Física del Cosmos: Lecture I

Galilean, Special
&
General Relativity

Kostas Glampedakis

2019-20
 This lecture

• The Galilean Relativity of Newtonian physics.

• Special Relativity & Lorentz invariance.

• The incompatibility between gravity and special relativity.

• Towards General Relativity: the spacetime of a rotating frame.

 Newton’s laws
• 1. Free particles move with uniform velocity v, that is, with zero
acceleration and along straight lines.

• 2. Equation of motion for a particle of mass m under the influence of a

force f, moving along the trajectory x(t) :

d2 x
f = ma, a= 2
dt
• 3. The forces of action and reaction are equal and opposite. For two
interacting particles 1 & 2:

f12 = f21
(this law implies a notion of simultaneity between different observers)
 Reference frames & observers
• The statement “a body is moving” is meaningful only when a coordinate
system has been specified. Then, a change in the body’s position means that
its coordinates change.

• The notion of a reference frame is synonymous with a coordinate system.

We can also identify a reference frame with an observer.

• A key question is this:

Are the laws of physics the same for different frames/observers?

For frames related by simple space translations and rotations the answer
is trivially “yes”.

However, for frames in relative motion the situation is far less clear.
 Inertial frames

• Inertial frames (IFs) are those reference frames that are in state of
constant rectilinear motion relative to each other. These frames are not
accelerating.

• Newtonian mechanics is formulated assuming things are observed and

measured in an IF. In fact, we could operationally define an IF with the
help of the first law (law of inertia): in the absence of any kind of force, a
free body is seen to move with a uniform velocity v.

• In an IF space is homogeneous, isotropic (same properties at all points,

in all directions) and has Euclidean geometry. In addition, time is
homogeneous (it doesn’t matter when we set “t=0”).
 The “Relativity principle”
• Relativity Principle (RP): the laws of physics (=the fundamental equations
of a theory) should take the same form in all IFs.

• Lets discuss the implications of the RP and of “invariant equations”

in the context of Newtonian mechanics.

• Assuming a set of reference frames, we require Newton’s force law (and

the special case of free particle motion) to be frame-invariant:

f = ma, f =0 ) a=0
Thus, all observers in this set of frames would agree that free particles
move without acceleration.

If we postulate that {m, f } are invariant quantities, then the above

requirement implies that the acceleration a should be invariant.
 The Galilean transformation
0 0
• Assume two of these frames: observer S (t, x), (t , x ) observer S´

2 2 0
0 d x d x
• Then: a=a ) 2
= 02
dt dt
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• Assuming an absolute time (= clocks in the two frames tick with the same
rate, just like in “normal life”!), we can set:
0
t =t
• As a result we get the Galilean transformation between the two frames:

0
x =x v t, v = constant

• This is the transformation between IFs with relative velocity v.

0
u =u
<latexit sha1_base64="btRapwKEl1G1WCxmzugsV7OXS9w=">AAACE3icbZDLSsNAFIYn9VbrLerSzWARRLAkVdCNUHTjsoK9QBPLZDpph84kYWZSKCHv4MZXceNCEbdu3Pk2TtqI2vrDwMd/zmHO+b2IUaks69MoLCwuLa8UV0tr6xubW+b2TlOGscCkgUMWiraHJGE0IA1FFSPtSBDEPUZa3vAqq7dGREgaBrdqHBGXo35AfYqR0lbXPHI4UgPPT+L0zokE5QRewB8PHn/zKO2aZatiTQTnwc6hDHLVu+aH0wtxzEmgMENSdmwrUm6ChKKYkbTkxJJECA9Rn3Q0BogT6SaTm1J4oJ0e9EOhX6DgxP09kSAu5Zh7ujPbUM7WMvO/WidW/rmb0CCKFQnw9CM/ZlCFMAsI9qggWLGxBoQF1btCPEACYaVjLOkQ7NmT56FZrdgnlerNabl2mcdRBHtgHxwCG5yBGrgGddAAGNyDR/AMXowH48l4Nd6mrQUjn9kFf2S8fwGpn56m</latexit>
v
 Galilean Relativity
• Conclusion: by demanding invariance of the equations of mechanics
(Newton’s laws) we have identified a set of “special” coordinate frames
(inertial frames) which are in uniform relative motion.

• Galilean relativity between inertial frames (this time without assuming a

common origin or synchronised clocks)

t0 = t + const.
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x0 = x vt + const.

• The geometry of 3-D space is (of course!) Euclidean. The infinitesimal length
squared is invariant and is given by the Pythagorean formula:

dl2 = dx · dx = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = dl02 <latexit sha1_base64="t/JZQXU+RQkriOiQIkiO0txv+Z8=">AAAB+HicbVBNSwMxEJ31s9aPrnr0EiyCp7JbBb0IRS8eK9gPaNeSzaZtaJJdkqxQl/4SLx4U8epP8ea/MW33oK0PBh7vzTAzL0w408bzvp2V1bX1jc3CVnF7Z3ev5O4fNHWcKkIbJOaxaodYU84kbRhmOG0nimIRctoKRzdTv/VIlWaxvDfjhAYCDyTrM4KNlXpu6QpF/CHrJooJiqqTnlv2Kt4MaJn4OSlDjnrP/epGMUkFlYZwrHXH9xITZFgZRjidFLuppgkmIzygHUslFlQH2ezwCTqxSoT6sbIlDZqpvycyLLQei9B2CmyGetGbiv95ndT0L4OMySQ1VJL5on7KkYnRNAUUMUWJ4WNLMFHM3orIECtMjM2qaEPwF19eJs1qxT+rVO/Oy7XrPI4CHMExnIIPF1CDW6hDAwik8Ayv8OY8OS/Ou/Mxb11x8plD+APn8wfdn5KT</latexit>

dt = dt
<latexit sha1_base64="FKsiZYWHx9pZr1Y7NVWjcg/u7yI=">AAAB9HicbVBNSwMxEM36WetX1aOXYBE8ld0q6EUoevFYwX5Au5ZsNtuGJtk1mS2Upb/DiwdFvPpjvPlvTNs9aOuDgcd7M8zMCxLBDbjut7Oyura+sVnYKm7v7O7tlw4OmyZONWUNGotYtwNimOCKNYCDYO1EMyIDwVrB8Hbqt0ZMGx6rBxgnzJekr3jEKQEr+SFc4xAeu4nmkvVKZbfizoCXiZeTMspR75W+umFMU8kUUEGM6XhuAn5GNHAq2KTYTQ1LCB2SPutYqohkxs9mR0/wqVVCHMXalgI8U39PZEQaM5aB7ZQEBmbRm4r/eZ0Uois/4ypJgSk6XxSlAkOMpwngkGtGQYwtIVRzeyumA6IJBZtT0YbgLb68TJrVindeqd5flGs3eRwFdIxO0Bny0CWqoTtURw1E0RN6Rq/ozRk5L8678zFvXXHymSP0B87nD3LBkeQ=</latexit>
0

• This is the situation in physics before 1905 ...

 Relativity of electromagnetism
• Any attempt to incorporate Maxwell’s theory into the previous
Newtonian-Galilean framework ends in failure (initially this was
explained by invoking a privileged “ether” frame for Maxwell’s theory).

• Maxwell’s equations are incompatible with Galilean relativity!

• Maxwell’s theory, however, is invariant with respect to the Lorentz

transformation:

x0 = (x vt) ( 1)[x (x · v)v/v 2 ], t0 = (t x · v/c2 )

2 2 1/2
= 1 v /c

In the limit v << c the Lorentz transformation reduces to the Galilean

transformation.
 Special Relativity
• The puzzle was resolved in 1905 with Einstein’s theory of Special Relativity
(SR). This new theory is based on a broader relativity principle:

non-gravitational physics must be the same in all inertial frames

• In SR, IFs are related via the Lorentz transformation. The speed c emerges
as an invariant constant of the theory and can be identified with the
propagation speed of electromagnetic waves (light) in vacuum. The same c
represents the maximum possible speed for particles/signals.

• Maxwell’s theory is already Lorentz invariant, but Newtonian mechanics

must be modified in order to comply with the new theory.
 Geometry in Special Relativity
• We know that the Lorentz transformation has properties unfamiliar to
everyday life: time-dilation, length-contraction, loss of simultaneity ...

• All IFs see an a Lorentz-invariant distance that is mixture of time and

space intervals:

2 2 2
ds = c dt + dx · dx

• The spacetime’s geometry is pseudo-Euclidean (also called Lorentzian).

This 4-dimensional space is called Minkowski spacetime.

• Free particles follow straight space-time trajectories.

 Minkowski spacetime
• As in Euclidean space, we can again work with vectors. These are now called
four-vectors and have four components:
with
µ 0 1 2 3 0 µ µ ⌫
A = (A , A , A , A ) = (A , A) A = A (x )

• As we will see later on, the Minkowski spacetime is flat (=zero curvature)
We can write the invariant line element in the more compact form:

ds2 = ⌘µ⌫ dxµ dx⌫ = c2 dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2

• We have introduced the Minkowski metric:

⌘µ⌫ = diag( 1, 1, 1, 1)
 Special relativistic mechanics
• To a particle of rest mass m0 we assign a four-velocity, a four-momentum,
and a four-force. These are related by a relativistic Newton’s second law:

µ
µ dx µ dx
u = ) u = (u)(c, u) u=
d⌧ dt

µ µ p = mu
p = m0 u = m0 (u)(c, u) = (mc, p)
{
m
relativistic energy
<latexit sha1_base64="hgrbGyfUs1b/Mr5+M32Ck4D9zmA=">AAAB6HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0mqoMeiF48t2FpoQ9lsJ+3a3STsboQS+gu8eFDEqz/Jm//GbZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IBFcG9f9dgpr6xubW8Xt0s7u3v5B+fCoreNUMWyxWMSqE1CNgkfYMtwI7CQKqQwEPgTj25n/8IRK8zi6N5MEfUmHEQ85o8ZKTdkvV9yqOwdZJV5OKpCj0S9/9QYxSyVGhgmqdddzE+NnVBnOBE5LvVRjQtmYDrFraUQlaj+bHzolZ1YZkDBWtiJD5urviYxKrScysJ2SmpFe9mbif143NeG1n/EoSQ1GbLEoTAUxMZl9TQZcITNiYgllittbCRtRRZmx2ZRsCN7yy6ukXat6F9Va87JSv8njKMIJnMI5eHAFdbiDBrSAAcIzvMKb8+i8OO/Ox6K14OQzx/AHzucP1tuM9Q==</latexit>

µ µ
µ dp d(m0 u ) E = mc2
F = =
d⌧ d⌧ E 2 = m20 c4 + p2 c2
• The proper time τ is the time measured by a clock moving with the particle:

ds2 = c2 d⌧ 2
 The problem with Newtonian gravity
• Is Newtonian gravity compatible with SR?

• The theory’s field equation is the Poisson

equation, relating the source=mass density ρ(t, x),
to the produced field = potential Φ(t, x):

r2 = 4⇡G⇢

{
• For a pair of point masses at distance r, this m1 m2
equation leads to the famous inverse square
f= G 2 r̂
r
No Lorentz invariant equations

• Newtonian gravity is clearly Only mass density acts as source,

incompatible with Special Relativity instead of all kinds of mass-energy

It implies instantaneous action at

distance, and invariant simultaneity
 A first stab at relativistic gravity (I)
• Imagine we are in 1905, with SR just formulated. What is the simplest
relativistic theory of gravity one can think of?

• Newtonian gravity’s field equation: r2 = 4⇡G⇢

• As it stands, this equation is not Lorentz invariant. Motivated by Maxwell’s

theory, our first guess for a relativistic theory would be:

⇤ = 4⇡G⇢
• The left-hand-side is now Lorentz invariant (assuming Φ is a frame-
invariant scalar). What about the right-hand-side of the equation?
 A first stab at relativistic gravity (II)
3
• Imagine a cubic box of volume V = L filled with N particles, each one
having mass M.

L M L M
v
L
L

L |{z}
L/ 0 N( M) 2
NM ⇢ = 2 = ⇢
⇢= L (L/ )
L3
• Mass (or energy) density is not a simple scalar. With this γ scaling, is not
even a component of a four-vector. What is it?

• Our first attempt to build a special relativistic theory of gravity

has failed!
 Towards General Relativity (I)
• Developing a relativistic theory of gravity took Einstein
a decade of hard work (including many wrong turns
before the final theory was formulated in 1915).

• Einstein’s “happiest thought of his life” was the

Equivalence Principle (EP). This is discussed in detail
in the following lecture.

• The EP asserted (i) the universality of free fall and

(ii) the equivalence between a uniform gravitational
field and a state of uniform acceleration.

• The EP leads to two crucial predictions: (i) gravity

bends the trajectory of light and (ii) clocks slow down
in the presence of gravity.
 Towards General Relativity (II)
• Einstein had realised that a relativistic theory of gravity should involve
a non-Euclidean space geometry.

• This was suggested by the rotating-disk thought experiment (also known

as “Ehrenfest’s paradox”).

2R

2R
no rotation
with rotation
disk’s circumference C = 2⇡R C 6= 2⇡R
 Rotating frame in relativity (I)
• Assume an IF in Minkowski spacetime. This time we employ cylindrical
instead of cartesian coordinates (c=1):

ds2 =
<latexit sha1_base64="EAmeqxLCvaWPL3Lc5l4WQ0IFN8s=">AAACMnicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEs3g0UQxJJUQTdC0Y3uKtgHNLFMJpN26GQSZiaFGvpNbvwSwYUuFHHrRzhtCtbWCwPncS937vFiRqWyrFcjt7C4tLySXy2srW9sbpnbO3UZJQKTGo5YJJoekoRRTmqKKkaasSAo9BhpeL2rkd/oEyFpxO/UICZuiDqcBhQjpaW2eePL+zK8gMe+4yGRqqFmRzAjYpo8ZOTXyGSnj0TcpVpom0WrZI0LzgN7AopgUtW2+ez4EU5CwhVmSMqWbcXKTZFQFDMyLDiJJDHCPdQhLQ05Col00/HJQ3igFR8GkdCPKzhWpydSFEo5CD3dGSLVlbPeSPzPayUqOHdTyuNEEY6zRUHCoIrgKD/oU0GwYgMNEBZU/xXiLhIIK51yQYdgz548D+rlkn1SKt+eFiuXkzjyYA/sg0NggzNQAdegCmoAg0fwAt7Bh/FkvBmfxlfWmjMmM7vgTxnfP8WeqMA=</latexit>
dt̄2 + dr̄2 + dz̄ 2 + r̄2 d'¯2
• Considering a rigid disk (or lattice) rotating with angular frequency Ω
about the z̄ axis, we change to coordinates fixed in the disk’s frame: <latexit sha1_base64="mb5hCfC7yTTpuQjvFO4cke/7nrA=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0mqoMeiF48V7Ae0oWy2m3bpZhN2J0IN/RFePCji1d/jzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekEhh0HW/ncLa+sbmVnG7tLO7t39QPjxqmTjVjDdZLGPdCajhUijeRIGSdxLNaRRI3g7GtzO//ci1EbF6wEnC/YgOlQgFo2ildi+gOnua9ssVt+rOQVaJl5MK5Gj0y1+9QczSiCtkkhrT9dwE/YxqFEzyaamXGp5QNqZD3rVU0YgbP5ufOyVnVhmQMNa2FJK5+nsio5ExkyiwnRHFkVn2ZuJ/XjfF8NrPhEpS5IotFoWpJBiT2e9kIDRnKCeWUKaFvZWwEdWUoU2oZEPwll9eJa1a1buo1u4vK/WbPI4inMApnIMHV1CHO2hAExiM4Rle4c1JnBfn3flYtBacfOYY/sD5/AGoUI/H</latexit>

r = r̄,
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z = z̄, ' = '¯ ⌦t̄
• The invariant line element becomes:
✓ 2
◆2 2 2
r ⌦ r d'
ds2 = 1 r2 ⌦2 dt̄ 2 2
d' + dr 2
+ dz 2
+
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• The rotating frame’s time coordinate t is obtained with the help of a Lorentz
transformations between the original IF and an instantaneous rest frame:
✓ 2
◆ where
1/2 r ⌦
dt = (v)(dt̄ vrd')¯ = 1 r 2 ⌦2 dt̄ 2 2
d' v = r⌦
1 r ⌦
<latexit sha1_base64="t7mH1tMElOTZcn/vvknudQIPg5s=">AAAB83icbVBNSwMxEM3Wr1q/qh69BIvgqexWQS9C0Ys3K9gP6C4lm862oUl2SbKFsvRvePGgiFf/jDf/jWm7B219MPB4b4aZeWHCmTau++0U1tY3NreK26Wd3b39g/LhUUvHqaLQpDGPVSckGjiT0DTMcOgkCogIObTD0d3Mb49BaRbLJzNJIBBkIFnEKDFW8sf4BivsPwgYkF654lbdOfAq8XJSQTkavfKX349pKkAayonWXc9NTJARZRjlMC35qYaE0BEZQNdSSQToIJvfPMVnVunjKFa2pMFz9fdERoTWExHaTkHMUC97M/E/r5ua6DrImExSA5IuFkUpxybGswBwnymghk8sIVQxeyumQ6IINTamkg3BW355lbRqVe+iWnu8rNRv8ziK6ASdonPkoStUR/eogZqIogQ9o1f05qTOi/PufCxaC04+c4z+wPn8AZlHkMA=</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="eRo2dm8hbZzri2U4GxqhgTnMNC8=">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</latexit>
 Rotating frame in relativity (II)
• The resulting rotating frame spacetime is:
2 2
r d'
ds2 = dt2 + dr2 + dz 2 +
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1 r 2 ⌦2
• The geometry of 3-D space (defined as the dt=0 “hypersurface”):
2 2
r d'
dl2 = dr2 + dz 2 +
1 r 2 ⌦2
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• The circumference C of a z=const. disk of radius r: Lorentz contraction

Z 2⇡
p 2⇡r
C= g'' d' = 2 2 1/2
= 2⇡r (v) > 2⇡r
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0 (1 r ⌦ )

• A z=const. disk is a curved 2-D surface of revolution:

2 2
Gaussian curvature:
r d'
d 2 2
= dr + = dr 2
+ f 2
(r)d' 2 f 00 3⌦2
1 r 2 ⌦2 K= =
f (1 r2 ⌦2 )2
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 Assembling the pieces
• Special Relativity (= non-gravitational physics) is based on the notion of
a flat Minkowski spacetime with a fixed, non-dynamical metric:

ds2 = ⌘µ⌫ dxµ dx⌫

• The universality of free fall, the gravitational time dilation and the non-
Euclidean geometry in the presence of acceleration/gravitation suggests
the generalisation to a curved spacetime with a dynamical metric:

ds2 = gµ⌫ dxµ dx⌫

↵
• The metric gµ⌫ (x ) is specified by field equations (the Einstein field
equations) that should connect the geometry to the distribution of
matter/energy.
 Gravity = geometry
• The notion of the “gravitational force” is abandoned and is replaced by the
notion of inertial (free) motion in a curved spacetime. The metric of the 4-D
spacetime becomes a dynamical field, representing gravity.
“You will be convinced of the general theory of
relativity once you have studied it. Therefore I
am not going to defend it with a single word.”
- A. Einstein
(on a postcard to A. Sommerfeld, 1916)
 Textbook reading
• Hartle’s book: Chapters 2 (exercises 4, 5) , 3 (exercises 2, 4)

• Revision: Special Relativity (suggested textbook “Introduction to Special

Relativity” by W. Rindler).