1

Power Plants
ME-430

Topic 5 - Steam Power Plant devices (Boilers, Superheaters,

Condensers etc)
 Introduction
2

Boilers and Superheaters

 Introduction
3

• Steam generator is a complex combination of:

1. Economizer
2. Boiler (evaporator)
3. Superheater
4. Reheater
5. Air preheater
• Auxiliary equipment:
1. Stokers
2. Pulverizers
3. Burners
4. Fans
5. Emission control equipment
6. Stack (chimney)
7. Ash handling equipment
 Basic classification
4

Steam generators

Utility
Industrial
~1500psi
Subcritical Supercritical ~1 million lbm/h
•(1900 – 2600 psia, 540oC) (3500 psia) •Fuels: Stoker coal, oil,
•Fuels: Pulverized coal, oil Nat. gas, Organic waste,
and natural gas. process heat.
•High steam capacity: •No superheated steam.
Once-through type •
1 – 10 million lbm/h
125-1300MW

Water tube drum type Water tube drum type Fire tube type
 Fire tube boiler
5

• Used for industrial purposes in the past.

• Limited use today. (NOT in large utility powerplants).
• Presently they are used to produce sat. steam.
• Typical maximum pressure: 250 psig
• Steam capacity: 50,000 lbm/h (6.3Kg/s)
 Shell type boiler
6

• It is the simplest possible way

of producing steam.
• Water in a shell is heated
externally.
• Two variations were electrical
heating and steam as in
accumulator.
• Finally hot combustion gases
were passed in the tubes
through the shell.
• Heat transfer surface wasn’t
the shell body in 3 latter
cases.
 Horizontal tube boiler
7

• The fire tubes were

placed in any
orientation, vertical,
horizontal and
inclined.
• Horizontal fire tubes
were the most
common.
 Types of fire tube boilers
8

1. Fire box boilers 2. Scotch marine boilers

• The furnace or firebox is • There exist cylindrical
integrated with the combustion chambers
shell. within the main shell.
• The hot gases exit the
chamber from the rear
and renter the tubes.
• One or more chambers
are normally present.
Fire box boiler
9
Scotch marine boilers
10
Scotch marine boilers
11
 Fire tube boilers
12

• Since boiling occurs in the same compartment where water is,

the steam produced is only saturated steam.
• Therefore, these boilers are confined to low pressures and
limited steam capacities.
 Water-tube boiler: Early developments
13

• Need to minimize explosions and improved

operation, led to the development of water-tube
boilers.
• The pressure was shifted to the tubes and drums,
carrying water and steam instead of the main shell.
• Types of water-tube boilers
1. Straight tube boiler
2. Bent tube boiler
 Straight tube boiler
14

• Straight tubes of 3 – 4 in outer diameter.

• Tubes spaced at 7 – 8 in.
• Tubes inclined at 15o.
• The water keeps circulating in the tubes and the drum and the steam
leaves this cycle as it forms.

Riser

Downheader
 Types of straight tube boiler
15

1. Longitudinal drum:
The steam and water drum is parallel to the tubes.
 Types of straight tube boilers
16

2. Cross drum:
 Cross drum water-tube boiler
17

Superheater

Water and steam

drum
 Longitudinal vs. Cross drum
18

1. Longitudinal drum 2. Cross drum

I. Could only accommodate I. Could accommodate
limited number of tubes. more tubes due to their
geometry.
II. Heating surfaces of II. Heating surfaces of
1000 – 10,000ft2. 5000 - 25000ft2.
III. Pressure: 175 – 340 psia III. Pressure: 175 – 1465 psia
IV. Steam capacity: 0.63 – IV. Steam capacity: 0.63 –
10Kg/s. 63Kg/s.
 Bent tube boiler
19

• In order to connect headers and drums, the tubing was bent, so it

enters the drums radially.
• The number of drums varied from 2 – 4.
• Gas baffles were used to increase gas flow passage.
• Tubes were of 3 – 3⅟2 in in outer diameter. 5 – 7 in spacing.
 Four drum Stirling boiler
20

To economizer

Gas baffles
 Two drum Stirling boiler
21

Water walls

21/72
 The water tube boiler: Recent advancements
22

• Use of water walls allowed to integrate: furnace, economizer,

superheater, reheater and air preheater into a packaged steam
generator.
• Due to high temperature requirements, in powerplants, 7 – 8
feedwater heaters are used, which results in a small
economizer.
• High pressure requirements result in small boiler surface area.
• Superheated steam requirements result in a large superheater
tubing area.
A modern steam generator
23

300oF

600oF

450-500oF
 Boiler walls
24

• Use of water walls allows

maximum heat
absorption.
a) Bare tubes
b) Tangent to refractory
c) Embedded in refractory
d) Membrane design
 Water circulation
25

• Full boiling to 100% quality in the tubes is

avoided.
• Departure from nucleate boiling (DNB) is
undesirable.
• Natural circulation depends upon:
1. Density differential
2. Height of the steam drum from the bottom
header.
• Two types of steam drum systems:
1. Natural circulation
2. Forced / controlled circulation. (pumping is
used).
 Water circulation
26

• Forced circulation is favored over natural circulation in high subcritical

pressure steam generators.
• The density differential decreases as the pressure rises.
• A pump is used to provide a margin of safety against tube burnout due
to DNB.
• Water tubes are designed with internal grooves, ribs or corrugations to
promote the separation of the bubbles from the tubes.
• Tubes are rifled helically to retard or stop DNB.
 Water circulation
27

• Natural circulation caused by the

pressure differential is given by:
g
Pd = (  dc −  r ) H
gc

•  r is determined as follows:
• In a two-phase mixture, void fraction is:
 Water circulation
28

• Vg and Vf are the specific volumes of the saturated water and vapor.
• S is the slip ratio: speed of vapor/speed of water.

• S = 1 – 10
 Water circulation
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• Mixture density distribution:

• Average mixture distribution:

• In case of uniform axial heating, the integral is:

 Steam drum
30

• Concerns in steam drum design:

1. It should accommodate sufficient water to deal with load variations.
2. It should be such that no carryover occurs.
Carryover:
of water: water droplets carried by steam to the
superheater.
of solids: Solid impurities in water carried by steam to the
superheater and turbine (silica deposits).
 Steam drum – its job:
31

• To separate steam and water there are three mechanisms of

separation.
1. Gravity separation
2. Mechanical separation
3. Centrifugal separation
 Gravity separation in steam drums
32

• Gravity separation is feasible,

if the steam velocity is low
(under 3ft/s).
• No carryover and carryunder
should take place.
• It depends on the design,
position of riser nozzles and
density differential.
• It is only feasible for low
pressure applications.
 Mechanical separation in steam drums
33

• In large steam generators,

mechanical separation assists gravity
separation.
• Two steps of mechanical separation:
1. Primary (through baffles).
2. Secondary (steam scrubbing/drying
through screens). Baffles
 Centrifugal separation in steam drums
34

• Cyclones or turbo separators are used in

high pressure applications.
• Guide vanes in the separators impart a
spinning motion to the incoming mixture.
• Denser water impinges the vanes and
walls and flows back through a bigger
concentric cylinder.
• Screens are used for further drying.
 Superheaters and reheaters
35

• 2 – 3 in Outer diameter tubes. Small dia tubes withstand higher

pressures but have more pressure loss.
• Internal ribbing is unnecessary.
• Design concerns are:
1. High stresses (strength of material is reduced at high temperatures).
2. Corrosion resistance (high temperatures favor corrosion).
 Radiant boiler
36

1. Heat transfer occurs by both, radiation and convection.

2. The combustion gases can be luminous or non-luminous
depending upon the fuel type.
3. Coal and oil: Luminous gases.
4. Gaseous fuels: Nonluminous gases.
5. Heavier gases also emit radiations.
6. Radiation is the dominant mode of heat transfer.
7. Normally fueled with coal (lignite) burnt in cyclone furnaces.
8. 540oC and 1260Kg/s
9. Limited to subcritical pressures: 1800 – 2500 psig
 Types of superheaters/reheaters
37

1. Convection superheater
• These are not in the direct view of
the flame.
• Convection heat transfer occurs.
• Exit steam temperature increases
as the load increases.
 Types of superheaters/reheaters
38

2. Radiant superheater
• Superheater lies in direct view of
the flame.
• Radiant heat transfer depends on
Tf4 - Tw4 .
• Since Tf doesn’t necessarily change
with load. The increase in load
results in lower temperature.
 Orientation of superheaters/reheater
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Pendant Inverted Horizontal

 Once through boilers
40

• Also known as:

1. Forced-circulation.
2. Benson.
3. Universal pressure boiler.

Drum type Once through

 Once through boilers
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• Phase changes from saturated liquid to superheated steam in

one continuous pass.
• No steam drum is needed.
• Highly pure water is required.
• Better suited for high subcritical and supercritical applications.
• Capital costs are higher but per unit power produced is
cheaper.
 Economizer
42

• It heats the feedwater coming from the high pressure FWH to the saturation
temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure.
Heat source fluid: hot gases leaving the last reheater at around 700 – 1000oF.
Problems in economizers before the use of FWH
• Corrosion from outside of the tubes.
• Erosion from the inside of the tubes.
Remedies:
• Use of FW heaters.
• Economizer operation above the dewpoint temperature of the combustion gases.
• Chemical cleaning of the inside surfaces of the tubes.
• Use of deaerators.
 Modern economizers
43

• Vertical sections of 1.75 – 2 in OD tubes.

• Some boiling is done in the economizer. To a quality of 20% at full load.
• Spacing between tubes depends upon the type of fuel. (lesser spacing
for cleaner burning fuels).
• Economizer tube design can be plain or extended.
• Occasionally a low pressure economizer can be used AFTER the air
preheater which acts as a low pressure FWH, that arrangement is
known as ‘stack cooler’.
 Air preheaters
44

• Flue gases at 600 – 800oF are passed through the air preheaters to
heat the atmospheric air before combustion.
• Air preheating saves fuel.
• Typical fuel savings are 4% for a 200oF air temperature rise.
• And 11% for a 500oF air temperature rise.
• Preheated air (300-600oF) is also used in pulverized-coal furnaces.
• It is used to dry and transport the coal.
• Small stoker-fired units don’t need preheated air, large units
however use up to 350oF preheated air.
 Types of Air preheaters
45

1. Recuperative air preheater.

• Heat is directly transferred from
flue gases to the air.
• It is a shell and tube or a plate type
heat exchanger, with hot gases
flowing through the tubes, in shell
and tube heat exchangers.
• The leakage of the air should be
avoided to minimize fan power.
 Recuperative air preheater
46

• Various arrangements are available depending upon the steam

generator space.
• Typical tube size range: 1.5 – 4 in.
• Modern large steam generators use 2 – 2.5 in OD heater tubes.
• In marine applications, 1.5 – 2 in OD tubes are common.
• Smaller OD results in more tubes, and thus results in a greater heat
transfer surface. Thus compact heaters can be designed for a same heat
transfer requirements.
 Types of Air preheaters
47

2. Regenerative air preheater.

• Heat transfer is indirect.
• An intermediate medium is used.

Example:
Most commonly used rotary type air preheater is
Rotary (Ljungstrom) preheater.
 Rotary (Ljungstrom) air preheater
48

• Rotor is driven at 1 – 3 rpm.

• 12 – 24 sectors of heat storage
medium which is corrugated or
ribbed steel plates.
• The rotor is bisected by a stationary
partition, keeping the gas and air in
separate zones.
• Rotary heater may be either
‘laminar’ or ‘turbulent’ depending
upon the spacing of storage plates.
 Fans
49

• In the absence of fans, the air and the combustion gases must flow due
to the density differential.
• But large steam generators, where pressure losses are higher in long
piping, fans are used to force the air/gas flow.
Types of fans:
1. Forced draft (FD) fan.
2. Induced draft (ID) fan.
Either one or both may be used.
 Forced draft (FD) fans
50

• These are normally used alone in large steam generators and marine
applications.
• FD fans pressurize the incoming atmospheric air up to the exit of flue
gases to the stack.
Advantages:
1. Since cold atmospheric air with a lower specific volume, is blown. The
work requirements are low.
2. The load is less because it doesn’t deal with the combustion gases.
3. Lesser maintenance problems.
4. Lower capital and operating costs.
 Forced draft (FD) fans
51

Disadvantages:
1. The furnace is subjected to a higher than atmospheric pressure, which
may result in combustion gases to leak out.
2. The steam generator needs to be designed to prevent leakage from the
inspection doors and other openings.

• Normally to avoid down time, two FD fans are employed in parallel, each
capable of taking 60% of the full load.
 Induced draft (ID) fan
52

• ID fans blow the exhaust (flue) gases

out, thus creating a negative pressure in
the whole system.
• ID fans handle hot gases, and higher
mass flow rates, therefore their power
requirements are high.
• Maintenance problems may happen
more often, because of a greater chance
of corrosion due to high temperatures.
• Ash deposits also need periodic
cleaning.
 Balanced draft
53

• Both FD and ID fans may be used in such a way that the furnace is
operating slightly less than the atmospheric pressure, so any leakage
will be inflow of air.
• Both fans may be installed with in the stack base.
• The stack itself adds to the upward draft of the hotter flue gases.
 Fan designs
54

• Fans used in powerplants have the capacity of blowing air at around

1.5million ft3/min and 2.2 psi.
• Because these fans operate for 1 – 1.5 years, they must be efficient,
well balanced and ruggedly designed.
Types of fans:
1. Centrifugal fans: the air/gases are accelerated radially outwards into a
volute housing.
2. Axial fans: the air/gases are accelerated parallel to the fan axis.
 Axial and centrifugal fans
55

• Axial fans with variable-pitch moving blades have high efficiencies

over a wide range of loads.
• But such axial fans have higher capital costs.
• Centrifugal fans may following blade designs:
1. Backward curved blades: used in FD fans. Also used in ID fans but with
lesser curvature of the blades.
2. Flat and forward-curved blades: used in ID fans.
• Lesser curvature means: lesser dirt sticks to the blades.
• Low speed, flat blade fans are used with dirty and corrosive fans.
Fan power
56

Difference of static
pressure across the
fan.
 Fan control (how to control the fan output)
57

1. Damper control:
• Used normally on the outlet of the fans.
• Inlet dampers called inlet vanes are also used.
• A simple, single speed induction AC motor can be used.
Drawbacks are:
• Dampers add to the flow resistance so more power is required by the
motor to maintain the load.
• Power savings be done by using an inexpensive 2-speed motor (which
is still inexpensive than a variable speed motor).
 Fan control (how to control the fan output)
58

2. Variable-speed control
• It is the most efficient way of fan control.
• Effect of speed on fan performance is:
a) Flow = f(N)
b) Pressure = f(N2)
c) Power input = f(N3)
Drawback:
Higher capital cost than damper control.
 The stack
59

1. It creates an updraft of the hot

flue gases.
2. It disperses the flue gases into the
atmosphere.

• In modern large steam generators,

FD or ID fans are necessary to
overcome flow resistances.
 Stack driving pressure
60

Driving pressure Pd is given by:

g
Pd = (  a −  s ) H
gc
P
=
RT
 Pa Ps  g
Pd =  − H
 RaTa RsTs  gc
Pa, Ps and Ra and Rs differ slightly, so we write:
Pa 1 1 g
Pd =  − H
Ra  Ta Ts  g c
To + TH
Ts =
2
 Dispersion
61

H e = H + H
H e is the effective stack height

• Design of stack is highly dependent on regional topology

and weather conditions.
 Analytical models for plume height calculation
62

1. Carson and Moses [21]

2. Briggs [22]

3. TVA model [24]

 Steam generator control
63

• There are many aspects in a steam power plants which require

precise control.
• We will talk about:
1. Feedwater and drum level control.
2. Steam-pressure control.
3. Steam-temperature control.
 Feedwater and drum level control
64

• The feedwater flow essentially controls the amount of steam produced.

• At any load, the drum level is maintained at its middle level.
 Steam pressure control
65

• It is achieved by
adjusting the fuel and
airflows.
• A steam pressure sensor
sends the signal to
increase or decrease the
amount of fuel and air.
• Air and fuel flow rate
sensors keep the air-fuel
mixture in the right
proportions.
 Steam temperature control
66

• Steam temperature control is critical to the efficient operation of the

plant.
• Temperature may fluctuate due to ash deposits but mainly due to
load variation.
• A drop in 35 – 45oF steam temperature results in 1% loss in
efficiency.
• Superheater and reheater response to load changes requires special
attention.
 Steam temperature control
67

Combined radiant-convective superheater:

• A relatively flat steam temperature is obtained after
superheating, if both radiant and convective superheaters
are used in series.
Attemperation: It is the reduction in steam temperature.
Methods of attemperation:
1. Surface attemperator.
2. Spray or direct contact attemparator.
 Surface attemperator
68

1. Shell type:
• A shell and tube heat exchanger is used to transfer heat from the
overheated steam to the boiled water (from evaporator).
2. Drum type:
• Overheated steam is diverted to a heat exchanger which is formed
around the main steam drum.
• The drum needs to be larger to accommodate the attemperator
tubing.
 Spray / direct contact attemperator
69

• Steam temperature is lowered

by spraying low temperature
water from the boiler or
economizer exit.
• It offers a rapid and sensitive
control.
• Steam temperature is
regulated by controlling the
amount of sprayed water.
• Simple energy balance gives:

ms hs1 + mw hw = (ms + mw )hs 2

Spray / direct contact attemperator
70

Attemperation is sometimes used in series with gas recirculation.

 71

Gas recirculation:
• Combustion gases from economizer or air preheater is recirculated by
means of a fan back into the furnace (burning zone).
Gas tempering:
• Gases recirculated to a point downstream of the burning zone is called
gas tempering.
BENEFIT:
• Recirculating the gases alters the heat absorbing characteristics of
various heat absorbing surfaces in the steam generator, to yield desired
effect.
• It dilutes the furnace gases and reduces the flame temperature.
 72

Effect of gas recirculation on the heat absorption pattern at a constant firing rate.
 Other methods
73

Tiltable burners:
• Burner tilting change the distance and orientation of the flame with
respect to the superheater.
Bypassing:
• Hot gases can be bypassed from the superheater or reheater through
dampers.
Separately fired superheater:
• Superheater may occasionally have its own burner, fan and controls.
• An expensive way of temperature control. Better suited to chemical
process industry than an electric power plant.
Introduction
74

Condensers
 Introduction
75

• Main purpose is to condense the exhaust steam from the turbine.

• If the temperature of the secondary fluid is low enough it creates a
low back pressure for the turbine to exhaust to.
• This increases the work output of the turbine, increases plant
efficiency and reduces steam flowrate for a given power plant.
• The lower the temperature and pressure the more beneficial.
• There are two main types of condensers:

1. Direct contact
2. Surface contact
 Direct Contact
76

The steam is condensed by mixing it directly with cooling water. This is quite rare
though only in dry cooling towers. The spray type is as follows:
 Direct Contact
77

The steam is condensed by mixing it directly with cooling water. This is quite rare
though only in dry cooling towers. The spray type is as follows:
 Direct Contact
78

Barometeric and jet condensers

 Surface Contact
79

• More common essentially shell and tube heat exchangers.

Variations exist in the:

• Number of passes and
division
• Single and multi-pressure
condensers
• Tube Sizes and materials
• Deaeration features
 Circulating water systems
80

• Secondary fluids or circulating water systems supply cooling water to the power
plant condenser.
• They act as a vehicle for rejecting steam from the power plant to the environment.
• Circulating systems are classified as:

1. Once-through
2. Closed loop
3. Combination systems

• Main components of both systems include:

1. Intake system from natural body of water

2. Pumping station
3. Water pipes, fittings, instrumentation
Once through and close loops systems
81
 Wet cooling towers
82

• Heat is rejected to the environment in three steps:

1. Addition of sensible heat to the air

2. Evaporation of some recirculation water
3. Adding sensible heat to the natural body of water

• Water demand is reduced by 75 times

• However, the capital cost increases drastically
• Noise pollution due to fans
• Sight pollution due to the big structure
• Mechanical or natural draft movement of air
 Wet cooling towers
83

• Calculations involve energy and mass balances.

• Air humidity is now an important aspect which should be revised:

• Psychometric chart
• Relative humidity:

• Absolute humidity:

• Dry-bulb temperature
• Wet-bulb temperature
• Dew Point
• Saturated Air
Wet cooling towers
84
 Dry cooling towers
85

• All the heat rejected from the water goes into sensible heat gain of the air
• Can be mechanical or natural drafted
• Typically for desert sides with limited water
• Less expensive
• Lesser operational costs
• Lesser maintenance costs with no chemical additives
• Lower efficiency
• Not that effective for larger power stations
• Usually only used in small setups at remote locations