016
 v17.0

3.0 Plane Geometry Ellipse Rectangle

2b
Circle Perimeter = 2a + 2b (3.9)
Area = π a b (3.8) 2a Area = ab (3.10)
Circumference =2 π r (3.1)
Area = π r2 (3.2)
Triangle (3.6) B
Parallelogram c
Area = ½ bh (3.11) a h
h a = b + c – 2bc·cos∠A
2 2 2
(3.12)
Area = bh (3.3) A
b = a + c – 2ac·cos∠B
2 2 2
(3.13) C b
c = a + b – 2ab·cos∠C
2 2 2
b (3.14)

Right Triangle Regular Polygons

s(12 f) ns2
2
c =a +b
2 2
(3.4) Area = n = 180 (3.15)
2 4tan( )
n
a c
sin θ = (3.5) a
c n = number of sides
b θ
cos θ = (3.6)
c
b Trapezoid a
tan θ = ab (3.7) h
Area = ½(a + b)h (3.16) h
h
b
4.0 Solid Geometry h

Cube
Sphere
3
Volume = s (4.1) s 4 3
Volume = π r (4.8)
2 3
Surface Area = 6s (4.2) s s 2
Surface Area = 4 π r (4.9)

Rectangular Prism
Cylinder
Volume = wdh (4.3) h r
Volume = π r h
2
(4.10) h
Surface Area = 2(wd + wh + dh) (4.4) w d
2
Surface Area = 2 π r h+2 π r (4.11)

Right Circular Cone

h
πr2 h Irregular Prism
Volume = (4.5)
3

Total Surface Area = π r2 + π r r2 +h2 r h

(4.6) Volume = Ah (4.12)

A = area of base
Pyramid

Ah h
Volume =
3
(4.7) 5.0 Constants
A = area of base 2
g = 9.8 m/s = 32.17 ft/s
2

-11 3 2
G = 6.67 x 10 m /kg·s
π = 3.14159
ES/BE
© 2016 Project Lead The Way, Inc. IED POE DE CEA AE CIM EDD 2
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016
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6.0 Conversions
Mass/Weight (6.1) Area (6.4) Pressure (6.8) Rotational Speed (6.11)
2 1 atm = 1.01325 bar 1 Hz = 2π rad/sec
1 kg = 2.205 lbm 1 acre = 4047 m
2 = 33.9 ft H2O = 60 rpm
1 slug = 32.2 lbm = 43,560 ft
2 = 29.92 in. Hg
1 ton = 2000 lb = 0.00156 mi
= 760 mm Hg
1 lb = 16 oz
Volume (6.5) = 101,325 Pa
= 14.7 psi
1L = 0.264 gal
Length (6.2) 3 1psi = 2.31 ft of H2O
= 0.0353 ft
1m = 3.28 ft = 33.8 fl oz Power (6.9) 7.0 Defined Units
3
1 km = 0.621 mi 1mL = 1 cm = 1 cc
1W = 3.412 Btu/h
1 in. = 2.54 cm
Temperature Unit = 0.00134 hp 1J = 1 N·m
1 mi = 5280 ft Equivalents (6.6) = 14.34 cal/min 1N = 1 kg·m / s2
1 yd = 3 ft *Use equation in section
9.0 to convert = 0.7376 ft·lbf/s 1 Pa = 1 N / m2
1 hp = 550 ft∙lb/sec 1V =1W/A
Δ1 K = Δ 1 ºC 1W =1J/s
Time (6.3) = Δ 1.8 ºF Energy (6.10)
= Δ 1.8 ºR 1W =1V/A
1d = 24 h
1J = 0.239 cal 1 Hz = 1 s-1
1h = 60 min Force (6.7) -4
= 9.48 x 10 Btu 1F = 1 A·s / V
1 min = 60 s
1N = 0.225 lb = 0.7376 ft·lbf 1H = 1 V·s / V
1 yr = 365 d
1 kip = 1,000 lb 1kW h = 3,600,000 J

8.0 SI Prefixes
Numbers Less Than One Numbers Greater Than One
Power Decimal Power Whole Number
Prefix Abbreviation Prefix Abbreviation
of 10 Equivalent of 10 Equivalent
-1 1
10 0.1 deci- d 10 10 deca- da
-2 2
10 0.01 centi- c 10 100 hecto- h
-3 3
10 0.001 milli- m 10 1000 kilo- k
-6 6
10 0.000001 micro- µ 10 1,000,000 Mega- M
-9 9
10 0.000000001 nano- n 10 1,000,000,000 Giga- G
-12 12
10 pico- p 10 Tera- T
-15 15
10 femto- f 10 Peta- P
-18 18
10 atto- a 10 Exa- E
-21 21
10 zepto- z 10 Zetta- Z
-24 24
10 yocto- y 10 Yotta- Y

9.0 Equations Temperature Force and Moment

F = ma (9.7a) M = Fd (9.7b)
TK = TC + 273 (9.4)
Mass and Weight F = force
m = VDm (9.1) TR = TF + 460 (9.5) m = mass
a = acceleration
9
W = mg (9.2) TF = 5 Tc + 32 (9.6a) M = moment
W = VDw (9.3) TF - 32
d= perpendicular distance
TC = (9.6b)
1.8
V = volume Equations of Static Equilibrium
Dm = mass density
m = mass TK = temperature in Kelvin ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣMP = 0 (9.8)
Dw = weight density TC = temperature in Celsius
W = weight Fx = force in the x-direction
TR = temperature in Rankin
g = acceleration due to gravity Fy = force in the y-direction
TF = temperature in Fahrenheit
MP = moment about point P
© 2016 Project Lead The Way, Inc. IED POE DE CEA AE ES/BE CIM EDD 3
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016
 v17.0

9.0 Equations (Continued) Electricity

Ohm’s Law
Energy: Work Fluid Mechanics
V = IR (9.32)
W = F∥ ∙ d (9.9) F
p= (9.16)
A
P = IV (9.33)
W = work V1 V2
=T (Charles’ Law) (9.17)
F∥ = force parallel to direction of T1 2 RT (series) = R1 + R2+ ··· + Rn (9.34)
displacement p1 p
d = displacement = T2 (Gay-Lussanc’s Law) (9.18) RT (parallel) =
1
(9.35)
T1 2 1 1
+ + ∙∙∙ +
1
R1 R2 Rn

p1V1 = p2V2 (Boyle’s Law) (9.19)

Power Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Q = Av (9.20)
E W IT = I1 + I2 + ··· + In
P= = (9.10) n
t t
A1v1 = A2v2 (9.21) or IT = k=1 Ik (9.36)

P=τω (9.11)
P = Qp (9.22) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
P = power absolute pressure = gauge pressure VT = V1 + V2 + ··· + Vn
E = energy + atmospheric pressure (9.23) n
W = work or VT = k=1 Vk (9.37)
p = absolute pressure
t = time F = force V = voltage
τ = torque A = area VT = total voltage
ω = angular velocity V = volume I = current
T = absolute temperature IT = total current
Q = flow rate R = resistance
Efficiency v = flow velocity RT = total resistance
Pout
P = power P = power
Efficiency (%) = ∙100% (9.12)
Pin
Mechanics Thermodynamics
Pout = useful power output d
Pin = total power input s= (9.24) P = Q′ = AU∆T (9.38)
t
∆Q
∆d P = Q' = (9.39)
v= (9.25) ∆t
Energy: Potential ∆t 1 k
vf − vi U= =L (9.40)
U = mgh (9.13) a= (9.26) R
t
kA∆T
U = potential energy vi 2 sin(2θ) P= (9.41)
L
m =mass X= (9.27)
-g A1v1 = A2v2 (9.42)
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = vi + at
Pnet = σAe(T2 4 -T1 4 )
(9.28)
h = height (9.43)
2
d = di + vit + ½at (9.29) PL
k= (9.44)
Energy: Kinetic 2 2
v = vi + 2a(d – di) (9.30) A∆T

K = 12 mv2 (9.14) τ = dFsinθ (9.31)

K = kinetic energy
m = mass
v = velocity
Energy: Thermal
∆Q = mc∆T
∆Q = change in thermal energy
m = mass
c = specific heat
∆T = change in temperature
P = rate of heat transfer
Q = thermal energy
s = average speed A = area of thermal conductivity
v = average velocity U = coefficient of heat conductivity
v = velocity (U-factor)
vi = initial velocity (t =0) ∆T = change in temperature
a = acceleration ∆t = change in time
X = range R = resistance to heat flow ( R-value)
t = time k = thermal conductivity
(9.15) ∆d = change in displacement v = velocity
d = distance Pnet = net power radiated
W
di = initial distance (t=0) σ = 5.6696 x 10
-8
m2 ∙K4
g = acceleration due to gravity
θ = angle e = emissivity constant
τ = torque L = thickness
F = force T1, T2 = temperature at time 1, time 2

© 2016 Project Lead The Way, Inc. POE 4 DE 4 AE 4 CIM 4

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016
 v17.0

10.0 Section Properties

y y
Moment of Inertia Rectangle Centroid

h x b h
bh3
x= and y = (10.3)
x
2 2
Ixx = (10.1)
12
b Right Triangle Centroid y

b h
x= and y = (10.4)
Ixx = moment of inertia of a rectangular section 3 3
x
about x axis
y
Semi-circle Centroid
Complex Shapes Centroid
4r
xi Ai yi Ai x = r and y = (10.5)
x= and y = (10.2) 3π x
Ai Ai

x = x-distance to the centroid x = x-distance to the centroid

y = y-distance to the centroid y = y-distance to the centroid
xi = x distance to centroid of shape i
yi = y distance to centroid of shape i
Ai = Area of shape i
12.0 Structural Analysis
11.0 Material Beam Formulas
Properties P
Reaction RA = RB = (12.1)
2
Stress (axial) PL
Moment Mmax = (at point of load) (12.2)
F 4
σ= (11.1) Deflection Δmax = PL3
(at point of load) (12.3)
A 48EI

σ = stress ωL
Reaction RA = RB = (12.4)
F = axial force 2
2
ωL
A = cross-sectional area Moment Mmax = (at center) (12.5)
8
5ωL4
Deflection Δmax = 384EI (at center) (12.6)
Strain (axial)
Reaction RA = RB = P (12.7)
ε= δ (11.2)
L0 Moment Mmax = Pa (12.8)

ε = strain Pa
Deflection Δmax = 24EI (3L2 -4a2 ) (12.9)
L0 = original length (at center)
δ = change in length
Pb Pa
Reaction RA = and RB = (12.10)
L L
Pab
Moment Mmax = (at Point of Load) (12.11)
Modulus of Elasticity L

σ
Deflection Δ max=Pab(a+2b) 3a(a+2b)
27EIL
(12.12)
E= (11.3)
(at x =
a a+2b
when a>b )
ε 3,
E = modulus of elasticity
(F2 -F1 )L0
E= (11.4) I = moment of inertia
𝛿2 −𝛿1 )A
Deformation: Axial Truss Analysis
E = modulus of elasticity FL0
δ= 2J = M + R
σ = stress (12.13) (12.14)
AE
ε = strain J = number of joints
A = cross-sectional area δ = deformation M =number of members
F = axial force F = axial force R = number of reaction forces
δ = deformation L0 = original length
A = cross-sectional area
E = modulus of elasticity

© 2016 Project Lead The Way, Inc. POE 5 AE 5 CEA 4

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016
 v17.0

13.0 Simple Machines

Inclined Plane

Mechanical Advantage (MA)

L
IMA=
DE
AMA=
FR IMA= (13.6)
(13.1) (13.2) H
DR FE

AMA
% Efficiency= ( ) 100 (13.3)
IMA

IMA = ideal mechanical advantage Wedge

AMA = actual mechanical advantage
DE = effort distance DR = resistance distance
FE = effort force FR = resistance force L
IMA= (13.7)
H

Lever

1st Screw
Class
C
IMA = (13.8)
Pitch

1
2nd Pitch = (13.9)
Class TPI
C = circumference
r = radius
Pitch = distance between
threads
3rd TPI = threads per inch
Class

Compound Machines

MATOTAL = (MA1) (MA2) (MA3) . . . (13.10)

Wheel and Axle

Gears; Sprockets with Chains; and Pulleys

with Belts Ratios
Effort at Axle Nout dout ωin τout
GR = = = = (13.11)
Nin din ωout τin

dout ωin τout

= = (pulleys) (13.12)
din ωout τin

Compound Gears
Effort at Wheel
B D
GRTOTAL = ( ) (C) (13.13)
A

Pulley Systems

IMA = total number of strands of a single string GR = gear ratio

supporting the resistance
DE (string pulled)
IMA =
DR (resistance lifted)
(13.4)
ωin = angular velocity - driver
ωout = angular velocity - driven
Nin = number of teeth - driver
(13.5) Nout = number of teeth - driven
din = diameter - driver
dout = diameter - driven
𝜏in = torque - driver
𝜏out = torque - driven

© 2016 Project Lead The Way, Inc. POE 6

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016
 v17.0

14.0 Structural Design

Steel Beam Design: Shear Steel Beam Design: Moment Spread Footing Design
Vn Mn qnet = qallowable - pfooting (14.5)
Va ≤ (14.1) Ma ≤ (14.3)
Ωv Ωb
pfooting = tfooting ∙150 lb3 (14.6)
ft
Vn = 0.6FyAw (14.2) Mn = FyZx (14.4)
P
q= (14.7)
A
Va = internal shear force Ma = internal bending moment
Vn = nominal shear strength Mn = nominal moment strength qnet = net allowable soil bearing
Ωv = 1.5 = factor of safety for shear Ωb = 1.67 = factor of safety for pressure
Fy = yield stress bending moment qallowable = total allowable soil
Aw = area of web Fy = yield stress bearing pressure
𝑉𝑛 Zx = plastic section modulus about pfooting = soil bearing pressure
𝛺
= allowable shear strength
𝑣 neutral axis due to footing weight
𝑀𝑛
= allowable bending strength tfooting = thickness of footing
𝛺𝑏
q = soil bearing pressure
15.0 Storm Water Runoff P = column load applied
Rational Method Runoff Coefficients A = area of footing
Storm Water Drainage
Categorized by Surface
Q = CfCiA (15.1) Forested 0.059—0.2
16.0 Water Supply
C1 A1 + C2 A2 + ∙∙∙ Asphalt 0.7—0.95
Cc = (15.2)
A1 + A2 + ∙∙∙ Brick 0.7—0.85
Hazen-Williams Formula
3 Concrete 0.8—0.95
Q = peak storm water runoff rate (ft /s) 10.44LQ
1.85
Shingle roof 0.75—0.95
Cf = runoff coefficient adjustment hf = 1.85 4.8655 (16.1)
factor Lawns, well drained (sandy soil) C d
C = runoff coefficient Up to 2% slope 0.05—0.1 hf = head loss due to friction
i = rainfall intensity (in./h) 2% to 7% slope 0.10—0.15 (ft of H2O)
A = drainage area (acres) Over 7% slope 0.15—0.2 L = length of pipe (ft)
Lawns, poor drainage (clay soil) Q = water flow rate (gpm)
Up to 2% slope 0.13—0.17 C = Hazen-Williams constant
Runoff Coefficient
2% to 7% slope 0.18—0.22 d = diameter of pipe (in.)
Adjustment Factor
Return Over 7% slope 0.25—0.35
Period Cf Driveways, 0.75—0.85 Dynamic Head
1, 2, 5, 10 1.0 walkways Categorized by Use dynamic head = static head
25 1.1 Farmland 0.05—0.3 – head loss (16.2)
50 1.2 Pasture 0.05—0.3 static head = change in elevation
100 1.25 between source and
Unimproved 0.1—0.3
discharge
Parks 0.1—0.25
Cemeteries 0.1—0.25
Railroad yard 0.2—0.40 17.0 Heat Loss/Gain
Playgrounds 0.2—0.35
(except asphalt or Districts
Business Heat Loss/Gain
concrete)
Neighborhood 0.5—0.7
Q′ = AU∆T (17.1)
City (downtown) 0.7—0.95
Residential 1
U= (17.2)
Single-family 0.3—0.5 R
Multi-plexes, 0.4—0.6 Q = thermal energy
detached
Multi-plexes, 0.6—0.75 A = area of thermal conductivity
attached
Suburban 0.25—0.4 U = coefficient of heat
Apartments, 0.5—0.7 conductivity (U-factor)
condominiumsIndustrial ∆T = change in temperature
R = resistance to heat flow (R-
Light 0.5—0.8
value)
Heavy 0.6—0.9

© 2016 Project Lead The Way, Inc. CEA 5

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016
 v17.0
18.0 Hazen-Williams Constants

19.0 Equivalent Length of (Generic) Fittings

Pipe Size
Screwed Fittings 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4
Regular 90 degree 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11.0 13.0
Elbows Long radius 90 degree 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.6 4.0 4.6
Regular 45 degree 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.2 4.0 5.5
Line Flow 0.8 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.6 5.6 7.7 9.3 12.0 17.0
Tees Branch Flow 2.4 3.5 4.2 5.3 6.6 8.7 9.9 12.0 13.0 17.0 21.0
Return Regular 180 degree 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11.0 13.0
Bends Globe 21.0 22.0 22.0 24.0 29.0 37.0 42.0 54.0 62.0 79.0 110.0
Gate 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.5
Valves Angle 12.8 15.0 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0
Swing Check 7.2 7.3 8.0 8.8 11.0 13.0 15.0 19.0 22.0 27.0 38.0
Strainer 4.6 5.0 6.6 7.7 18.0 20.0 27.0 29.0 34.0 42.0

Pipe Size
Flanged Fittings 1/2 3/4 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Regular 90 degree 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12.0 14.0 17.0 18.0 21.0 23.0
Elbows Long radius 90 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.7 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10.0 11.0
degree 45 degree
Regular 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.6 7.7 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 16.0
Line Flow 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.7 5.2 6.0 6.4 7.2 7.6
Tees
Branch Flow 2.0 2.6 3.3 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.5 9.4 12.0 15.0 18.0 24.0 30.0 34.0 37.0 43.0 47.0
Return Regular 180 degree 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12.0 14.0 17.0 18.0 21.0 23.0
Bends Long radius 180 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10.0 11.0
degree
Globe 38.0 40.0 45.0 54.0 59.0 70.0 77.0 94.0 120.0 150.0 190.0. 260.0 310.0 390.0
Gate 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
Valves
Angle 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 18.0 21.0 22.0 285.0 38.0 50.0 63.0 90.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 190.0 210.0
Swing Check 3.8 5.3 7.2 10.0 12.0 17.0 21.0 27.0 38.0 50.0 63.0 90.0 120.0 140.0

© 2016 Project Lead The Way, Inc. CEA 6

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016
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20.0 555 Timer Design 21.A Boolean Algebra

quaons
T = 0.693 (RA + 2RB)C (20.1) Boolean Theorems Consensus Theorems
1 X• 0 = 0 X + XY = X + Y
f = (20.2)
(21.1) (21.16)
T
X•1 = X (21.2) X + XY = X + Y (21.17)
(RA+ RB)
duty-cycle =
(RA+2RB)
∙100% (20.3) X• X =X (21.3) X + XY = X + Y (21.18)

T = period X • X=0 (21.4) X + XY = X + Y (21.19)

f = frequency X+0=X (21.5)
RA = resistance A DeMorgan’s Theorems
RB = resistance B X+1=1 (21.6)
C = capacitance X+X=X (21.7)
XY = X + Y (21.20)

X+X=1 (21.8)
X+Y = X • Y (21.21)

X=X (21.9) Commutative Law

21.B Resistor Color Code X•Y = Y•X (21.10)

X+Y = Y+X (21.11)

Associative Law
X(YZ) = (XY)Z (21.12)

X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z (21.13)

Distributive Law

21.C Capacitor X(Y+Z) = XY + XZ (21.14)

Code (X+Y)(W+Z) = XW+XZ+YW+YZ (21.15)

23.0 G&M Codes

G00 = Rapid Traverse (23.1)

G01 = Straight Line Interpolation (23.2)
G02 = Circular Interpolation (clockwise) (23.3)
G03 = Circular Interpolation (c-clockwise) (23.4)
G04 = Dwell (wait) (23.5)
G05 = Pause for user intervention (23.6)
G20 = Inch programming units (23.7)
G21 = Millimeter programming units (23.8)
G80 = Canned cycle cancel (23.9)
22.0 Speeds and Feeds G81 = Drilling cycle (23.10)
G82 = Drilling cycle with dwell (23.11)
G90 = Absolute Coordinates (23.12)
CS(12in.
ft
) G91 = Relative Coordinates (23.13)
N= (22.1)
M00 = Pause
πd (23.14)
M01 = Optional stop (23.15)
fm = ft·nt·N (22.2)
M02 = End of program (23.16)
Plunge Rate = ½·fm M03 = Spindle on (23.17)
N = spindle speed (rpm) M05 = Spindle off (23.18)
CS = cutting speed (ft/min) M06 = Tool change (23.19)
d = diameter (in.) M08 = Accessory # 1 on (23.20)
fm = feed rate (in./min) M09 = Accessory # 1 off (23.21)
ft = feed (in./tooth/rev) M10 = Accessory # 2 on (23.22)
nt = number of teeth M11 = Accessory # 2 off (23.23)
M30 = Program end and reset (23.24)
M47 = Rewind (23.25)

© 2016 Project Lead The Way, Inc. DE 5 CIM 5

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016
 v17.0

24.0 Aerospace Propulsion Energy

Equations
F N = W vj - vo (24.5) K = 12 mv2 (24.9)
Forces of Flight
2D
I = Fave ∆t (24.6) − GMm
CD = (24.1) U= (24.10)
Aρv2 Fnet = Favg - Fg (24.7) R
GMm
R e=
ρvl
(24.2) a=
𝑣𝑓
(24.8) E=U+K=− (24.11)
μ ∆t 2R
m3
CL =
2L
(24.3) FN = net thrust G = 6.67 × 10−11 kg × 𝑠2 (24.12)
Aρv2 W = air mass flow
M = Fd (24.4)
vo = flight velocity K = kinetic energy
vj = jet velocity m =mass
I = total impulse v = velocity
CL = coefficient of lift Fave = average thrust force
CD = coefficient of drag U = gravitational potential energy
Δt = change in time (thrust G = universal gravitation constant
L = lift duration)
D = drag M =mass of central body
Fnet = net force m = mass of orbiting object
A = wing area Favg = average force
ρ = density R = Distance center main body to
Fg = force of gravity center of orbiting object
Re = Reynolds number
v = velocity vf = final velocity E = Total Energy of an orbit
l = length of fluid travel a = acceleration
μ = fluid viscosity Δt = change in time (thrust Orbital Mechanics
F = force duration)
m = mass
NOTE: Fave and Favg are b2
g = acceleration due to gravity 𝑒= 1- (24.13)
easily confused. a2
M = moment
d = moment arm (distance from 3 3
a2 a2
datum perpendicular to F) T = 2π = 2π (24.14)
μ GM
Atmosphere Parameters
Bernoulli’s Law GMm
T = 15.04 - 0.00649h (24.17) F= r2
(24.15)
ρv2 ρv2
(Ps + ) = (Ps + ) ( 23.16) T + 273.1 5.256
2 1 2 2
p = 101.29 [ ] (24.18)
𝑒 = eccentricity
288.08
PS = static pressure p b = semi-minor axis
v = velocity ρ= (24.19) a =semi-major axis
0.2869 T + 273.1
ρ = density T = orbital period
a = semi-major axis
T = temperature μ = gravitational parameter
h = height F = force of gravity between two
p = pressure bodies
ρ = density G = universal gravitation constant
M =mass of central body
m = mass of orbiting object
r = distance between center of two
25.0 Environmental Sustainability objects

colonies/mL = # colonies/dilution (25.1)

# of transformants final volume at recovery
Transformation Efficiency (# Transformants/μg) =
μg of DNA
∙ volume plated (mL)
(25.2)

# of moles of CO2 # of moles consumed in experiment

=
# of moles of glucose produced in formula # of moles of glucose produced in experiment
(25.3)

GDP2 - GDP1
Economic Growth = (25.4)
GDP1
distance the substance travels
Rf = distance the solvent travels
(25.5)

GDP = gross domestic product

Rf = retention factor

© 2016 Project Lead The Way, Inc. ES 4 AE 6

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016
 v17.0

26.0 USCS Soil Classification Chart

Highly Organic Soils (Pt)

Color, odor, very high moisture
Visual content, particles of plant life,
Examination. Is fibrous.
soil highly organic,
coarse grained, or
50% or more retained on the No. 200 sieve fine grained? More than 50% passes the No. 200 sieve

Coarse Fine
Grained grained
Run sieve Run LL and
%G > %S analysis %S > %G PL on
minus No.
Gravel 40 sieve
Sand (S)
(G) material
Less Between Between
More than Less than More than LL < 50 LL ≥ 50
than 5% 5% and 5% and
12% pass 5% pass 12% pass
pass No. 12% pass 12% pass
No. 200 No. 200 No. 200
200 No. 200 No. 200 Above Above line
seive sieve sieve Below Limits plot Below
sieve sieve sieve line on on
line on in shaded line on
Plasticity Plasticity Plasticity
Run LL area of Plasticity
Dual Run LL and Dual Chart or Chart Chart
Well Poorly and PL on Plasticity Chart
symbol PL on minus symbol and PI>
grade grade minus No. PI < 4 Chart
Well Poorly based on No. 40 sieve based 7
material d d on 40 sieve
graded graded gradation
gradatio material
and
plasticity n and Color or Color or
Below Limits Below Limits odor Inorganic
Above plasticity Above odor
line or plot in line and line or plot in line and Inorganic
shaded shaded shaded shaded shaded shaded
area on area on area on area on area on area on Organi
SW-SM Plasticity Organic c
Plasticity Plasticity Plasticity Plasticity Plasticity
GW-GM Chart Chart Chart SP-SM Chart Chart Chart MH
GP-GM SW-SC ML
GW GP GW-GC GM GM-GC GC SW SP SP-SC SM SM-SC SC OL ML-CL CL OH CH
GP-GC

CEA 7
© 2016 Project Lead The Way, Inc.
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2016