Boilers and

Combustion
Subject area: Energy Technology
Alan Kabanshi, PhD
 Introduction Boilers and Combustion
►The last topic considered basics heat and power generation with
thermodynamic vapor cycles in modern steam power plants. An important
aspect of such power plants involves the supply of heat to the working
fluid, which in most cases is turning liquid water into superheated steam.
► The supply of heat involves a chemical reaction called COMBUSTION
and the process is controlled in an enclosed system/component called
BOILERS.
►The subject matter of todays lecture centers on boilers and combustion.
►Read Chapter 3: K. C. Weston (2000). Energy Conversion, Ebook
version.
http://www.personal.utulsa.edu/~kenneth-weston/
►All boiler parts refer to slides & handout
(https://www.beeindia.gov.in/sites/default/files/2Ch6.pdf).
 Boilers Basics
►During the industrial revolution, boilers were the main devices for
energy conversion to power industrial operations and transportation. A
boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to
be transferred into a working fluid until it becomes heated or a gas.
►Water is mostly used as a working fluid because it is relatively
cheap and non corrosive, it can be easily controlled, the gas is
invisible, odorless, and has a large change in specific enthalpy critical
for typical steam generator pressures.
►When water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1600
times, producing a force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder.
(Extremely dangerous)
► Proper maintenance and operation of boiler systems is important with
regard to efficiency and reliability.
 Boilers Basics: Heat Transfer
 Heat is transferred from one body to another by means of :
1. Radiation, which is the transfer of heat from a hot body to
a cold body through a conveying medium without
physical contact, Water-tube boilers
2. Convection, the transfer of heat by a conveying medium,
such as air or water and
3. Conduction, transfer of heat by actual physical contact,
molecule to molecule.
 The heating surface is any part of the boiler metal that has
hot gases of combustion on one side and water on the
other. Any part of the boiler metal that actually contributes to
making steam is heating surface.
 The amount of heating surface a boiler has is expressed in
square feet (or square meter).
 The larger the amount of heating surface a boiler has the
more efficient it becomes.
 Types of energy release/absorption
 Sensible Heat: The heat required to change the temperature of a
substance is called its sensible heat. In the teapot illustration below the
21 °C (70 °F) water contains 0.011 kWh (38 Btu) and by adding 0.045
kWh (142 Btu) the water is brought to boiling point 100 °C (212 °F ).
 Latent Heat: In the following illustration, to change the liquid (water) to its
gaseous state (steam) an additional 0.28 kWh (970 Btu) would be
required. This quantity of heat required to change a chemical from the
liquid to the gaseous state is called latent heat.

5
 Types of energy release/absorption
Latent heats and change of phase temps of common fluids and gases
Substance Latent Heat Melting Latent Heat Boiling
Melting Temp Boiling Temp
J/g °C J/g °C
Alcohol, ethyl 108 -114 855 78.3
Ammoniac 339 -75 1369 -33.34
Carbon Dioxide 184 -57 574 -78
Helium 21 -268.93
Hydrogen 58 -259 455 -253
Nitrogen 25.7 -210 200 -196
Oxygen 13.9 -219 213 -183
Toluene -93 351 110.6
Turpentine 293
Water 335 0 2272 100
 Boiler Basics: Types of Boilers
1. Fire-tube boilers (~ 1800)

Source: EERE ENERGY

 Contain long steel tubes, are submerged in water, through which hot
combustion gasses from a furnace pass consequently heating water
and/or generating steam.
 Fire-tube boilers are generally available in the range of 20 through 800
boiler horsepower (bhp) and in pressures up to 150 psi (1 MPa).
 Commonly used for heating systems, poor steam quality and has limited
steam capacity
 Boiler Basics: Types of Boilers
2. Water-tube boilers

Source: EERE ENERGY

 In the water-tube boiler, gases flow over water-filled tubes.
 Water-tube boilers are available in sizes ranging from a smaller
residential type to very large utility class boilers.
 Boiler pressures range from 15 psi (100 kPa) through pressures
exceeding 3,500 psi (24 MPa).
2. Water-tube boilers …cont’d
Advantages of Watertube Boilers:
 Low risk of disastrous explosion compared to fire box boiler
 Space saving
 Rapid steam rising
 Ease of transportation
 Large capacity and pressure units available

Disadvantages of Watertube Boilers:

 The supply water has to be pure and specially treated to protect the
steam tubes (prevent Silt and scale formation)
 Water tube boiler systems are often complicated, require special
maintenance procedures
 Water tube boiler cannot serve as steam reservoirs because the
fluid volume is minimized
 The water feed system has to be very accurate - (small fluid volume)
 Boiler Basics: Types of Boilers
3. Waterwall boilers
 All large and many intermediate-
sized boilers are water-tube boiler
with a boiler section that consists
of closely-spaced water tubes
covering the furnace wall.
 Boiling takes place in the ‘Water
Walls’ which are water filled tubes
that form the walls of the furnace.
 If so equipped, the superheater
and reheater are separate
sections hanging above the main
furnace volume.

Source: bright hub engineering

 Boiler Basics: Types of Boilers
4. Electric boilers

Source: EERE ENERGY

 Electric boilers are very efficient sources of hot water or steam, which are
available in ratings from 5 to over 50,000 kW.
 They can provide sufficient heat for any HVAC requirement in applications
ranging from humidification to primary heat sources.
 Performance of Boilers
 Boiler Efficiency and energy balance

Source: www.energysolutionscenter.org
12
 Boiler Thermal Efficiency
 Thermal efficiency of boiler is defined as the percentage of heat
input that is effectively utilized to generate steam. There are two
methods of assessing boiler efficiency.

Direct Method:
 Simply relates energy output (steam) to energy input (fuel). little
attention is given to losses

Indirect Method:
 Also called as heat loss method. The efficiency can be arrived at,
by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100.
(See handout for calculations and principle losses)
Source: www.energysolutionscenter.org
 Classification of Boilers
2. Conventional boilers burn fuel in a combustion chamber surrounded by a
water jacket. This heats the water, which is then circulated around the
heating system. Unfortunately, not all the heat produced by the burning fuel
is used to heat the water. Much of it is lost to the surrounding air, and more
disappears up the flue. To overcome these inefficiencies, condensing boilers
are designed to extract as much heat as possible. possible from a
conventional boiler.

75% efficiency

Source: www.cee1.org
 Classification of Boilers
2. Condensing boilers are high efficiency boilers that waste almost no heat
out of the flue. They are quite environmentally friendly, but only work in the
condensing mode when the working conditions are correct. They also have a
shorter than average lifespan and can be very expensive to buy. As a
condensing boiler necessitates more parts, it will always cost more than a
conventional boiler.

90% efficiency

Source: www.cee1.org
 Condensation Vs. Conventional boilers:

Source: www.cee1.org
 Classification of Boilers
3. Combination boilers provide both instant hot water and central heating,
but not at the same time. (Domestic use). They are space efficient, very
easy to install and cheap to run. However, they can be expensive to repair
and many are designed to be replaced after 5 years.

Source: www.diyfaq.org.uk
 Combustion in Boilers
There are four important factors that control combustion in boiler furnace.
►Air supply- Need adequate air for complete combustion.
 The rating (capacity) of a boiler can be increased by supplying additional
air. Too much air can result in excessive stack losses.
►Mixing of fuel and air molecules must be brought into close proximity in
order for combustion to occur.
 The larger the fuel "particles" the greater the difficulty in achieving good
mixing.
►Temperature- all combustion reactions proceed exponentially more
rapidly with increasing T.
 Low T-incomplete combustion, while high T-equipment failure &
increased NOx emissions
►Combustion time- fuel "particles" must be given sufficient time (residence
time) in the furnace to achieve complete combustion.
 Like fuel/air mixing, the required residence time is least for gases and
most for large solid fuels.
 Fuel Considerations in Boilers
A boiler can be fired using solid , liquid, or gaseous fuels..
►Gas and liquid fuels:
The fuel is brought to a burner at elevated pressure and jetted (gas) or
sprayed (oil) into the furnace. Relatively simple and low cost.
►Solid Fuels (e.g., Coal, Biomass, waste):
There are a considerable number of ways to feed coal in use, including,
hand-fired boilers, chain or traveling grate stokers, vibrating grate stokers,
underfeed stokers, spreader stoker, Pulverized Coal (PC) boilers, cyclone
boilers and fluidized bed boilers.
Advantages of PC vs. stoker boilers:
• much quicker response to changing loads
• lower excess air and higher efficiency
• easily adaptable to automatic control
• can burn wide variety of coals
Disadvantages of PC vs. stoker boilers:
• more expensive (at least for smaller capacities)
• require more skilled personnel
• require better emission control (particulates)
• require more energy to pulverize fuel
 Introduction to Combustion
►In combustion reactions, rapid oxidation of combustible elements of the
fuel results in energy release as combustion products are formed.
►Three major combustible elements in common fuels are
►carbon
►hydrogen
►sulfur
►Combustion is complete when
►All carbon present in the fuel is burned to carbon dioxide
►All hydrogen present is burned to water
►All sulfur present is burned to sulfur dioxide
►All other combustible elements are fully oxidized
►When these conditions are not fulfilled, combustion is incomplete.

In all combustion reactions mass is conserved: M-reactants = M-products

 Combustion Basics
Example: Determine the balanced reaction equation for
complete combustion of methane (CH4) with oxygen (O2).
►For complete combustion, the products contain only carbon
dioxide and water:
CH4 + aO2 → bCO2 + cH2O
where a, b, c denote the moles of O2, CO2, and H2O,
respectively, each per mole of CH4.
►Applying conservation of mass to carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen: C: 1 = b H: 4 =2c O: 2a =2b + c
►Solving these equations, the balanced reaction equation is
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
 Modeling Combustion Air
► Oxygen is required in every combustion reaction. In most
combustion applications, air provides the needed oxygen.
► The following model of dry air is used for simplicity:
1. All components of dry air other than oxygen are lumped
together with nitrogen. With this idealization, air is considered
to be 21% O2 and 79% N2 on a molar basis.
Accordingly, when air supplies the oxygen in a combustion
reaction, every mole of O2 is accompanied by 0.79/0.21 = 3.76
moles of N2. x[O2 + 3.76N2]
2. The nitrogen present in the air is assumed inert.
3. The molecular weight of dry air is 28.97.
► When moist air is used in combustion, the water vapor
present in the air should be considered in writing the
combustion equation.
 Air-Fuel Ratio
► The air-fuel ratio is the ratio of the amount of air in a
combustion reaction to the amount of fuel.
► The air-fuel ratio can be written on a molar basis:
moles of air
AF =
moles of fuel

or on a mass basis: mass of air

AF =
mass of fuel
► Conversion between these values is accomplished using the
molecular weights of air, Mair, and fuel, Mfuel,

► The fuel-air ratio is the reciprocal of the air-fuel ratio.

 Theoretical Amount of Air
►The theoretical amount of air is the minimum amount of air that supplies
sufficient oxygen for the complete combustion of all the carbon, hydrogen,
and sulfur present in the fuel.
►For complete combustion with the theoretical amount of air, the
products consist of CO2, H2O, and SO2 plus nitrogen present in the
reactants. No free oxygen, O2, appears in the products.
►Normally the amount of air supplied is either greater than or less than
the theoretical amount. The amount of air actually supplied is commonly
expressed as
►A percent of theoretical air – e.g., 150% of theoretical air equals
1.5 times the theoretical amount.
►A percent excess (or percent deficiency) of air – e.g., 50%
excess air equals 150% of theoretical air.
What does the following statement mean, “A boiler was fired at
80% of theoretical air” ?
 Exploring Combustion Concepts
►The balanced chemical equation for complete combustion
of methane with the theoretical amount of air is
CH4 + 2 (O2 + 3.76 N2) → CO2 + 2H2O + 7.52N2
►The coefficient 2 before the term (O2 + 3.76 N2) is the
number of moles of O2 in the combustion air per mole of
fuel.
►The number of moles of N2 in the combustion air per mole
of fuel is 2 × 3.76.
►The amount of combustion air per mole of fuel is the sum,
2 + 2 × 3.76 = 2(4.76) = 9.52
►This is the air-fuel ratio on a molar basis: AF = 9.52/1.
Calculate the air fuel ratio (molar basis) for complete combustion of methane
at 150% theoretical air.
 Exploring Combustion Concepts
►The balanced chemical equation for complete
combustion of methane with 150% theoretical air is
CH4 + (1.5) (2) (O2 + 3.76 N2) → CO2 + 2H2O + O2 + 11.28 N2

►The amount of air per mole of fuel is 1.5 times the

theoretical amount determined by Eq. 13.4.
►The excess air supplied appears in the products as
O2 and as a greater amount of N2 based on the
theoretical amount of air.
►The air-fuel ratio on a molar basis is,

AF = (1.5)(2)(4.76)/1 = 14.28/1
 Dry Product Analysis
►In practical applications, combustion is generally
incomplete.
►The products of combustion of actual combustion processes
and their relative amounts can be determined only by
measurement.
►Certain devices for measuring the composition of
combustion products report the analysis on a dry product
analysis basis where the mole fractions are given for all
products except water.
 Dry Product Analysis
Example: Ethanol (C2H5OH) is burned with air to give
products with the dry molar analysis 3.16% CO2, 16.6% CO,
80.24% N2. Determine the balanced chemical reaction.
►Basing the solution for convenience on 100 moles of dry
products, the reaction equation reads:

a C2H5OH + b(O2 + 3.76N2) → 3.16CO2 + 16.6CO + 80.24N2 + cH2O

where a denotes the moles Also note that a term

of fuel required for 100 accounting for the water
moles of dry products. formed in this reaction
must be included.
 Dry Product Analysis
aC2H5OH + b(O2 + 3.76N2) → 3.16CO2 + 16.6CO + 80.24N2 + cH2O

►Applying conservation of mass

C: 2a = 3.16 + 16.6 → a = 9.88 H: 6a = 2c → c = 29.64
N: 3.76b = 80.24 → b = 21.34 Checking:
O: a + 2b = 3.16(2) + 16.6 + c
52.56 = 52.56

►The balanced reaction equation is

9.88C2H5OH+21.34(O2+3.76N2)→3.16CO2+16.6CO+80.24N2+29.64H2O

►Expressing this on a per mole of fuel basis

C2H5OH + 2.16(O2 + 3.76N2) → 0.32CO2 + 1.68CO + 8.12N2 + 3H2O
 Heating Values of Hydrocarbon Fuels

►The heating values of hydrocarbon fuels have

important applications.
►The heating value of a fuel is the difference
between the enthalpy of the reactants and the
enthalpy of the products when the fuel burns
completely with air, reactants and products being at
the same temperature T and pressure p.
Heating Values of Hydrocarbon Fuels
►Two heating values are recognized by
name:
►The higher heating value (HHV) is obtained
when all the water formed by combustion is a
liquid.
►The lower heating value (LHV) is obtained
when all the water formed by combustion is a
vapor.
►The higher heating value exceeds the lower
heating value by the energy that would be
released were all water in the products
condensed to liquid.
 Heating Values of Hydrocarbon Fuels
Calorific value of boiler fuels
The calorific value of a fuel is the standard heat of reaction at constant
pressure where the fuel burns completely with oxygen.

If H2O is present in the products of combustion as liquid then the Higher

Calorific value ( HCV) results. If H2O is present in the products of
combustion as a vapour then the Lower Calorific value ( LCV) results.
The two values of LCV and HCH are related by:
 Heating Values of Hydrocarbon Fuels
►Heating value data at 298 K, 1 atm are provided in Table A-
25 with units of kJ/kg.
Thermochemical Properties of Selected Substances at 298K and 1 atm TABLE A-25
Heating Values
Enthalpy of Gibbs Function Absolute
Formation, of Formation, Entropy,
Higher, Lower,
Molar Mass, HHV LHV
Substance Formula M (kg/kmol) (kJ/kmol) (kJ/kmol) (kJ/kmol∙K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
Carbon C(s) 12.01 0 0 5.74 32,770 32,770
Hydrogen H2(g) 2.016 0 0 130.57 141,780 119,950
Nitrogen N2(g) 28.01 0 0 191.50 – –
Oxygen O2(g) 32.00 0 0 205.03 – –
Carbon Monoxide CO(g) 28.01 –110,530 –137,150 197.54 – –
Carbon dioxide CO2(g) 44.01 –393,520 –394,380 213.69 – –
Water H2O(g) 18.02 –241,820 –228,590 188.72 – –
Water H2O(l) 18.02 –285,830 –237,180 69.95 – –
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2(g) 34.02 –136,310 –105,600 232.63 – –
Ammonia NH3(g) 17.03 –46,190 –16,590 192.33 – –
Oxygen O(g) 16.00 249,170 231,770 160.95 – –
Hydrogen H(g) 1.008 218,000 203,290 114.61 – –
Nitrogen N(g) 14.01 472,680 455,510 153.19 – –
Hydroxyl OH(g) 17.01 39,460 34,280 183.75 – –
Methane CH4(g) 16.04 –74,850 –50,790 186.16 55,510 50,020
Acetylene C2H2(g) 26.04 226,730 209,170 200.85 49,910 48,220
 Heating Values of Hydrocarbon Fuels
►That is, the heating value per mole of fuel
= ∑n h − ∑n h
R
i i
P
e e

= ∑ (
R
) ∑ n (h
ni hfo + ∆h i −
P
e f
o
+ ∆h )
e

where
►R denotes the reactants and P denotes the products.
►The n’s correspond to the coefficients of the reaction equation, each per
mole of fuel.
o
► hf associated with the formation of the compound from its elements.

►∆h associated with the change in state from the standard state to the
state where temperature is T and the pressure is p. Since this term is a
difference at fixed composition, it can be evaluated from the ideal gas
tables, steam tables, or other tables, as appropriate.
Heating Values of Hydrocarbon Fuels
Example: Evaluate the lower heating value of liquid
octane at 25oC, 1 atm, in kJ per kg of octane.

►The balanced chemical equation for complete

combustion of octane is

C8H18 + 12.5(O2 + 3.76N2) → 8CO2 + 9H2O(g) + 47N2 Eq. (1)

where all water formed is assumed to be a vapor.

 Heating Values of Hydrocarbon Fuels
►With coefficients from the chemical equation, Eq.
(1) reads
( ) 8 18 + 12.5(h + ∆h ) 2 + 47(h )2
0 0 0
LHV = 1 hfo + ∆h C H f
o
O f
o
+ ∆h N

− 8(h + ∆h ) − 9(h + ∆h ) − 47(h + ∆h )

0 0 0
o o o
f 2 CO f 2 H O(g) f N
2

►Since the lower heating value at 25oC and 1 atm

is required, this reduces as follows
( ) 8 18 + 12.5(h ) 2 + 47(h ) 2
LHV = 1 hfo C H
o
f O
o
f N

− 8(h )o
f CO− 9(h ) o
− 47(h )
f H O(g)
o
f N
2 2 2

( ) 8 18 + 12.5(h ) 2 − 8(h )
LHV = 1 hfo C H
o
f O
o
f CO 2 ( )2
− 9 hfo H O(g)
 Heating Values of Hydrocarbon Fuels
►With enthalpy of formation data obtained from Tables, we
get the lower heating value on a per mole of octane basis.
kJ kmol O 2  kJ 
LHV = −249,910 + 12.5  0 
kmol C8H18 kmol C8H18  kmol O 2 


kmol CO 2  kJ  kmol H 2O  kJ 
−8  − 393,520 −9  − 241,820 

kmol C8H18  
kmol CO 2  
kmol C8H18  kmol H 2O 

LHV = 5,074,630 kJ/kmol C8H18

Thermochemical Properties of Selected Substances at 298K and 1 atm
Heating Values
Enthalpy of Gibbs Function Absolute
Formation, of Formation, Entropy,
Higher, Lower,
hfo g fo so
Molar Mass, HHV LHV
Substance Formula M (kg/kmol) (kJ/kmol) (kJ/kmol) (kJ/kmol∙K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
Carbon C(s) 12.01 0 0 5.74 32,770 32,770
Hydrogen H2(g) 2.016 0 0 130.57 141,780 119,950
Nitrogen N2(g) 28.01 0 0 191.50 – –
Oxygen O2(g) 32.00 0 0 205.03 – –
Carbon Dioxide CO2(g) 44.01 –393,520 –394,380 213.69 – –
Water H2O(g) 18.02 –241,820 –228,590 188.72 – –
Water H2O(l) 18.02 –285,830 –237,180 69.95 – –
Octane C8H18(l) 114.22 –249,910 6,610 360.79 47,900 44,430
 Heating Values of Hydrocarbon Fuels
►Dividing by the molecular weight of octane, the lower
heating value per kg of octane is
kJ
5,074,630
kmol C8H18
LHV =
kg C8H18
114.22
kmol C8H18

LHV = 44,429 kJ/kg C8H18

►This value agrees with the value (44,430 kJ/kg C8H18)

from Tables.
Read and Understand:
Energy Conservation Opportunities in a
Boiler and theory on combustion
 Heating Values of Hydrocarbon Fuels
►Dividing by the molecular weight of octane, the lower
heating value per kg of octane is
kJ
5,074,630
kmol C8H18
LHV =
kg C8H18
114.22
kmol C8H18

LHV = 44,429 kJ/kg C8H18

►This value agrees with the value (44,430 kJ/kg C8H18)

from Tables.
Read and Understand:
Energy Conservation Opportunities in a
Boiler and theory on combustion