Listen to the Earth, Conquer the Height

PROCEEDINGS OF THE 4th INTERNATIONAL

CONFERENCE VIETGEO 2018

GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING IN RESPONSE TO CLIMATE
CHANGE AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE

Quang Binh, 21&22 September 2018

 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
VIETGEO 2018

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE:
Assoc. Prof. Ta Duc Thinh
Assoc. Prof. Le Hai An
Dr. Nguyen Duc Ly
Prof. Motoyuki Suzuki
Assoc. Prof. Nguyen Huy Phuong
Assoc. Prof. Do Minh Duc
Prof. Nguyen Quoc Dung
Prof. Suksun Horpibulsuk
Mr. Le Cao Minh
Assoc. Prof. Nguyen Van Vuong
Prof. Ding Wenqi
Assoc. Prof. Dau Van Ngo
Assoc. Prof. Do Quang Thien
Assoc. Prof. Nguyen Quang Minh
VAEGE, Vietnam
HUMG, Vietnam
Quang Binh Depart. of Science and Technology
Yamaguchi University, Japan
VAEGE, Vietnam
VAEGE, Vietnam
Hydraulic Construction Institute, Vietnam
Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand
Technical World Co. Ltd, Vietnam
VNU University of Science, Vietnam
Tongji University, China
Ho Chi Minh University of Technology, Vietnam
Hue University of Science, Vietnam
HUMG, Vietnam

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE:
Prof. Tran Thanh Hai
Prof. Motoyuki Suzuki
Prof. Emeritus. Hiroshi Matsuda
Prof. Suksun Horpibulsuk
Prof. Pham Van Ty
Prof. Nguyen Quoc Dung
Prof. Faquan Wu
Prof. Ding Wenqi
Dr. Kochi Yoshifumi
Assoc. Prof. Tran Manh Lieu
HUMG, Vietnam
Yamaguchi University, Japan
Yamaguchi University, Japan
Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand
VAEGE, Vietnam
Hydraulic Construction Institute, Vietnam
General Secretary of IAEG
Tongji University, China
K's Lab - Geotechnical Consultant, Japan
VNU University of Science, Vietnam

CONFERENCE SECRETARIAT:
Dr. Bui Truong Son HUMG, Vietnam
Dr. Bui Trong Vinh HCMUT, Vietnam
Dr. Nguyen Chau Lan UTC, Vietnam
Dr. Vu Ba Thao HyCI, Vietnam
Dr. Tran Thanh Nhan HUSC, Vietnam
Dr. Nguyen Van Phong HUMG, Vietnam
Dr. Nguyen Thi Nu HUMG, Vietnam
Dr. Nhu Viet Ha HUMG, Vietnam
Msc.Nguyen Thanh Duong HUMG, Vietnam
Msc. Duong Van Binh HUMG, Vietnam
Msc. Nguyen Van Hung HUMG, Vietnam
Msc. Vu Thai Linh HUMG, Vietnam
Msc. Pham Thi Ngoc Ha HUMG, Vietnam
Msc. Phung Huu Hai HUMG, Vietnam
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 4th INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE VIETGEO 2018

QUANG BINH, VIETNAM

21&22 September 2018

GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING IN RESPONSE TO CLIMATE
CHANGE AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE

Editors:
TA DUC THINH
PHAM VAN TY
NGUYEN HUY PHUONG
DO MINH DUC
BUI TRUONG SON
TRAN MANH LIEU
VU BA THAO

SCIENCE AND TECHNICS PUBLISHING HOUSE

 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

VIETGEO 2018
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
IN RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE

21&22 September 2018

QUANG BINH, VIETNAM

Organized by
Vietnam Association of Engineering Geology and the Environment (VAEGE)
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology (HUMG)
Quang Binh Department of Science and Technology
Technical World Co. Ltd (TW)
FECON Corporation
Yamaguchi University, Japan
Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand
Tongji University, China
Ho Chi Minh University of Technology (HCMUT)
Hue University of Sciences - Hue University (HUSC)
VNU University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi (VNU-HUS)
Hydraulic Construction Institute (HyCI)

With the supports of

Quang Binh Department of Science and Technology
Technical World Co. Ltd (TW)
FECON Corporation
GMC Investment and Development Co. Ltd.
Research Center for Technology and Industrial Equipment, HCMUT
Union of Survey and Construction J.S.C (USCO)
Geotechnical Research Cenre, HUMG
Nam Mien Trung Co. Ltd.
Hanoi Construction Design Investigation Consultants J.S.C
Power Engineering Consulting J.S.C 1 (PECC1)
Hydraulic Construction Institute (HyCI)
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Preface ............................................................................................................................ x

SESSION 1
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
IN RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Assessing the resilience of Bac Bo Plain, Vietnam under the impacts of climate change: case study in Hai Dong
commune
Do Minh Duc, Duong Thi Toan, Tran Thi Luu ......................................................................................................... 3

Impacts of global climate change, sea level rise and economic-contruction activity to the sustainable
development of the Quang Ninh coastal area
Le Trong Thang ......................................................................................................................................................... 14

Bioengineering approach for shoreline protection using geosynthetics: A malaysian experience

L.K.Lim, Y.J.Fong...................................................................................................................................................... 23

Properties of soft soil ground in the Quang Ninh coastal area and proposal of soft soil improvement in the
context of the climate change and sea level rise
Nguyen Thi Nu, Nguyen Van Phong, Do Minh Toan, Nguyen Viet Tinh, Pham Thi Ngoc Ha............................. 32

Erosion and accretion at the estuaries of Quang Binh province in the period of 2000 to 2016
Do Quang Thien, Ho Trung Thanh, Nguyen Quang Tuan, La Duong Hai, Le Thi Cat Tuong, Tran Thi Ngoc
Quynh ......................................................................................................................................................................... 38

Effects of climate change on slope stabilization in the Cao Son coal waste area, Cam Pha, Quang Ninh
To Xuan Vu, Nguyen Van Hung, To Hoang Nam ................................................................................................... 52

Effects of fine particles and water content on shear strength and riverbank stability: A case study in the Red
riverbank in Hanoi area
Duong Thi Toan, Ngo Hong Hue .............................................................................................................................. 62

Evaluation of adaptive capacity to salinity intrusion of the Da Nang city in the context of climate change
Nguyen Ngoc Truc, Nguyen Thi Oanh, Ho Xuan Huong ....................................................................................... 71

Effects of capilary water on groundwater in coastal sand dunes in the North Central Region of Vietnam
Nguyen Thanh Cong, Nguyen Huy Vuong, Pham Tuan, Tran Van Quang, Vu Ba Thao, Bui Truong Son ........ 79

The neotectonic and active tectonic influence on coastal erosion at Quang Nam province of Vietnam
Hoang Ngo Tu Do, Do Quang Thien, Tran Thanh Hai, Le Thanh Phong ............................................................. 84

Impacts of climate change on the Upper - Middle Pleistocene aquifer in the Ca Mau peninsula and adaptive
solutions
Dao Hong Hai, Nguyen Viet Ky, Bui Tran Vuong ................................................................................................... 89

v
 SESSION 2
GEOTECHNICS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
OF INFRASTRUCTURE

Physical scale model of horizontal water collecting system for weirs in the Northwest Vietnam
Nguyen Huy Vuong, Nguyen Chi Thanh, Pham Tuan,
Tran Van Quang, Le Vu Minh, Vu Ba Thao, Bui Truong Son ............................................................................. 101

Settlement of saturated clay layer subjected to cyclic loading with a wide range of loading periods
Hiroshi Matsuda, Tran Thanh Nhan, Hiroyuki Hara ............................................................................................ 110

A case study on the determination of the excavated trench depth in unsaturated soil constructed by open trench
method without supporting structures
Nguyen Xuan Man, Le Van Hung, Kenneydy Chibuzor ONYELOWE ................................................................ 121

A method of evaluation of wave loads acting on vertical pier with non-prismatic section in the deep sea
Dang Xuan Truong, Dau Van Ngo, Le Van Nam .................................................................................................. 130

Classifying the foundation structure for sustainable planning and development of Hanoi urban center
Tran Manh Lieu, Nguyen Huy Phuong, Duong Thi Toan,
Tran Thi Luu, Nguyen Van Vu, Nguyen Van Thuong, Nguyen Ngoc Truc ......................................................... 135

Establishing geology engineering map of the Hai Thinh area for planning of eco-social sustainable development
To Hoang Nam, To Xuan Vu................................................................................................................................... 142

Application of acoustic waves for assessment of excavation damaged zone for underground construction in rock
mass
Hoang Dinh Phuc, Chu Viet Thuc .......................................................................................................................... 149

Calculating the large two-way batter bearing pile foundation for pillar supported dam
Tran Van Thai, Nguyen Dinh Truong .................................................................................................................... 160

Influence of embankment height and soil parameters on piled embankments by 3D numerical simulation
Pham Van Hung, Vu Minh Ngan ........................................................................................................................... 172

Application of transformation theory of engineering geological properties of soils to determine the distribution of
Hai Hung formation in the Hanoi area
Ta Duc Thinh ........................................................................................................................................................... 180

Analysis of metal pollution in groundwater of Pleistoccene aquifer in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam
Tran Thi Phi Oanh, Nguyen Viet Ky, Dau Van Ngo, Ho Chi Thong, Mai Hoang Phuc , Nguyen Thi Ngoc
Thuy .......................................................................................................................................................................... 184

Evaluation of the operating capacity of ports based on the analysis of hydrodynamics and the erosion - accretion
regulation of the coastal areas in the North Vietnam
Nguyen Huy Phuong, Duong Van Binh, Nguyen Huy Quang .............................................................................. 195

Characteristics of cyclic deformation phases of soils distributed in the urban area of Hanoi for seismic design
Nguyen Van Phong .................................................................................................................................................. 201
The sand-cement-lime column method for soil improvement: A case study in Tay Thai Thuy High school, Thai Binh
province
Ta Duc Thinh, Nguyen Duc Ly ............................................................................................................................... 207

vi
Effects of lime on improving swelling characteristics of the soil weathered from acidic magmatic rock in Central
Highlands of Vietnam
Nguyen Huy Vuong, Vu Ba Thao, Dang Hoang Thanh, Nguyen Manh Ha, Bui Truong Son, Pham Tuan,
Dinh Van Thuc, Tran Van Quang .......................................................................................................................... 215

Soil improvement through biological-based method

Pham Phu Vinh, Leon A. van Paassen ................................................................................................................... 225

Residual shear strength of soil and its shear displacement rate dependency: an overview
Motoyuki Suzuki, Nguyen Thanh Duong ............................................................................................................... 233

Application of Roclab software in defining the mechanical characteristics of contact rock in dam foundation for
small-scale hydroelectric projects: A Case study in the Long Tao hydroelectric project, Dien Bien province
Bui Truong Son, Vu Thai Linh .............................................................................................................................. 246

Consolidation properties of some Holocene soft clayey soils in the Quang Nam - Da Nang coastal plain
Nguyen Thi Ngoc Yen, Nguyen Hoang Giang, Do Quang Thien .......................................................................... 253

Effects of cycle number of triaxial cyclic test and sand density on dynamic properties of sand of the Thai Binh
formation in Hanoi area
Nguyen Van Hung, Nguyen Thanh Duong, Bui Van Binh, Phung Huu Hai, Pham Thi Ngoc Ha ..................... 263

Effects of soft ground structure on the Hau riverbank failure process in An Giang province, Vietnam
Tran Le The Dien, Huynh Trung Tin,
Trang Nguyen Dang Khoa, Bui Trong Vinh , Ta Duc Thinh ................................................................................ 268

Effects of undrained cyclic shear and Atterberg’s limits on the secondary consolidation of soft soils
Tran Thanh Nhan, Hiroshi Matsuda, Hoang Thi Sinh Huong, Hidemasa Sato,
Do Quang Thien, Duong Phuoc Huy, Nguyen Van Thien, Lai Phuoc Thanh Hoai,
Vo Thanh Men, Tran Thi Anh Dai, Nhu Viet Ha ................................................................................................. 278

Downhole seismic testing to determine elastic parameters of the ground for anti - seismic designs: A case study
in the industrial zone Vung Ro, Phu Yen
Bui Truong Son, Vu Thai Linh .............................................................................................................................. 287

Evalution of sand-cement column solution for soft soil improvement in the North Coastal Highway, Vietnam
Nguyen Thi Diu, Ta Duc Thinh, Nguyen Duc Manh ............................................................................................. 294

Study, analysis and assess effectiveness of soft soil improvement using PVD combine vacuum preloading at
hyosung vina chemicals project at Ba Ria Vung Tau province, Vietnam
Phan Thanh Tien, Nguyen Tan Son ...................................................................................................................... 303

SESSION 3
GEOTECHNICAL MONITORING AND MATERIALS

Assessement of capability of using natural puzzolan in Dak Nong, Viet Nam for soil stabilization
Vu Ba Thao, Nguyen Huu Nam, Pham Van Minh, Tran Van Quan, Nguyen Huy Vuong, Dinh Van Thuc ...... 312

Comparison of numerical modeling and field monitoring of deep foundation of high-rise building: A case study
of Summit Building, Tran Duy Hung, Hanoi, Vietnam
Bui Truong Son, Duong Van Binh, Nguyen Thi Trang ......................................................................................... 320

Scientific basis for setting up a monitoring system for geo-environmental disaster prevention and sustainable
development of the Red River dynamic zone in Hanoi
Nguyen Cong Kien ................................................................................................................................................... 329

vii
Using coal bottom ash of An Khanh thermal power plant as aggregate replacement of concrete
Nguyen Thi Nu, Bui Truong Son ............................................................................................................................ 338

Propose new approach method to determine scale module for granular soils in serve of natural building materials
Application for Granular Soils in Quang Tri -Thua Thien Hue Coastal Plain)
Do Quang Thien, Dang Quoc Tien, Ho Trung Thanh, Le Thi Cat Tuong, Tran Thi Ngoc Quynh ..................... 342

Effect of particle size distribution of Liem Son, Kim Bang, Ha Nam limestone grading as inert additive on But
Son cement Motar
Ta Thi Toan, Nguyen Thi Nu, Vu Thi Ngoc Minh ................................................................................................. 350

The Basic characteristics and applicability of granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) as building materials in
Vietnam
Nguyen Ngoc Truc, Nguyen Van Vu, Nguyen Thi Oanh ....................................................................................... 357

Reusability the bottom ash from coal thermal power plant (CTPP) for graded materials and concrete aggregate
based on particle size distribution
Nguyen Thi Nu, Nguyen Ngoc Dung, Nhu Viet Ha,
Duong Van Binh, Phan Tu Huong, Ta Thi Toan................................................................................................... 365

Exploring the potential of high-accuracy landslide detection and monitoring based on new remote sensing data
and techniques
Nhu Viet Ha ............................................................................................................................................................. 373

SESSION 4
GEOHAZARDS AND SLOPE STABILITY
Remedy of a collapsed riverbank protection structure in Thailand
Suksun Horpibulsuk, Artit Udcomchai, Menglim Hoy, Arul Arulrajah ................................................................ 387

Analysis the causes of land subsidence in Ca Mau city

Dao Hong Hai, Nguyen Viet Ky, Tra Thanh Sang ................................................................................................. 396

Using logistic regression and neural networks for landslide susceptibility assessment along the transport arteries
in the mountainous areas of Quang Nam province
Do Minh Duc, Nguyen Khac Hoang Giang , Dao Minh Duc , Do Minh Ngoc, Dinh Thi Quynh,
Dang Thi Thuy, Nguyen Huu Ha, Nguyen Van Binh, Hoang Hai Yen , Do Van Vung ..................................... 403

Probabilistic Monte Carlo simulation for assessment the slope instability due to rainfall on the Nha Trang - Da
Lat route
Nguyen Thanh Danh, Dau Van Ngo, Ta Quoc Dung, Nguyen Huu Son ............................................................. 412

Factors triggering landslides in timor-leste

Benjamim Hopffer Martins, Motoyuki Suzuki, Eguchi Tsuyoshi, Nopphawan Tamkuan, Masahiko Nagai…...421

Landslide hazard and prevention in the Ward 2, Dalat city, Vietnam

Nguyen Viet Ky, Bui Trong Vinh, Kanno Takami .................................................................................................. 431

Safety assessment of a creeping landslide based on field measurements

Nguyen Tai Son, Pham Van Ty, Le Quang Huy..................................................................................................... 438

Rainfall-induced shallow landslides: Behavior and mitigation approach

Avirut Chinkulkijniwat, Somjai Yubochit ............................................................................................................... 445

Assessment, classification and solutions for landslide mitigation along the National Highway No. 6
Tran Manh Lieu, Duong Thi Toan, Tran Thi Luu, Nguyen Ngoc Truc ............................................................... 461
viii
Examining the reliability of the logarithmic sliding surface method in slope stability analysis
Pham Huu Sy, Pham Phu Vinh, Le Vu Minh ........................................................................................................ 472

Application of artificial neural networks for landslide forecasting models in the moutainous areas of Xin Man
district, Ha Giang province
Pham Quoc Khanh, Nguyen Thi Kim Thanh ........................................................................................................ 477

Causes of landslide in the Ong Tuong hill area, Hoa Binh city and treatment solutions
Duong Van Binh, Bui Truong Son, Pham Thi Ngoc Ha, Nguyen Minh Hien ..................................................... 484

Probabilistic analysis of rainfall-induced landslides in Quang Nam province

Nguyen Khac Hoang Giang , Trinh Quoc Anh, Dang Thi Thuy,
Do Minh Ngoc, Dao Minh Duc, Hoang Hai Yen , Nguyen Huu Ha , Do Minh Duc .......................................... 492

Analysis of pore water pressure and slope displacement by historical rain series in Xin Man district, Ha Giang
province, Vietnam
Dao Minh Duc, Tran Quoc Cuong, Do Minh Duc, Dang Thi Thuy ...................................................................... 499

Characteristics of geotechnical and environmental hazards in Hanoi area

Nguyen Van Vu, Nguyen Van Thuong, Nguyen Ngoc Truc .................................................................................. 510

Analysis of sediment distribution and transport trends at the Da Dien estuary, Central Vietnam
Dinh Thi Quynh, Do Minh Duc, Nguyen Tien Giang, Tran Ngoc Anh ................................................................ 517

Slopes in loose rock - stabilisation and erosion protection in a single operation

Tran Dong, DENNIS Gross ..................................................................................................................................... 524

SESSION 5
TECHNICAL NOTES
Distribution and engineering properties of clayey soils of the Phu Bai formation in Thua Thien Hue
and Quang Tri
Hoang Thi Sinh Huong, Tran Thanh Nhan, Pham Huu Tuyen,
Do Quang Thien, Ho Sy Thai, Massimo Sarti ........................................................................................................ 533

Soft soil improvement with cement and fly ash in Vietnam

Chu Long Hai, Nguyen Chau Lan, Hoang Duc Chi, Nguyen Vinh, Nhu Tuan .................................................. 542

Soft soil improvement in the 2/9 Road (extension) project, Vinh Long town, Vinh Long province
Thai Ba Ngoc, Tran Van Xuan, Hoang Quang Trung Phi, Luong Bao Minh,
Truong Xuan Hien, Vo The Anh ............................................................................................................................. 552

Introduction to structure of the water filter solutions in boat pumping station for aquacultural water supply in the
Ca Mau peninsula
Nguyen Quoc Dung, Phan Dinh Tuan, Le Anh Duc, Nguyen Quang Thanh ...................................................... 564

Effects of hydraulic conductivity on the riverbank stability

Duong Thi Toan ....................................................................................................................................................... 570

Discussion on nearly correct determination of shear strength of strongly weathered rock zone Ia2
Bui Khoi Hung, Dang Hoang Cam, Ho Minh Long, Tran Xuan Sinh ................................................................. 579

Using piezcone penetration testing of soils (CPTU) to determine the physico-mechanical properties of sand using
for sea dykes in Tra Vinh coast, South Vietnam
Nguyen Huu Son, Dau Van Ngo, Ho Chi Thong, Nguyen Thi Ngoc Thuy ........................................................... 584

ix
 PREFACE
Infrastructure development towards the sustainability in Vietnam as well as in the
world is facing with many challenges, especially in the context of global climate change.
Smart responses to climate change for harmonious and sustainable development are a
legitimate desire. This is also the responsibility in the hands of scientists in general and
geological - geotechnical engineers in particular.
Following the development and the success of the first conference in Hue 2012
(HueGeo 2012), the second in Hanoi in 2015 (HanoiGeo 2015), the third in Halong in
2016 (VietGeo 2016), the fourth international conference will be officially named
VietGeo 2018. VietGeo 2018 is co-organized by the Vietnam Association of Engineering
Geology and the Environment (VAEGE); Hanoi University of Mining and Geology
(HUMG); Quang Binh Department of Science and Technology; Yamaguchi University,
Japan; Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand; Tongji University, China; Ho Chi
Minh University of Technology (HCMUT); VNU University of Science, Vietnam
National University Hanoi (VNU-HUS); Hue University of Sciences - Hue University
(HUSC); Hydraulic Construction Institute (HCI) and Technical World Co. Ltd (TW) on
21st and 22nd September 2018 in Dong Hoi city, Quang Binh province, Vietnam.
VietGeo 2018 will focus on the following themes:
- Slope stability and prediction,
- Coastal geotechnical engineering in response to climate change,
- Deep foundation and underground construction,
- Ground improvement method for infrastructure construction,
- Geotechnical instrumentation and materials.
VietGeo 2018 has received many kind supports from Quang Binh Department of
Science and Technology, Technical World Co. Ltd (TW), FECON Corporation, GMC
Investment and Development Co.Ltd. (GMC), Research Center for Technology and
Industrial Equipment (RECTIE), Union of Survey and Construction J.S.C (USCO),
Geotechnical Research Cenre - HUMG, Nam Mien Trung Co. Ltd, Hanoi Construction
Design Investigation Consultants J.S.C, Power Engineering Consulting J.S.C 1 (PECC1),
Hydraulic Construction Institute (HyCI).
The organizing committee would like to express our sincere thanks and appreciations
to all of participants and supporting institutions. Special thanks to members of the
advisory board, local volunteers and especially those of the secretariats who handle the
daily hard work to make the conference successful.
We hope you will find this conference not only a chance to discuss, to share
experience but also to explore cooperative opportunities.

Organizing Committee of VIETGEO 2018

x
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 4th INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE VIETGEO 2018

QUANG BINH, VIETNAM

21&22 September 2018

SESSION 1

GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING
IN RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
 ASSESSING THE RESILIENCE OF BAC BO PLAIN, VIETNAM UNDER THE
IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE: CASE STUDY IN HAI DONG COMMUNE

Do Minh Duc, Duong Thi Toan, Tran Thi Luu

VNU University of Science, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: ducdm@vnu.edu.vn

Abstract: This paper is one of few research calculating the climate and natural hazard resilience in
Vietnam, applied for the coastal zone in Bac Bo Plain, where is directly affected by the sea and greatest
affected by impacts of climate change. By using investigated data and using questionnaire method, the
both of technical and social data in three capitals of natural, social and infrastructure condition were
collected. The impactions of climate change were indicated through climate change factor as sea level
rise, high intensity of typhoon and tidal causing coastal geo-hazards such as sea-dyke system instability
and damage, seawater flood and intrusion causing damage to components of capitals. The resilience value
was calculated by combine using the adaptive capacity approach and components of resilience approach.
The obtained results on resilience show that the calculated resilience is very low resilience that means the
case study area (Hai Dong commune) and other coastal zone communes in Red river delta are strongly
affected by disasters and climate change. The coastal zone area need improvement of capitals for
increasing the general resilience, specially, need improve on aquaculture condition and sea-dyke
constructions.

Keywords: climate and geohazard resilience; coastal zone; capitals.

1. Introduction Analysis the climate and natural hazard

The Bac Bo Plain, in the north of Vietnam, is
characterized by about 200km long of coastal line
in the east and therefore is directly affected by the
sea (Fig.1) both in short-term and long-term.
Recently, it is clear to recognize the increasing
impacts of the intensive storms, the high level of
tidal in typhoon event causing the failure and
broken of sea dyke in the kilometers, or increasing
distance of seawater intrusion. According to the
estimation of the World Bank, Vietnam is one the
five most vulnerable countries to the global climate
change. The most affected areas are the Red River
delta and the Me Kong delta where will be suffered
the most threats of sea level rise (SLR) and saline
intrusion (UN Vietnam, 2010). The ongoing rapid
economic development can be seriously hampered
if the effect of natural-hazards such as floods,
saline intrusion, and coastal erosion occurring in
various parts of the coast are not tackled or
mitigated in an appropriate manner.
resilience is one of the main science
countermeasures to mitigate the risks causing by
the impacts of climate change and typhoons. Base
on the resilience measurement, it can be valuable
the capacity to adapt and respond when the natural
hazards coming and to the scenario of sea level rise
in the coastal area. Resilience is defined and
operationalized in a number of different ways.
There are common features to the definitions and
also subtle differences that should be considered in
the development of resilience indicators.
Resilience is generally defined as being able to
respond to, cope with and recover from climate
variations and impacts, i.e. remaining in or
returning to the old state. However, some
researchers also include the notion of positive
change, i.e. developing a new state in response to
climate impacts. Work on resilience indicators in
the field of climate change is limited and, there
were no indicators of resilience to climate change.

3
From an indicator perspective, there appears to be
four broad approaches to defining and
operationalizing resilience: (1) Vulnerability
approach; (2) Adaptive capacity approach; (3)
Formal capitals approach; and (4). Components or
Fig. 1. The study area of the coastal zone in the Northern, Vietnam
2. Methods
2.1. Surveying by questionnaires
Survey method is used for interviewing
households and local authorities to collect data of a
certain study area. The questionnaire is a system of
questions relating to research purposes that has
been developed with a rigorous structure, questions
and answers. Questionnaires help to collect both
quantitative and qualitative information. The
questionnaire which used for this study included
some sections and the contents of these sections
base on the interviewees.
These capacities dominantly cover all
components indicating the development as well as
affected by climate change. The characteristic of
these components depends on many local factors.
Then, the resilience value calculated for will
respond the resilience of the specific area.
This research has objective and contents to
present the typical geo-hazard because of typhoon
4
determinants of resilience approach [1]. In this
research, the approach as adaptive capacity and
components resilience will be used to investigate
and collect data on natural capital, social and
human capital and infrastructure capital.
season and sea level rise in the coastal zone of the
Northern, Vietnam, and to analysis the resilience to
climate change and geo-hazard. The expected
results will show the weakness capitals which need
improve to increase the resilience as well as
decrease the damage.
If the interviewees are house holes, the
questions mention about personal information, the
income of every livelihood in his/her family, waste
treatment, the impacts of natural hazards as well as
the behavior of local people in extreme events etc.
The survey was conducted in Hai Dong
commune (Nam Dinh province) in 2017. The total
questionnaires (sample size) are calculated by
using Cochran's formula (1977):
(1)
Where n is sample size, N is the population size
in the commune, and e is level of precision.
 In the case the interviewees are the local 2.2.1. Methods for resilience measurement -
authorities, the questions focus on the socio- Iyengar and Sudarshan method (1982)
economic development and income for each type This method - Iyengar and Sudarshan method
of livelihood for whole commune in such period of (1982) [1] is used to calculate the specific
time, economic development orientation, land use resilience index for every capital and for a specific
planning, waste collection and treatment processes, area. Data requirements to use this method must be
infrastructure condition, the implementation of detailed and complete information. The calculation
new rural policies and achievements, population; process of this method is as follows:
education, health, and environment issues etc. - Define the criteria used for computation,
These data are used to estimate the resilience for decentralize the criteria (sub-criteria), define the
the commune under the impacts of climate change. indicators for every sub-criteria, and then calculate
2.2. Analysis the natural hazard resilience the value of criteria levels. For example,
This research use combination of the adaptive identifying the resilience of the Red river delta is
capacity approach and components or determinants shown in the components of: natural, social or
of resilience approach. Three adaptive capitals infrastructure as a criteria level I. The criteria level
include natural, social and infrastructure capital. II is component of criteria level I (or the capitals as
The relationships between these capacities and shown in Table 1); and the criteria level III is
impacts of climate change are indicated in Fig 2. component of criteria level II.
The components of these capitals using in this - Calculate the criteria level III value:
research is shown in Table 1. Applying the method of Iyengar and Sudarshan
(1982), the formula for calculating the criteria level
III value depends on the relationship of the criteria
level III indicator with resilience. If the value of
the criteria level III increases, increasing the
resilience, then the functional relationship is
proportional, whereby the criteria level III value is
calculated by the following equation:
(2)
Where s is the indicators of criteria level III,
Fig. 2. The relationship between the capitals and smin is the minimum value of criteria level III; smax
climate change factors is the maximum value of criteria level III. If the
value of the criteria level III increases, however,
Tab. 1. The main components of three capitals decreasing increasing the resilience, then the
Natural Social Capital Infrastructure functional relationship is inversely proportional,
Capital Capital the criteria level III value is calculated by the
Land use Income Policy following equation:
Water Skills Communication (3)
resources Knowledge systems - Calculate the criteria level II value (M) is
Biological Quality of labour Transportation calculated by the following equation:
resources available, Electrical
Household size system
and health. irrigation (4)
system
- Calculate the criteria level I value - CF
Environment
(Contributing Factor) is calculated by the
(waste landfill)
following equation:
Other public
construction

5
 (5) thickness 50-80cm and the amour layer is
revetment. The grain size in core dike is D50 = 0.1
mm to 0.15 mm. The crest level arranges from
Where CF (Contributing Factor) is the criteria (+4.50) to (+5.50), the dike crest is narrow with an
level I value; Mi is the criteria level II value as a average width of 3 to 4 m. The sea side slopes have
components of the criteria level I; n is the number tanα of 1:2 and are covered by interlocking
of the criteria level II. concrete block. Thickness of revetment is 20 cm to
Where CF (Contributing Factor) is the criteria 70 cm. The inner slopes are normally covered by
level I value; Mi is the criteria level II value as a grass and have tanα of 1:4. Table 2 shows the main
components of the criteria level I; n is the number information designed for dike system in the
of the criteria level II. Northern, Vietnam.
2.2.2. Methods for resilience measurement -
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Tab. 2. Some main information on sea dike
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) [12] is one
configurations
of Multi Criteria decision making method that was Thai Nam Ninh Thanh
originally developed by Prof. Thomas L. Saaty. In Description Hai Phong
Binh Dinh Binh Hoa
short, it is a method to derive ratio scales from Length of sea dike (km) 93 152 81 16
Design tidal water level 2.2
paired comparisons. The input can be obtained 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29
MSL (m) 9
from actual measurement such as price, weight Design water level MSL 3.3 +3.1
3.19 3.29 3.29
etc., or from subjective opinion such as satisfaction (m) 9 4
feelings and preference. AHP allow some small Wave runup 1.57 1.5 2.0 1.5 1.6
Crest height 5.0 5.2 5.5 5.0 5.0
inconsistency in judgment because human is not Seaside slope 1:4 1:4 1:4 1:3 1:4
always consistent. The ratio scales are derived Landside slope 1:2 1:2 1:2 1:2 1:2
from the principal Eigen vectors and the Crest with 3-5 4 4 4.5 4

consistency index is derived from the principal

Eigen value. The processes in AHP method as The instability of sea dike system dominantly
following: occurs in the rain and typhoon season, which often
- Define the criteria used for computation, starts in June and ends in October. About 13% of
decentralize the criteria (sub-criteria), and define the total tropical cyclones landed in Northern
the indicators for every sub-criteria. This process is Vietnam. Recently, the weather with the variability
the same as the Iyengar và Sudarshan method. of extreme events at the coast occurring more
- Define the index for the indicators of every complicated with a wider range of the number. The
sub-criteria base on expert choice (the expert numbers of typhoon is increasing very rapidly
index). from 2005 up to present. A strong typhoon can
- Pair-wise Comparison in the relationship with raise the water level 1.1 - 3.2 m [4].
the resilience
- Making Comparison Matrix
- Priority Vectors
- Consistency Index and Consistency Ratio
- Calculate the weight of criterias
- Calculate the resilience value is the multiple
of the expert index and the weight of criteria
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Impacts of climate change to coastal area
3.1.1. Impacts of climate change to sea-dyke
stability Fig. 3. The effected sea shoreline in Nam Dinh by
The coastal zone in the Northern, Vietnam has Doksuri typhoon
about 450 km, however, revetments are applied to
only 219 km of dikes. Most of sea dikes have been With the attack of high sea water level and
built with the core is sand with cover layer is clay strong dynamic energy of wave in typhoon event,

6
the sea dike may be failure in some main modes South (Van Ly) in Hai Hau (Fig. 3) have been
such as (1) Damage and erosion dike’s surface and affected the high wave, tide and strong wind
body, protected layer due to the wave run-up and during Doksuri typhoon. It high tide and wave
wave overtopping; (2) Erosion and lowering overtopping the sea dike and run toward, it made
foreshore area; (3) Seepage through dike. The about 2 m flooding in Quat Lam tow and Thinh
pressure attack of sea wave, specially wave run up Long tow as shown in the Fig. 4.
and overtopping cause damages of dike crest and
crown wall, erosion in crest sides, inner and outer
slope, damage of upper part of revetment due to
the return flow of overtopping sea water, and
washing material of filter layer where the dike
body was not well protected by cover layers
[4][10][16][3][4]. Moreover, the current sea dike
system is not responded the designing and building
requirements such as (1) the crest height of dikes is
insufficient, (2) wave run-up at the high tide
compiles with surges resulting in high water level
which can pass the crest of dike, (3) the compacted
material of dike’s body and protected covering
were not match requirements. Specially, the
material filled in body dike dominant sand clay and
fine sand, which has low strength and high
permeability reducing sea dike stability due to
seepage. These problems will be increasingly
complex in context of climate change and sea level
rise.
By analysis the stability of sea-dyke, by the Fig. 4. The high tide and wave over seadike and
factor of safety (FOS), carried out by Duc DM et al run toward in Quat Lam (left) and Thinh Long
(2016) [4] under climate change context with sea (right) in Doksuri typhoo.
level rise of RCP8.5. That research show that FOS
decrease with higher sea, however, FOS decrease
slowly and sea-dyke may not greatly damaged
without other reason. A analysis simulate the
condition off a typhoon event with the wave may
run up to crest of sea dike and even causes
overtopping. In that case the results of FOS change
with time in a period of a wave (5.7 s) when the
wave run up to 3.2 m and to crest of sea dike at 5.5
m. In both cases, FOS of the inner slope decrease
when wave run higher level. With high of wave
run to 3.2 m, sea dike is weakened and still stable.
However, with high of wave run to 5.5 m, the sea
dike will be failed when the high of wave up to
crest after short time (5s).
Recently, that prediction result was happened in
sea-dyke in Giao Thuy, Hai Hau dyke (Nam Dinh
province). The kilometres of sea-dyke were broken
in Quat Lam (Giao Thuy), Thinh Long (Hai Hau)
during Doksuri typhoon which was the strongest
typhoon from 3 years ago in Vietnam and from 10
years ago in Hai Hai area. The seadyke in Nam Fig. 5. The broken sea dike in Hai Hau (Thinh
Định from North (Quat Lam) in Giao Thuy to
Long, Hai Hoa)

7
 According to the local management, Nam Đinh depending on the discharge of the river. The data
was far away the affected storm center (Nghe An- of published works ([12], [14], [16], [18], [19])
Ha Tinh) about 160km, however that time was the shows that, the saltwater intrudes further inland at
highest tide in a year cycle, then the tide level in Thai Binh mouth compare to that at Red River
event was higher than the top of sea dike about mouth. This is explained by the lower discharge in
0.2-0.5m, and combine with the high wave Thai Binh river, but on the other hand by the tidal
overtopping to sea dyke. The communes along sea magnitude here is higher than the Red River.
shoreline from Thinh Long to Van Ly (Fig. 3) were
strongly affected as flooding, road and houses
damage, agriculture crop missing. In Thinh Long
two, more than 100 restaurants in beach were
damaged. The electric line, poles and clocks along
the street were destroyed. The damage total was
estimated about more than 300 billion VND. The
sea dyke in Hai Hau was broken in the inside slope
with a length more than 1km in Thinh Long, Hai
Hoa communes (Fig. 5).
3.1.2. Saltwater intrusion
a. Saltwater intrusion in river systems
Bac Bo Plain is characterized by dence river
networks and it is bounded by East Sea in the East
and the Southeast. The river system is not only
important for the plain in term of supplying water Fig. 6. Saltwater intrusion in river systems in the
and sediments for agriculture. However, due to the Bac Bo plain (Constructed basing on the data of
interaction of waves, tides, and river systems, salt Vu TC, 1996; Nhan PQ, 2000; Son PQ, 2004;
water intrusion has been significantly increased in Minh LT et al., 2010; and Yen NTB et al. 2017 )
estuaries (Fig 6). Salt intrusion of this river system
will not only affect the coastal ecosystems, water The lengths of saltwater intrusion as well as the
supply and irrigation, aquaculture but also affect salinity levels in rivers are strongly affected by
the shallow aquifers in the vicinity. According to climate change due to the sea level rise and flux of
Vu TC (1996) [18], Pham Quy Nhan (2000) [14]; river systems. Therefore, it is important to have
Pham Quang Son (2004) [16], Minh LT et al., solutions for the coastal areas to mitigate the
2010 [12]; and Yen NTB et al., (2017) [19]; the impact of saltwater intrusion.
saline intrusion length depend on the discharge b. Saltwater intrusion in aquifers
level of tributaries as well as on the seasons
through the year. The saline intrusion length at
river mouths varies between 25-45km depending
on the location (Fig.6). In the flood season, the
salinity of sea water decreased to a low values,
ranging from 917o/oo. On contrary, in the dry
season, the salinity increased to 2332o/oo. As a
result, at river mouths in the dry season, the
average salinity is increasing gradually and
reaching the highest values in February and March
– the period when low discharge occurs in the river
system. However, the highest salinities are not
recorded at river mouths at the same period. At
Lach Giang mouth, the highest salinities in many
years fall in March; at the Thai Binh and Ba Lat
mouth, they fall in January [16]. In general, Fig. 7. Distribution of fresh, brackish, and salty
salinity varies with the wide of the river mouth, groundwater in upper Holocene aquifer in Bac Bo
similar to the decrease in tidal elevation, and Plain

8
 Groundwater from aquifers is very important
for water supply in the Bac Bo Plain in general and
in coastal area in particular. The two main granular
aquifers, the upper Holocene or shallow aquifer
and the lower Pleistocene aquifer have been
exploited for tens of years mostly for drinking
water and partly for irrigation
However, as it has happened in many similar
part of the world [11], the groundwater in this
coastal area also impacted by saltwater of adjacent
sea. In Holocene aquifer, fresh groundwater (Total
dissolved solids-TDS <1g/L) only presents in
small part around Hanoi while groundwater with a
TDS between 1 and 10 g/L is observed down
gradient of the fresh groundwater zone, to about 35
km from the coastline (Fig. 7). The salty
groundwater (TDS>10g/L) is found in the whole
coastal zone. The sources of salty groundwater in
aquifers are both due to paleo and recent saltwater
intrusion ([7][11]). The sea level rise, therefore,
will be an important factor to increase the saltwater
intrusion for shallow aquifers which are connected
to river system as well as connected directly to the
sea.
In the high-permeability Pleistocene aquifer,
fresh groundwater is present in a larger area than in
the Holocene aquifers (Fig. 8). Groundwater with
TDS between 1 and 10 g/L is observed widely
while small areas with TDS above 10 g/L present
in the coastal zone.
In Nam Dinh, the salinity tends to increase from
the central to the north of the province. The area
with high salinity is concentrated in Giao Thuy,
Xuan Truong, and Nam Truc districts
[2][6][7][11][13]. It means higher salinity is found
along the Red River where is close to Ba Lat
mouth. However, fresh groundwater occurs in in
Hai Hau, south of Truc Ninh, Nam Truc, Vu Ban,
Y Yen, and a part of Nghia Hung districts. This
fresh groundwater is main water supply source for
the whole Nam Dinh area.
The data from Frank et al. (2011) [6] and our
unpublished data (2017) indicate that the fresh-
salty groundwater boundaries have drastically
changed; many saltywater-affected areas are
expanded gradually. The strong exploitation of
groundwater in the last twenty years leading to
drawdown up to ten meter in the Nam Dinh area
9
[6]. The combination between sea level rise and
the over groundwater pumping will extend the
salty groundwater zone or this area has to face with
the shortage of fresh water.
Fig. 8. Distribution of fresh, brackish, and salty
groundwater in lower Pleistocene aquifer in Bac
Bo Plain
3.2. Analysis climate and geohazard resilience
for Hai Dong, Hai Hau, Nam Dinh Province
Hai Dong is a coastal commune in Hai Hau
district, also is strongly affected by impacts of
typhoon and sea water level rise. In Doksuri
typhoon, the high sealevel caused flood and
damage for agriculture and aquaculture. In this
part, the resilience will be calculated to show the
ability of resistance to geohazard and show how
weakness and what capital need to enhancement to
mitigate the damage of seawater flood and
intrusion, sea dike instability.
As shown in methods and table 1, the
component of three capitals as natural, social and
infrastructure will be used in this analysis. Using
the collected data, AHP and Iyengar và Sudarshan
methods, the results of resilience value are shown
in table 3, 4, 5.
Fig. 9 shows the correlation between natural-
social-infrastructural strengths, and the results
show that the contribution of capitals in resilience
value decrease following natural-social-
infrastructural conditions. The natural capital with
its components as types of land using area, with the
average resilience value is 0.142; The second value
is 0.119 for the resilience value of social capital,
and the minimum value is 0.055 for infrastructure
capital.
Based on these results, it can see that the policy
of land using division is suitable. The area criteria
for planting medicinal plants, residential land area
safety area. Other area for growing agriculture and
aquaculture are sensitive area and strongly affected
when disaster coming. For social criteria, farm
livelihoods, service sectors, high-value health care
contribute high value for resilience. Some of
criteria as career of aquaculture and salt making,
and also agriculture is strongly affected by geo-
hazard and climate change. For infrastructure
capital, criteria for disaster prevention, irrigation
traffic system are the criteria have high resistance
for this area.

Tab. 3. Result of resilience calculation for Natural Capital

The
Investiga The weight
Criteria expert Resilience value
ted data of criteria
index
Human living land (ha) 896500 0.67 0.7114 0.48
Aquaculture area (ha) inside 82190 0 0.7114 0.00
seadike
Aquaculture area (ha) outside 30000 0 0.7114 0.00
seadike
Fresh water aquaculture area (ha) 97810 0 0.7114 0.00
Land use
Salt making land (ha) 48200 0 0.7114 0.00
and Water
resources Agriculture area – rice (ha) 2941840 0.33 0.7114 0.24
Short-term Agriculture area (ha) 367561 0 0.7114 0.00
Area of specialty / high value
80000 0.67 0.7114 0.48
trees, medicinal plants,
ornamental
Surface areaplants (ha)
of floodable water 50000 1 0.2370 0.24
(rivers, canals)

Tab. 4. Result of resilience calculation for Social Capital

The
Investigated The weight Resilience
Criteria expert
data of criteria value
index
Aquaculture 60 0.33 0.344701 0.114
Salt Career 200 0.00 0.344701 0.000
Livelihoods Seafood processing (jellyfish, fish sauce 2 0.67 0.344701 0.231
(numbers ...)
Famer (breeding with herd number) 123 0.67 0.344701 0.231
of house)
Agriculture 2255 0.33 0.344701 0.114
Services and other careers 110 0.67 0.344701 0.231
Labors Unemployment rate (%) 0 1.00 0.031725 0.032
Average income (million / person / year) 31000000 0.67 0.122194 0.082
Income
Poor rate (%) 2.74 0.67 0.064972 0.044
Population Increase rate (%) 0.02 1.00 0.016245 0.016
Education Rate of high school Complete (%) 50 0.67 0.140766 0.094
Health Insurance attend rate (%) 75 0.67 0.182728 0.122

10
 Tab. 5. Result of resilience calculation for Infrastructure Capital
The The
Investigated Resilience
Criteria expert weight of
data value
index criteria
Program relate with climate 1 1 0.0925 0.0925
change adaptation
Construction and
Policy
countermeasure for climate 2 1 0.0913 0.0913
change prevention
Communication Rate of house using Internet 30 0.33 0.0077 0.0025
systems (%)
Rate of population using 80 0.67 0.0092 0.0062
phone (%)
Simple housing rate (%) 0 0 0.1531 0.0000
Housing Rate of the 4 grades sloping 85 0.33 0.1531 0.0505
roof (5)structure housing rate
Strong 15 0.67 0.1531 0.1026
Transportation Solid road (concrete, asphalt) 37.445 1 0.0889 0.0889
Irrigation (km)
Concrete canal (m) 11640 1 0.0912 0.0912
construction
Water supply Percentage of households 0 0 0.0138 0.0000
Drainage using treatment
Drainage systemwater
(km) 0 0 0.0406 0.0000
system
Electrical Electrical system line (km) 37.1 1 0.0326 0.0326
system
Disaster Sea-dyke and river dike 5.2 1 0.1434 0.1434
prevention system protection (Km)
Preparing Status for hazard Good 1 0.1033 0.1033
(life jackets, canvas, boats)

Fig. 9. The correlation of resilience values of three Natural – Social – Infrastructure Capitals

At present, the classification of resistance is
not available, so the results are compared with the
results of the province in some models in the
world. In this study, the results were compared
with those of the East Jerusalem team (Fig. 10).
Density resilience is mainly in the range of values
from (-2) to 2; while value form (-0.5) to 0.5 has
the highest density, that mean most of the study
area in East Jerusalem has a resilience value less
than 0.5. Calculated resilience result for Hai Dong
commune is 0.105, which is very low resilience.
That mean, Hai Dong area is strongly affected by
disasters and climate change. The criteria has low

11
resilience value (Table 3,4,5) need improved for
increasing the general resilience.
Technology Program on natural resources,
environment, and climate change under project No.
BĐKH.02/16-20.
References
Fig. 10. The resilience density for East Jerusalem
area [1]
4. Conclusions
This paper is one of few research calculating
the climate and geo-hazard resilience in Viet Nam.
Not only the impacts of climate change and geo-
hazard to coastal zone were mentioned, but also
the resistance capacity was determined. In which,
the both of technical and social data were analyzed
and quantized. The impactions of climate change
were indicated through climate change factor as
sea level rise, high intensity of typhoon and tidal
causing coastal geohazards such as seadyke system
instability and damage, seawater flood and
intrusion, then causing damage to components of
capitals. This research combines using the adaptive
capacity approach and components or determinants
of resilience approach. Three adaptive capitals
include natural, social and infrastructure capital.
The obtained results on resilience for Hai Dong,
Hai Hau area show that the calculated resilience is
0.105, which is very low resilience, and this value
decrease following natural-social- infrastructural
conditions. That mean Hai Dong and other coastal
zone communes in Red river delta are strongly
affected by disasters and climate change, this area
need improvement of capital for increasing the
general resilience. Specifically, Hai Dong area has
low resilience in area for growing agriculture and
aquaculture.
12
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by National Science and
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13
 IMPACTS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE, SEA LEVEL RISE AND
ECONOMIC-CONTRUCTION ACTIVITY TO THE SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE QUANG NINH COASTAL AREA

Le Trong Thang
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: letrongthang@humg.edu.vn

Abstract: Quang Ninh is a great potential province to economic development, especially in the field
of mining and tourism. Climate change, sea level rise and other economic-construction activities result in
an increase of geological processes and phenomena, causing floods, salt infiltration that directly affect to
the socio-economic development of the area. Based on analyses and assessments, the author presents
basic and long term solutions to diminish the unfavorable impacts of the climate change, sea level rise
and other economic activities for the sustainable development of Quang Ninh area.

Keywords: climate change; sea level rise; sustainable development.

1. Some natural characteristics and scenarios of
climate change and sea level rise in Quang Ninh
province
Quang Ninh is located in the northern economic
development triangle of Hanoi, Hai Phong and
Quang Ninh, with great potential for developing
mining and tourism. Quang Ninh is characterized
by hilly terrain and narrow coastal delta stretching
from Mong Cai to Quang Yen. The Quang Ninh
hills are in the form of rocks from Paleozoic to
Cenozoic and Quaternary, mainly forming
conglomerates, sandy clay, claystone, limestone
formations and some origin rocks. magma of the
Tan Minh, Xuan Son, Cat Ba, Bac Son, Binh Lieu,
Hon Gai and Ha Coi Formations [3].
Climate change today and in the future depends
mainly on the level of greenhouse gas emissions, ie
the dependence on the socio-economic
development of countries around the world. Thus,
climate change scenarios are based on global
socio-economic development scenarios. In the
special report on the Greenhouse Gas Emission
Scenario (AR5) of 2000, the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) developed
climate change scenarios based on a new scenario
approach of greenhouse gas emissions, paid
attention on greenhouse concentration more than
emission, and four scenarios are RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5
(B1), RCP 6.0 (B2) and RCP 8.5 (A1FI)[1].
Based on the climate change scenarios of the
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
for the Northern Delta, the specific scenarios for
Quang Ninh are as follows [1]:
On temperature
Change in average annual temperature (0C) over
1986-2005.

Tab. 1a. Change in average annual temperature (0C) over 1986-2005

Scenario RCP 4.5(B1) Scenario RCP 8.5(A1)
2016-2035 2046-2065 2080-2099 2016-2035 2046-2065 2080-2099
0.7 (0.4 ÷1.1) 1.6 (1.1 ÷2.3) 2.1 (1.5 ÷3.0) 0,9 (0.6 ÷1.4) 2.0 (1.5 ÷3.0) 3.6 (2.9 ÷4.8)

14
 Rainfall

Tab. 1b. Change in average annual rainfall (%) over the period 1986-2005
Scenario RCP 4.5(B1) Scenario RCP 8.5(A1)
2016-2035 2046-2065 2080-2099 2016-2035 2046-2065 2080-2099
20.4 19.1 29.8 14.8 (6.4÷23.4) 24.0 36.8
(6.5÷33.4) (11.7÷26.9) (19.8÷40.9) (14.7÷33.0) (25.9÷46.5)

Sea level rise scenarios

Tab. 1c. Sea level rise in Mong Cai-Hon Dau under the scenario RCP 4.5 (B1), cm
Timeline of the 21st century
2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
13 (8÷18) 17(10÷24) 22(13÷31) 27(17÷39) 33(20÷47) 39(24÷56) 46(28÷65) 53(32÷75)

Tab. 1d. Sea level rise in Mong Cai-Hon Dau under scenario RCP 8.5 (A1), cm
Timeline of the 21st century
2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
13(9÷18) 18(13÷26) 25(17÷35) 32(22÷45) 41(28÷57) 50(34÷70) 60(41÷85) 72(49÷101)
(Note: figures in parentheses are the smallest to largest variation)

2. Assessment on the impact of climate change,
sea level rise and economic activity in Quang
Ninh.
The impact of climate change and sea level rise
in Quang Ninh has increased the activities of
dynamics geological processes and events in the
study area and is mainly expressed in
intensification of rock and soil weathering, karst,
slides and mudflats, increasing sedimentation of
river mouths, change of coastlines, floods, semi-
floods, saline water intrusion and underground
water ..., detrimental to economic activities as well
as human life, affecting the sustainable
development of the area.
2.1. The processes of weathering rocks and
karst.
For soil and rock weathering and karst
processes and phenomena, the change of climatic
factors is critical to their ability to grow, and
developing intension. Temperatures and water are
the major contributors to soil and rock weathering
as well as promoting the carbonate dissolution that
causes karst. High temperatures and sudden
changes cause strong physical weathering,
accelerating the intensity of chemical weathering.
Water is not only the cause of weathering but also
the environment for chemical reactions such as
solubility, hydration, oxidation, carbonation, ... [6].
Therefore, in the condition of abundant rain water
that make moisten soil, increased water exchange
capacity, chemical weathering will develop
dramatically. This has been proven by reality. The
areas with tropical climate, hot, humid, rainy as in
the North Sea coast, the weathering is very strong,
weathering products are the most absolutely, the
thickness of weathering crust is big, especially
strong and complete weathering zone (to tens of
meters thick). For karstization, rainwater is one of
the determinants of karst growth, as it governs the
ability of water exchange in response to the
dissolution of the rock.
The weathering process changes rocks in terms
of composition, texture, structure, state, physic-
mechanical properties, etc., in a manner
unfavorable to construction activities such as
reduction of density, void ratio, water permeability
increases, durability, stability decreases,
compression level increases. Weathering is not
only adversely affect the geological environment
but also the premise, enabling other geologic
dynamics phenomena to develop, such as
accelerating the formation of slides, rock fall,
gullies, erosion on slopes, sloping roofs, supply of
solid materials for muddy streams.

15
 2.2. Rock fall
The literature has shown that, in the area of
Cam Pha and Ha Long, geological hazards due to
landslide occur quite strong and regular in the
rainy season on the slopes, exposed mines and the
slope of the disposal site as well. The sliding
blocks at Bai Chay bridge end are at risk of
causing unsafety to the constructions and have
been repeatedly repaired and costly.
At the end of July, early August, 2015 in Cam
Pha, Ha Long, there was a very heavy rain, causing
Fig. 1. Slope in residential area in Ha Long
2.3. Mud-rock flood
It is said that the reason of the mud-rock flood
occurrence in the area of Quang Ninh, is not only
due to rain fall, landform, flows but also the
materials from slide blocks mostly, specially
slides in dumping sites of mining. Loose materials
formed from piping phenomenon inside the
Fig. 2. House accreted by mud-rock flood in Cam Pha
16
geological hazards and lots of damages to Quang
Ninh. According to meteorologists, the
abnormalities of the climate during this
precipitation are reflected in the formation of low-
pressure trough with overlapped low-centered, and
nearly no movement, with total rainfall up to
1,500mm (in Cua Ong, from July 26 to August 3).
The consequence of this abnormal climate is that
many of the slopes and slopes of mines, slopes at
coal mining sites, slopes in traffic roads are at risk
of instability and slides
31/7/2015
dumping site and other slides with surface flows
created from heavy and gathering rain due to
climate change as well have made mud-rock flood,
destroyed constructions, blinded houses, streets,
seriously affected to coal mining and other
economy and works activities.
01/8/2015
 2.4. Erosion, sedimentation, flooding and
saline intrusion
According to the research program CTB-2012-
02 [2], over the past 85 years, the erosion-
deposition phenomenon in the Northern coastal
areas has been complicated over time, both in size
and intensity, especially in the delta coastal areas.
The results of the current situation and the forecast
of the impacts of climate change and sea level rise
on erosion and sedimentation in coastal areas of
Northern Vietnam according to the high emission
scenario A1 show that, compared with the period
Tab. 2. Development of erosion, sedimentation in Quang Ninh coastal areas [2]
From 1930 to present
Region
Area of
Speed Sedimeation Speed
erosion
(ha/year) area (ha) (ha/year)
(ha)
Hai Ninh 181.63 2.14 144.04 1.69
Cam Pha 152.26 1.79 91.04 1.07
Ha Long 35.12 0.41 53.90 0.63
The phenomenon of erosion occurs in the
coastal zone, which directly affects the estuarine
sedimentation process, changing the coastline.
Thus, the effects of climate change, sea level rise
and the intensification of erosion and
sedimentation will also increase these processes.
In the study areas of Quang Ninh, the effects of
climate change, sea level rise promoted the
atypical sedimentation of the river mouth and did
not significantly affect the operation of coastal
structures due to the system; due to tide with
branch-shaped, basically retains the role of deep
erosion as the tidal current of the solar tide with
large amplitude.
In Quang Ninh, the coastline changed quite
strongly, especially in the area of Ha Long and
Cam Pha. The survey results show that from 1990
up to now, the coast of Quang Ninh has a tendency
of accretion, very few eroded points and most
erosion rates are very low. The tendency to expand
the coastline towards the sea is mainly due to
leveling activities for new residential areas, shrimp
ponds, waste dumping, etc., and partly because of
the flow of minerals from waste dumps.
Exploitation of coal in estuaries and coastal areas.
from 1930 until now, the erosion and
sedimentation activity up to 2050 has been on the
upward trend, but the increase amount of erosion is
greater than the increase amount of sedimentation
(depending on the characteristics of coastal
structure and marine dynamics) in each parts of the
region. In the Quang Ninh area, erosion and
sedimentation occur more limited than in other
coastal areas due to the impact of topographic and
geomorphic factors as well as geology structure of
the coastal zone.
Forecast from present to 2050
Area of
Speed Sedimeation Speed
erosion
(ha/year) area (ha) (ha/year)
(ha)
200.30 5.72 119.35 3.41
168.29 4.81 75.91 2.17
40.61 1.16 45.47 1.30
Thus, the main cause of significant change in
shoreline in Quang Ninh is due to human activities,
but the impact of climate change is not clear.
Rising sea levels will cause flooding of low-
lying terrain in the studied areas. The mapping
result forecasting flooding due to sea level rise in
response to climate change scenarios in CTB-
2012-02-04 has shown the risk of flooding due to
sea level rise in the coastal area of Quang Ninh
(table 3).
Quang Ninh Province is unflooded much
because its mountainous terrain. Van Don is the
most flooded area, the flooded area is forecasted
from 63.18 to 86.36%. Ha Long, Cam Pha flooded
the least, flooded area from 3.83 to 8.02%. In the
coastal economic development areas of Quang
Ninh and Mong Cai, the flooded areas are quite
heavy, the flooded area can reach up to 30% when
the sea level rises 0.85m, concentrated in the
accretion, in the southern part of the area, there is a
low-lying land bordered by the sea. In the flood
affected area, the main area is when sea level rises
0.5m, in case of sea level rises 0.7m or 0.85m, the
flood areas are more narrow strips (from 100-300m
17
wide) developed to the boundaries of flooded area
corresponding to the case of sea level rise of 0.5m.
For Ha Long area, the impact of sea level rise is
not much. Areas of flood risk are mostly mudflats,
tidal flat located deeply inside the bay. In addition,
the risk of flooding also occurs on some coastal
sections, stretching in narrow strips, broken in
Hong Ha, Hong Hai, Bach Dang, Cao Xanh.
Cam Pha is less affected by sea level rise. The
area is inundated. They are only narrow strips
(from 100-200m) located near the sea on the bank
of Cua Ong, Cam Thinh, Cam Son, Cam Thuy.

Tab. 3. Flooding areas in Quang Ninh coastal area by sea level rise (km2) [5]
Flooded areas with sea level rise % of flood area corresponding to
Natural scenarios (km2) sea level rise
area (km2)
50cm 70cm 85cm 50cm 70cm 85cm

6 102.3 216.10 287.19 503.29 3.54 4.71 8.25

MAP OF FLOOD RISK RESPONSING TO 100 CM SEA WATER RISE SCENERIOSIN QUANG NINH

Fig. 3. Quang Ninh flood risk map [5]

Salinity intrusion due to climate change, sea
level rise, not only occurs to surface water (mainly
in estuaries and low lying terrain), but also to
underground water, especially aquifers that have
water supply from river or sea water or have a
direct hydraulic relationship with surface water.
Due to the geological, topographical and
hydrological characteristics, the surface water
intrusion in the coastal areas of Quang Ninh is
not high.
In the study area, sea water and groundwater
(especially the Holocene aquifer and Pleistocene
aquifer) have a direct hydraulic relationship, so

18
when the sea level rises, the marginal salinity of
groundwater will move towards the mainland,
salinity intrusion increased. This means that fresh
water in part of the salinated land is degraded, and
water quality and quantity are reduced, ability to
provide water for living and production is
decreased. However, the saline intrusion effects
did not significantly alter the area's potential for
groundwater supply due to the presence of
groundwater in the saltwater area and the source of
water supplied to the area mainly from Surface
water. Therefore, the long-term supply of water for
ensuring sustainable development for Quang Ninh
is also an issue, especially in the context of climate
change.
2.5. The main economic and structural
activities affected Quang Ninh
Economic activities - mainly affecting the
environment and sustainable development of the
area, affecting the lives of people as well as other
economic activities in the area of Quang Ninh
mainly coal mining activities. These activities
change the natural conditions as well as the living
Fig. 4. A crack in siltstone and sandstone formed by the impact of the tailings pit and the mining network
near Khe Cham coal mining site in Quang Ninh.
19
environment of the area and directly affect the
operation of geological processes and phenomena.
At present, Quang Ninh mainly uses open-pit and
pit coal mining technologies. The creation of open
coal mining sites as well as underground mining
lines as well as the formation of waste dumping
sites have caused the following regional variations:
- Changes in stresses in the rocks due to open
excavation as well as the formation of buried
furnace line in the rock. As a consequence, there is
a decreased crack system along the surface of the
open sloping mine, which causes the risk of sliding
the mine's edge and destabilizing the walls of the
coal mines.
- The creation of dumps on a large area
increases the load on a large area, along with pit
systems as well as open-pit mining sites that
deform the soil surface, causing the risk of
slipping, slaughter and sabotage of works on the
face. Figures 4 and 5 are cracks formed by the
impact of the tailings pit and the mining network at
the bottom causing the Khe Cham mine site in
Quang Ninh.
Fig. 5. Cracks in siltstone and sandstone formed by the impact of the tailings pit and the mining network
near Khe Cham coal mining site in Quang Ninh.

Fig. 6. Mud flows from Mong Duong coal mine

- The formation of a system of dumping sites
along the mountain side running parallel to the
coastal land has created the risk of sliding, making
conditions for the formation of streams of mud and
rocks, threatening the safety of people's lives in the
foot of the dumping ground.
From the analysis above, hilly terrain areas in
Cam Pha, Ha Long and Mong Cai have developed
the processes and geodynamic phenomena quite
strongly in the condition of gas conversion. The
current and future climate change (temperature
increases from 3.1 - 3.50C and rainfall increased
from 5.7 to 9.4% as forecast), along with the
process of exploiting and using land is not
reasonable, disrupt the nature balance due to the
economic activities, the intensity of the activity of
exogenous geological processes and phenomena
relating to surface water, groundwater (slides,
erosion, mud and rock flood, etc.).in the research
areas will be more and more powerful, not only
affecting people's life, but also causing difficulties
for human’s economic activities and construction
such as coal mining, extraction of building
materials, road works or construction works, ....
The manifestation of climate change is not only
in rising temperatures and in precipitation, but also
in changes in rain and wind patterns due to
extreme weather patterns. In the context of climate
change, the frequency of occurrence of tropical
low pressure, more storms, heavy, intense
intensity, prolonged, frequent rain occur. These are
factors that promote the formation of large surface
currents, strong underground flows, coastal
currents and the increasing frequency of sea waves,
marine activity. The tide has also become more
complex with greater amplitude, not only causes
slides, erosion, rock and mud floods quick soil in
dumping sites, etc. in the high terrain mountainous
areas, but also the operation of the processes and
geosynthetic dynamics of coastal zones in studied

20
areas such as river bed erosion, erosion and
sedimentation of the coastline, estuaries are
increasingly developing
2.6. Solutions to ensure the sustainable
development for Quang Ninh area
1. Mong Cai - Hai Ha area
Coastal areas which have the approximately 1m
altitude terrain need to be zoned and leveled to
extend the area for developing economy and
people’s livehood. The leveling materials can be
taken by sucking sand from the coastal zones,
taken form hills which are studied to become
leveling materials. These hills need to be carefully
selected, so that it will not change the landscape
area in negative ways. On the other hand, it will
add land for urban areas
The designing ground elevation for the area of
Mong Cai and Hai Ha should be determined
according to the terrain level of each area.
However, for coastal zones with terrains of less
than 1 m, when planning construction of non-
permanent houses and industrial parks, the planned
ground level shall not be lower than 2.5m. Should
not be too large planning will cause many
inadequacies for the construction in general and
the ability to drain water in particular. The design
roads should be designed to the highest suitable to
the regional terrain, ensuring adaptation to climate
change and sea level rise in the future. The design
of the route along the coast will have a dual effect,
in addition to the traffic, it can create sea levees in
the future.
The designing ground elevation for the area of
Mong Cai and Hai Ha should be determined
according to the terrain level of each area.
However, for coastal zones with terrains of less
than 1 m, when planning construction of non-
permanent houses and industrial parks, the planned
ground level shall not be lower than 2.5m. Should
not be too large planning will cause many
inadequacies for the construction in general and
the ability to drain water in particular. The design
roads should be designed to the highest suitable to
the regional terrain, ensuring adaptation to climate
change and sea level rise in the future. The design
of the route along the coast will have a dual effect,
in addition to the traffic, it can create sea levees in
the future.
21
Because the Southeast areas of Mong Cai and
Hai Ha have low terrain, in terms of sea level rises
will be flooded, according to the climate change
scenario. Therefore, researches should define the
appropriate space for the construction of sea dike
system as needed while planning construction
material resources to serve the dyke construction.
Water supply for this area is mainly from
surface water sources, due to limited groundwater
resources, many areas are saline. Groundwater
contained in the cracks of the continental
formation has limited reserves, can only provide
small, local water.
2. Cam Pha
The water supply for Cam Pha and Ha Long
townships must be taken from surface water,
because of groundwater infiltration. Underground
water in the fractures of the original strength
sedimentary formations is quite good, but only in
small scale and local. In order to ensure the
security of water resources for daily life and
economic development, it is necessary to study in
the future when closing coal mines, renovating
open-pit mines into fresh water reservoirs, land for
living, economic development and tourism. For
underground mines, there should be research to
create artificial groundwater reservoirs to supply
the urban areas of Cam Pha, Ha Long and adjacent
areas, which are in shortage of fresh water,
especially in the condition climate change and sea
level rise.
Developing mangrove forests and coastal land
to improve the environment, resist the climate
change and sea level rise; Planning properly
aquaculture areas.
3. Conclusions
According to the published documents as well
as the actual occurrence in the area, climate change
and sea level rise have promoted the operation of
geological processes and phenomena, causing
flooding and saline intrusion, affecting negatively
the socio-economic development as well as the
lives of people in Quang Ninh areas. We need
appropriate solutions for prevention and mitigation
of adverse impacts of the climate change. and sea
level rise.
Economic activity that is mainly coal mining
has caused changes in stress state in the soil,
affected the stability of the area in general and of
the works in particular. Changes in stress state
should be taken into account when conducting
economic and structural activities. Due to the lack
of surface drainage and waste water in the waste
disposal site, there is a high risk of geological
hazards such as landslides and mudflat, especially
in the context of climate change.
In order to mitigate adverse impacts of climate
change, sea level rise as well as economic and
structural activities to the sustainable development
of the area, the need of constructing the drainage
system on the surface and in the waste dump;
Rational planning of mining operations after
closure of mines, especially the need to study the
construction of artificial lakes as well as the ability
to store underground water in the pit and open pit
mining site to provide water long term for the
urban area.
References
[1]. Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment (2016), The scenario of
climate change and sea level rise for
Vietnam, Hanoi (source: The Internet)
[2]. Assoc. Tran Dinh Kien, Assoc. Le Trong
Thang (2016) The study and evaluation of
the general geological and engineering
conditions of the northern coastal area in
service of the socio-economic
development, security and defense
planning and response to climate change
and sea-level rise. Final Report of Science
and Technology-level Program Code: CTB
22
2012 - 02, Hanoi University of Mining and
Geology, Hanoi.
[3]. Assoc. Le Tien Dung et al. (2015). Study
on quaternary, geomorphological, neo-
tectonic features of coastal areas of North
Vietnam and assess impacts of climate
change and sea level rise. Summary report
of the Ministry of Science and Technology
CTB-2012-02-01, University of Mining
and Geology, Hanoi.
[4]. Phd. To Xuan Vu et al. (2015). Studying
the geological conditions of the economic
development areas in the northern coastal
region and assessing the impacts of climate
change and sea level rise. Summary report
of science and technology at Ministry level
CTB-2012-02-02, University of Mining
and Geology, Hanoi.
[5]. Assoc. Nguyen Van Lam et al. (2015).
Study on hydrogeological characteristics
and assessment of impacts of climate
change and sea level rise on groundwater
in the northern coastal region, report on the
Ministry of Science and Technology,
CTB-2012- 02-04, Hanoi University of
Mining and Geology, Hanoi.
[6]. G.K. Bondarik, B.B. Penzin, L.A. Jarg
(2015). Engineering Geodynamics.
Publishing house "KDU", 119234,
Mockba PO Box 587.
 BIOENGINEERING APPROACH FOR SHORELINE PROTECTION USING
GEOSYNTHETICS: A MALAYSIAN EXPERIENCE

L. K. Lim, Y. J. Fong
TenCate Geosynthetics Asia Sdn Bhd, Malaysia
Corresponding author’ Email: yj.fong@tencategeo.com

Abstract: This paper describes the use of bioengineering approach for solving shoreline protection for
two projects in Malaysia. The first project described how geosystem consists of geotextile tube, sand
filled mattress and geobags was chosen by client at oil and gas jetty at Tanjung Manis in Sarawak over
conventional amour rocks. The geosystem is chosen as it is an economical solution, minimal disturbance
to existing loading and unloading activities and safety as the jetty handle flammable cargos and does not
permit use of heavy equipment. The shoreline protection works can be divided into two stages. The first
stage involved construction of a geotextile tube containment dyke platform above the mean sea level
which was created by placement of a 1.8m inflated height geotextile tube infilled with sand subjected to a
maximum tidal variation of 6.0m. This tube is made of coarse grain geotextile fabric and is installed over
a thick layer of soft underlying soil. Stage two involved sand backfilling beside and above the geotextile
tube dyke to a maximum height of 4m at a slope inclination of 1V: 2H. The second project described the
successful use of geosystem which consists of geotextile tube and geobag at Meritus beach in Langkawi.
Composite sand colour geotextile tube made from composite fabric was used for the shoreline protection
with geotextile bags as the scour apron. The fabric used for the geotextile tube is extremely robust with
the ability for sand entrapment within the fabric structure which provide UV protection and abrasion
resistance. The geosystem is stable against waves and storm surges with high weathering and sunlight
exposures resistance over the long term. The details of these two projects and the outcome of the projects
are presented.

Keywords: geotextile tube; geotextile bag; sand filled mattress; reinforcement.

1. Geotextile tube technology
Geotextile tube is defined as “a large tube
greater than 2.3m in circumference, fabricated
from high strength, woven geotextile, in lengths
greater than 6.1m”, according to GRI Test Method
GT11: Standard Practice for “Installation of
Geotextile Tubes used as Coastal and Riverine
Structures”. Geotextile tubes used in coastal and
riverine applications are most commonly filled
hydraulically with slurry of sand, although other
fill materials have been used. Geotextile tube is
typically supplied with closure seams at both ends
of the tube. Also associated are “filling ports” or
“inlet ports”, which are geotextile sleeves sewn
into the top of the geotextile tube into which the
pump discharge pipe is inserted (Fig. 1). Initially,
the “filling ports” at the two extreme ends of the
geotextile tube were utilized for filling while those
in between are temporary closed. “Filling Port” at
one end is for pumping in of sand slurry, while the
“filling port” at other end is for water pressure
relief and discharge. In this way, the slurry will
flow from one end to the other end of the tube and
gradually depositing sand along the way as
pressure drops. After filling the geotextile tube the
“filling ports” sleeves are closed and attached to
the geotextile tube in a manner sufficient to
prevent movement of the sleeve by wave action.

23
 ear-marked as the Industrial Port City. The OGC
(Oil, Gas & Chemical) Terminal is situated
approximately 2.5km upstream of the Tanjung
Manis Township which is located next to the
Tanjung Manis Port. The scope of river protection
work at OGC was part of the overall scopes of the
Refurbishment and Improvement of the Existing
Fig. 1. Schematic of filling of geotextile tube
Tanjung Manis Port. These ports along Rajang
with sand slurry.
River has a maximum tidal difference of 6m. Two
options were evaluated by the consultant and client
2. Design and stability analysis
for the shoreline protection: Option 1 is a
Geotextile tube design methodology
conventional armour rock revetment system, and
 Internal stability
option 2 of geosynthetics system using a
o The geotextile used to fabricate the tube,
combination of geotextile tubes, sand filled
including seams and closure, need to withstand the
mattress, geotextile bags and scour apron (Fig. 3
tensile stresses that may be encountered during the
and Fig. 4). After extensive evaluation on the
filling operation, and the placement of geotextile
design and cost by the client and consultant, option
tubes.
2 of geosynthetics system approach was chosen as
o The geotextile should prevent excessive
it offers the most cost-effective option and also
loss of fines but be sufficient permeable to prevent
allows blending with the surrounding vegetation.
excessive buildup of pressure during installation.
 External stability
o The geotextile tube should be
hydraulically stable against waves and currents.
o The geotextile tube should be
geotechnically stable against sliding, overturning,
bearing and global slip failures (Fig. 2).
 Survivability and Durability
o The geotextile tube should endure the Fig. 3. Conventional armour rocks protection
hush environment of the whole installation system
process.
o The geotextile tube should endure and
perform the engineering functions over the lifespan
of the design.

Fig. 4. Geosynthetics system using tubes, sand

filled mattress, bags and scour apron

3.1. Site investigations

Fig. 2. Geotechnical stability check
3. Tanjung Manis project, Sarawak
Tanjung Manis is a town by the Rajang River
which has been identified as one of the main
growth nodes of the Sarawak Corridor of
Renewable Energy (SCORE) and is specifically
Site investigations work was carried out to
ascertain the ground conditions of the proposed
site whereby the geosynthetics system will be
constructed. Five (5) nos. of boreholes were
carried out with undisturbed samples collection
and Standard Penetration Test (SPT) tests
conducted at an interval of about 3 m. Undisturbed

24
samples were retrieved from the boreholes for
undrained shear strength in laboratory testing. The
subsoil profile for the proposed site is shown in
Fig. 5.
The first layer consists of approximately 10m to
15m of soft Clay with the SPT- N values ranging
from 2 to 5 blows. This layer is then underlain by
2m to 4m of stiff grey with SPT- N values range
from 9 blows to 14 blows. Thereafter, the subsoil
is dominated by 10m of stiff to hard grey silt SPT-
N = 50 blows before reaching the bed rock level.
Fig. 5. Subsoil Profile
3.2. Design and stability analysis
Conditions that influence the properties of the
geotextile over time should be considered. The
polymer used for manufacture of geotextile should
be durable in biological, chemical environment and
ultra violet light resistance. In the design analyses,
a global factor of safety of 3.5 -5 was applied for
creep, construction damage, environmental
damage, seam efficiency, etc. The geotextile
tensile stresses of the tube during hydraulic filling
were analyse using Geotube® Simulator software
program; which is a computer program developed
by TenCate Geosynthetics North America. The
required ultimate circumferential and axial tensile
strength of the tube were determined to be 53.8
kN/m and 41.7 kN/m respectively. Hence, the
geotextile tubes supplied were fabricated using a
composite woven polypropylene geotextile with
tensile strength of 55 kN/m in both warp and weft
25
directions and seam strength of 45 kN/m. The
geotextile composite tube has the unique properties
of entrapping sand due to its three-dimensional
properties and thus has higher UV, vandalism and
abrasion resistance required for the project (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Composite Geotextile tube fabric
3.3. High strength basal reinforcement, sand
filled mattress and geotextile bags design
The external stability analysis was carried out
by Slope/W software (by GeoSlope International,
Calgary, Canada) using Morgenstern-Price
method. Morgenstern-Price Method was used as it
used the Moment and Force equilibrium in the
computation of the Factor of Safety compared to
Bishop Method which used only the Force
Equilibrium in the Factor of Safety computation
(GeoStudio, 2012). From the external stability
requirement to achieve a F.S. > 1.5, a layer of high
strength basal reinforcement geotextile with
ultimate tensile strength of 600 kN/m was required
at the base of the geotextile tube. The sand filled
mattress and geotextile bags was designed
according to CUR – 217 Design Guide and
checked against current, tensile rupture and soil
piping (Bezuijen, 2013). The sand filled mattress
was designed to a filled thickness of 180mm while
the geotextile bag was designed to a filled
thickness of 300mm.The fabric used for the sand
filled mattress and geotextile bags fabrication are
made from composite coarse grain that allows soil
entrapment, high UV resistance and vandalism
resistance.
 3.4. Construction methodology
Scour apron
A layer of timber mattress was constructed
using bakau at a grid formation of 0.7m x 0.7m
and installed over the soft marine clay. The timber
mattress allows construction trafficability and also
increase the bearing capacity of the soft underlying
marine clay. A scour apron of 5m width are then
Fig. 7. Installation of scour apron and infilling of pilot tube in operation
High strength basal reinforcement
The high strength basal reinforcement was
seamed at site and prepared with anchorage length
varies from 6m to 18m, pre-cut to the profile of the
eroded bank. The pre-cut reinforcement fabric was
Fig. 8. Installation of high strength basal reinforcement over the scour apron
Geotextile tube
The installation of the geotextile tube had to be
properly planned and scheduled to the influence of
daily tidal fluctuations. The geotextile tube
installation was carried out during the low tide and
secured to the timber mattress. A mixing pit of
dimension 5m x 5m x 2 m depth was excavated
into the existing ground where sea water and sand
are mixed to form a sand slurry (Fig. 9). The
pumping of sand slurry into the geotextile tube is
carried out during low tide by inserting the
discharge pipe into “filling ports” at one end of the
26
installed over the timber mattress with the position
of the pilot tube at a distance of 5m from the centre
line of the timber mattress. The scour apron and
timber mattress are pegged in position using
bamboo pegs to ensure that it stays in position
during high tide. The pilot tube of the scour apron
is then infilled with sand slurry to designed inflated
height of 0.4m (Fig. 7).
then installed over the scour apron during the low
tide and pegged into position using bamboo pegs at
one meter spacing to prevent movement during
sand back filling operation (Fig. 8).
tube while the other end “filling ports” is left
open for water pressure relief. All other
intermediate ports are closed. This filling
operation is repeated until the whole tube attained
the final filling height of 1.8m (Fig. 10).
Sand filled mattress and geotextile bags
Special composite sand filled mattresses with
coarse fiber surface were installed on the slopping
ground above the crest of the geotextile tubes (Fig.
11). The coarse fiber surface is designed to trap
and hold the topsoil in place and allow the growth
of vegetation on top. The sand filled mattresses
were anchored into trench at the crest. Two rows of mattresses will not be lifted by the currents. These
geotextile bags were used to ballast the toe of the rows of geotextile bags are placed right above the
sand filled mattresses, so that the sand filled crest of the geotextile tubes (Fig. 12).

Fig. 9. Schematic of mixing pit and pumping set up unit

Fig. 10. Geotextile tube installation and pumping operation

Fig. 11. Sand filled mattress installation and filling operation

27
 Fig. 12. Completed geotextile bag installation

3.5. Construction issues
Geotextile tube under the bridge deck
Part of the geotextile tube bund has to pass
underneath an existing jetty which was support by
piled desk system over a layer of very soft clay.
Thus, any lateral subsoil movements, or pressure
exerted on the piles may displace the jetty. The
selected geotextile tube’s inflated width has to be
smaller than the spacing between the edges of the
piles and the geotextile tube has to be placed
precisely that, when inflated, both sides of the
geotextile tube will not touch the piles. Filling of
the geotextile tube was carefully controlled with
close monitoring of the movement of the
underlying soft clay to prevent excessive lateral
squeeze (Fig. 13).

Fig. 13. Installation of geotextile tube under the jetty deck

4. Meritus project, Langkawi
The Meritus Pelangi Beach Resort is located at
the southwestern coast of Langkawi Island (Fig.
14). Although it is partially sheltered by Pulau
Rebak Besar, Pulau Rebak Kecil and Pulau Tepor,
it is still susceptible to waves with large fetch
lengths from the Andaman Sea. The site is an area
of high commercial and tourism value due to the
presence of a 5-star resort. The beach is a primary
recreational feature for the resort’s guests.
4.1. Erosion at shoreline
The conventional sand bags was used for the
shoreline protection but are not effective against
erosions. They are displaced, disintegrating when

28
exposed to UV and weathering and are weak
against strong wave attack (Fig. 15). The beach
front has narrowed due to relentless waves attack
(Fig. 16). To rectify this problem, the Resort
evaluated various erosion protection methods.
After extensive studies, the solution provided by
TenCate with a combination of composite sand
colour geotextile tube and geobag was selected due
to their overall cost effectiveness and ease of
filling and handling (Fig 17).

Fig. 14. Project location Fig. 15. Conventional geobags used at site

Fig. 16. A scrap of about 1.5m high is created by wave action on the shoreline

Fig. 17. Cross section drawing of proposed geotextile tube solution for Langkawi Project

29
 4.2. Construction methodology
4.2.1. Scour Apron
A scour apron was installed with the position of
the pilot tube at 8m distance from the center line of
the geotextile tube. The scour apron and pilot tube
assembly were to protect the foundation of the
Geotextile tube unit from scour erosion caused by
currents and wave attack. The pilot tube of the sour
apron was then infilled with sand slurry to
designed inflated height of 0.6m. For most
Fig. 19. Geobag lifting with spreader beam
applications, the scour apron assemble should
extend from the toe of the geotextile tube unit a
4.2.3. Geotextile Tube
minimum of 2.5times the inflated height of the
Once the geobag had been fully installed, the
geotextile tube unit.
contractor positioned the geotextile tube over the
4.2.2. Geobag
scour apron. The pre-stitched loops on the
After the scour apron was installed, geobag are
geotextile tube are then attached to wooden poles
placed on-site and filled with sand (Fig. 18). The
for position and to ensure the tube do not move
filling ports of each geobag are then closed using
during the initial sand pumping operation. Sand
portable stitching machine with polyester thread.
slurry pumps attached to floating pontoon was
The geobag are lifted and placed using a lifting
used for pumping the sand from the sea into the
harness with a spreader beam arrangement (Fig.
geotextile tube units (Fig. 20).
19). The geobag are placed in position on the top
of the scour apron by laying in an overlapping
shingle style. This is to ensure maximum stability
and protection of the shoreline during high water
flows.

Fig. 20. The sand was hydraulically pumped from

the shallow waters direct into the geotextile tube.
Fig. 18. Geobag filling on-site

30
 Additional sand was imported to cover the
geotextile tube structure and return the beach to its
original profile. The beautiful Meritius Beach was
successfully restored and protected (Fig. 21).
Fig. 21. The beautiful Meritius Beach resort
restored and protected
5. Conclusion
This paper presents various geosystem designs
and application of two geosystem case studies for
shore protection structure. The geotextile tubes are
properly designed taking into consideration of the
internal stability, external stability, survivability
and durability of the tube. The geotextile tubes are
filled with sand slurry. The fabric used for the
geotextile tube should prevent excessive loss of
fines but be sufficient permeable to prevent
excessive build-up of pressure during installation.
Geotechnically, it must be stable against sliding,
overturning, bearing and global slip failure. Also,
the tube should endure and perform the
engineering functions over the installation process
31
and the whole lifespan of the design whereby the
geotextile should be durable in biological,
chemical environment and ultra violet light
resistance.
The high strength basal reinforcement, sand
filled mattress and geotextile bags are parts of the
complete solution to this coastal erosion prevention
solution, in additional to the geotextile tubes. All
have to be designed taking into account the
strength and the environmental considerations.
References
[1] Lim, L.K. & Lee. L. 2009. Soft engineering
system using geosynthetic for riverbank
reclamation works: A Malaysian
experience. International symposium on
Geotechnical engineering, Ground
improvement and Geosynthetics, Thailand.
[2] Yee, T.W., Zingerink, E & Choi, J.C. 2007.
Geotextile tube application for Incheon
Bridge project, Korea. Proceedings of the
CEDA Dredging Days 2007 Conference,
Rotterdam, Netherlands.
[3] Yee, T.W. 2015. Dredging works and
geotextile tube applications for
construction of the longest sea crossing
bridge in Vietnam. Proceeding of Western
Dredging Association and Texas A&M
University Center for Dredging Studies,
Dredging Summit and Expo 2015, Texas,
USA.
[4] GeoStudio 2012, May 2014 Release
version 8.13.1.9253 for slope stability
analysis.
[5] A. Bezuijen & E.W. Vastenburg. 2013.
Geosystems Design Rules and
Applications.
 PROPERTIES OF SOFT SOIL GROUND IN THE QUANG NINH COASTAL
AREA AND PROPOSAL OF SOFT SOIL IMPROVEMENT IN THE CONTEXT
OF THE CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA LEVEL RISE

Nguyen Thi Nu1, Nguyen Van Phong1, Do Minh Toan2, Nguyen Viet Tinh1, Pham Thi Ngoc Ha1
1
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
2
Vietnam Association of Engineering Geology and Environment
Coressponding author’ Email: nguyenthinu@humg.edu.vn

Abtract: This paper presents the properties of soft ground structure in Quang Ninh coastal area. The
basic of division of soft ground structure depends on the distribution and the thickness of soft soil. This
result can be divided into 3 types (I, II, III) and 4 sub-types (I.a, II.a, III.a, III.b) of the soft ground
structure. Each type of soft ground structure can be improved by many methods for construction in the
condition of the climate change and sea level rise. Replacement partial or total excavation of soft soil, the
embankment of berm or the friction pile will be used for sub-types I.a, II.a, III.a. Traditional sand piles,
deep mixing technique and prefabricated vertical drains with preloading will be used for sub-type III.b.

Keywords: soft ground structure; soft soil; soft ground improvement.

1. Introduction exploitation territory, the orientation for the

Quaternary geological structure of the coastal
area of Quang Ninh has many ages and origins
ranging from Pleistocene to Holocene with various
lithological compositions, including the mbQ23
lithological complex, characterized by soft soil -
sensitive objects with the impact of the
environment. This soft soil is a disadvantage for
infrastructure construction. For building on the soft
ground, ground improvement should be taken to
ensure long-term stability of building under the
impact of climate change and sea level rise.
Therefore, clarifying the soft soil distribution
and the physico-chemical properties of soft soil to
offering appropriate treatment solutions that play a
very important role in contributing to the
sustainable development of Quang Ninh coastal
areas.
2. Soft ground structure in Quang Ninh coastal
area
The purpose of the division of soft ground
structure is the basis for the planning of economic
improvement of soft soil, serving the assessment of
the impact of climate change and sea level rise.
Dividing of soft ground structure is based on the
properties of soft soil as well as the effectiveness
of soft ground improvement. It also based on:
- The scale and characteristics of the buildings;
- The development plan of the Northern coastal
region up to 2025 and vision to 2050; The socio-
economic development plan of the economic
development areas of the northern coastal region
up to 2030 with a vision to 2050. The building is
mainly planned for civil, industrial and
infrastructure projects, transport, sea dykes with
small and medium loading scale;
- The geology, hydrogeological feature.
- Technologies for soft ground improvement in
Viet Nam.
The division of soft ground structure is mainly
based on stratigraphic characteristics (presence and
location of soft soil layers) and also based on
hydrological and terrain factors.

32
 Features of geological structures and
properties of soft soil:
Due to researching on geology, geological
engineering of the Quang Ninh coastal area shows
that the types of soil in the quaternary sediments
distributed from the surface to a depth of several
meters or over ten meters, including types of
marine origin (m), sea - marshland (mb) and river
(a). Composed of cobbles, gravels, clayey sand
(aQ23); sandy cobbles and gravel in dense state,
sandy clay and clayey sand in firm state (mQ21-2);
small grain sand, clayey sandy, sandy clay, clay in
firm to soft state (mQ23); Very soft clay and very
soft sandy clay with organic matter and seashell
(mbQ23). So, only mbQ23 formation is soft soil and
widely distributed in the area.
The results of composition, physico-mechanical
properties of mbQ23 soft soil shown:
The amount of organic matter content varies
from 2.35 to 6.31%
Soils have low bearing capacity (R0 varies from
0.2 to 1.0kG/cm2) and large deformation (E0 varies
from 3.0 to 35kG / cm
The characteristics of soft soil distribution in
some places in Mong Cai, Cam Pha, Quang Ninh
as follows:
Mong Cai district: composed of clay in very
soft state (mbQ23) distributed mainly in estuaries
and streams to the sea from Tien Yen to Mong Cai
through the territory of the communes of Quang
Minh, Hai Dong, Hai Yen, Van Ninh, Hai Hoa,
about one-third of the total area. Soft soil is
distributed at the depth from surface to 5m and
covered above eluvi and deluvi soils edQ.
Cam Pha district: Composed of very soft sandy
clay (mbQ23) distributed near the seaside, forming
a narrow strip extending from Cam Binh, Cam
Son, Cam Phu, Cam Trung, Cam Tay and Cua Ong
to Mong Duong. Soft soil is distributed at the depth
from surface to 5m and covered above eluvi and
deluvi soils edQ or soils of mQ23.
Ha Long district: Composed of very soft sandy
clay, very soft clay, soft clay (mbQ23). Soils
narrowly distributed near the seaside, forming a
33
continuous strip stretching from Yen Cu to Bai
Chay. Soils reveal on the surface of the terrain.
These soils distributed in low lying terrain, often
flooded and only exposed at low tide. Soft soil is
distributed at the depth from surface to over 5m
and covered above eluvi and deluvi soils edQ or
soils of mQ23 and mQ22-3.
Features of hydrogeology:
In Quang Ninh area, construction of medium
and small buildings related to the Holocene
aquifer. Groundwater level is influenced by tidal
flows and caused changes in properties of soil. The
water level is shallow, ranges from 0.2 to 2 meters.
Principles of the division of soft ground
structure:
From the feature of geology, properties of soft
soil and hydrogeology, the division of soft ground
structure divided into types and sub-types. The
depth of the division of soft ground structure is up
to the thickness of soft soil layers, to the layers
with capable of loading for buildings (sandy clay
soils, stiff and very stiff soil edQ; mQ21-2).
Type: Based on the distribution properties of
soft soil and the soils distributed under soft soil.
The style is denoted by Roman numerals. In Quang
Ninh coastal area is divided into 3 types:
- Type I: Soft soil distributed on the surface and
covered on eluvi and deluvi soils edQ (stiff and
very stiff sandy clay soil with gravel);
- Type II: Soft soil distributed on the surface
and covered on sand or gravel;
- Type III: Soft soil distributed on the surface
and covered on stiff clay (mQ21-2).
Types I and II have a thickness of less than 5m.
Type III has a soft soil layer complexity.
Therefore, due to the effectiveness of soft ground
improvement, it will divide the type III into sub-
types based on the thickness of soft soil.
Sub-type a: the thickness of soft soil less than 5
meters;
Sub-type b: the thickness of soft soil greater
than 5 meters;
 So, in Quang Ninh coastal area, there are 3 types (I, II, III) and 4 sub-types (I.a, II.a, IIIa, IIIb).

Tab. 1. The properties of type, sub-type of soft ground structure in the Quang Ninh coastal area
Types Areas Properties of soft ground structure
- Topography is smaller than 4m; it is an accumulation delta.
- Soft soil distributed on the surface ;
- Under the soft soil is eluvi and deluvi soils edQ (stiff and very stiff sandy clay soil
Mong with gravel);
Cai, - The thickness of soft soil is smaller than 5m;
I.a
Cam - Composed of very soft sandy clay, very soft clay, soft clay;
Pha - The groundwater level is less than 2m, fresh ground water.
- Ro<0.5 kG/cm2; Eo<20kG/cm2; e0>1,000; <1,72g/cm3 (Mong Cai); <1,64g/cm3
(Cam Pha). Cv=0.45.10-3-0.85.10-3 cm2/s; Cc=0.270-0.383; Pc=0.16-0.65kG/cm2;
Cuu =0.06 -0.120kG/cm2; uu = 0036’-1059’.
- Topography is smaller than 4m; it is an accumulation delta.
- Soft soil distributed on the surface ;
- Composed of very soft sandy clay, very soft clay
Ha - Under the soft soil is sand or gravel in dense state (mQ21-2);
II.b - The thickness of soft soil is smaller than 5m;
Long
- Ro<1,0 kG/cm2; Eo<35kG/cm2; e0>0,850; <1,84g/cm3. Cv=0.20.10-3-0.66.10-3
cm2/s; Cc=0.250-0.383; Pc=0.17-0.65kG/cm2; Cuu =0.04-0.130kG/cm2; uu = 0026’-
1058’.
- The groundwater level is less than 2m, fresh ground water.
- Topography is smaller than 4m; it is an accumulation delta
- Soft soil distributed on the surface ;
- Composed of very soft sandy clay, very soft clay
Ha - Under the soft soil is stiff sandy clayey (mQ21-2);
III.a - The thickness of soft soil is smaller than 5m;
Long
- Ro<1,0 kG/cm2; Eo<25kG/cm2; e0>0,850; <1,84g/cm3. Cv=0.20.10-3-0.66.10-3
cm2/s; Cc=0.300-0.423; Pc=0.13-0.55kG/cm2; Cuu =0.05 -0.100kG/cm2; uu = 0036’-
1052’.
- The groundwater level is less than 2m, fresh ground water.
-Topography is smaller than 4m; it is an accumulation delta
- Soft soil distributed on the surface ;
- Composed of very soft sandy clay, very soft clay
Ha - Under the soft soil is stiff sandy clayey (mQ21-2);
III.b - The thickness of soft soil is greater than 5m;
Long
- Ro<0,5 kG/cm2; Eo<20kG/cm2; e0>0,950; <1,74g/cm3; Cv=0.25.10-3- 0.38.10-3
cm2/s; Cc=0.306-0.581; Pc=0.23-0.85kG/cm2; Cuu =0.08 - 0.150kG/cm2; uu =
0056’-3056’.
- The groundwater level is less than 2m, fresh ground water.

34
 Fig. 1. The located of sub-types of soft ground structures in Quang Ninh coastal area
3. Proposing the soft soil improvement in the
condition of the climate change and sea level
rise.
The selection of soft ground improvement
essentially investigates the interactions between
geological environment and project construction or
interactions between components of the natural –
technique system. The result of this interaction is
the development of geological processes and
geological phenomena. When construction works
under the soft ground, it makes the process of
deformation and sliding instability. Therefore, the
selection of suitable soft soil treatment methods is
to control the deformation of the soft ground and
sliding of soft ground to ensure with economic and
technical requirements. The characteristics,
intensity of these processes depends on the physico
– mechanical properties of soft soil, the type of soft
ground structure, or control of the optimal
interaction and movement of the natural –
technique system depends on the type of structure
and the physico – mechanical properties of soft
soil. No soft ground improvement is optimal for all
types of soft ground structure. Therefore, when
proposing the soft soil improvement, it is necessary
to base and consider the following factors:
35
- The soft soil ground structure together with
the composition and physical-mechanical
properties of soft soil. In the research area, there
are types I; II; III.a, III.b, with different
distribution, thickness, composition and
mechanical properties. Based on the study of the
composition and physicochemical properties of
soft soils, the distribution and characteristic of soft
ground structure in Quang Ninh coastal area show
that the stratigraphic and mechanical properties of
soft soil are relatively complex, the thickness of
soil changes in a relatively large range. This
greatly affects soft ground improvement.
- The types and characteristics of buildings. In
the study area, the buildings are of small-scale and
medium size.
- Requirements for settlement and stability of
the buildings;
- Economic efficiency and construction
conditions;
- Effective protection of land resources against
the effects of climate change.
In the condition of changing in climate and sea
level, it makes many effects to properties of soft
soil, the stable of buildings and the soft ground
improvement (Table 2).
 Tab. 2. Some impacts of changing in climate and sea level rise
Types Mainly
Effect of impacts
impacts
Changing in Increase the - It is an insignificant change in properties of soil.
climate: level - Salt content increased from 0.10 to 0.51% depending on types of
- Give and saturation soil and salinity of water;
increase the and infiltrate - Reduce the effectiveness of the ground improvement by cement:
dynamic load by salty intensity and modulus of deformation down from 5% to 10%.
storm and sea
Reduce the coefficient of stability of the buildings, increase the risk
waves move on Increase
of liquefaction ground (clayey sand, fine - grained sand)
coastal dynamic load
buildings; - Reduce shear strength of soil 2% to 8%
- Flooding local, Increase pore - Reduce the efficiency of ground improvement by vertical
raises more pore water drainage;
water pressure. pressure in - Reduce the stability of the wall barriers and underground
The sea level soil construction;
rise:
- Extend area of
influent of the - The impact of moving, erosion dikes and embankments made of
Extend the
tide sand;
range of
- Increase salty - Erosion for underground excavation and soft ground treatment
oscillation of
area with sand,
groundwater
and salty sand piles, sand drain;
groundwater.

Thus, based on the results of studies on soil
structure and composition, the combination of
experience and soft ground improvement in
Vietnam and in the world, there will analyze and
propose solutions for the following types and types
of soft ground structure adaption to change in
climate and sea level as follows:
Types of soft ground structure (I.a, II.a, III.a)
with the thickness of soft soil are less than 5m.
Type I is only distributed in Mong Cai, Cam Pha -
Quang Ninh, soft soil distributed on the surface
and covered on eluvi and deluvi soils edQ (stiff
and very stiff sandy clay soil with gravel). Type
II.a is only distributed in Ha Long - Quang Ninh,
soft soil distributed on the surface and covered on
sand or gravel in dense state (mQ21-2). Type III.a is
only distributed in Ha Long - Quang Ninh, soft soil
distributed on the surface and covered on stiff
sandy clayey (mQ21-2). The soils of the formations
distributed under soft soil are generally for the
construction of buildings. In the studied areas, the
natural building materials such as sand, gravel or
soils are abundant. Therefore, it is possible to use
ground treatment such as replacement partial or
total excavation of soft soil, embankment of berm,
buffering sand layer, buffering soil layer, buffering
gravel layer, partial replacement of geotextile, deep
mixing method.
Types III.b with the thickness of soft soil is
higher than 5m. Type III.b is distributed in Ha
Long – Quang Ninh. It can be used ground
improvements such as granular piles (traditional
sand piles) or deep mixing method, Prefabricated
Vertical Drains with Preloading. For deep mixing
method, it can be used for no salt or little salt soils
or small organic soils more than 5%. In the case
using deep mixing method for salt soil or soil with
organic matter content, there must be considered
and analyzed the factors affecting such organic
matter, salt content to the ability of soil
improvement, add additives (lime, ...). To vercome
the impact of sea level rise, it is possible increase
the cement content and adds the additives.
All soft ground improvement used for each
sub-types of soft ground structure shown in Table
3.

36
 Tab. 3. Soft ground improvement method
Types of
Thickness of Soft ground improvement in climate change and sea level
soft ground Areas
soft soil, m rise
structure
Mong Cai,
I <5 Cam Pha -
Replacement partial or total excavation of soft soil,
Quang Ninh
embankment of berm, buffering sand layer, buffering soil
Ha Long -
II <5 layer, buffering gravel layer; partial replacement of
Quang Ninh
geotextiles; the friction pile.
Ha Long -
III.a <5
Quang Ninh
- Traditional sand piles.
- Deep mixing cement method for soil with little or no salt.
Increase the cement content and add additives.
Ha Long -
III.b 5-10 - Friction piles close to stiff sandy clay soil of Pleistocene
Quang Ninh
formation. The safety factor is higher than that of the
normal case.
- Prefabricated Vertical Drains with Preloading.
In the condition of climate change and sea level rise:
- For soft ground improvement by sand ( sand drain, sand piles, buffering sand layer, buffering gravel layer:
Sand must have well – graded sand for no erosion and buffering sand layer, the density of sand should be
K≥0.9 (standard compaction). It should be researched for the liquefaction of sand.
- For deep mixing method for salt soil or soil with organic matter content, it should be considered and
analyzed the factors affecting such organic matter, salt content to the ability of soil – cement mixing.
- For prefabricated vertical drains with preloading, it should be increased the high of preloading or increased
the time of treatment.
- For friction piles, it should be increased the safety factor of building and pay attention to the negative
friction of soft soil.
features of soft soil ground structure in
4. Conclusion
Bac Bo coastal region, recommend
From the research results, there are drawn the
suitable reinforcements and treatments of
following conclusions:
soft soil ground for coastal works in the
In Quang Ninh coastal area can be divided into
context of climate change and sea level
three types (I, II, III) and 4 sub–types (I.a, II.a,
rise, Science and technology project of
III.a, III.b) of ground structure.
Ministry of Education and Training, Ha
Proposing soft ground improvement for each
Noi (In Vietnamese).
type and sub–type. In the condition of climate
[2] Do Minh Toan, Nguyen Thi Nu, Bui Van
change and sea level rise as follows:
Binh at al (2015), Research on selection
- Replacement partial or total excavation of soft
method and establishing the engineering
soil, the embankment of berm or the friction pile
geological map, zoning engineering
will be used for sub- types I.a, II.a, III.a.
geological map of the Viet Nam Northern
-Traditional sand piles, deep mixing technique
coastal region service planning and coastal
and prefabricated vertical drains with preloading
construction in climate change and sea
with some notes in table 3 will be used for sub-
level rise, Science and technology project
type III.b.
of Ministry of Education and Training, Ha
References
Noi (In Vietnamese).
[1] Nguyen Van Phong, Nguyen Thi Nu, Bui
[3] Moseley M.P., Kirsh . K (2004), Ground
Van Binh, Phung Huu Hai at al (2015),
improvement, Spons Press.
Research on soft soil characteristics and

37
 EROSION AND ACCRETION AT THE ESTUARIES OF QUANG BINH
PROVINCE IN THE PERIOD OF 2000 TO 2016

Do Quang Thien1, Ho Trung Thanh1, Nguyen Quang Tuan1,

La Duong Hai2, Le Thi Cat Tuong3, Tran Thi Ngoc Quynh1,
1
University of Sciences - Hue University, Vietnam
2
Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand
3
Mien Trung University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: doquangthien1969@gmail.com

Abstract: The main target of paper is applying field investigated method and measuring for 20 cross-
section in dry and rainy season, in combination with remote sensing analysis and GIS in period from the
year 2000 to 2016 in order to assess erosion and accumulation activities of main 4 sections at estuary of
Ha Tinh province with their names as Hoi estuary, Sot estuary, Nhuong estuary and Khau estuary that
their distribution almost is uniformed about 137 kilometers with direction from North to South. Study
results indicate that in conceptual period from year 2000 to 2016, the erosion activities took advantage
with eroded rate 2 – 5 m/year with scale, intensity which tend to follow Southern direction and this
erosion mainly occur in Northern riverbank. The river channel accumulation and the formatting of
sandbar and river delta with the rate > 10 m/year happened extremely, destruct several dike and river
embankment as well as damage civil constructions, economic constructions and massively damage to
domestic waterway at mentioned estuaries in research area.

Keywords: erosion; accumulation; estuary; remote sensing analysis; Ha Tinh.

1. Introduction have conducted many researches on this scientific

Nowadays, the erosion and accumulation
activities at estuary are considered as a dangerous
geological hazard cause serious damages to
civilization, live-hood, waterway and environment,
that becoming the great concern not only in
Vietnam but all over the word. Therefore, this
geodynamic process research is implemented
almost frequently, especial in the context of
abnormal global changes in recent years. In which,
through applying remote sensing image analysis
and GIS combine with field investigation in order
to assess the erosion and accumulation activities in
coastal zone that are implemented frequently in
many nations in the world (Subrata Pan; Das
Dabojani, et al.; Ali Kourosh Niya, et al., etc) [18-
20] and Vietnam (Nguyen Van Cu, Pham Huy
Tien, Trinh The Hieu, Le Phuoc Trinh, To Quang
Thinh, Nguyen Thanh Nga, Tran Huu Tuyen,…)
[2, 3, 5, 6, 12, 16]. Especially in the past, authors
topic in different territories [8, 12, 21-23].
The coastal area in Ha Tinh province with the
distance 137 km from the North to South includes
4 main estuaries: Hoi estuary (Nghi Loc District),
Sot estuary (Loc Ha District), Nhuong estuary
(Cam Xuyen District) and Khau estuary (Ky Anh
District) (Fig.1), this area concentrate various
residential, aquaculture, civil – economic
constructions (harbors, tourism, monuments,..) but
also be the most effected area due to tropical
storms and tropical depression in comparative with
other provinces in the Central part of Vietnam (
with 5 or 6 storms per year, the highest wind speed
reaches up to 40 m/second), that lead to the erosion
and accumulation occurred frequently at estuaries
with larger scale and higher intensity that also
cause serious damages for civilized environment,
socio-economic activities and national security and
defense. Therefore, this topic of research project

38
on geodynamic not only bring scientific and high practical in orientation of prevented
significances in supplement of theoretical basic for solutions, mitigating damages of erosion and
river - marine dynamic study but also be urgent accumulation.

Fig. 1. Main 4 estuaries of Ha Tinh province

2. Document basic and research method references, main documentation basis of this paper
In addition to the document collections related as below:
to research topic and research area are listed in the

INPUT Step 1. SETTING UP DEFAULT PARAMETERS

Personal Geo-database - Transect determination (Cross - section line)
Coast lines - Set up coastline calculation
Baselines - Establish Metadata database
- Output determination

Step 2. TRANSECT DETERMINATION

- Storage Transect in Geo-database
- Layout method for Transect data
OUTPUT Step 3. VARIATION CALCULATION
- Variety spatial data of - Select Transect layers
coastline in periods - Calculated method on Transect
- Characteristic data - Select statistic parameters
Fig. 2. Block diagram of coastline variation analysis steps

Remote sensing data are Landsat image TM and satellite image were taken at different period in the
LC (OLI) collected from website: past under the WGS-84 UTM 48-range, 30-meter
http://glovis.usgs.gov in the year 2000, 2005, 2010, resolution, their collected time from May to July in
2016 (Landsat 7 image – June 6th, 2000; Landsat 5 order to eliminate the temporary coastline
image – July 14th, 2005; Landsat 5 image - July variations and locally in stormy time, these images
12th, 2010; Landsat 8 – May 9th, 2016). These are also adjusted geometry before implement

39
isolation of seashore to compare with initial
coastline variation.
Landsat images got processed and interpreted
by ERDAS IMAGINE software, then changed into
Vector format to carry out variation analysis. The
DSAS (Digital Shoreline Analysis System) tool is
integrated into the Environmental Systems
Research Institute (ESRI) software, version 4.3 is
integrated for ArcGIS 10.x developed in 2012 by
the US. Geological Survey [8, 13, 22, 24]. The
block diagram of the shoreline analysis steps is
illustrated in Figure 2.
Fig. 3. State map of erosion and accumulation at estuaries in Ha Tinh coastal province
The results of study in erosion and
accumulation at estuaries in Ha Tinh province are
clearly presented in state map of erosion and
accumulation at mentioned estuaries in research
40
3. Research results and discussion
The result of field investigation for erosion and
accumulation at estuary of Ha Tinh province
implemented by authors in 2 investigated stage in
dry and rainy season, simultaneously combine with
cross - section measuring 20 at 4 estuary sections
(Stage 1, December 13th - 17th, 2016; Stage 2, July
9th - 12th, 2017; Stage 3 - After tropical storm
No.10 on September 23th, 2017), based on
provincial research project entitle “Research state
and propose mitigated solutions for damages cause
by erosion and accumulation hazard in coastal area
and Ha Tinh estuary”.
area (Figure 3). The statistic table of significant
erosion and accumulation areas in research area
(Table 1), with 4 state map of Ha Tinh‟s estuaries,
based in remote sensing analysis and GIS in period
2000 - 2016.
From Figure 3, we have an overview of erosion
and accumulation at significant locations in coastal
area of Ha Tinh province as following:
Hoi estuary: with the width about from 500 to
900m, the maximum depth in rainy season is 11
meters, average depth from 6 to 7 meters, tidal
flats have 25 - 28 meters wide and formed from
granual sediments (medium - fine grain soil) with
origin from wind - marine Holocene (mvQ23). In
which, the North of Hoi estuary, there are several
independent san barriers which elongate from
direction North to South, with 700 meters long, 50-
60 meters wide; As for the South estuary is crossed
by sand dunes which are located with direction
North West - South East with 50 meter long and 80
– 100 meters wide; And low deltas with small
slope degree, wide and elongate to the rivermouth.
At the mouth of the river about 2 kilometers, Hon
Ngu acts as a breakwater in front of the estuary. In
2013, the government carried out the project of
dredging Cua Hoi - Ben Thuy channel (Nghe An)
to ensure waterway transport (Figure 4, 5). [9].

Tab. 1. Significant erosion and accumulation area at estuaries in Ha Tinh coastal province
Length (m) Rate (m/year)
Order Location Feature
Erosion Accumulation Erosion Accumulation
South of Hoi
1 - 1500 - 30 Sand barrier cross the estuary
estuary
400 Granular sediment erosion (fine
2 Xuan Hoi - 2-5 -
250 grain sand)
Granular sediment erosion (fine
3 Xuan Pho 70 - <2 -
grain sand)
Cuong Gian, 250 Granular sediment erosion (fine
4 - - -
Thinh Loc grain sand)
5 Thinh Loc 120 - - - Provincal route 22/12
6 Thach Kim 80 - - - Protected embankments
7 Sot estuary - 500 - >10 Northern sand barriers
North of
8 Nhuong - - - - Local erosions of embankment
estuary
Nhuong Curved sand barriers cross
9 - 400 - -
estuary estuary
Bridge closes
River delta with width 50 -
10 to Nhuong - 280 - -
100m
estuary
11 Cam Nhuong - 2200 - - River delta with width 35-100m
12 Cam Linh - 1800 - - River delta with width 40-150m
Rock
13 - - - - Bedrock erosion
mountain
14 Khau estuary - - - - Estuary eorsion
Border gate of
Khau estuary Erosion destructs at casuarina
15 700 - - 2-5
(at forest
rivermouth)
Ky Ninh
16 50 - - 2-5 Erosion destructs at casuarina forest
beach

The sand dunes are often unstable and to the dunes with an area of 2 - 3 m2, 0.7 - 1.5
constantly changing in space and time, the dry meters high. River dykes have been built in
season extends the area, the flood season is eroded combination with mangrove planting (Sonneratia
are 2-3 years old). However, submarine sand bar

41
and embankments in river and coastal estuaries
fluctuate continuously over time (Figure 6) [5].
About 1 km from Hoi An area (Xuan Hoi),
there are two eroded bank sections: 650 meters
long (400+250m), edge has 1-2 meters high, water
head about 0.5-0.8 meters, located between 5-10 m
Fig. 4. Hon Ngu island acts as breakwater
(a) and sand barrier in the South of Hoi
estuary (b)
Fig. 6. Cross-section of southern side along
the way to Xuan Hoi harbor (a), and
mangrove forest (b)
Continuously, controlled and prevented
constructions include embankment with 11 dyke
embankments in Hoi Thai commune, Hoi Thank
commune along 2 kilometers, the length of dyke
from 100 to 150 meters, and at present they only
have 50- 70 meters remaining. The purpose of this
embankment system is to protect dykes along the
coastal surrounded embankment (Xuan Hoi - Xuan
Pho) and anti-accumulation at Hoi estuary. In the
years from 1990 to 2004, ships and boats were
difficult to enter the harbor because sand bars lay
in front of this estuary (Figure 8).
42
from the water surface, erosion occurs on the small
gray-yellow sand layer with the rate from 2-5
m/year. In Xuan Pho district, the erosion activities
are weak on the small sand layer at the rate lees
than 2m/year, 70 meters long (Figure 7).
Fig. 5. Sand bar along the South of Nam
estuary with 1-1.5 meters long in section near
estuary (a); Section of estuary bank with 0.5-1
meters long (b); Sand dune crosses estuary (c)
Fig. 7. Southern bank of Hoi estuary is eroded
with rate 2 – 5 m/year and 450 meters long
The results of remote sensing analysis for the
period of 2000-2016 show that the Cua Hoi
coastline has an average range of 175 m. In
particular, strong variations occur on sand bars in
the South of the estuary > 400 meters and apart of
the banks of the river mouth in the north.
Sedimentation is prevalent and occurs at a rate of
1.5 m/year. Southern sand bars are heavily eroded
on the length of 1.5 km and the further southward
the erosion rate decreases and turn to
accumulation.
 Locations inside the estuary have erosion and
accumulation rotate to each section with amplitude
less than ± 10 m.
From the coastline section of Hoi estuary to Sot
estuary, coastline at Ken channel where the border
between Cuong Gian commune, Nghi Xuan district
and Thinh Loc commune, Loc Ha district have
average movement is 52 m/year to the South that
cause the lost about 20,000 hectares for
aquacultural activities. Since 2014, after the
constructing of surround pretected embankment
system, this area has been sustainable. In the
tropical storm No.10 in 2017, the erosion
eliminated many sections of coastline and
provincal route 22/12 near Lach Ken which is
embankment among Xuan Truong, Xuan Dan and
Thach Kim commune,..that also cause serious
damage to socio – economic activities (Figure 9)

Fig. 8. Collum - shaped reinforced dyke for embankment protection (Xuan Hoi - Xuan Pho) and anti -
accumulation at Hoi estuary

Fig. 9. Erosion at provincal route 22/12 and protected embankment of Thach Kim commune after tropical
storm No.10, 2017

At present, there are 60 hectares of coastal
protection forest (casuarina) and mangrove
planting project in operation since 2014.
Sot estuary: with 150 – 450 meters wide, creek
depth about 2 to 4 meters, tidal flats have from 22
to 138 meters wide. Northern side is formed by
granual sediments (small sand) with wind – marine
origin Holocene (mvQ23), Southern part is granite
– granite biotie bedrock which belong to complex
Phia Bioc (GT3n pb1). Over the past time, the
estuarine area has been seriously accumulated,
especially the North estuary got extremely erosion
lead to destruction of civil constructions and
harbor as well. As for floody season in 1989, the
coastline in section of Xuan Phuong hamlet, Thach
Kim commune was eroded hardly that cause the
lost of old village located at 300 meters from the
main route. By 1994 until now, erosion activities

43
has taken advantaged with rate 2-5 m/year after
constructing of Li Bi dyke and at now the tidal flat
is expanding forward to the sea about 70-100
meters.
Annualy, total amount of mud which fill into
Sot estuary is about 488.000 m3/year, this mud
amount is partly accmulated in river basin, another
one is carried by water flow from downstream to
estuary. At this area, mud and sand are mainly
transported follow the direction North and North
West so that the accumulation at rivermouth occur
frequently and that also make all channels head to
direction from West to East. In the years of
massive floods, the flowout after escape from the
estuary crossed the shallow areas created new
creeks which have eastern orientation. In the
floody season in 2009, after new channels created,
the channel moved gradually to the East.
Demonstration of the dry season sediment flows
are mainly from the West to the East.

Fig. 10. Erosion damages in the North of estuary; The coastline section of Xuan Phuong village, Thach
Kim commune were gradually accumulated after the construction of Li Bi embankment in 1994

Fig. 11. Extremely accumulation and variation at Sot estuary

Fig. 12. Map of Sot estuary regulation [17]

44
 Fig. 13. Embankment with protected forest in section from Tinh Loc commune to Thach Kim commune
and mangrove forest inside estuary

Fig. 14. Sea embankment at Thien Cam beach

In North and Northwest wind season, the
outside mudflats from the western bank have a
tendency to develop into the estuaries. In general,
Sot estuary varied frequently depends on wind
seasons, water regimes, however at the bends of
channel outside and inside are relatively stable.
After floody season 2010 until now, the
accumulation at Sot estuary has been happened
extremely that caused the large restriction for
waterway transportation. Every year, the
government usually maintain dredging work,
especially for anchorage area of ships and boats in
front of harbor to maintain long-term exploitation
of harbour (Figure 11).
Nowadays, the government is implementing the
project with title „Dredging and channel regulation
for anchorage and storm cover” in order to mitigate
the accumulation at wharf, harbour and storm
shelter from tidal currents for ships and boats at
Sot estuary. In which, that also control the
disavantages of coastal dynamic activities, the left
flow direction increased the flow rate by 25% of
the total initial flow and reduced 50% of the
sediment deposited at Sot estuary, also decline the
periodic dredging volume (5 years) up to 60%.
(Figure 12) [15-17].
At present, this area has completed the coastal
dyke combined with the protection forest
(casuarina) extending from Thinh Loc to Thach
Kim. The dike from Viet Lao Hotel to Sot estuary
is under construction (Figure 13) [1, 16].
According to remote sensing data for the period
2000-2016, the coastline varied average about 150
meters long. The erosion of the northern estuaries
is at an average rate of 3.8 m/year. In the North of
the estuary, the sediments are filled with a speed >
10 m/year, forming sand dunes with a length of
about 500 meters.
The coastline from Sot estuary to the Nhuong
estuary is relatively flat, the tidal flats are 50-175

45
meter wide, slope degree 3-500. The erosion occurs
in this section is almost insignificant, in the section
of Thien Cam beach has been built embankment to
limit the erosion process from sea waves (Figure
14).
Nhuong estuary: With 550-900 meters wide,
creeks under southern direction gets 2.5-3.0 meters
deep, tidal flats gets from 35 to 150 meters wide.
The North side is formed from small sand with
origin desend from marine - wind Holocene (mvQ-
2
3), as for southern side being from granite- granite
biotite bedrock which belong to Phia Bioc complex
(GT3n pb1), crossing the mentioned estuary is
mainly granite biotite rockmass and granodiorite
which elongate 400 – 500 meters in parallel to the
coast. The erosion and accumulation of the estuary
seem so complicated. In the years 1995 -1997 this
estuary was very narrow only 150- 200 meters, the
Fig. 15. System of embankment system at the North of Nhuong
Fig. 16. Arched sand bar at estuary and many sand flats near river bank and in middle stream
46
erosion expanded the estuary and the area inside
the estuary continuously until building a dyke and
embankment system of 2 km long from the year
2012 to reduce erosion and protect residential areas
of Cam Nhuong commune. Specially in floody
season from 2007-2008, northern side of estuary
got erosion length 150-200 meters that lead to the
evacuation of Cam Nhuong and Cam Linh village.
Also at estuary section (from Con Go market to
Cam Nhuong commune committee headquarter)
which combine with dyke and embankment system
with geometric dimension of core collum about 1
meter and total construction length include 20
sections; the length of each embankment is 20
meters, space distance of each embbankment is 50
meters, so that under the highly impacts of sea
waves the roof embankments are still damges
(Figure 15) [7, 10, 11, 14].
 Fig. 17. Surrounded embankment system, mangrove forest with wave break embankment of Nhuong
estuary

Fig. 18. Mobile wave break embankment created from prefabricated concrete masses and gabions with
70-100 meters long with river embankment in Cam Linh and Cam Nhuong commune

Fig. 19. Reduce the size of mudflat and rock bed under Rock mountain foothill

The vestiges indicate that in 1995 Linh Reng
Village (south of Cam Linh commune), located
about 2 km from the estuary (with Lang Muoi
Pagoda), and located closely to the middle of the
river and 200-250 meters from the current
embankment (erosion rate > 10 m/year). At
present, in the dry season (July 11th, 2017), the
estuary appears as an arched sand bar extending
about 400 meter from the north shore to the
southern side and several sand flats along the river
and in the middle stream. Under Cua Nhuong
bridge also appeared river delta with 280 meters
long and 50-100 meters wide along the bridge
(Figure 16).
At present, the embankment system in the
North riverside (Cam Nhuong commune) and the
South riverside (Cam Linh commune) combine
with mangrove forest (Rhizophora tree) and
breakwater embankment over 3 km from the
estuary to the upstream, which acted more

47
effective on mitigate flood damages in rainy
season that tend to forming various scales of
mudflats (35-40 meters wide to 100-150 meters
wide) along the two banks of the river mouth
(Figure 17, 18).
Before the year 2007, under foothill of Rock
mountain (Nam estuary, Cam Linh commune)
occurred a wide mudflats with 250-350 meters
wide that also concentrate many residents and got
the deep estuary, but nowadays this mudflat
reduces the area size and local residents move to
other locations. In the section of Cam Linh beach
(near estuary), the activities of high weathering
granodiorite bedrock erosion happen extremely
that cause rock fall at the edge with average
dimension of rock masses from 0.5 meter to
several meters create the rock beds under the
foothill (Figure 19).
The results of the 2000-2016 remote sensing
image analysis show that the shoreline varied
below 100 meters. The strongest change at estuary
in the north and inside southern estuary area with
the common variation amplitude > 200 meters, the
average rate of advantaged erosion is 3 m/year.
The strongest erosion area was the northern estuary
(Cam Nhuong commune) which caused the sand
bars to disappear after the year 2005, while the
accumulation inside sand dunes occurred at a rate
> 10 m/year.
Fig. 20. Accumulation activities cause mudflat creation at Ky Ninh beach and estuary
As for flood season in April of the year 2016,
sea waves eroded Casuarina forest about 10 -15
meters, At 100 meters from the Border Gate at
48
The coastline from Nhuong estuary to Khau
estuary passes through Cam Linh, Ky Xuan, Ky
Khang and Ky Ninh communes with a shoreline of
about 25 km, mainly tidal flats along the coast with
a slope degrees from 20-300 and 50-125 meters
wide.
Khau estuary: This estuary gets 125-450
meters wide with deeper southern creek (less than
0.5-3.5 meters), the tidal flats has width from 90 to
110 meters. The northern side of estuary is formed
from small sand with wind – marine origin
Holocene (mvQ23), the southern side is structured
Jurassic terrigenous sediments consist of
conglomerate, sandstone of Muong Hinh
Formation (J1 mh). The Khau estuary is a
confluence of the Vinh and the Quyen rivers, so
that the velocity of the flow varies complicatedly.
The sediment transportation from the river to the
sea as well as from the sea back to estuary varies
extremely under season change. Therefore, the
phenomena of erosion – accumulation of estuaries
and coasts are unpredictable, causing a great
impact on the socio-economic activities and
waterway transportation of this estuary. In
comparison with the mentioned estuaries above,
Khau estuary proves smaller in size, but
accumulation activities occur strongly in estuaries
and also creates mudflats of up to 100-150 meters
wide with accumulation rate 2-5 m/year (Figure
20).
Khau estuary (Bac estuary), erosion activity has
eroded deep creeks which close to the North side
of Vinh river. The eroded edge is 700 meters long,
0.5 - 2.0 meter height, extending from the estuary
to the coast. This type of erosion occurred in 2006
at a rate of 2-5 m / year, destroying coastal
Fig. 21. The erosion of Border Gate Station of Khau estuary (North side)
Fig. 22. Deep erosion in coastal protection forest at Ky Ninh beach
At Ky Ninh beach, the location is quite flat, but
since the year 2010 sea waves have continuously
eroded into beaches and casuarinas coastal
protection and deep into the mainland 50 meters
(rate of erosion 2-5 m/year) leaved sand dunes of
1.2 meters (Figure 22).
According to remote sensing data for the period
2000 - 2016, the average change of shorelines is
146 meters. The strongest erosion still occurs in
the south coast with the rate of 4.3 m/year.
Accumulation occurs in some sections of the river
mouth in the north and a sand bar in the south with
the rate of 10 m/year.
4. Conclusions
From the above research results, we can
conclude that the erosion and accumulation of
estuarine and coastal areas of Ha Tinh province as
follows:
- The distance among estuaries are relatively
equal and 30-40 kilometers apart. In the north side,
the estuaries are created from medium – small sand
49
Casuarina forest and in the immediate future will
threate residential areas and Border gate station
(Figure 21).
and as for the south side are mainly the bedrock.
At the Hoi estuary, the two side of the river are
formed by small sand which play a key role as a
natural sea wave break so that the accumulation
activities happened commonly.
- Estuaries have the funnel shape, the inside of
the estuary is 500-700 meters wide, but at the
outside estuary is quite narrow (250-350 meters)
and almost completely accumulated in dry season.
The average depth of estuaries is from 1 meter to
3-4 meters, especially for Hoi estuary is 6 to 7
meters deeper, the deep channel is often direct to
the south (the bedrock), the shallow part is on the
North side of estuary and also there are also sub-
sandbars or floated sandbars under season changes,
specially for Hoi estuary has deep channels near
the North side.
- At present, the coastline have been built with
river dykes, sea dykes in combination with
protective mangrove forests, some locations have
embankments, wave dykes are promoting very
well in the prevention and to mitigate erosion,
ensure the safety of residential areas and
infrastructures, but some erosion sites still destruct
embankments (Doi Nhuong, Lach Kien, ...) during
floody season.
- The erosion and accumulation activity are still
occurring complicated. In the period 2000-2016,
erosion activities took advantage with the rate of 2-
5m and mainly erosion happened in the North side.
Channel accumulation of sandbars and riverside
mudflats at the rate > 10 m/year also occur very
extremely, causing damages to various
embankments and many civil-economic
contructions and influent to domestic waterway
transportation at research estuary.
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DSAS 4.0 Installation Instructions and
User Guide in Digital Shoreline
Analysis System (DSAS), Version 4.0 -
An ArcGIS extension for calculating
shoreline change, U.S Geological Survey
Open-File Report 2008-1278.
 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SLOPE STABILIZATION IN
THE CAO SON COAL WASTE AREA, CAM PHA, QUANG NINH

To Xuan Vu, Nguyen Van Hung, To Hoang Nam

Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: vudcct@yahoo.com.vn

Abstract: The quarry waste area from Cao Son coal mine is located on a terrigenous sedimentary
basin with an area of over 100 ha. It is constructed by traditional dumping method (slurry dumping). The
height of the quarry waste area is from 210 to 240m, the height of the discharge layer is from 30 to 70m,
the slope angle of 32 to 450. In the discharge process, Cao Son waste disposal site is relatively stable.
However, in floods late July / early August 2015, with the rainfall over 1500 mm, large erosion of the
waste disposal sites in the dumping site, formed the debris flow on the bottom of the quarry waste area,
seriously affecting the environment and economic activities, works. Based on the analysis of the effect of
natural elements, especially the technical elements of discharge to stabilize and the stable situation of the
quarry waste sites. identifying the reason is long, concentrated rain with great intensity, evaluating the
impact of climate change to the process of weathering, increase the intensity of geological activities of
rainwater falling on the surface and absorb into the waste discharge area the geological phenomenon of
waste disposal sites. From that, propose solutions technology pouring thin layer, drainage to keep the
slope of the floor, construction prevention of adverse effects of geological disaster sites.

Keywords: stability; quarry waste; site; Cao Son; coal mine.

1. Introduction sites, especially the Cao Son coal mine, and

Cam Pha city is the largest coal mining center
in Quang Ninh. Every year, millions of cubic
meters of rock, soil are removed and dumped out
of open pit mines. More and more coal mining
sites are being built and the scale is expanding.
Cao Son dumping ground is one of the largest
dumping ground for coal mining, which has long
been established in the Cam Pha area. Over the
years, scientists have been paying close attention to
the safety of waste disposal sites in the discharge
process with measures to enhance stability,
preventing their adverse effects. However, in the
context of complicated, unpredictable climate
change, La Nina phenomenon causes unusual
storms, which can seriously affect the stability of
the quarry waste site. Therefore, it is necessary to
deepen the clarification of elements influencing the
status and impacts of climate change on the
stability of the quarry waste site in coal mining
making the stability solution.
2. Affecting elements to stability of the quarry
waste site in coal mine
The stability of the quarry waste area from coal
mine depends on many elements, including natural
elements and technical elements.
2.1. Nature elements
Natural elements such as climate, hydrology
and geological conditions affect the stability of the
quarry waste site.
- Climate is the source of the activity of
exogenous elements that cause geological
phenomena such as weathering, erosion, landslide,
debris flow, etc., to alter the geological
environment [3].
Among exogenous elements, rainwater plays an
important role in the geological processes of waste
dumps and has a great influence on the stability of
the waste site.

52
 When rain falls on the waste disposal site, part
of it is absorbed, overflowing and some
evaporation. Water absorbs in the soil makes the
moisture of it increases, increasing the volume of
soil and reduces the cohesion and friction of soil
between particles, reducing the ability to resist the
slope of the quarry waste layer. In case of heavy
rainfall, saturated soil, the infiltration currents
cause the hydrodynamic force toward the quarry
waste site. In this process, erosion can occur. Small
particles, fine particles are swept away, deposited
in the gap between large particles of rock and
partly can escape. The effect of this process is to
increase the sliding force, increasing the porosity
Rain
fall
Vaporization
Water follows the slope
Ground water table
Water sinks to the ground
Fig. 1. Schematic diagrams and geological effects ò rainwater in the discharge layer
The geological conditions of the dump site
determine the interaction between the waste rock
and the natural foundation. Actual coal mining
shows that waste disposal sites can be formed from
the inside (internal waste dumps) or outside
(external dumping sites) coal mines. As a result,
geological conditions of the dump site may be very
different. The stability of waste disposal sites
depends not only on the composition, mechanical
properties, substrate of the underground foundation
but also on the slope of the substrate surface. If the
surface of the landfill has a large slope, the friction
between the waste rock and the natural foundation,
the dump site can slip. According to research
results of Do Ngoc Tuoc et al. [8], on the rock
foundation with high stability, the stability of
waste disposal sites depends mainly on the angle of
53
of the soil, creating favorable conditions for the
formation of weak areas. From there, accelerate the
sliding of the sloping floor.
Water overflows downstream of the waste floor
can cause erosion (Figure 1). The eroded part,
creating weak areas, loose material is brought
down and deposited into the strip along the foot of
the quarry waste site coal mine (Figure 1). This is a
favorable condition, supporting the sliding of
waste bed slides development. This process
depends on the dynamics of overflow on the
surface in which the supply of rainwater plays a
decisive role. The heavier the rain, the longer the
flow over the face of the strong.
Drainage
Deposit
materials
inclination of the substrate. Occurs when the angle
of inclination of the substrate is greater than 150.
2.2. Technical elements
Technical elements include: construction
methods of waste disposal; Geological parameters
of dump site (height of waste dump site, height,
width of waste pavement surface, slope angle,
cascade shape); loading equipment, ... have a great
influence on the stability of waste disposal.
Currently, in the process of coal mining, often
used two methods of dumping: pouring waste from
the slope from the inside out and pouring out thin
layer from the outside. Each method of dumping
has its advantages and disadvantages. Technically,
with the method of pouring down the slope, waste
materials often have high heterogeneity in grain
composition according to gravity differential law;
lower tightness and shear strength, especially and their distribution positions are also different on
below the compacted impact range from discharge the waste bed slope (the lower, the larger the grain
equipment, and the stability of the discharge site size);
decreases. Thin layer deposition method

Khoảng cách từ mặt tầng hs

significantly increases the degree of homogeneity, 0 3 1 2 3 4 5 d
tightness, and durability of the waste materials due ,5 0 0 0 0 0 n(cm)
to the small discharge layer thickness along with 5
the compaction effect of the discharge equipment.
Therefore, waste disposal sites are generally more 1 dmax
stable. 0 = 80
1
H (m)
0 5
(cm) 2 dmax
5 0 = 100
2
dmax
5
1 3= 60

(m)
0 0 2 3 4
1 Fig. 3. The gap size of the soil
8,2 6,5 4,8
5 particles following the height of the
2 discharge layer
0
2
5 Large particles (d> 60cm) move at the bottom
3of the discharge layer with the highest speed,
d 8 6 4 2 0 0 distributed mainly at the bottom and bottom of the
(cm) 0 Fig. 2. The distribution
0 0 of materials
0 on the
quarry waste site discharge layer (corresponding to unit height h3/H
= 15%).
The results of the study on the slope discharge The gap between rock particles is closely
method of the scientists [11] have shown the high related to the particle size distribution in the
dissatisfaction of soil particles in the waste layer. discharge layer. According to scientists, the
According to this study, the size of the particle diameter of the gap dn at any depth below the
group, composition and extent of their distribution surface of the discharge layer can be approximated
varies, depending on the distance from the surface hs
to the bottom of the discharge layer; It is possible by the formula: d n  d 0  0,415 H d max
to distinguish three types of particle size (d) and Where: d0 - Gap diameter at the top of the
their distribution range (hi) according to the height slope;
of the discharge layer (H) (Figure 2). dmax – Maximum diameter
- Small size particles (d <20cm) have the The results of calculating the gap between the
lowest kinetic energy, slow movement should exist soil particles (Figure 3) show that, from the surface
mainly at the top, near the surface of waste layer to the bottom of the discharge layer, the gap size
(corresponding to unit height h1/H=35%), along increases dramatically and the waste materials
with the slope layer and fill in the gap of large have the largest particle diameter, The stronger the
particles; increase: from 3.5cm to 28.2cm (dmax = 60cm),
- Medium grain (d = 20 - 60cm) moves sliding 36.5cm (d = 80cm), 44.8cm (d = 100cm).
max max
and rolling on the lower side of the gravity effect. The law of distribution of grain composition in
During movement, at moment kinematic forces the depth of the waste layer and the compacting
produce less shear force than frictional force, they effect of the waste disposal equipment also
stop moving and lie in the middle of the stratum significantly affect the density of the waste
(corresponding to unit height h2/H = 50%). Each materials layer. From the results of calculating the
particle has different diameters, different weights, bulk density (γ) and the porosity (n) of the waste

54
materials stratum [10], it can be seen that these layer (except the top layer is directly compressed),
characteristics also change with the height of the while the porosity is highest in the middle of the
waste materials layer. The bulk density increases effluent (Figure 4a, 4b). ). Thus, the lowest density
from the surface to the bottom of the discharge is the middle of the waste layer.

2 4
Bulk density γ (g/cm3)

,5 5

porosity, n
2 Staturat 4
,3 ion 0
2 3
,1 5 3
1
Dry

(%)
,9 1 0 2
,7 1 5 2
,5 Distance
0 from
1 the 2top of the
3 discharge
4 5 0 Distance
0 from the top of
3 the discharge
4 5
0 layer(m)
0 0 0 0 layer(m)
0 0 0
( Fig. 4. Bulk density (a) and porosity (b) of the (
a) waste materials layer following the height b)

- Geometric parameters of waste disposal sites
not only play an important role in the relationship
between the holding force and the sliding force of
the discharge layer but also significantly affect the
level of physical and chemical properties of waste
materials. The results show that the higher the
height of the discharge layer, the higher the level
of particle separation. In general, the higher the
height of the dumping site, the higher the slope of
the discharge layer, the narrower the surface of the
waste layer, the less disposable land.
3. The situation of the quarry waste site Cao
Son coal mine
3.1. The characteristic of the quarry waste site
Cao Son coal mine
The quarry waste site Cao Son coal mine is
planned to be a dumping ground for Cao Son, Cau
Sau and Deo Nai coal mines. The size of the
dumping site: 3118m long; 1650m wide; from 210
to 240m high, divided into 4 to 6 layers. The layer
height is from 30 to 70m, average 45m, width of
30 to 50m, slope angle of 320 to 450, average 400.
This quarry waste site located on terrigenous
sediment, with stratification is medium to thick,
age T3n-rhg. The main lithological components of
this dumping ground include: conglomerate;
sandstone; siltstone; claystone and clay with coal.
The surface in this are is weathered with different
degrees to create thin weathering crust (thickness
from 1 - 2m to 5 - 6m). The terrain is quite smooth
with a slope of less than 100, including slopes,
valleys and small slits. Underground water is deep.
Physical and mechanical properties of soil as in
Table 1.

Tab. 1. The soil properties from the quarry waste site Cao Son coal mine
Bulk
Moisture Press Angel of Compression
Soil and rock density, Cohesion,
content, strength, σn friction, factor, a
type γw C (kG/cm2)
W (%) (kG/cm2) φ (độ) (cm2/kG)
(g/cm3)
Clay, sandy clay 9,05 1,82 0,5 26,51 0,012
Claystone 2,67 289 87 31,43
Siltstone 2,67 481 147 33,37
Sandstone 2,66 999 371 34,45
Conglomerate 2,59 1273 438 34,40

In general, the quarry waste site in Cao Son existence of the waste site, the stability of this
coal mine is considered to be favorable for the waste site depends on the characteristics of the

55
waste site as well as the impact of the natural
factors affecting.
The process of forming this quarry waste site is
closely related to the method of mining and
dumping in coal mines. With blasting technology
exploiting open-pit coal has created loose waste
rock with very different particle size, ranging from
very granular to very small granules such as silt,
clay. In particular, the composition of coarse grain
is very large, fine grain account for a negligible
proportion. Research results show that the size of
grain size under 50mm is only over 10%, from 50 -
800mm is about 80%, the rest is coarse grain with
the size is more than 800mm. After blasting, the
waste rock from the mining site is transported by
car to the dumping site and dumped at the edge of
the slope of the disposal site, with the assistance of
a leveling shredder.
Slope dumping method at this quarry waste site
also created high heterogeneity in the composition
and physical and mechanical properties of waste
materials. The study of Information Technology
and Environment Company (VITE) [7] at waste
disposal sites, it is quite clear that the rules of
distributing granules on the side of the dumping
ground as follows:
- From the surface of the dumping ground to the
depth of about 1.5m, mainly concentrated particles
of small size (sand, silt). Particle size less than
15mm is 40-50%;
- From the surface of this quarry waste site, the
lower the proportion of small groups, the larger the
group of large particles increases. In the middle of
the quarry waste site, the grain size is larger than
500mm, accounting for over 60%;
Large particles group (600 - 800mm) are
concentrated at the bottom of the quarry waste site.
They usually roll down to the foot of the dump to a
certain extent, causing the trough to concave.
For stopped waste dumping sites, the proportion
of groups distributed on the stratosphere has
changed considerably. Small particles group of less
than 15mm at the top are reduced to only 30-40%,
while at the bottom, including the foot of the
dumping site, the composition of the particle
changes insignificantly. The change in particle size
showed the effect of top-down seepage, which
transported and deposited in the large group at the
56
bottom, on the side of this quarry waste site and
partly at the bottom of the foot. This shows that
erosion has formed and developed after dumping.
3.2. Situation of the quarry waste site in Cao
Son coal mine
The quarry waste site Cao Son coal mine is the
one of the biggest quarry waste site and is
extending more and more. Discharge is underway
in the eastern, northeast and southeastern sections,
and the western and northwestern sections have
stopped pouring out.
The data at two monitoring points in this
discharge sites in 2015 showed that the maximum
transfer velocity was 0.71 mm/day and 0.89
mm/day. This results show that, in general, the
quarry waste site in Cao Son coal mine is relatively
stable (the maximum transfer rate is less than 1.00
mm/day). However, according to the survey results
for many years in waste dumps, during heavy
rains, the rainfall was over 200mm as in August
2008, November 2013, July 2016 and August
2017, local erosion still occurs on the slopes, most
notably at the pouring layers. Particularly, the
rainy season occurs between at the end of July and
early August 2015, with the total rainfall of up to
1500 mm (over 400 mm/day), has eroded and slid
locally on the eastern side of the waste dumping
site on a large scale: from + 200m to + 60m
(altitude of waste dump); approximately 800 m
length. Discarded material is concentrated from
dumping processes and erosion activity in the
disposal site provides the run off at the foot of the
dumping site, resulting in streams of mud flowing
into the surface of One member limited liability
company 790, at the altitude of + 58m with the
area of about 5 hectares, overflowing coal transport
street down to the bottom, seriously affecting the
population of Mong Duong ward (Figure 5).
This fact has shown that the cause of geological
hazards in Cao Son waste dump is that the rainfall
on the discharge site is too large, creating a strong
driving force to generate and develop geological
processes. waste disposal site.

Mud
flows
01/8/1015
Fig. 5. Erosion, mud flows at the east of Cao Son dumping site after rain
4. Effect of climate change on stabilization of
the quarry waste site in Cao Son coal mine
4.1. Characteristics of climate change
In recent years, climate change has become a
major concern in the world as well as in Vietnam.
According to the Institute of Science Meteorology,
Hydrology and Environment [5], there are three
scenarios of climate change: low emissions (B1);
Medium emissions (B2) and High emissions (A2).
It shows that, in the future, Quang Ninh in
particular, Vietnam in general will face the severe
effects of climate change.
- High average temperature: According to the
high emission scenarios, in the northern coastal
area, by 2100, the annual average temperature will
increase by 3.60C compared to the last decades of
the 20th century. Following by the medium
emissions, the annual average of temperature
increase is about 2.30C, in Quang Ninh is 2.50C.
The increase in temperature will be clearly felt in
the North zones. The number of hot days increase.
Increasing average temperatures will increase the
number of hot time and reduce the number of cold
time. The hot summer, which tends to come early
and end late.
- The rainfall: Climate change will increase
total annual rainfall in all regions. In particular, the
rainfall will only increase in the rainy season, even
more than in recent times, while in the dry season
is the opposite. The probability of occurrence of
heavy rains (over 200 mm), extreme (over 500
mm, 1000 mm) causing floods, landslides will also
increase, especially in the mountainous area in the
57
Erosion of the
discharge layer.
north. Reducing rainfall, prolonging the freezing
time in dry months will result in increased
evaporation due to high temperatures, low
humidity.
- The storm, extreme weather: Due to the
increase in temperature, accelerating atmospheric
pressure accumulation, thunderstorms, tropical
depression appear more and intensity of extreme
weather types also lead to heavy rain. The change
of the storm is more complicated, does not appear
according to the normal rule and becomes
unexpected, unpredictable.
4.2. Effect of climate change on stabilization
of the quarry waste site in Cao Son coal mine
As discussed above, there are many factors that
affect the stabilization of waste disposal sites. For
coal mining quarry waste sites in Quang Ninh in
general, the quarry waste site in Cao Son coal mine
in particular, climate factor plays an important role
in the geological processes of waste dumping sites.
- Climate change promotes the intensity of
weathering
Weathering is an exogenous geological
phenomenon that occurs due to the effects of
weathering agents (temperature, water, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, etc.). The process of weathering
changes the soil in terms of composition,
architecture, structure, state, physico-mechanical
properties, etc., which are disadvantageous to their
stability such as decreasing durability, density,
increasing moisture content, water permeability,
subsidence compression. The weathering not only
adversely affect the geological environment but
also enabling other geological phenomena such as
slides, erosion ditches,mud flows; ....
According to V.D. Lomtadze [2], temperature
and water are major factors to rock weathering.
High temperatures and sudden changes cause
strong physiological weathering, accelerating the
activity of chemical weathering. Water is not only
the cause of weathering but also it is the
environment for chemical reactions occurring
during weathering such as solubilization,
hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation, carbonation, etc.
Thus, in the context of climate change, the average
temperature rises in both hot and cold seasons,
prolonged periods of hot sunshine, increased
rainfall in rainy months, abundant water supply
and increased moisture content, increase the ability
to exchange water, chemical weathering will
develop stronger. For rocks and soil in the quarry
waste from the coal mine, the conditions for
weathering develops in high depth that are very
favorable, as most of the waste rock is composed
of terrigenous sediments (sandstone, siltstone,
claystone and coal clay), excavated from the
depths up by blasting method, exist mainly in the
form of scattered granules, often with large
porosity that easy to changes in the new
environment (due to the effects of exogenous
factors), especially in the context of the effects of
climate change.
- Climate change increases the intensity of
geological activity of water on the surface and in
the waste site
The movement of rainwater on the waste
disposal site depends not only on the
characteristics of waste disposal site (water
Q Q
Q Q
absorptive
Q rainfall (moderate)
Q rainfall (small)
( Time
a)
Fig. 6. Diagram of rainfall flow and spillage on the dumping site
Extremely heavy rainfall (50 – 100 mm/day and
more), the more rainwater is not absorbed (usually
recovery area, waste stream height, slope of layer
surface, water storage capacity,...) but also on
rainfall, rainy duration. According to the survey
results at the waste dump site, the flow of
rainwater into the dumping ground and the
overflowing water (Q) on the surface of the
dumping site cause geological phenomena,
destabilize the waste site is closely related to the
amount of rainfalls on waste land.
On small and moderate rainfall (less than 20
mm/day), all rainwater falls on waste dumping
sites and seepage in the dumping ground, no water
on the ground waste, on the side of the layer of the
dumping ground cannot see water flow or expose
water. In this case, the rainfall is less than or equal
to the infiltration flow (Figure 6a).
On heavy rainy days (rainfall is from 20 to 50
mm/day), the rainfall is absorbed to saturate the
soil, the infiltration flow occurs and escapes to the
lower layer of the waterway, the part that is not
immediately filled up to surface water on the
ground. Only the surface water on the ground of
the discharge layer (the water that does not get to
the waste ground) flows down to the foot of the
dumping site with small, very small flow, which
indicates the flow of rain water falls beyond the
infiltration flow (Figure 6b).
rainfall
(heavy)
Q
absorptive
( Time
b)
large amounts of rain) accumulate on the dumping
ground, break or spill over the shore. At the bottom
58
of the dumping ground, the discharge flow is quite
large, causing local erosion of the discharge layer
at different levels. According to Cua Ong
meteorological observation station [1], there are
about 10 heavy rainy days per year, that makes the
flow water to the bottom of the dumping ground.
According to the results of the survey at the
waste dump site, the soil has low compression,
large porosity, high water holding capacity, rapidly
absorb speed and permeability. So rainwater was
mostly absorbed in the dumping site, surface water
and spill water on the surface of the waste layer
only appear when the rainfall on the dumping site
over 100 mm/day.
The role of rainwater for geological processes
inside or outside the disposal site is very different.
In the dump site, the activity of the infiltration flow
is always directed toward the middle of the
discharge layer due to the heterogeneous
characteristics of the particle size. However, the
permeability of the infiltration flow reaches only a
certain limit, because the hydrodynamic force is
the greatest and most stable as the surface water
remaining on the discharge layer begins to flow
downward. On the discharge side, the intensity of
the run-off of the surface water depends on the
amount of rainwater supplied. The larger the
rainfall, the greater the erosion. The erosion
process increases the slope of the dumping size and
hence, the intensity of activity of the water
overflows on the face increasingly stronger. This
process only slows down and stops when the slope
of the dumping size decreases and reaches the
equilibrium value.
In fact, the stability of the quarry waste from
Cao Son coal mine site depends on the amount of
rainfall on the site. In general, if there are no
significant changes in the meteorological factors,
the quarry waste from Cao Son coal mine site will
generally stable and geosynthetic discharges can
occur but only on a small scale, with no significant
impact to surrounding environment. However, in
the case of climate change like the past years and
forecasting in the future with abnormal
disturbances, not follow the rules of extreme
weather phenomena that result in heavy rain,
prolonged with the amount heavy rain, the stability
of the quarry waste from Cao Son coal mine site
59
will be broken by the sudden increase in activity of
the geological discharges. The flood in 2015
caused the geological catastrophe in the quarry
waste from Cao Son coal mine site proved for
these assessments.
5. Solutions to stabilize the quarry waste from
Cao Son coal mine site
In order to ensure the stability of the quarry
waste from Cao Son coal mine site in the context
of climate change impacts, the solutions applied
need to come from the supporting causes and
conditions, the develop of the geological processes
inside, on the surface, in the waste disposal sites
and have to use multiple solutions simultaneously.
5.1. Stable solutions to the waste yards are
forming
- Change of dumping method: Apply thin layer
(from 3 m to 5 m depending on the weight of
discharge equipment and size of waste material) in
each waste layer. This method has many
advantages compared to slope discharge methods
such as minimizing the distribution of particles,
porosity to the height of the discharge layer,
increasing the density of waste materials and thus
increasing the quarry waste site stability. The
results of the study [11] showed that the method of
thin layer deposition might increase the Bulk
density by 8 - 10% and the density is not changed.
After that, the settlement of the discharge is
reduced to very small compared to the method of
slope discharge.
- Reducing the slope of the quarry waste site,
increasing the width of the dumping ground: In the
condition of climate change, heavy and prolonged
rain, the waste material is always saturated and
under the maximum hydraulic pressure of the
magnetic permeability in the dumping site and
become unstable, it is necessary to reduce the slope
angle of the quarry waste site, increase the width of
the the dumping ground. According to calculations
[12], under the above conditions, if the height of
the waste layer is 50m, the maximum angle of the
slope is 19 - 220 and the smallest width of the
waste layer to be able to store the amount of slurry
the slope of the top discharge layer is 52 m. If the
height of the discharge layer is 30m, the smallest
width of the discharge layer is 36m.
 - Creating slope of the surface layer, drainage
surface, not to overflow the floor: These solutions
are aimed at drainage left on the surface of waste
discharge to the foot of waste disposal. During
discharge, the ground surface is kept relatively flat
and tilted to the inside of the dumping site, the
minimum slope of 3 - 5%, the size of the drainage
trough on the discharge layer depends on the area
of rainwater surface that ensure the collection of
surface water .
- Consolidating the ground of dumping site,
building the drainage ditches along the top of the
waste site, protecting the edge of the riparian layer
and plant cover: This solution shall apply to
exhausted waste layers. Improving the surface of
the waste layer by using the rolling equipment that
increases the density, durability of waste materials
on the surface, reducing the permeability of rain
water. Making the drainage system along the foot
of the upper waste stream to collect and transport
surface water down to the waste disposal site. On
the edge of the waste ground, embankment is used
to prevent water from flowing down the ground.
The dike size must be stable and prevent rainwater
in the condition of precipitation corresponding to
the rainfall caused by geological hazards in 2015
(frequency of 1-2%). Plant cover on the surface
will enhance the stability of the stratum, reducing
the surface and underground flow potential to
cause erosion of the bed slides.
5.2. Stable solution for waste dumping sites
The density and the degree of homogeneity of
soil particles in the disposal sites has been
significantly increased due to the self-compacting
process. The rainfall flow process in the discharge
layer, carrying small particles, accumulating in the
gap of large particles. In order to stabilize waste
dumping sites, waste disposal sites can be used in
the same waste disposal sites as for fully
discharged wastes (in the case of waste disposal
sites are forming). However, it is necessary to
solidify the works to prevent surface water
drainage to ensure long-term waste disposal.
5.3. Total defenses at the foot of the waste
disposal sites
The formation and existence of coal mining
sites in general, Cao Son dumping ground in
particular has shown that the deposition of fine
60
particles at the bottom of the dumping ground due
to discharge from the discharge site is not possible
avoid. Only heavy rains are too large to surface
flow from the surface down or the infiltration flow
on the side of the ground, fine particles were
transported and accumulated again. These
accumulation materials can be transferred far or
near, large or small particle size which depends on
the water kinetic energy in the waste disposal site
and at the foot of the dumping site, greatly
affecting the environment around the site. In order
to solve this problem, there must be a
comprehensive countermeasuresolution for waste
disposal sites such as the construction of waste
landfills along the waste dumps and dams to create
reservoirs on streams and streams around waste
dumps to accumulate water flow from waste
disposal site. These works must ensure the stability
of the dumping ground, control of the amount of
solids deposited, the water level in the reservoir
and the discharge flow outside the waste disposal
area in the extreme rainfall equivalent to the flood.
6. Conclusion
From the results, the following conclusions
can be drawn:
- The stability of the quarry waste from Cao
Son coal mine site depends on many factors. In
particular, the construction method of slope
dumping has a great influence and is considered as
a condition to support (promote) the geological
process that makes the instability of dumping site.
- The quarry waste from Cao Son coal mine
site is unstable due to heavy and long-lasting
climate change, with a large amount of rainfall,
destroying drainage works, creating flow of
wastewater layers with large speed and flow,
making erosion, sliding layer discharge on a large
scale.
- In order to ensure stability for the quarry
waste from Cao Son coal mine site, it is necessary
to use a number of solutions, including technical
solutions during the construction of waste dumps
and measures to prevent adverse impacts of
rainwater in the climate change.
References
[1] General Department of Hydro-Meteorology
(1978 - 2017), Meteorological Yearbook
 of coastal monitoring stations in the North,
Hanoi.
[2]V.D. Lyttelton (1978), Project Interpretation,
College and Professional Publishing
House, Hanoi.
[3] V.D. Loremtze (1983), Geomagnetic
Engineering, College and Professional
Publishing House, Hanoi.
[4] Tran Mien (2006), Some Initial Orientations
in Improving, Reverting the Environment
of Coal Mine Sites, Proceedings of the
17th Vietnam Mining Science and
Technology Conference, Hanoi
[5] Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and
Environment (2012), Scenarios of climate
change in the provinces and coastal areas
of Vietnam, Hanoi.
[6] Luu Van Thuc et al. (2011), Causes of
distortion of open-pit mine discharge and
recommendations for stabilization
measures, Institute of Mining Science and
Technology, Hanoi.
[7] VITE Information Technology and
Environment Company (2012), waste
dump improvement ... - Technical
61
documents of some projects in Cam Pha
area, Quang Ninh.
[8] Do Ngoc Tuoc et al. (2013), Study on the
selection of appropriate technologies for
discharge of coal in coal mines - Final
Report on Science and Technology,
Ministry of Science and Technology, Ha
Noi Cabinet.
[9] Tran Manh Xuan (2010), Stabilization of
Cascades and Dumps, Hanoi University of
Mining and Geology, Hanoi.
[10] Robert Lucas (2014), Optimization of
Waste-Dump Lift Heights for Prestrip
Operations
[11] Mr. Marcus Fuchsschwanz, Mr. Shakeel
Ahmad, Dr. José B. Pateiro Fernández
(2010), Definition of height of layers for
test dumping at Chinh Bac waste dump.
[12] Ю.Г. Полкунов, Силкин, Р.Ш.
Наимова, Расчёт устойчивости откоса
отвала под действием сосредоточенной
нагрузки.
 EFFECTS OF FINE PARTICLES AND WATER CONTENT ON SHEAR
STRENGTH AND RIVERBANK STABILITY: A CASE STUDY IN THE RED
RIVERBANK IN HANOI AREA

Duong Thi Toan, Ngo Hong Hue

VNU University of Science, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: duongtoan109@gmail.com

Abstract: This paper focused on clarify the effects of saturation condition or water content to shear
strength and riverbank stability. Soil samples was collected in a case study area of Dan Phuong riverbank,
Red river, Hanoi area where riverbank failure occurred in rainy season recently. Methods used in this
study included field investigation, soil sample collection, soil properties testing in laboratory and
riverbank stability analysis by using Geoslope program. To simulating the effects of saturation condition
or water content to shear strength and riverbank stability, the soil samples water compacted in difference
water content then determined shear strength by direct shear test. The results of shear test at difference
water content then were used to set up for analyzing the riverbank‘s factor of safety (FOS). The obtained
results showed when the water content increases, the internal friction angle decreases, the cohesion force
increase and reach the maximum value, then gradually decrease. This trend occurs also defense on the
grain size content, the change in cohesion force (c) of the sample with higher clay content will be greater
than the sand sample. The change of the FOS has same trend as the change of cohesion force and shear
modulus. The FOS gradually increases with the increase in of water content, however, the FOS only
increases up to the water content obtains the critical water content. Then, the FOS returns decrease and
the riverbank failure may occurs when soil riverbank become saturate.

Keywords: soil properties; water content; fine content; shear strength and riverbank stability.

1. Introduction integrated biofilms, and extracellular polymeric

The shear strength including effective cohesion
force (c'), the friction angle of the saturated state
('), the matric suction angle (b), and the soil bulk
density are used directly in analyses slope stability.
The hydraulic conductivity is even not directly
used in those analyses, but should be accounted for
because hydraulic conductivity is a factor in the
capacity of water flow in soil. Most these
parameters depend on the saturation degree and
other factors. Mouazen (2002) 0 and Grabowski,
(2011)0 suggested that three groups of soil
properties should be considered when doing
research on riverbank slope stability and erosion:
(1) physical properties, such as average particle
size, particle size distribution, bulk density, water
content, and temperature; (2) geochemical
properties, such as clay composition, water
geochemistry (dissolved ions, pH, metals), and
organic content; and (3) biological properties, such
as the incidence of feeding and egestion, and
biogenic structures (burrows, root networks,
substances). These group factors are generally
present, and widely affect soil properties and
riverbank stability. In this study, the grain size
distribution and the water content were selected as
initial properties to vary with the aim of
performing riverbank stability analysis.
In these soil properties, the shear strength of
soil is a key parameter in estimating the factor of
safety (FOS) of slope stability. The shear behavior
of saturated soils of different grain sizes
(sand/clay) and densities (dense/loose) have been
extensively studied, and are summarized in
standard textbooks on soil mechanics (Fredlund et
al.,1978, 1993) 00. However, there has been little
study on the shear behaviors of unsaturated soil
(Badee et al., 2017).
For saturated soil, the resistance of shear
strength is described in term of net normal stress
and a saturated shear strength parameter obtained
from the internal friction angle and cohesion force.
Theories of shear strength for unsaturated soil have

62
been proposed as extensions of the concepts and in accordance with the effective angle of internal
mathematical equations that have been used for friction in soil when the suction value is small, and
shear strength of saturated soils. Fig. 1 shows soil the shear strength is the value for the saturated
suction curves and the shear behavior of state. As soil becomes unsaturated, the rate of
unsaturated soil as a function of suction. The soil increased shear with suction gradually decreases as
suction curves obviously depend soil grain size. residual suction conditions approaches, and it may
Clays have the highest suction, and sands have the decrease somewhat after a peak value is attained
lowest suction for identical water content. From near residual suction conditions. The change in
the figure, the soil grain size has a large impact on shear strength depends on the behavior of the
the behavior of soil suction. The shear strength of a suction curve. In other words, the shear strength
soil is a nonlinear function of suction; it increases depends on the type of soil material.

40

Volumetric water content (%)

40 Air-entry value
Volumetric Water Content (%)

30
(1d)
30 20

(1a) (1b) (1c)

10

20 (1) Unimodal 0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
(1a) Sand 50
Suction (kPa)

Shear strength (kPa)

(1b) Silt
(2) 40

10 (1c) Clay 1
30
(1d) Clay 2
20 '
(2) Bimodal Shear strength
envelope
0 10

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 0

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Suction (kPa) Suction (kPa)

Fig. 1. Soil suction curves of the variant grain size soils and the relation between soil suction and shear
strength

Moreover, it is recognized that the riverbank shows in some recently researches 0-0. In this
failure often occurs in rainy season with many paper, the shear strength will be performance with
factors such as changes in saturation condition of the change in water content in the direct shear test
riverbank due to rain and fluctuation of water level to clarify the effects of saturation condition (water
river flow, seepage, undercutting erosion. While content) on soil shear strength and the riverbank
the change of saturation condition is one of the stability.
primary causes the changes in soil properties such 2. Study area and methods
as reducing shear strength, soil suction, and Study area are some locations along Red
increasing of hydraulic conductivity leading to riverbank in Dan Phuong district, Hanoi (Fig.2
reducing the riverbank stability before having other shows Red river in Hanoi and, riverbank in Dan
attacks. Base on some these overviewing, it can see Phuong district). At Km 10 + 550 Van Coc dike, a
the role of saturation condition and suction to soil 20 m length of riverbank was broken with a width
shear strength and slope stability, and the soil of 4.5 m, and far 1.8 m from the house (Tho An
suction is required to analyses slope stability. commune). Another location even was reinforced
However, that also is limitation to determine the by stone at the riverbank ‗toe; however, it still was
directly soil suction and unsaturated shear strength broken with a huge length of about 500m (Fig.2).
in laboratory in Vietnam. To avoid these limitation According to information recorded from the
on slope stability analysis, the soil properties population, the survey area is has great erosion
should carried in deference water content, it can rate, the river flow rate here is very strong in the
available accept to obtain the shear strength as rainy season. The toe of riverbank continuity

63
erosion, then riverbank was broken, and land here
is very dangerous for growing agriculture as well
as human activities. The natural riverbank has a
high of about 4m above water level in dry season
and has steep slope about 85-90 degree. In the
surface of riverbank, it can be seen some crack,
leading riverbank high potential of failure. The
soils here quite homogeneous with a layer of silt or
silt sand or fine sand. To determine the soil
geotechnical properties, soil samples in both
undisturbed and disturbed were collected along
follow depth and along riverbank of study area.
This research focuses on assessing the change
of water content to shear strength and riverbank
stability. The responding methods include (1)
investigating the study area to understand status of
the broken riverbank, measuring the riverbank
Fig. 2. Location of the Red River in Vietnam and Hanoi
64
geometry for simulating riverbank stability,
collecting soil samples; (2) Soil testing in
laboratory to determine both physical and
mechanics geotechnical properties. While the
direct shear testing was used to determine the shear
strength at difference water content compacted
samples; (3) analyzing the riverbank stability at
difference of water content. The data of riverbank
geometry which measuring in the field will be used
to simulate the real riverbank. The general soil
properties and shear strength at difference water
content and density will be input in Geoslope
program to analyze riverbank stability. The
expected results will be built the relationship
between water content, fine content with shear
strength and the riverbank‘s factor of safety (FOS).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Riverbank soil properties
The soil testing results were carried out for 12
disturbed samples collected in 4 locations along
the Red River in Dan Phuong, Hano. The basic soil
properties were descripted in Table 1, the grain
size curves were shown in Fig. 3; while the soil
shear strength were determined at different water
content, fine content and density will be descripted
later.

Tab. 1. Testing results of soil samples in Red riverbank in Dan Phuong (DP)
Properties
DP01-1 DP01-2 DP02-1 DP02-2
Samples

Grain Sand > 0.05 mm 0 64.79 61.74 50.05

size Silt = 0.002-
51.61 15.2 22.32 32.61
percent 0.05mm (%)
(%) Clay <0.002mm 48,39 20,01 15,94 17,34
3
Density (g/cm ) 1,90 1,47 1,63 1,87
Specific weight (g/cm3) 2,71 2,66 2,69 2,68
Water content (%) 46,01 5,91 22,04 31,14
Liquid Limit (%) 35,77 27,74 27,89 27,71
Plastic Limit (%) 24,35 23,42 23,88 23,61
Plastic Index 11,42 4,32 4,01 4,10
-7 -4 -4
Hydraulic conductivity (cm/s) 3.66.10 3,4.10 4,4.10 1,023.10-4
Shear Internal friction
30.17 27.44 29.21 27.42
strength at angle (o)
natural water Cohesion force 18.15 13.70 13.56 13.47
content (kPa)
Soil classification SM SM SM SM

Fig. 3. Grain size curves of soil collected in Dan Phuong

65
 VNU-HN-BRUKER-D5005 - Mau DP01 - 1
1200

1100

1000

900

800

d=3.341
Lin (Cps)

700

600

500

400

300
d=9.940

d=4.255
d=7.094

d=1.8167
200

d=2.4549
d=3.192

d=2.1256
d=2.2815
d=3.534

d=2.9292
d=2.8849

d=2.5666

d=1.6712
d=1.9914
d=1.9785
d=4.964

d=4.473

d=2.2356
d=3.028
100

5 10 20 30 40 50 60

2-T heta - Scale

File: Hue-DiaChat-DP01-1.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 5.000 ° - End: 59.990 ° - Step: 0.030 ° - Step time: 1.0 s - Temp.: 25.0 ° C (Room) - Anode: Cu - Creation: 05/06/18 11:46:28
46-1045 (* ) - Quartz, syn - SiO2 - Y: 48.83 % - d x by: 1.000 - WL: 1.54056
01-0527 (D) - Kaolinite - Al2Si2O5(OH)4 - Y: 3.52 % - d x by: 1.000 - WL: 1.54056
34-0175 (C) - Muscovite-2M2 - (K,Na)Al2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2 - Y: 7.53 % - d x by: 1.000 - WL: 1.54056

Fig. 4. The mineral component in DP01-1 with main mineral as the Quatz of 48.83 %, and Kaollnite of
3.52% in weight

VNU-HN-BRUKER-D5005 - Mau DP01 - 2

1500

1400
d=3.344

1300

1200

1100

1000

900
Lin (Cps)

800

700

600

500

400
d=4.305d=4.251

300
d=1.8147
d=3.164

d=2.4548

d=2.1260
d=9.930

d=2.9522

d=2.2353

d=1.6704
d=2.2792
d=2.8848

d=1.9768

200
d=1.7979
d=7.141

d=2.4936

d=2.1616
d=3.768
d=4.477

d=2.0871
d=3.870

100

5 10 20 30 40 50 60

2-T heta - Scale

File: Hue-DiaChat-DP01-2.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 5.000 ° - End: 59.990 ° - Step: 0.030 ° - Step time: 1.0 s - Temp.: 25.0 ° C (Room) - Anode: Cu - Creation: 05/06/18 11:09:47
46-1045 (* ) - Quartz, syn - SiO2 - Y: 76.35 % - d x by: 1.000 - WL: 1.54056
01-0527 (D) - Kaolinite - Al2Si2O5(OH)4 - Y: 3.20 % - d x by: 1.000 - WL: 1.54056
34-0175 (C) - Muscovite-2M2 - (K,Na)Al2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2 - Y: 6.02 % - d x by: 1.000 - WL: 1.54056

Fig. 5. The mineral component in DP01-2 with main mineral as the Quatz of 76.35 %,
and Kaollnite of 3.2% in weight

From the results of the hydrometer analysis, the because these soils have high percentage of Quart,
grain curves of the soil samples is shown in Fig.3., 48.83 %, for DP01-1 and 76.35% for DP01-2, and
and the mineral component in DP01-1 and DP01-2 very low clay mineral. Base on physical properties
are shown in Fig. 4 and 5, respectively. By and mineral content, it can see that soil samples in
analyzing the soil testing results of samples this area are almost non-cohesion.
collected along the Red riverbank in Dan Phuong, 3.2. Effects of water content and density to
it was found that soil were dominantly classified as shear strength
SM soil, Sand – Mud mixtures. The soil has Experiment to determine the shear strength at
variable sand content up to 65%; with the silt different water content was performed by the direct
content is from 15 to about 50%; and the clay shear testing. Selected soil sample was firstly dry,
content is less than 50%. These show soil samples mixed with predetermined water weight to obtain
in study area are low cohesion behavior, which the predetermined water content. This processing
also match with the results of mineral component

66
was dropped from researches done by authors
Badee et. al. (2017) 0.
Selected soil sample is gathered in DP 01 where
riverbank was strong broken and erosion recently.
Soil shear strength by direct shear test were
sheared at loading of 100KPa, 150KPa and
250Kpa respectively. After finishing shear process,
the soil water content was also determined. The
results of shear strength calculating for internal
friction angle and cohesion force.
Based on the results shown in Table 2 and Fig.
6, 7, 8, it can see quite clearly the effects of water
content to shear strength. In both soil samples,
when the water content increases, the internal
friction angle decreases, the cohesion force
increase and reach the maximum value, then
gradually decrease. Clay sample - DP01-1 with
moisture from 9-18%, the cohesion force tends to
increase in the range of 10-21KPa, however, the
cohesion force reduces when the water content is
higher than 18%. With coarse soil sample DPP-2-
2, the cohesion force increased slightly from 7-
10KPa, after 24% moisture, the cohesion force
reduced to 9KPa. These results also shows the
effects of grain size content to cohesion force as
well as the shear strength modules. The change in
cohesion force (c) (Fig. 7) of the sample with
higher clay content (fine particle size) will be
greater than the sand sample. The reasons can be
explained as follows: When the water content
increase less than the pick considering as the
critical water content, the soil change from hard
soil to plastic soil. Water created the hydration
process, may be described as occurring in two
distinct steps: the first step consisting in a
separation of the oxygen surfaces during the course
of which the interlayer cations remain attached to
the surfaces; and the second step consisting in a
detachment of the cations from the oxygen
surfaces through their interaction with water
molecules. These processes are created when water
content increase, then the soil change state from
hard to plastic and the soil cohesion force increase.
However, when the water content is higher than
the critical water content, the water molecules
create expansion at the interlayer position, which is
equivalent to a thickness of a unimolecular layer of
water; it occurs after the formation of the
multimolecular layer of water on the exterior of the
particles. The expansion is accompanied by a
distribution n of the water from the exterior to the
interlayer positions of the particles and results in
the formation of a discontinuous unimolecular
water layer at the inter layer position.

Tab. 2. The direct shear testing results at different water content and density for soil sample ĐP01-1,
ĐP01-2.
Properties Shear testing results
Samples Water Density
100KPa 150KPa 250KPa
content (%) (g/cm3)
9 1.42 73.04 91.82 158.61
14 1.49 76.17 100.17 163.08
ĐP01-1 18 1.54 80.34 106.43 166.96
25 1.63 69.91 98.91 156.9
43 1.85 67.77 96.65 154.41
8 1.51 60.02 86.27 138.76
13 1.59 61.98 87.94 139.87
ĐP01-2
17 1.65 64 90.56 143.68
24 1.74 50.08 80.12 121.04

67
 Fig.6. The direct shear testing results at different water conten
and loading stress for soil sample ĐP01-1, ĐP01-2.
Fig. 7. The effect of water content
to cohesion force
The obtained results in this research has the
same trend as previous researches (Badee et al.,
2017; Tymoteusz and Joanna, 2012; Mohamad et
al., 2011), which showed that in low fine content
(FC equals to 20%), the shear strength and
modulus decreases with the increment of the
moisture content. This behavior can be expressed
by the lubrication effect of the moisture content
between the coarse material which caused
decrement in the friction angle and shear strength
(Mohamad, et al., 2011 0). However, with further
increment on the fine content, the relationship
between the shear strength and modulus towards
moisture content converted to curve relationship.
Both of shear strength and modulus increased to
the highest value with the increment of the
moisture content and then both decreased with
further increment of the moisture content. This
behavior can be expressed through the following
fact: At low moisture content, the water molecules
strengthen the electrical bond between the kaolin
particles (i.e. increased the whole sand-kaolin
mixture strength) by dipole attraction. Thus by
additional moisture content, the water started to
68
Fig. 8. The effect of water content
to the internal friction angle
increase the distance between the kaolin particle;
consequently, decreased the bonds between the
kaolin particles thus decreased the sand-kaolin
mixture strength.
3.3. Simulating the effects of water content
and shear strength on riverbank’s factor of safety
The geometry data and soil properties in DP01
will be used to simulate the effects of water
content to the factor of safety (FOS) of riverbank.
The configuration of riverbank in DP01 is
presented with the high of riverbank is 3.5m, and
the slope angle of 80 degree, with a homogeneous
soil layer of DP01-1. The soil properties such as
natural gravity, permeability coefficient, friction
angle, cohesion forces at different water content
are used as input data for Geoslope analyses as
shown in Table 1, Table 2. Analyses were run by
setting the steady boundary condition of river
water level, and keeping the same geometry bank
condition, only the soil geotechnical properties
change responding the change of water content.
The predetermined water content at four level at
14%; 18%; 25%; 43% as shown in Table 2 were
used in analyses.
 W = 14% W = 18%
S = 37% S = 45%
Fig. 9. The effects of water content (W) and saturation degree (S) to the factor of safety (FOS)
Fig. 9 shows the results of the FOS responding
to the change in water content and saturation
degree. The change of the FOS has same trend as
the change of cohesion force and shear modulus.
The FOS of the riverbank began to increase as the
water of the sample increased from 9% to 18%,
corresponding to a saturation of 23 to 45%.
However, the FOS decreased when the water
content increased more than 18 %, specific the
FOS decreases when analyses was run with the
water content 25 % and 43%, corresponding
saturation degree higher than 64%. This results
shows the effects of water content or saturation
condition on river bank stability. The riverbank is
not exactly stable when soil is dry (less than 9 % in
this case) because of low cohesion force. The FOS
gradually increases with increasing of water
content which building the increasing of cohesion
force as discussion in 3.2 of this paper. However,
the FOS only increases and has the highest value at
a specific water content which can be called as the
critical water content, then FOS returns decrease
and the riverbank failure may occurs when soil
riverbank become saturate. This trouble offend
occurs in the rainy day and rainy season, or change
of water level both in river water level or ground
water level because change the water level also
leading to change the saturation region by soil
suction behaviors. This analysis shows clearly the
sensitive of riverbank stability, even the change of
pore pressure or confining pressure are not
covered; only mention on effect of water content
which very easily occurs. Based on these results,
the riverbank in this case study as the natural bank
area where almost as silt sand with low cohesion
69
W = 25% W = 43%
S = 64% S = 100%
force, need to improve and enhance soil strength
and riverbank protection.
4. Conclusions
This paper shows the characteristic of natural
soil riverbank in Red riverbank; Dan Phuong,
Hanoi and focusing on clarify the effects of
saturation condition or water content to shear
strength and riverbank stability. Soils riverbank
dominate are silt sand with low cohesion force, and
classified in SM soil, and fine sand.
Based on the obtained result, it can see clearly
the effects of water content on shear strength and
riverbank stability. when the water content
increases, the internal friction angle decreases, the
cohesion force increase and reach the maximum
value, then gradually decrease. This trend occurs in
both types of sample (SM and fine sand). These
results also shows the effects of grain size content
to cohesion force as well as the shear strength
modules. The change in cohesion force (c) of the
sample with higher clay content (fine particle size)
will be greater than the sand sample may be by the
difference of clays content in mixtures.
The change of the FOS has same trend as the
change of cohesion force and shear modulus. The
FOS gradually increases with increasing of water
content which build the increase in cohesion force.
However, the FOS only increases up to the water
content obtains the the critical water content, then
FOS returns decrease and the riverbank failure
may occurs when soil riverbank become saturate.
This analysis shows clearly the sensitive of
riverbank stability, even the change of pore
pressure or confining pressure are not covered, the
high saturation condition may enough to cause the
riverbank failure.
Acknowledgements
The research described herein was financially
supported by the project Code 105.08-2015.24,
sponsored by Nafosted, Ministry of Science and
Technology, Vietnam. The authors express their
sincere gratitude for this support.
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of Sands. Geotechnical Earthquake
Engineering and Soil Dynamics IV: 1-11.
doi:10.1061/40975(318)91
 EVALUATION OF ADAPTIVE CAPACITY TO SALINITY INTRUSION
OF THE DA NANG CITY IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Nguyen Ngoc Truc, Nguyen Thi Oanh, Ho Xuan Huong

VNU-Vietnam National University, Vietnam.
Corresponding author’ Email: trucnn@vnu.edu.vn

Abstract: Coastal deltas areas are frequently affected by natural disasters such as storms, floods and
droughts, especially salinity intrusion due to climate change and sea level rise. Climate change adaptation
is an adjustment in the natural, social and human systems to respond to current and future climate change
by mitigating damages or taking advantage of it. In addition, the low adaptive capacity of local residents
with salinity intrusion increases the impact of the hazards. This is the first paper to assess the adaptability
of coastal households in Da Nang with saline intrusion and climate change. The estimation of adaptability
based on calculation of salinity risk adaptability in five dimensions and 25 indicators, which were applied
to households in 7 districts of Da Nang. The results showed that the adaptive capacity to saline intrusion
in the context of climate change of Da Nang is quite high, fluctuating from 0.405 to 0.781: the
communities in the wards of Khue Trung and Hoa Cuong Bac were the regions with the lowest and
highest adaptation to salinity intrusion, respectively. There are four regions in the city: the low-
adaptability area with an adaptation index from 0.405 to 0.500 in the wards of Khe Trung and Hoa Xuan;
the moderate adaptability with an adaptation index between 0.500 and 0.593 in the wards of Hoa Nhon,
Hoa Lien and Hoa Hiep Bac, Hoa Quy; the high and highest-adaptability area with an adaptation index
from 0.593 to 0.687 and from 0.678 to 0.781, respectively in the remain wards of Da Nang. The
adaptability of the households in some communes or wards in Da Nang with the infrastructure
dimensions with the index of nearly 1 is highly appreciated. However, the economic, human and social
dimensions is medium. Therefore, in order to better adapt to saline intrusion and climate change, the city
of Da Nang needs to improve its adaptation to saline intrusion through the above mentioned dimensions
and especially focus on the promotion of economic development, urban planning and human and social
capital.

Keywords: adaptive capacity; saline intrusion; climate change; Da Nang.

1. Introduction saline intrusion. Saline intrusion is seriously

Climate change has caused serious impacts on
the socio-economic development, natural resources
and environment in Vietnam. The major
consequences of climate change include changes in
precipitation, rising temperatures and severe
disasters such as storms, floods, droughts and
saline intrusion. The coastal urbans in Vietnam
with high population density and rapid socio-
economic development will be highly vulnerable to
climate change. For Da Nang City, the projected
sea level by 2030 will increase from 11.6 cm to
11.8 cm and cause flooding area of 2.4 km2 (Da
Nang People's council, 2004) [1]. In addition, this
city is one of the fastest growing cities in Vietnam
and is directly affected by climate change and
affecting on the natural, environmental, economic,
social and infrastructural conditions of the city. In
order to reduce the vulnerability to climate change
and saline intrusion impacts, it is time to build the
adaptive capacity level as a foundation for
proposing proper adaptive solutions (Smit B., et
al., 2006) [2]. However, current adaptive plans and
strategies have yet based on the adaptive
assessment of the area (Vietnam Institute of
Meteorology, hydrology and environment, 2010)
[3]. The adaptation to climate change and saline
intrusion is currently concerned in various areas
and on different scales toward specific objectives
of the natural-social systems. In particular, the
households play an important part in the complex

71
natural-social system that is vulnerable to climate
change and saline intrusion. Therefore, a research
on saline intrusion adaptation at the household
scale is needed to develop effective strategies for
enhancing adaptation and reducing vulnerability.
According to Adger, et.al, the social-economic
dimensions, political support and education have
greater influence on vulnerability and
sustainability of the system. They also
recommended that study should be made at the
household scale (Adger W.N. et al, 2009) [4].
Therefore, an assessment on the adaptive capacity
to saline intrusion of the households in Da Nang
City is necessary for proposing measures and
strategies in order to reduce vulnerability and
increase the adaptation to climate change. This
study, therefore, aims to assess the adaptability
based on calculation of salinity risk adaptability in
five dimensions and with 25 indicators, which
were applied to the households in 7 districts of Da
Nang City.
2. Methods
By methods of inherited materials, synthesizing
and statistical analysis, we have evaluated main
characteristics and actual state of being saline of
Da Nang city. In addition, the research group also
investigated and collected 465 questionnaires at
household scale on the saline intrusion issue. The
analyzed data was used for calculating adaptive
capacity index of the city, from which an adaptive
capacity map was built.
The estimation of adaptability based on
calculation of salinity risk adaptability in five
dimensions and 25 indicators, which were applied
to households in 7 districts of Da Nang. The
clarification of these indicators are shown in Table
1 for more detail. In each ward, the number of
questionnaire samples is randomly distributed to
25 households from the household list.
In general, adaptive capacity to climate change
and saline intrusion is assessed by some integrated
indicators (e.g. economic, human, social, physical,
and governance capitals) of the socio-natural
system. In the present paper, the theoretical
framework for household’s adaptation to saline
intrusion is divided into five dimensions,
containing 25 indicators. The adaptive capacity of
households to saline intrusion is measured by the
72
inherent capacity (economic and human capitals)
and the external capacity (social, infrastructure,
natural resources, and governance capital). The
external capacity is exterior sources that will
improve the interneal capacity, for example,
governance is a major mechanism to increase the
inherent capacity (Adger W.N. et al, 2003) [6].
The definitions for five indicated dimensions are
following:
Economic capital refers to the economic
potential of the household to adapt with saline
intrusion, consisting of wealth, livelihood
diversity, employment and insurance coverage.
Social can be measured by the social relations
and cohesion, comprised social communication,
participation in social organization and community
funds, knowledge of natural disasters, climate
change and skill, knowledge, and awareness of the
household members.
Infrastructure capital refers to the ability to
access the municipal services, including health
care, electricity supply, and waste collection and
power supply.
Natural-environment-ecology capital includes
the environmental quality and natural resources
that can directly improve other capacities of
household to adapt to saline intrusion.
Governance capital denotes the democratic
chance for household to involve in urban planning
and the level of urban stability and security.
However, in this research, we concentrate more
on economic and social indicators. These
indicators consist of household income,
employment, assets, health, gender, age, education,
institution, science and technique. Wall and
Marzall (2006) indicated that households having
better knowledge in disaster mitigation and climate
change adaptation will cope better with climate
change and obtain opportunities from changing
living conditions (Wall E. et al , 2006) [5].
The adaptive capacity indicators are normalized
on the scale of 0-1 by three scoring steps (Table 2),
consisting of (1) standardized based on min-max
theory (Han J. et al, 2012) [7], (2) converted to the
scale of 0-1 for semi-quantitatively indicators
based on weights for adaptation practices, and (3)
calculated the value of 0 or 1 score based on the
qualitative data. For the 0-1 scale, if the indicator
value is more asymptotic to 1, it will indicate a indicator value is more asymptotic to 0, it will
higher adaptive capacity, and in reverse, if that indicate lower adaptive capacity.

Tab. 1. Indicators hypothesized to assess the ability adapt to saline intrusion in Da Nang City
Dimensions Variables Indicators
Water contaminated
Water sources using during
Water resource disaster
Natural- Environment-Ecology The satisfaction of Water resource
Soil quality Soil contaminated
Air quality Air pollution
Wealth Household income
Livelihood diversity Type of livelihood activities
Economy
Employment Proportion of employed persons
Insurance coverage Rate of participants of insurance
types
Prevention to natural disaster and Preparing tools for disaster
adaptation to climate change Skill prevention, adaptation to climate
change
Participation in social
organizations, training courses,
propagation, rehearsal for disaster
mitigation and climate change
Knowledge of natural disasters, adaptation
climate change Sharing and exchanging
experiences on natural disasters
and climate change
Watching TV, radio, newspapers
Social
Social power Participation in community funds
Education level
The role of livelihoods in climate
change adaptation
Feelings of people when listening
Social communication
to unusual information about
natural disaster
Self-assessment of adaptability to
climate change
Age of employed persons rate
Adaptability
Rate of male / female
Health services Quality of health facilities
Infrastructure Waste service Household waste collection and
treatment services
Power supply The quality of electric supply
Democratic policy Household involvement in urban
Governance planning
Urban stability and security The level of urban stability and
security

73
 The min-max theory ranks the level of each
indicator following Eq. 1:
xij = (Xij – Min Xij)/ (Max Xij – Min Xij) (1)
Where xij is the standardized value of indicator
i of the household j; Xij is the value of the
indicator i corresponding to household j; Max and
Min stand for the maximum and minimum scaled
values of indicator i.
The adaptive capacity index of household
(AChousehold) and ward (ACward) are calculated as
sum of the AC indicators (ACI), households, and
wards using Eq. (2), and (3), respectively.
(2)
(n is the number of AC indicators; i=1,n; n=25)
(3)
(m is the number of interviewed households, j=
1,m).
The interviewed data were processed by
Microsoft Excel (version 2013) and MapInfo
(version 10). Normalized values of each
components will be evaluated by weighting
method and averaging method. Adaptive capacity
index of Da Nang city is therefore defined. From
the indexing result, a process of using spatial
analysis tools and Geographic Information System
(GIS) method like in the Figure 1 will be applied in
order to produce the adaptive mapping of the area
(Figure 2).
Dimension X1
Dimension X2
…
…
Dimension Xn
Superposition
Mapping adaptive
capacity to salinity
intrusion
Fig. 1. Diagram of capacity adaptation to
salinity based on many dimensions
74
Fig. 2. Mapping salinity situation in Da Nang City
3. Saline intrusion and its impacts in Da Nang
City
At present, the areas affected by saline intrusion
of Da Nang City belong to some districts such as
Hoa Vang district (Hoa Lien, Hoa Xuan and Hoa
Quy wards); Lien Chieu district, Son Tra district, a
part of Thanh Khe district, Cam Le district and Hai
Chau district. The survey results are based on real
measured data of surface water (lake water) and
groundwater (well water). The river systems in Da
Nang are mostly saline, typically Han River; Do
Toa River; Cam Le River; Yen River ... From the
survey, it is indicated that salinity intrusion has a
great impact on many different objects such as
infrastructure system, socio-economic, ecological
resources and land use. For instance, the saline
intrusion has a negative impact on agricultural
production through saline agriculture, soil
degradation; structure of soil changing. The deep
and prolonged saline intrusion will seriously affect
on the production of over 700 hectares of
agricultural soil along the Vinh Dien River and
Yen River. This situation will effect on the lives of
50,000 people in Hoa Quy, Hoa Hai, Hoa Xuan,
Hoa Tien, Hoa Khuong and Hoa Phong
communes. The depletion of the Yen River, the
deep salinity of the An Trach Dam will exacerbate
on the shortage of fresh water for agriculture,
industry and daily life of the citizens.
More than 700,000 peoples in the city run out
of fresh water and thousands of production
facilities and services are stagnated. These will be
catastrophic for the life and development of the
city. The restructuring of the crop varieties and
seasonal calendar has been implemented as a
solution of the agriculture sector in responding to
saline intrusion. Along the Cu De River in Hoa
Lien and Hoa Bac communes, in order to cope
with droughts and saline intrusion, human have
actively planted sugarcane, maize and cassava to
replace the former crops. Also in Hoa Lien
commune, some areas of salinity land were
converted to saltwater aquaculture, another was
converted into urban areas. In response to the
situation of salinisation caused by climate change
in the above areas, the agriculture sector has taken
measures such as constructing fresh water
reservoirs and dyke systems prevention to saline.
The infrastructure was affected by saline
intrusion (impact on soil and foundations, water
systems and irrigation systems). This impacts
include: breakdown of structure (removal of
surface of embankment dams, corrosion of
concrete, corrosion of plumbing and steel core of
reinforced concrete structures; reduce the capacity
of the foundations, increase the settlement
subsidence); Reduced life expectancy (dissolved
salt with cement and steel components, sensitive
clay minerals). In addition, the saline intrusion
effects on the irrigation system for agricultural and
domestic water supply of the city.
Livelihoods are also affected by saline
intrusion. Specifically, in the rural areas, in Cam
Le, Vinh Dien and Co Co River (belong to Hoa
Xuan, Hoa Quy and Hoa Hai wards) and along the
Cu De River basin (in Hoa Bac and Hoa Lien
communes), saline intrusion affected on both
surface water and groundwater. The shortage of
fresh water for agricultural production and daily
life become more common.
4. Adaptive capacity of Da Nang to salinity
intrusion
Indicators of adaptability of Da Nang City was
built on 25 indicators of five components: natural-
environmental-ecological condition, economy,
society, urban infrastructure and urban governance.
75
After calculating all indicators, adaptive capacity
index to salinity intrusion of Da Nang City are
shown in Table 2.
Adaptive capacity index of the research area is
the combination of pre-index in the Table 2 and
information of areas with high risk from salinity
intrusion. Adaptive capacity index to salinity
intrusion of the area fluctuates from 0,405 to
0,781. This range is divided into 4 sub-ranges:
Low, moderate, high and very high adaptive
capacity area, which index ranging from 0,405 to
0,500; from 0,500 to 0.593; from 0.593 to 0,687
and from 0,678 to 0,781 respectively.
The combination of dividing areas by adaptive
capacity and map of area with high risk to salinity
intrusion has creates Figure 3.
It was shown that Khue Trung and Hoa Xuan
wards of Cam Le district have lowest adaptive
capacity with salinity intrusion with their index
being 0,405 and 0,500 respectively. Meanwhile,
Hai chau, Son Tra and Thanh Khe districts have
high and very high adaptive capacity, especially
Hai Chau district in which 10/13 wards were
evaluated as very high adaptive capacity areas.
The rest wards/districts namely Hoa Vang, Lien
Chieu and Ngu Hanh Son have both wards/districts
with moderate, high and very high adaptive
capacity index. But in general, these districts were
assessed as relatively high adaptive area.
Generally, Da Nang City was highly
determined in terms of adaptive capacity basing on
5 mentioned above components. Noticeably,
infrastructure component of many wards/districts
were highly appreciated with adaptive capacity
index reaching up to 1. By contrast, economy and
society components remain moderate. Therefore,
we recommend that the city should pay special
concern on improving economic and social factor.
 Tab. 2. Adaptive capacity index to salinity intrusion and dividing areas by adaptive capacity at ward
level of Da Nang City.

Dimensions
AC AC index
Name of Ward Nature-Envir- AC
Economy Society Infrastructure Governance index (0-1)
Ecology code
Khue Trung 0.350 0.377 0.500 0.300 0.500 0.405 0.000 1
Hoa Xuan 0.414 0.520 0.564 0.494 0.507 0.500 0.251 1
Hoa Phat 0.543 0.492 0.833 0.400 0.750 0.604 0.528 3
Hoa Tho Đong 0.542 0.595 0.833 0.650 0.625 0.649 0.649 3
Hoa An 0.626 0.660 0.720 0.804 0.557 0.673 0.713 3
Hoa Tho Tay 0.442 0.551 0.912 0.854 0.755 0.703 0.792 4
Hoa Thuận Đong 0.464 0.489 0.867 0.920 0.450 0.638 0.619 3
Hải Chau 1 0.208 0.667 1.000 1.000 0.500 0.675 0.718 3
Hoa Cuong Nam 0.542 0.489 0.867 0.880 0.625 0.680 0.733 3
Hoa Thuan Tay 0.515 0.544 1.000 0.786 0.607 0.690 0.760 4
Bình Thuan 0.513 0.555 1.000 0.818 0.611 0.699 0.783 4
Thach Thang 0.481 0.489 1.000 1.000 0.563 0.707 0.803 4
Thanh Binh 0.487 0.538 1.000 0.980 0.563 0.713 0.821 4
Hai Chau 2 0.471 0.579 0.933 0.903 0.750 0.727 0.858 4
Thuan Phuoc 0.398 0.537 0.970 0.946 0.795 0.729 0.863 4
Binh Hien 0.393 0.520 1.000 1.000 0.833 0.749 0.916 4
Phuoc Ninh 0.474 0.543 1.000 0.968 0.765 0.750 0.918 4
Nam Duong 0.422 0.561 0.983 0.971 0.825 0.752 0.925 4
Hoa Cuong Bac 0.550 0.603 1.000 1.000 0.750 0.781 1.000 4
Hoa Son 0.460 0.484 0.583 0.663 0.594 0.557 0.404 2
Hoa Nhon 0.398 0.454 0.917 0.729 0.344 0.568 0.434 2
Hoa Lien 0.388 0.557 0.667 0.626 0.705 0.588 0.488 2
Hoa Phu 0.455 0.510 0.701 0.788 0.531 0.597 0.511 2
Hoa Ninh 0.566 0.519 0.800 0.880 0.300 0.613 0.553 3
Hoa Phong 0.488 0.575 0.667 0.967 0.375 0.614 0.557 3
Hoa Bac 0.402 0.497 0.746 0.739 0.771 0.631 0.602 3
Hoa Chau 0.423 0.555 0.917 0.950 0.333 0.636 0.613 3
Hoa Phuoc 0.553 0.512 0.958 0.636 0.750 0.682 0.736 3
Hoa Khuong 0.619 0.580 0.778 0.833 0.667 0.695 0.773 4
Hoa Tien 0.452 0.539 0.976 0.929 0.679 0.715 0.825 4
Hoa Hiep Bac 0.355 0.486 0.697 0.631 0.577 0.549 0.383 2
Hoa Khanh Bac 0.434 0.518 0.917 0.868 0.516 0.650 0.653 3
Hoa Khanh Nam 0.626 0.670 1.000 0.667 0.417 0.676 0.721 3
Hoa Minh 0.540 0.550 0.833 1.000 0.750 0.735 0.878 4
Hoa Hiep Nam 0.482 0.512 1.000 0.860 0.900 0.751 0.920 4
Hoa Quy 0.388 0.549 0.754 0.601 0.643 0.587 0.484 2
Hoa Hai 0.490 0.619 0.889 0.620 0.542 0.632 0.604 3
Mỹ An 0.512 0.506 0.938 0.905 0.406 0.653 0.661 3
Khue My 0.360 0.568 0.944 1.000 0.667 0.708 0.806 4
Nai Hien Đong 0.531 0.493 0.800 0.920 0.300 0.609 0.542 3
Tho Quang 0.425 0.501 0.944 1.000 0.500 0.674 0.716 3
Man Thai 0.468 0.479 0.944 0.983 0.604 0.696 0.774 4
An Hai Tay 0.392 0.494 1.000 0.960 0.650 0.699 0.783 4
An Hai Bac 0.418 0.542 1.000 1.000 0.583 0.709 0.808 4
Phuoc My 0.483 0.485 0.938 0.875 0.781 0.712 0.818 4
An Hai Đong 0.483 0.524 0.939 0.912 0.864 0.744 0.903 4
An Khe 0.457 0.508 0.667 0.883 0.500 0.603 0.526 3
Chinh Gian 0.404 0.502 1.000 0.950 0.458 0.663 0.686 3
Thanh Khe Đong 0.431 0.600 0.861 0.880 0.542 0.663 0.686 3
Thanh Khe Tay 0.556 0.550 0.792 0.900 0.563 0.672 0.711 3
Thac Gian 0.412 0.595 1.000 1.000 0.375 0.677 0.723 3

76
Tan Chinh 0.465 0.485 0.958 1.000 0.500 0.682 0.736 3
Tam Thuan 0.543 0.520 0.958 1.000 0.438 0.692 0.763 4
Xuan Ha 0.442 0.575 1.000 1.000 0.604 0.724 0.850 4
Vinh Trung 0.462 0.565 1.000 1.000 0.604 0.726 0.855 4
Hoa Khe 0.487 0.533 0.983 0.824 0.825 0.730 0.866 4

Fig. 3. Mapping adaptive capacity to salinity intrusion of Da Nang City

From the calculation result and adaptive 5. Conclusion

capacity map related to salinity intrusion, it can be
seen that Khue Trung and Hoa Xuan wards which
were estimated as low adaptive capacity wards are
under negative impacts of salinity intrusion.
Located in the frontier area of three rivers Cam Le,
Vinh Dien and To Doa, Hoa Xuan ward is also the
lowest area of the city with all area suffers from
flood. Even though the Xuan Hoa award is
surrounded by rivers, the ward is considered as
“drought” area as it is salinization. Water resource
in the ward is mostly unusable for human and
agricultural production. Besides, Nguyen Ngoc
Truc et.al (2017) has pointed out that Hoa Xuan
ward is a highly vulnerable area [8].
Regarding Khuong Trung ward, despite having
a quite plate area and investment of local authority
in infrastructure in recent years, most citizens are
farmers with agriculture being their main
livelihood. Therefore, when Cam Le River being
salinization, the ward has lowest adaptive capacity.
The study area is under saline intrusion hazard
as it belongs to downstream of Cam Le, Cau Do
and Cu De rivers. For the sake of assessing
adaptive capacity to saline intrusion of Da Nang
City, 25 indicators of 5 components were selected,
namely natural-environmental-ecology capital,
society, urban infrastructure and urban governance
factors.
From the research result, it was indicated that in
the context of climate change, adaptive capacity to
saline intrusion of Da Nang City is relatively high,
fluctuating between 0,405 and 0,781. The city can
be divided into 4 sub-areas corresponding to
adaptive capacity level from lowest to highest.
Low adaptive capacity areas belong to Khue Trung
and Hoa Xuan wards which has AC index ranging
from 0,405- 0,500. Moderate AC areas were
founded in Hoa Nhon, Hoa Lien, Hoa Hiep Bac
and Hoa Quy wards with AC index being from
0,500 to 0.593. The rest wards of the city are high

77
or very high AC areas. The pointed low adaptive
areas mostly derived from environment, welfare
and security conditions and kind of livelihood of
the area.
It can be concludes that factors like economy,
human resource, social relationship, environmental
quality, urban service and urban security are key
contribution to adaptive capacity related to salinity
intrusion of coastal city like Da Nang.
Through the study, we recommend following
solutions for the city: (i) developing vocational
training programs for households in order to
diversify citizen’s livelihood. The training should
focus on sustainable livelihood, changing
challenges of climate change to opportunities such
as new agricultural technology, adaptive
agricultural techniques, etc); (ii) Increasing social
relationship of households through social
organizations and community funds; (iii)
Strengthening people’s awareness on climate
change adaptation through education; (iv) Building
strategies and policies for increasing efficiency and
quality of health facilities, school and ensuring
urban security.
Acknowledgements
The present study is supported by Vietnam
National Project “Studying and proposing coastal
urban models for strengthening adaptive capacity
to climate change” (No. BDKH.32), Program
coded KHCN-BĐKH11/15, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment of Vietnam.
References
[1]. Da Nang People's council, Technical
report: The response to climate change in
Da Nang City, 2014 (in Vietnamese).
78
[2]. Smit B., and Wandel J, Adaptation,
adaptive capacity and vulnerability, Global
Environmental Change 16: 282-292, 2006
[3]. Vietnam Institute of Meteorology,
hydrology and environment, Instruction
document of Assessment of Climate
change impacts and determine adaptive
solutions, Viet Nam Publishing House of
Natural Resources, Environment and
Cartography, 2010 (in Vietnamese).
[4]. Adger W.N., H. Eaki
[5]. n, and A. Winkels, Nested and
teleconnected vulnerabilities to
environmental change. Frontiers in
Ecology and the Environment 7: 150-
157, 2009
[6]. Wall E. and Marzall K., Adaptive Capacity
for Climate Change in Canadian Rural
Communities, Local Environment 11: 373-
397, 2006
[7]. Adger W.N., Social capacital, collective
action, and adaptation to climate change.
Economic Geography 79: 387-404, 2003
[8]. Han J., Kamber M., and Pei J., Data
mining Concepts and Techniques, 3rd
edition, Elsevier Inc, USA, 2012
[9]. Nguyen Ngoc Truc, Truong Van Thinh,
Nguyen Van Thuong, Nguyen Thao Ly.
Current state and vulnerability induced by
saline intrusion in the climate change
context in Da Nang city. Journal of
Science Vietnam National University:
Earth and Environmental studies, Vol 33,
No 2 (2017) Page 90-107.
EFFECTS OF CAPILARY WATER ON GROUNDWATER IN COASTAL SAND
DUNES IN THE NORTH CENTRAL REGION OF VIETNAM

Nguyen Thanh Cong1, Nguyen Huy Vuong1, Pham Tuan1,

Tran Van Quang1, Vu Ba Thao1, Bui Truong Son2
1
Hydraulic Construction Institute, Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: huyvuongdkt@gmail.com

Abstract: The coastal sandy belt of Vietnam from Nghe An to Quang Binh is located in a tropical area
with heavy rainfall, so the amount of condensation water on the surface layer of sand dunes is often
discounted in estimating the groundwater contained in the sand dunes. This is a coastal area with high
humidity, high temperature difference between day and night, which is favorable for condensation. This
study determines the moisture content of sand in the top layer by weighing the Micro Lysimeter with 8
cm in diameter and 3.5 cm in depth, in order to evaluate the amount of condensation water in the dunes
surface and to assess the availability on recharging the underground water. The measurement period is
continuous 5 days and nights for each month, from July 2016 to July 2017. The results show that the
amount of condensation water on the surface of the dunes during one year is 2.7% of annual rainfall and
9,1% of annual evaporation. Such small amount of condensation water is insufficient to recharge
groundwater, but it reduces the amount of evaporation water from the sand.

Keywords: hydrological; sand dune; condensation water; North Central Vietnam.

1. Motivation occurs so often. As a consequence, this amount of

The condensation water that is formed on the
surface of unsaturated zone can be generated from
the air (i.e. fog) and soil moisture. The amount of
this type of water is often low; However, in some
cases, it can occupy a considerable proportion in
water equilibrium system. Based on water balance
theory, Chen (2002) initially calculated that in the
northwest arid area of Minqin (Northwest China),
where the average annual rainfall is only 100 mm,
the dewfall received by the surface soil ranges
from roughly 100 to 200 mm, exceeding the
contribution of the natural precipitation 1;
another case in Hungary, the annual condensation
water was in range of 26mm and 36mm 2.
The coastal sand dunes from Nghe An to Quang
Binh are located in a tropical zone where rainfall
water is not taken into account of evaluating water
capacity in the dunes’ body. This region has
favorable conditions to form condensation water
on the dune surface, i.g. high moisture, and high
gap between day and night temperature. The
location was chosen to measure the condensation
water is Thinh Loc commune, Loc Ha district, Ha
Tinh province (15° 30’N, 105° 52’ E) (Fig 1).
There are sand dunes which are typical for Central
Vietnam; annual average precipitation is 2,661mm
(concentrates in the end of summer), annual
average evaporation is 800mm, and annual average
temperature is 25.60C.The Southwest monsoon
wind is hot and dry, blows mainly from April to
August with average speed of 2÷3 m/s; the
Northeast monsoon wind is wet and cold, blows
mainly from November to March, average wind

79
speed can reach 10÷15 m/s. The annual average
relative humidity is 86%, the monthly average
relative humidity is 85÷93%. The annual average
evaporation is 800mm, and the highest amount for
a month can reach 131.18mm. This sand dune
region is 400m wide; the dunes’ peaks are 7÷12m
above sea level, gentle slope; the surfaces are
mainly covered by grass, trees that are 3÷7m high
grow sparsely and a small amount of shrubs. The
main component of sand dune is small grain sand
in upper Holocene (mvQ23) with depth of 10÷20m.
The upper layer is porous and 2÷3m deep with
components are sand (89.2%), dust and clay; light
yellow-grey or white-grey; low humid and porous.
The lower layer consists of small grain sand
(yellow-brown), wet, in less tight to normal tight
condition.
This research focus on evaluate the capacity of
condensation water of the upper layer of the
ventilation zone inside sand dunes.
Fig. 1. The research area
2. Research Methodology
The condensation water is measured by Micro-
Lysimeter (MLS), functioning based on weight
balance principle which is considered as the most
effective solution to calculate the quantity of dew
and condensation on the ground surface 3. MLS
system was set up in vacant land without any big
tree, only sparse grass.
MLS contains some steel round blades
(diameter of 8.0cm; 3.5cm high) and plastic round
blades (diameter of 8.7cm, 3.5cm high). The
original soil samples were filled up into round
blades. MLS works as a pair, one blade is closed
cover, and other blade is cover by stainless steel
80
mesh (D0.1mm). The mesh allows moisture from
sand ground into the sand inside round blade. The
two MLSs were put into two identical pipes
(D110mm, 5cm long) and buried into sand ground
in which surface of MLSs and pipes are right on
the ground surface. The bottom of pipes were
covered by a steel mesh (D0.1mm) in order to let
moisture go through and prevent sand sticking to
the bottom of MLSs. The MLS with solid bottom
(MLS01) was used to measure condensation fog
water (only capable to collect fog that condenses
on the surface, namely DF); the MLS with mesh
cover (MLS02) was used to measure the total
amount of water that condenses on the sand surface
(include fog from the air and moisture from sand,
shorted by CW). The principle of two MLSs can be
illustrated as in Fig 2.
The MLSs was weighted with accuracy of
±0.001g at 6:00 AM and 6:00 PM every day. The
amount of condensation water is the difference
between weight of lysimeter in the morning (6:00
to 7:00AM, before sunrise) and in the afternoon
(sunset) of the day before (5:00PM to 6:00PM).
This amount can be calculated by the following
equation:
CW ( DF )  10*(Gs  Gc ) / Sv (1)
In which:
CW: total amount of condensation water in the
sand dune, in MLS02(mm);
DF: amount of condensation water from fog
water, in MLS01(mm);
Gs: weight of the collector (MLS and sand) in
the morning (g);
Gc: weight of the collector in the afternoon of
the day before (g);
Sv: area of the collector’s cross-section (cm2).
The amount of condensation water from
moisture in the top layer of sand dune (CE, mm):
CE  CW  DF (2)
In order to determine the amount of
condensation fog, observations also used blotting
paper (identical to MLS’ cross-section area) to
expose in the air over night (Fig 3 (f)). This
method supposes to use as a reference when it is
difficult to measure the amount of condensation
water in MLS01. When sand contained in MLS01
has high humidity (above 5% after raining), the
evaporation process is dominant, MLS01 is only
able to measure the amount of evaporating water
(represented by change of weight) but not
condensation water.
Fig. 2. Principle of Micro Lysimeter with mesh
cover MLS02 (a) and solid cover MLS01 (b)
Fig. 3. Set up and weigh MLSs in the field
a) Overview of the test field
b) Fill sand into MLSs
c) Fill sand into MLSs
d) Set up MLSs; e) weigh MLS
f) blotting paper to measure night’s fog
Fig. 4. Observation of fog and condensation water (It rained in the nights of 8thJuly 2016, 10th October
2016, 22nd November 2016 and 15th May 2017)
The total amount of condensation water was
72.95mm, identical to 9.1% of annual evaporation
(800mm) and 2.7% of precipitation (2,661mm) in
Ha Tinh.
The dynamic capacity of groundwater which is
calculated by following principle of water balance
in big areas, in ventilation zone, according to A.V.
Lebedev can be described as:
81
3. Results and Discussions
The observations had taken every 5 days each
month, over 13 months period (from July 2016 to
July 2017). The monthly average amount of
condensation water was measured by MLSs are
shown in Table 1 in which data of the nights that
rained are neglected. Assuming that water
condenses on the sand surface every night, even
when it rains, hence the monthly amount of
condensation water can be calculated by total of
average amount of condensation water collected
every night of the month, see Table 1 and Fig 4.
The highest and lowest amount of fog (among dry
days) are 0.1mm/night and 0.0048mm/night,
respectively. The maximum amount of
condensation fog (assuming that condensation
occurs every day of the year) is 11.9mm/year. The
amount of condensation water in MSL02 varied
from 0.02mm/night to 0.30mm/night.
Y1  Y2
Wt  R  C  RH  1000 t  D (3)
F
In which:
R: precipitation during Δt period (mm)
C: condensation water on the surface and in
ventilation zone during Δt period (mm)
RH: evaporation from natural ground surface
(mm)
 Y1, Y2: water comes in and out though D: parameter of humidity yield during Δt on the
considerable region (m3/day) surface and in ventilation zone
F: area of considerable region (m2)

Tab. 1. The amount of condensation fog and water was measured from July 2016 to July 2017

Amount of condensation water CW

Time Amount of fog DF (mm)
(mm)
Daily Daily
Year Month Min Max Month Min Max Month
Average Average
2016 7 0.0079 0.0056 0.0093 0.24 0.0877 0.0421 0.143 2.72
8 0.0092 0.0057 0.0121 0.29 0.1736 0.1294 0.2016 5.38
9 0.0097 0.0063 0.0163 0.29 0.1882 0.1300 0.2306 5.65
10 0.0555 0.0412 0.0740 1.72 0.2201 0.1622 0.2618 6.82
11 0.0647 0.0506 0.0909 1.94 0.2453 0.2106 0.2830 7.36
12 0.0470 0.0124 0.0658 1.46 0.2195 0.1072 0.2831 6.80
2017 1 0.0289 0.0167 0.0505 0.90 0.2397 0.2031 0.2647 7.43
2 0.0509 0.0431 0.0623 1.43 0.2798 0.2596 0.3021 7.83
3 0.0448 0.0112 0.0928 1.39 0.2263 0.1619 0.3035 7.02
4 0.0549 0.0138 0.1033 1.65 0.1966 0.1639 0.3065 5.90
5 0.0069 0.0049 0.0095 0.21 0.1761 0.1525 0.1966 5.46
6 0.0078 0.0048 0.0101 0.23 0.1087 0.0206 0.2384 3.26
7 0.0092 0.0051 0.0128 0.29 0.1301 0.0846 0.1842 4.03
Annual Average 11.78 72.95

Consider water balance in a narrow area of sand with the real amount of 11.0mm, the amount of
dune: assuming that the amount of water that water that absorbed into the ground in boreholes
comes in and out are equal, water only moves (samples were taken in depth) was 16.0cm with
vertically and ignore moisture retention capacity; tight sand; and for dry sand, this amount was only
the additional amount of water in sand dune can be enough to humidify 1.0 ÷ 2.0cm under the surface.
calculated as following: A number of works also indicate that condensation
Wt  R  C  RH (4) water is limited over the first 2.0cm from surface
Base on the results of measurements, together 4, thus its capability to complement groundwater
with observation data of precipitation, evaporation is very insufficient.
of the research area which provided by Ha Tinh
meteorological station, WΔt in Eq. 4. is presented in
Fig 5. As can be seen in the graph, in term of
complement groundwater, the amount of
condensation water is too low in comparison with
precipitation. However, in dry month (April 2017),
the amount of evaporation is dominant and hence
the amount of condensation water occupied a
considerable proportion. This amount reduces
evaporation and increases humidity rate of upper
sand layer, and can provide water for plants.
According to observation, the light raining Fig. 5. Water balance during 13 months period
(0.5÷3.0mm) in two days 07 and 08 June 2018, (July 2016 – July 2017)

82
 In fact, the condensation fog can be clearly seen
on surrounding plants anytime; However, the wet
sand is only recognized on the surface during
dense fog events and not visible in summer time.
In winter and spring, when fog and evaporation
water condense intensely on the wide-flat and
inclined surfaces (such as rooftop, mountain
slope), this amount of water is cumulative and
forms a stream that absorbs deeply into the ground
and able to slightly complement groundwater. The
condensation water on tree leaves and sand surface
will evaporate when wind and increase of
temperature occurs. Fog can complement surface
water of lakes between dunes, thus indirectly
added to groundwater.
Even though the results are appropriate, there
are still several limitations: MLS has small
dimensions (the weight which was used has a
maximum load of 500g) and results to margin
error. After evaporating during the day, unlikely in
MLS02, the humidity of sand in MLS01 is not
complemented by moisture of ground underneath.
In other words, the humidity of sand in the two
MLSs are different, and thus it affects amount of
condensation water in MLSs.
The observations were only implemented in
empty lands. While in regions where there are
higher density of plants, the conditions that affect
condensation process might differ: lower
evaporation rate; lower ground temperature;
carpets of leaves and roots system has different
condensation regimes in comparison with sand.
The measuring time (5 days/month) does not
simulate completely climate conditions of a year.
During observation time there was no Southwest
wind (that is dry and hot), so it was not able to
evaluate condensation ability for this climate
condition.
4. Conclusion
The total condensation water in the sand dunes
(CW) includes two components: (1) condensation
water from fog water (DF), and (2) condensation
water from moisture in the top layer of sand dune
(CE). The measure results in Loc Ha region Ha
83
Tinh province during a year found that, CW =
72,95 mm, DF = 11,78 mm, CE = 61,17 mm.
The annual condensation CW (72,95 mm)
equals to 2,7% of annual rainfall (2661 mm), and
9,1% of annual evaporation (800 mm). The annual
condensation water from fog water DF equals to
only 0,4% annual rainfall and 1,5% of annual
evaporation. It can be thus concluded that the
condensation water has very little effect on
recharging the underground water. However, the
condensation water can increase the moisture of
surface layer of the sand dune and reduces the
amount of evaporation.
Acknowledgement
This research is a part of the National project
“Research on a model to sustainably exploit lenses
of fresh water from sand dunes to support water
scarcity region in Middle North Vietnam”. Code:
ĐTĐL.CN-62/15, proposed and implemented by
Vietnam Academy for Water Resources.
Reference
[1] Q. Zhang, X. Hao, X. Wen, S. Wang, and
J. Zeng, “An overview on observational
instruments and measuring methods for
dewfall,” Sci. Cold Arid Reg., vol. 3, no. 1,
pp. 78–85, 2011.
[2] K. Czellér, L. Sinka, G. Tuba, and J.
Zsembeli, “Elaboration of the
methodology of dew measurement by
means of weighing lysimeters.,”
Columella-Journal Agric. Environ. Sci.,
vol. 4, no. 1, Suppl., pp. 187–192, 2017.
[3] A. F. G. Jacobs, B. G. Heusinkveld, and S.
M. Berkowicz, “Dew deposition and
drying in a desert system: a simple
simulation model,” J. Arid Environ., vol.
42, no. 3, pp. 211–222, 1999.
[4] A. F. G. Jacobs, B. G. Heusinkveld, and S.
M. Berkowicz, “Dew measurements along
a longitudinal sand dune transect, Negev
Desert, Israel,” Int. J. Biometeorol., vol.
43, no. 4, pp. 184–190, 2000.
 THE NEOTECTONIC AND ACTIVE TECTONIC INFLUENCE ON COASTAL
EROSION AT QUANGNAM PROVINCE OF VIETNAM
Hoang Ngo Tu Do1, Do Quang Thien1, Tran Thanh Hai2, Le Thanh Phong3
1
Hue University of Sciences, Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
3
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: hoangngotudo@gmail.com

Abstract: The Neotectonic and active tectonics were occured from 2,500,000 years ago to present
(Quaternary period) that processed geomorphology, geological hazards. In the climate change situations,
the geological hazards were extremely by active tectonics. Based on the result of reserach, satellite
images about erosion of coastline, etc, the authors estimated effects of active tectonic erosion of coast line
at Quang Nam Coastal zone. Erosion of coastline is effected by nature and human factors. In addition,
Neotectonic stage and stage of active tectonic negatively impacted on the erosion with the sign as below:
The coastline section was eroded extremely that located drastic depressing zone at Northern of Cua Dai
(Cua Dai commune and Southern of Cam An commune in Hoi An City) and the region is controled by
F2-02, F2-03 andF2-04faults that perpendicular directed with coastline (Dien Duong commune in Dien Ban
District); the average and weakly depressing zone are located the coastline sections that stable, light
erosion, even deposition.

Keywords: active fault; active tectonic; coastal erosion; neotectonic.

1. Introduction link between activity tectonics affecting the coastal

Recent coastal erosion has been extremely
intense in Quang Nam province, especially in the
coastal city of Hoi An and downstream of the Thu
Bon River. The causes of this process is due to
many factors such as the flow dynamics of the Vu
Gia - Thu Bon river system, the river’s sediment
volumesarebeing reduced by system dame of
hydropower plants, impact of sea level rise [1, 4].
In addition, Neotectonic and active tectonic stages
also contribute for coastal erosion in the
researchscope.
Researches on Neotectonics and activity
tectonics related to erosion in Vietnam includes
Tran Huu Tuyen (2003), Tran Thanh Hai (2015),
Pham Van Hung, Nguyen Cong Quan (2016)...
The impact of Neotectonics and activity tectonics
on the erosion - accumulation activities of the
coastal zone has been mentioned. However, the
results are still general and have not been able to
draw up a diagram of active tectonic of subsidence
zones on the plain of beach edge, which is a strong
zone.
2. Result of analysis and discussion
2.1. Characteristics of Neotectonic and activity
tectonics of research area
2.1.1. Neotectonic and fault system of activive
tectonics
Based on the relationship between the fault
system, the authors has divided it into four
directions such as: The Northern West – Southern
East (with the symbol F1) system is older, the fault
system is Northern East -Southern West (with the
symbol F2) is younger by cutting through the
Northern West - Southern East system, the nearly
Longitude fault system (with the symbol F3) and the
nearly Latitude fault system F4 (with the symbol
F4). ) with the following characteristics (Fig.1):
- North - East (F1) fault system: there are 14
faults, normal fault – right lateralor normal faults -
left lateral. The faults are distributed in the
structure of Dai Loc - Hoi An trench basin and
Thang Binh - Nui Thanh weak subsidence area.

84
 The Dai Loc - Hoi
An trench basin

Thang Binh - Nui Thanh

weak subsidence area

Location of
study area

Fig. 1.The Neotectonic - activity tectonic fault systems in Quang Nam coastal zone

- Northern East - Southern West fault system
(F2): This fault system develops strongly in the
North of the study area, with the Northern East -
Southern West development direction and
suppresses the process of sinking Dai Loc - Hoi An.
They are nearly perpendicular to the shoreline,
which facilitates the activities of destroying,
transporting sediment, and invasion of the sea into
the continent. In which the faults tend to strongly
impact coastal erosion:
+ F2-01 fault (the fault of the Dai river) is a
normal fault - right lateralwith a sliding distance of
about 1000 - 1500m during the Quaternary period.
This fault directly affects the complex erosion of
the riverbank - the coast at Dai estuary [5, 7]. This
fault is also the Southern boundary of the Dai Loc -
Hoi An trench basin, the Northern part of the fault
has subsided with a large amplitude of 80-90m
making the area of Cam Chau ward, Cam An (Hoi
An city) with a thickness of Quaternary sediment
of more than 130m. In addition, in the Northern
part of the fault, the occurrence of the Middle
Pleistocene Quaternary sediment (amQ12) as an
important sign of reactive activity of the F2-01
fault during the Neotectonic and active tectonic
stages.
+ F2-04 fault runs from Duy Chau commune
(Duy Xuyen district) to Dien Duong commune
(Dien Ban district). This is the normal fault - left
lateral, the dip angle is the Southern East.
+ F2-05 fault runs from Dien Phong commune
(Dien Ban district), through the center of Vinh
Dien town, to Dien Duong commune (Dien Ban
district). This is a normal fault - right lateral, the
dip angle is the Southern East. This fault directs
the flow of the Vinh Dien river, which receives
water from the Thu Bon and Ha Xau rivers near
the shoreline.
- The nearly Longitude fault system (F3): There
are five faults in Dai Loc - Hoi An areas and there
are five faults in Thang Binh - Nui Thanh, these
faults development in the rock of Ai Nghia, Ngu

85
Hanh Son formations... and re-active in the
Quaternary period.
- The nearly Latitude fault system (F4): This
fault system is less common in the study area.
2.1.2. The role of Neotectonics and activity
tectonics faults for the formation of the Quaternary
sedimentary basin of the study area
From the drilling data in the study area,
geophysical survey documents, geological drilling
documents, the authors have drawn a
relationshipdiagram between the fault system with
the subsidence areas of active tectonic in Quang
Nam coastal zone [2], as detailed in Figure 2.
This map shows three areas of strong, moderate to
weak subsidence and one weak elevation as follows
(Fig. 2, 3):
- The strong subsidence has a subsidence
amplitude of 100-135m, distributed in the Northern
area of the Cua Dai, Hoi An city. This area is
under the control of the Northern East - Southern
West faults (F2-01 and F2-03 faults) and the
Northern West - Southern East (F1-03 fault).
- The moderate subsidence has a subsidence
amplitude of 50-100m, distributed in the center of
Quang Nam coastal plain. This is the intermediate
area between strong and weak subsidence. Here the
role of controlled faults is not as clear as strong
subsidence, mainly minor faults such as F1-02, F1-
Fig. 2. Diagram showing the control relationship of the activity tectonic fault
system with subsidence areas in Quang Nam coastal zone.
86
05, F2-04 and F3-01 faults.
- Weak subsidence has a subsidence amplitude of
20-50m, distributed in the edge of the delta and
extend to the center of the study area. This area is
dominated by Northern West - Southern East faults
(F1-06, F1-11, F1-14 faults).
- The weak lift of sediments have depth of
bottom 5-50m, distributed in the Northern East
corner of the study area (between Dien Ngoc, Nam
Bac, Dien Trung and Dien Duong). This area is
dominated by Ngu Hanh Son mountains. It is
controled by F2-04, F2-05, F1-01, F1-02 faults.
2.2. The impacts of Neotectonic and ativity
tectonic on the erosion - accumulation activities
of the coastal zone in Quang Nam province
The coastline of Quang Nam Province is about
90 km long, with most of the sandy shore, with
only one rocky shore at An Hoa Gate (South of the
study area). Along the length of the coastline,
erosion and accumulation occur frequently;
however, the subsidence zones focus on around of
Cua Dai.
According to Dang Huy Ram (1999) [6], the
erosion zone in Cua Dai has several causes as
follows:
- Sea waves in this area have great energy, strong
destructive ability (rainy season can reach wave height
of 3.5-4m).
 Fig. 3. The C - D geological section (Fig. 2) passes through the subsidence
areas of Dien Ban - Hoi An - Duy Xuyen

Fig. 4. Diagram of current erosion - accumulation of the Thu Bon downstream

and the North coastline of Cua Dai gate in Quang Nam province [2,5,7]

- The lack of coastal sedimentation is mainly
due to deposition within the river mouth. In
addition, hydropower dams upstream in the Vu Gia
- Thu Bon river system will significantly reduce
the amount of sediment transported to the sea over
the past 10 years.
- Extremely deep depth of the shore (> 2m) in
some eroded banks (Tam Thanh - Tam Ky, North
Cua Dai - Hoi An) causes the wave energy to rise
when flapping cause erosion is stronger.
The eroded coastline is located in the vicinity of
Northern Cua Dai. In fact, from 1964 today, the
shoreline has been deposited and eroded, but the
general trend is erosion (Figure 5). In addition to
some of the causes of coastal erosion, this region
has the highest tectonic subsidence (100-135m) at
the coast of Quang Nam (Figure 2, 3). Moreover,
slope of Cua Dai bank is about from 45 to 500, this
is cause of stronglysubsidence at the areas[3, 4].
In the Northern of Cua Dai gate, the coastline
of villages 4 and 5, Dien Duong commune, Dien
Ban district was also strongly eroded [4, 5, 7]. This
coastline is dominated by three the F2-02, F2-03
and F2-04faults are normal - lateral faults, which
are nearly perpendicular to the coastline; the lateral
sliding direction tends to cause the shoreline to
move in the Northern East - Southern West
direction due to the sea waves penetrate deep into
the continent, causing strong erosion.
In addition to these coastalines, the other

87
coastal areas of Quang Nam are generally stable,
with low erosion, even accumulation (Figure 5).
Some erosion sites are strong but locally with a
Fig. 5. The erosion trend in the North Cua Dai coastline from 1965 to 2013 [4]
3. Conclusion
Result of reserach of Neotectonics and activity
tectonics related to erosion in Quang Nam
province show that as below:
- There are mainly of fourtectonic directions
(including of the Northern West - Southern
East,the Northern East - Southern West, nearly
parallel of Longitude and nearly parallel of
Latitude).
- The fault system mainly cause to create the
subsidence zone of the Quaternary sedimentary
basin.
- In addition to the natural and human factors
that cause erosion - accumulation sedimentation in
the coastal zone of the study area, Neotectonic
stage and stage of active tectonic negatively
impacted on the erosion with the sign as below:
The extremely eroded coastline located on the
strong subsidence zone in the North of Cua Dai
gate (Cua Dai ward and the South of Cam An ward
- Hoi An) and the area is dominated by three faults
F2-02, F2-03and F2-04is nearly perpendicular to
the coastline (villages 4 and 5, Dien Duong
commune - Dien Ban); moderate and weak
tectonic subsidence located on the steady coastline,
weak erosion, even deposition.
References
[1] Dang Van Bao (1996). “Characteristics of
geomorphology of Hue - Quang Ngai
coastal plains”, PhD thesis on Geography,
Vietnam National University, Hanoi.
[2] Hoang Ngo Tu Do (2016). “Geological
88
length not exceeding 300m (Tam Tien commune,
Tam Hai - Tam Ky, Cua Lo - Nui Thanh).
Quaternary characteristics and
groundwater resources in the coastal plains
of Quang Nam provice”, PhD thesis
Geology, Hanoi University of Mining and
Geology, Hanoi.
[3] Dang DinhDoan, Vu Minh Cat (2013). Study
on the evolution of the coastline of Thu Bon
estuary, Journal of Environmental Science
and Engineering - Thuyloi University,
Hanoi.
[4] Le Dinh Mau, Tran Van Binh, Pham Viet
Tich, et al (2014). Characteristics erosion
of Cua Dai Beach (Hoi An), proposed
solutions, Workshop Report: Proposed
science and technology solutions to
prevent coastal erosion in service of
tourism and sustainable development,
Quang Nam Department of Construction,
Hoi An.
[5] Do Quang Thien, Hoang Ngo Tu Do, et al
(2014). Survey, study and general
evaluation of topographic and geological
conditions in the coastal plain of Quang
Nam province in climate change
conditions, Quang Nam Department of
Natural Resources and Environment, Tam
Ky.
[6] Vu Ngoc Tran (1999). Urban geological
survey from Lien Chieu to Dung Quat
(Vol. 2), Ministry of Industry - Vietnam
Department of Geology and Minerals, Nha
Trang.
IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE UPPER - MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE
AQUIFER IN THE CA MAU PENINSULA AND ADAPTIVE SOLUTIONS

Dao Hong Hai1, Nguyen Viet Ky1, Bui Tran Vuong2

1
Ho Chi Minh city University of Technology, Vietnam
2
Division of Water Resources Planning and Investigation for the South of Vietnam, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: dhhai@hcmut.edu.vn

Abstract: Ca Mau peninsula covers an area of 16,940 km2, including Ca Mau, Bac Lieu, Soc Trang,
Hau Giang, Can Tho, and a part of Kien Giang provinces, which have agriculture is the mainly activities
of the people. Groundwater resource was extracted with large quantities and have not yet controlled,
combine with climate change in Ca Mau peninsula reduced groundwater levels and saltwater intrusion in
the aquifers. Therefore, to predict groundwater sustainability under climate change impacts, this research
used the results of the groundwater flow model, the salinity transportation model, and the recharging
model to calculate the Total groundwater abstraction/Groundwater recharge Indicator (Indicator 1);
Groundwater depletion Indicator (Indicator 2); Groundwater salinity indicator (Indicator 3). Calculated
results show that the increase of Indicator 1: in 2015 there are 13/43 sustainable districts, 1/43 relatively
sustainable districts, and 29/43 unsustainable districts. To the 2090 this index has changed 33/43
unsustainable districts, 1/43 relatively sustainable districts, and 9/43 sustainable districts. Indicator 2 in
the 2015 there are 21/43 sustainable districts, 10/43 relatively sustainable districts, and 12/43
unsustainable districts. To the 2090 there are 7/43 sustainable districts, 12/43 relatively sustainable
districts, 24/43 unsustainable districts. Indicator 3: in the 2015 there are 11/43 low salinity districts, 10/43
medium salinity districts, and 22/43 high salinity districts. To the 2090 there are 7/43 low salinity
districts, 11/43 medium salinity districts, and 25/43 high salinity districts. Study results show that the
climate change has impacted to all aquifers in Ca Mau peninsula, which increase the areas of
unsustainable districts for the period from 2015 to 2090. This study contributes to support the
groundwater managers in activities of planning, management and exploitation of groundwater resources
more reasonable in Ca Mau peninsula.

Keywords: sustainability indicator; groundwater in Ca Mau peninsula; groundwater sustainability;

climate change.

1. Introduction focus on social aspects (accessibility, exploitation

Indicator is a parameter that evaluates a
particular element of a particular object, by its
value can quantify its influence on the object to be
assessed, and rely on these indicators we can
compare the level of influence of different zones in
a particular area.
Groundwater indicators are proposed based on
measured and monitored data, which provide
information on the quantity and quality of
groundwater resources (status and trends) and
and use of groundwater resources), economic
aspects (exploitation of groundwater, protection
and treatment requirements), environmental
aspects (vulnerability, depletion and pollution
Groundwater) of policy and management of
groundwater resources.
Until now, the using of groundwater indicators
to research groundwater sustainability is rather
limited. There are some of organizations and
professionals who used to study the sustainability

89
of groundwater in some areas of Vietnam such as:
Division of Water Resources Planning and
Investigation for the South of Vietnam in the topic:
"Study on the indicators of groundwater
sustainability in Ho Chi Minh City, Dong Nai and
Binh Duong". The project research 6 sustainability
indicators of Binh Duong, Dong Nai provinces and
Ho Chi Minh City has developed a zoning map of
groundwater indicators for the purpose to assess
the sustainability of groundwater resources
according to the indicators, and there are some
experts had used indicators to research
groundwater sustainability, such as: the project
proposed 5 criteria for decentralization of the
resources and reserves of groundwater exploitation
and proposed classification of resources and
reserves of groundwater exploitation in Vietnam, 5
criteria for decentralization of resources and
reserves Groundwater exploitation is criteria on the
level of groundwater survey; criteria on the
reliability of the reserves; criteria of accuracy
determine the sources of underground water
exploitation reserves; criteria on the reliability of
water quality and forecast of water quality change;
criteria on the socio-economic and environment
[3]. Properly groundwater extraction in planning,
design on quality and quantity meet the needs of
the society in the present and future, maintaining
the resources, environment and ecology. At the
same time, the system of groundwater exploitation
works in a flexible way before the change or be
damaged but is fixed with a small cost. Research
results indicate that groundwater extraction located
wells group with approved reserves ensure
sustainability, in other places concentrated by
single wells are sustainable with adjustments,
another places exploited by the sporadic boring
without planning is not sustainable. Regarding the
determination of groundwater indices, the
groundwater flow model and the light saline
shifting model are useful tools for calculating
important parameters such as total additive for
groundwater, total groundwater can recover, total
groundwater exploitation [4]. The most commonly
used indicators in the world are: recharge / total
exploitation; Total exploitation/ groundwater
resources available; Changes in groundwater
reserves; Groundwater quality indicator [2].
90
The objective of sustainable development in the
planning, exploitation and use of groundwater
resources is the first basis for the selection of
indicator indicators, of which, integrated water
resources management The land is considered as a
tool and means to develop groundwater in the
direction of sustainability.
There are many indicators used to evaluate
groundwater resources that have being researched
and recommended by experts in Vietnam and
around the world, in the indicators used, each
indicator was specific aspect of the groundwater
system is based on the combination of both
quantitative and qualitative factors. Indicators can
be group to provide compact information and meet
the objectives for planning design, using and
management policy of groundwater resources.
In order to facilitate the implementation and
application of groundwater indicators, must to
assure some of requirements: Simplicity;
quantitative; communication; and forecasting.
2. The study area
The Ca Mau peninsula (CMP), including: Ca
Mau, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, Hau Giang, Can Tho
and part of Kien Giang province, this region is rich
in economic development potential. agricultural
development strategy of the whole country. At
present, the whole area has a total population of
6,379,494 people, on a total area of 16,940 km2,
the average population density is 377 people / km2.
The lowest increase was in Can Tho Province
(0.82% per year), the highest in Soc Trang (2.2%
per year), the average in the whole region was
1.26% Most of them are in Ca Mau, Bac Lieu, Vi
Thanh, Soc Trang, Can Tho and Rach Gia.
Population Rapid growth has led to increasing
demand for water, which is one of the reasons
contributing to the scarcity of water resources in
the region.
There are 7 aquifers in the Ca Mau peninsula,
including: Holocene (qh), Upper Pleistocene (qp3),
Upper - Middle Pleistocene (qp2-3), Lower
Pleistocene (qp1), Upper Pliocene (n22), Lower
Pliocene (n21), Upper Miocene (n13), Figure 2
illustrates the location of the two transect lines and
the distribution of aquifers in the two sections.

Fig. 1. Mapping of Ca Mau peninsula [6].
Fig. 2. The hydrogeological cross section I-I’,
II-II’ of Ca Mau peninsula [1].
91
3. Methodology
3.1. The exploiting groundwater/the recharge
indicator
Groundwater extraction indicator can be as an
indicator of sustainability of groundwater
exploitation activities, if the exploitation volume
within the limit of natural recharge when it will
maintain sustainable status of groundwater
resources. The exploitation within the limits of this
indicator will not affect the reduction of
groundwater resources and maintenance of the
ecosystem in the area.
Calculation formula:
(1)
Score scale [2]:
- Low: < 90% (Sustainability).
- Average: 90 - 100% (Medium
sustainability).
- High: > 100% (Unsustainability).
3.2. The depleted groundwater indicator
(2)
Score scale [2]:
- Low: <10% (Sustainability)
- Average: 10 - 25% (Medium sustainability)
- High: > 25% (Unsustainable)
The depleted groundwater indicator show that
there are overexploitation in a particular area,
which means that within this range there has been
a great fluctuation in water balance: reducing base
flow to maintain current flows. Reducing outflows
downstream, increasing inflows and potentially
altering water quality, even causing ground surface
subsidence.
3.3. Groundwater vulnerability indicator
Groundwater vulnerability indicator is only
predictive, but important information for
groundwater management, especially related to
salinity intrusion in BC due to climate change, this
is the support indicator policy and management,
protection of groundwater, effective support for
planning, regulation, decision making as well as
public information.
Calculation formula:
 well as uneven in the aquifers, aquifer qp2-3 is
(3) being exploited many Groundwater is used mainly
for daily life, industrial production, agricultural
Score scale [2]:
production and a small part for other purposes.
- Low: <25% (Sustainability)
4.2. Groundwater exploitation by
- Average: 25 - 50% (Medium sustainability)
administrative unit
- High: > 50% (Unsustainability)
As shown in Figure 3, we see that Bac Lieu
In this study, to calculate the vulnerability of
province has the largest catch (248,728 m3 /day),
underground water resources, the authors estimate
followed by Soc Trang (244,850 m3 /day), Hau
the area of saline water distribution in each aquifer
Giang has the least exploitation (62,543 m3 /day) ,
and in the district administrative unit.
the remaining provinces have the exploitation of
4. Data base
90,000 to 190,000 m3 /day.
4.1. Status of groundwater exploitation
The total amount of groundwater exploitation is
1,002,178 m3/day, the amount of groundwater
exploitation is uneven throughout the region as

Fig. 3. Groundwater exploitation by administrative unit [6]

4.3. Groundwater exploitation by aquifers (2,283 m3 /day and 3,933 m3 /day respectively) qp3
As shown in Figure 4, the groundwater is and n13 have the exploited volume from 11,000 to
mainly exploited in the qp2-3 (650.077 m3 / day). 53,000 m3 / day, the qp1 and n22 have the exploited
The aquifers qh and n21 have the least exploitation volume from 110,000 to 165,000 m3/day.

Fig. 4. Groundwater exploitation in each the aquifers [6]

92
 4.4. Recharge
Tab.1. Results of calculation for groundwater recharge in the period 2000-2010 [1]
Years Recharge, m3/d
Dry season Wet season Annual
2000 526.121 2.203.248 2.729.369
2001 390.766 1.900.306 2.291.072
2002 201.959 1.617.982 1.819.941
2003 250.905 2.470.744 2.721.650
2004 176.158 1.619.388 1.795.546
2005 255.511 2.208.206 2.433.717
2006 344.414 2.087.565 2.431.979
2007 325.899 3.248.418 3.574.317
2008 354.552 2.888.677 3.243.229
2009 317.688 2.046.693 2.364.381
2010 185.004 2.492.037 2.677.042

Tab.2. Results of calculation for groundwater recharge in the period 2015-2090 [1]
Years Recharge, m3/d
Dry season Wet season Annual
2015 185.004 1.363.501 1.548.505
2030 250.620 1.298.943 1.549.563
2045 235.226 1.173.437 1.408.663
2060 229.533 1.045.946 1.281.480
2075 207.513 838.001 1.045.515
2090 196.503 740.088 936.591

The results of this supplementation simulation
are also an input for the groundwater flow model
and the salinity transported model, the results of
which are presented in the article "Assessment of
the impacts the climate change on groundwater
4.5. The salinity maps of qp2-3 aquifer
resources in Ca Mau peninsula ". The author uses
the results of underground water model and saline
displacement to calculate basal area depletion
indicator (I1) and salinity intrusion vulnerability
indicator (I2).

Fig.5. The map of salinity area on qp2-3 aquifer: 2015; 2090

93
 Tab.3. Area and rate of increase of saline water area

Aquifer qp2-3
Average annual salinity area increased, km2/year 100,65
Increase the total area of salinity from 2015 to 2090, km2 8052

5. Results and discussion sustainability, can maintain the using exploitation

In order to use the set of indicators for
sustainability of underground water resources in
the study area, the authors take the following steps:
- Select the appropriate set of indicators (it is
presented above);
- Selection of information for indicator set;
- Results of data collection and calculation
results;
- Assess groundwater sustainability on
indicators.
5.1. The groundwater exploitation/recharge
indicator
The results of the calculation of the indicator of
groundwater exploitation/recharge with district
unit are shown in Figure 6, where:
The gray zones: the areas have I1 value < 90%
show that the recharge can still meet the demand
for water in the study area. These areas are
of groundwater.
The orange zones: these areas have indicator
90% < I1 <100% There is an equivalence between
the amount of extraction and the recharge which
are relatively sustainability and these areas require
have to do appropriate management measures.
Control the amount of exploitation to ensure
sustainability.
The pink zones: the areas have I1 values > 100%
show that the exploitation are greater than the
recharge indicating the depleted aquifers, which is
not sustainable enough to limit groundwater
extraction and adjusted for I1 <100% to ensure
sustainability.

Fig. 6. The maps of the exploitation/recharge indicator

94
 5.2. The depleted groundwater indicator
The results of the study for the upper - middle
Pleistocene aquifer (qp2-3) presented in Table 4
show that in only Gia Rai and Phuoc Long districts
in 2015, the level of vulnerability was high. Soc
Trang has medium vulnerability and other districts
are within safe limits. Up to 2030, the number of
high-risk districts has increased to 27/43 districts /
city. The increase rate 280.8 km2 / year (2030)
which show that the depletion of the aquifer qp2-3 is
very serious. Up to 2090 there are 42/43 districts in
the whole region are high vulnerability. With this
result of the depletion indicator show that the
exploitation activities and climate change have
seriously affected to aquifer qp2-3.

Tab. 4. The rate and area of depleted groundwater in the aquifer qp2-3
Years District/city Unsustainability areas (km2) Depleted rate (km2/năm)
2015 3 1.189,6 79,3
2030 27 8.423,0 280,8
2045 33 11.395 253,2
2060 36 12.218 203,6
2075 41 12.928 172,4
2090 42 13.299 147,8

5.3. The groundwater vulnerable indicator of districts with low vulnerability, water salinity is
the aquifer qp2-3 distributed on a area of 12,079 km2, accounting for
According to the results calculated in table 5 71.7% of the total area of study area, the highest
show that the aquifer qp2-3 in 2015 has 25/43 average salinity area is 92.5 km2 / year in 2045.

Fig. 7. the maps of depleted groundwater indicator of aquifer qp2-3 (2015 – 2090)

95
 Fig. 8. The groundwater vulnerability mapping of aquifer qp2-3 (2015 – 2090)

Tab. 5. The rate and area of salinity in the aquifer qp2-3

Years District/city Vulnerable area (km2) Increased rate (km2/year)
2015 8 5.956 -
2030 9 6.490 35,6
2045 19 8.731 92,5
2060 20 9.384 76,2
2075 23 10.729 79,6
2090 25 12.079 81,6

Use the results of calculation of groundwater
sustainable indicator and the map of sustainable
indicators that role as a reference materials in the
assessment as well as planning and exploitation of
groundwater resources in the study area. Besides, it
is also used as a basis for selection of groundwater
exploitation zones, proposing some of solutions to
adapt with climate change in the present and
future, for the following groups of solutions:
The solution on propaganda, education,
awareness raising, active awareness on climate
change response to:
The impacts of climate change on underground
water resources;
Measures to exploit and use water reasonably;
The solutions improve the quantity and quality
of groundwater resources.
To help future generations recognize the
importance of groundwater for a sense of
protection and rational using.
5.4. Solutions on policy
Based on the map of groundwater indicators the
managers of groundwater resources can select
some of solutions for more appropriate
mechanisms and policies on water sources using.
For example, there is piloting the plan of
organization management units by vertical to
ensure the control of the groundwater quantity not
exceeding the exploited limit. If this area still have
not established, management agency should
develop and issue regulations on the distribution of
groundwater resources among neighboring
provinces and neighboring countries.

96
 In addition, priority should be given to the use
of groundwater for domestic consumption, for
areas with scarce surface water sources, limitation
of groundwater use in industry, not using
groundwater for irrigation.
Regularly reviewing and examining, detecting
organizations and individuals that have drilled,
explored and exploited with groundwater without
permit or registration. To annual make lists of
organizations and individuals that have not granted
permits, announced and announced on the
information means. To complete the registration
and grant of permits for existing groundwater
exploitation works for management according to
regulations.
To formulate and implement the annual
inspection and examination program in
combination with the extraordinary inspection
work, attaching importance to organizations and
individuals that exploit and use large amounts of
water, the scale of exploitation, the depth of wells
and the areas with high risk of pollution, salinity
intrusion.
Develop and implement a program for
controlling the implementation of responsibilities,
handling and filling of unused wells. To strictly
handle violations of the handling of unused wells
and violations of the application of measures to
protect groundwater according to regulations.
Allows license trading in manage organization
to encourage better using of scarce resources.
5.5. Non- engineering solution
Make plan of groundwater exploitation to
protection and prevention of groundwater
resources on over the region, taking into account
the impacts of climate change on water resources;
Study to apply the safety limits on exploitation
for each the aquifer, province, district and
commune areas.
To step up the investigation and assessment of
groundwater resources, to be implemented first in
areas where there is a high risk of salinity
intrusion, the demand for exploitation is
increasing, such as Ca Mau, Bac Lieu, Soc Trang,
Can Tho provinces.
Determinate the exploitation zones, restricted
zones, scope and level to apply detailed solutions
of groundwater protection for each aquifer on a
97
regional scale. Make zone maps forbidding the
groundwater exploitation of provinces where have
depletion on groundwater level such as: Can Tho,
Bac Lieu, Hau Giang, Kien Giang.
To carry out the program of inventorying the
status of groundwater exploitation periodically,
combining to review and make statistics on the list
of drilling wells to fill and prepare the plan for
treatment and filling of annual wells.
To build and develop a system of information
and data of climate change and groundwater
resources to service for the planning and
implementation of activities to respond to climate
change.
5.6. Engineering Solutions
Re-drill and deeper on pumping wells that
depleted the water level, exploit the deeper
aquifers, which have not affected by direct
depletion of water level.
Increase the supply water sources, for example
rainwater collection for using and recharge to
groundwater resources.
For households: To collect water on roofs and
store rainwater in tanks, jars, etc., for using for
domestic activities, support households in building
reservoirs rainwater at home.
With urban areas: Planting trees, carpets on
sidewalks, building green sidewalks, creating
ditches, vegetation channels, separators can be
permeable when building roads, When building
new urban areas and residential areas, build lakes
and fresh water reservoirs for use in the dry season.
In rural areas: the collection of rainwater and
fresh water is available for irrigation by canals,
ditches or freshwater ponds for irrigation and
rainwater storage ponds for irrigation
In areas where surface water is frequently saline
and limited groundwater reserves, it is possible to
transfer groundwater from other locations, or
invest in the construction of a brackish water
treatment plant.
An assessment of the possibility of artificial
replenishment to enhance the groundwater reserves
of the TCNs in the area, mapping the potential for
artificial replenishment to help in the delimitation
of the specific site and to implement the pilot
project. in priority areas.
 5.7. Financial Solutions
Mobilizing the state budget, including Central
and Local;
Fundraising by non-governmental
organizations;
The people contribute capital in many different
forms on the basis of the State and people work
together;
Allow domestic and foreign organizations and
individuals to conduct clean water business at
reasonable prices.
5.8. Solutions for international integration
and cooperation
Develop international cooperation in mitigation
and adaptation
Develop and propose themes and projects to
mitigate the impacts of climate change on people's
rights.
Establish appropriate mechanisms for staff to
attend training courses, training courses, study
experiences abroad to apply in the country.
Develop special support policies for projects of
foreign organizations and individuals to invest in
mitigation of climate change impacts on water
resources.
6. Conclusions
Ca Mau peninsula is a large area where is
directly affected by the impacts of human activities
and climate change in the present and future. This
study has clarified and quantified the evolution of
groundwater resources under current exploitation
and results of study has also incorporated the
climate change scenarios of the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment to predict the presence
of depletion and salinity intrusion of groundwater
resources in the future.
The result of the groundwater sustainability
indicators and the zone map that have shown the
overall picture of the groundwater resources of Ca
Mau peninsula, this research is useful data base for
managers in planning and regulating the
exploitation more appropriately, and this is also a
valuable reference in teaching and study in
groundwater resources.
In addition, the authors have synthesized a
number of measures to minimize and adapt to the
impacts of groundwater exploitation and the
98
impacts of global climate change in Ca Mau
peninsula as well as the Mekong Delta.
References
[1] Bui Tran Vuong et al., 2014, " Mark the
dynamic variable of the resource down to
the resource under the same field by the
same Delta delta, export the application
solution, Federation of Southern Water
Resources Planning and Investigation.
[2] UNESCO-IAEA-IAH, 2007, groundwater
resources sustainability indicators,
UNESCO ed., J. V. a. A. Lipponen, Ed.
France: The United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization.
[3] Bui Hoc et al., 2005, Assess the
sustainability of the exploitation and use of
ground water resources in the Vietnamese
territory. Strategy for exploiting and
protecting underground water resources by
2020, Hanoi University of mining and
geology.
[4] Doan Van Canh et al., 2015, " Research and
propose criteria and zoning for sustainable
exploitation, protection of underground
water resources in the Northern Delta and
the southern delta, Hanoi University of
mining and geology.
[5] Christopher R. Jackson et al., 2011,
"Modelling the effects of climate change
and its uncertainty on UK Chalk
groundwater resources from an ensemble of
global climate model projections," Journal
of Hydrology, vol. 399, pp. 12-28.
[6] Dao Hong Hai, Nguyen Viet Ky, Tra Thanh
Sang, 2016, Study on the variation of
groundwater resources in the Ca Mau
Peninsula under the impacts of climate
change and mining activities, code: C2016-
20-06, VNUHCM .
[7] Dao Hong Hai*, Nguyen Viet Ky, Bui Tran
Vuong, 2015, “Assessing the vulnerability
due to seawater intrusion of the middle –
upper Pleistocene aquifer in Ca Mau
peninsula”, Engineering Geology In
Response To Climate Change And
Sustainable Development Of Infrastructure,
ISBN 978-604-913-418-0, Hanoi
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 4th INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE VIETGEO 2018

QUANG BINH, VIETNAM

21&22 September 2018

SESSION 2

GEOTECHNICS FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE
 PHYSICAL SCALE MODEL OF HORIZONTAL WATER COLLECTING
SYSTEM FOR WEIRS IN THE NORTHWEST VIETNAM

Nguyen Huy Vuong1, Nguyen Chi Thanh1, Pham Tuan1, Tran Van Quang1,
Vu Le Minh1, Vu Ba Thao1, Bui Truong Son2
1
Hydraulic Construction Institute, Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: huyvuongdkt@gmail.com

Abstract: In Northwest region of Vietnam, there are 11,276 weirs which are working on provide
industrial water and 9,718 ones to provide drinking water. However, degradation has occurred seriously
to those constructions. There are plenty causes of those degradation, but the common one is deposition
happening in upstream and in front of water intake. This paper presents results of physical scale model
experiment which contributes to research on a horizontal water collecting system on river (stream) bed
(HWCS) replace traditional methods. It indicates correlation between particle size distribution (PSD),
coefficient of permeability, gradient of permeability, tightness, hydraulic gradient with capability of
collecting water of different filter pipes. The results also prove that among those boundary conditions, the
tube with wireframe structure reaches the highest efficiency. For this type of tube (slit rate of 27.3%), the
amount of water obtained can reach 0.4 to 6.0 liter/s/m, depending on PSD.

Keywords: weir; deposition; water intake; water collector on river bed; Northwest Vietnam.

1. Motivation of analysis of flow velocity through a horizontal

A common solution to exploit groundwater is
vertical exploitation, e.g. wells and well corridors.
Presently, thanks to technology development,
together with increasing in water demand and to
reduce effects on aquifer; several horizontal
systems have been applying to withdraw
groundwater in regions where there are thin
aquifer, shallow groundwater level. Advantages of
this method was analyzed by Hunt et al. (2002) [1]
.The horizontal system can collect a high amount
of water, especially when it is applied on river bed,
and nowadays it becomes more and more popular.
In the U.S, a number of HWCS have been
constructed in Kentucky [2] and California [3]. In
South Korea, there are 10 HWCSs functioning, and
20 other ones are in construction. In 2003, Chen
and Zhan presented a physical model to study the
change of permeability gradient along filter pipe
[4]. Zhan and Zlotnik did a research on decrease of
water level that occurs around a limited horizontal
filter pipe in unconfined aquifer [5]; and in 1962,
Hantush and Papadopulos firstly announced results
collecting pipe on river bed [6]. A research on
groundwater movement (including flow rate and
velocity) to a horizontal filter pipe (diameter of
30.0mm and 2.6m long) was presented by Kim et
al. in 2012 [7]. The effects of geology condition to
a horizontal filter pipe and a collecting well were
publicized by Mohamed and Rushton in 2006 [8].
In Europe, design and construction of water
collecting system on river bed mainly depends on
working of Grischek et al. (2002) [9]. Over a long
period, most of the publications have not indicated
correlations between hydrogeological
characteristics (i.g. grain composition, coefficient
of permeability, permeability gradient, tightness…)
and filter pipe features (openness, slit/diameter
ratio, slope), especially they did not consider
influence of surface runoff on working of HWCS.
In Northwest Vietnam, the precipitation rate is
low, 1500mm approximately, while
evapotranspiration can reach 800mm annually. Its
terrain is very craggy and strong cleavage; high
mountains intersperse by narrow valleys. This

101
leads to small irrigation area, scattered distribution
and the main solution for water demand is weirs.
This type of construction is a barrier across the
horizontal width of a river or stream and results in
river level rise, creates water head for gravity
irrigation. Presently, in the region, there are
approximately 11,276 weirs working for
production demand and 9,718 weirs for drinking
water. Due to effects of terrain, geology and
hydrology conditions, weirs are strongly
vulnerable to disasters, especially muddy-rocks
flood and landslides. After a rainy season, most of
the weirs in the region are completely filled up by
deposition upstream and result in block of water
collecting systems.
we purpose a new method that can overcome all
the disadvantages of traditional water collecting
systems. An unscaled schematic of the method is
illustrated in Fig. 3.
Base on experiment of physical scale model
with different PSDs, different types of filter pipe
and different hydraulic conditions, this paper
analyzes correlations among those factors and then
selects an optimal structure to design a HWCS.

Fig. 2. Schematic of the proposed method

1. The current weir
2. Water collecting canal
3. Underground dam
4. Pipe that directs water to the old canal
5. Water tank
6. Pipe that collects water from filter pipe system
7. Filter pipe

Fig. 3. Cross-section of the proposed method

1. The current weir; 5.Filter layer
2. Underground dam; (standard sand);
Fig. 1. Deposition blocks upstream and 3. Protecting layer; 6. Water collecting
paralyze water collecting system of weirs in the 4. Waterproof fabric pipe;
Northwest HDPE; 7.Filter pipe.

Deposited materials are mainly gravel with 2. Physical model experiment

sand which has a high coefficient of permeability,
high water circulation rate; however due to high
stream slope, depth of the deposition layer is
usually thin, varies in range of 2.0 ÷ 3.0m. In order
to utilize this characteristic and guarantee
functioning of weirs through extreme conditions,
The physical scale model aims to simulate
functioning of water collecting system on
river/stream bed, purposes to replace traditional
method of weirs in the Northwest region. The
model reproduced geohydrology condition of
alluvial structure of stream bed in the region; with

102
main characteristics: dimensions, alluvial (not including its ase); its surrounding and bottom
materials, permeability gradient and water are covered by tempered glass (12.0mm thick)
collecting process of several typical types of filter (Fig. 4)
pipe. The model has dimensions of 2.0x2.0x1.5m

Fig. 4. Physical scale model and its cross-section

2.1. Experiment materials
The chosen materials permeability
characteristic of alluvial material in the Northwest
region. PSD is one of the factors that can affect
permeability characteristic, in which the particle
group that has major effect on permeability of the
entire distribution is D10 (D10 is the diameter at
which 10% of the sample's mass is comprised of
particles with a diameter less than this value) [10].
The alluvial materials in the area mainly consist of
big gravel mixed with pebbles and sand; pebble
mixes with sand; and combination of rock and soil.
In which, D10 group is commonly sand (from small
grain 0.1÷0.25mm to moderate grain 0.25÷0.5mm)
and small pebble (2.0÷5.0mm). In this paper, we
consider three typical type of PSD as in Fig. 5.

a b c
Fig. 5. Types of material used for the physical model
a. Pebble b. Pebble mixes with sand c. Sand (moderate grain size) mixes with pebbles

Tab. 1. Physical characteristics of experiment material

Particle
PSD (%) Permeability Permeability
grain
Porosity Porosity coefficient coefficient
Material size at
max min Dr = 0,35 Dr = 0,65
P=10%
gravel pebble sand silt ( x 10-2) (x 10-2)
(mm)

a 4.1 90.2 5.5 0.2 2.314 0.677 0.513 50.4 29.14

b 0.0 55.0 41.9 3.1 0.284 0.647 0.417 8.84 3.57
c 1.8 39.4 55.8 3.0 0.228 0.703 0.427 6.63 2.26

103
 Experiments were taken to determine physical layer. The pipes were chosen as in Figure 6 and
characteristics of those materials. The permeability their characteristics are shown in Table 3.
coefficient of each type was done with 02 relative
tightness: Dr = 0.35 and Dr = 0.65 (Table 1).
2.2. Permeability gradient
The depth of pebble-gravel layer of stream is in
range of 2.0m and 3.0m. In this alluvial layer,
water is provided directly by surface runoff.
Permeability gradient is reproduced as in Table 2.
Tab. 2. Reproduction of permeability gradient

Water head Thickness Permeability

(cm) (cm) gradient
Fig. 6. Types of filter pipe used in experiment
110 68 1.62
1. K-CD d110; 2. K-CD d68; 3. OL d124; 4.
100 68 1.47
OL d105; 5. XK d90
90 68 1.32
80 68 1.18
To identify the optimal slope of filter pipe, we
70 68 1.03
did experiments with hydraulic gradient i = 0%,
1.5% and 3%.
2.3. Filter pipes
To apply research results to reality, it requires
appropriate cost as well as suitability of
geohydrology conditions of the stream’s alluvial

Tab. 2. Filter pipes’ characteristics

Slit Slit
Outer diameter
Type of filter pipe Pipe characteristics area rate
(mm)
(cm2) (%)
Frame structure, covered by wire
Wire-winding pipe
winding around, gap between wires 110 942 27.3
D110 (K-CD d110)
is 1.0mm.
Frame structure, covered by wire
Wire-winding pipe
winding around, gap between wires 68 345 19.6
D68 (K-CD d68)
is 0.5mm.
Steel, D=110, holes D=10.0mm on
Mesh pipe D124
pipe body, covered by mesh (size 124 578 16.7
(OL d124)
0.5mm)
Plastic PVC D=90, holes
Mesh pipe D105
D=10.0mm on pipe body, covered by 105 345 12.2
(OL d105)
mesh (size 1.0mm)
Slit pipe D90 (XK Plastic PVC, slits are cut on pipe
90 226 8.0
d90) body, slit width is 0.3mm

104
3. Experiment scenarios
All the scenarios are illustrated as in Fig. 7.

Wire-winding pipe D110 J1 = 1.03

Pebble
Wire-winding pipe D68 J2 = 1.18
Tightness Dr=0.35 i= 0.0%
Mesh pipe D124 i= 1.5% J3 = 1.32 Q

Tightness Dr=0.65 i= 3.0%

Mesh pipe D90 J4 = 1.47

Slit pipe D90 J5 = 1.62

I. PSD II.Tightness III. Filter Pipe IV. Slope V. Gradient VI. Flow Rate

Fig. 7. Experiment scenarios

4. Results coefficient of permeability of the environment[1].

4.1. Correlation between permeability
environment and capability of collecting water for
different types of filter pipes.
The permeability environment plays an
important role to select and determine an optimal
solution for water collecting system. In order to
determine more comprehensively the effects of
permeability environment, we considered two main
factors, i.e. PSD and permeability coefficient.
PSD is one of the major factors that decide
permeability coefficient of experiment materials,
thus it also has effects on flow rate collected by
filter pipes. The previous researches had indicated
correlation between PSD’s characteristics; i.e. D10,
the uniformity coefficient Cu = D60/D10 (D60 is
value that 60 % of the soil particles are finer than
this size), the coefficient of curvature Cc; and
The diameter D10, uniformity coefficient Cu is
directly proportional to the environment’s
permeability coefficient. However, there is no
research on effects of PSD on functioning process
of filter pipe, hence the selection of PSD still has
difficulties. This research has indicated the
correlation between PSD and collecting water
capability (Fig. a).
Permeability coefficient of environment is the
key factor to design the filter pipe system due to its
effects on capability of collecting water. Even
though, this correlation has only be considered to
design vertical collecting systems; hence in this
paper, we established the correlation of
permeability coefficient of environment and
collecting water ability of several typical filter
pipes to design water collecting system (Fig. )

Fig. 8. Influence of PSD on capability of collecting water of filter pipes.

(a) D10 vs flow rate (b) Permeability coefficient vs flow rate
A: K-CD d110; B: OL d124; C: XKd90; D: OL d105; E: K-CD d68

105
 4.2. Correlation between permeability permeability requires more investigation. This
coefficient of environment and type of filter pipe. paper established correlation between
Classification of filter pipe is characterized by environment’s permeability and flow rate/ pipe’s
their diameters (D), slit area (Sr) and shapes. As diameter ratio (q/D) and flow rate/ slit area ratio
mentioned above, in order to design a horizontal (q/Sr) (Fig. ).
water collecting system, the interaction between
types of filter pipes and environment’s

A A

B B
B
C C B

A C

C A

Fig. 9. Correlations between types of filter pipes and environment’s permeability

A: Wire-winding Pipe B: Slit pipe C: Mesh Pipe

The experiments proved that change of flow mesh pipe stands behind respectively. Over the
rate against particle size distribution is the most operating process, wire-winding pipe also was
stable in case of wire-winding pipe; then slit and least affected by blocking of particle (Fig. ).

(a) (b)
Fig. 10. The wire-winding pipe (a) and slit pipe (b) after experiments.

4.3. Effects of permeability gradient on filter collecting system. Darcy and Bernoulli had done
pipe’s capability of collecting water. number of researches on correlation of
Permeability gradient has directly effect on permeability coefficient and permeability gradient.
environment permeability and operation of water

106
In order to select the optimal depth to install the
filter pipe system.
As can be seen in Figure 11, the increase of
permeability gradient results in the increase of
flow rate of water collected by filter pipes,
4.4. Correlation between material tightness
and filter pipe’s capability of collecting water
The material will be tighter over a specific
period working under water. In this paper, the
tightness Dr = 0.35 represents the case when the
construction just completed, Dr = 0.65 is for the
case after a period of operation when PSD tends to
be tighter due to pressure of seepage and water
head. In reality, after a long time of experiments
with water level was rose up and down, the
original tightness has changed depending on types
of materials; from Dr = 0.35 to 0.55, 0.47, 0.4 in
case of pebbles (a), pebble mixes with sand (b)
and sand (moderate grain size) mixes with pebbles
(c), respectively (the materials can be seen in (Fig.
5)).
107
however this increase is not stable among the filter
pipe types due to their characteristics, PSD and
tightness of materials as mentioned above.
The compacted ratio is characterized by
decrease of porosity n (%) which can be
recognized by parameter Dr/D102. As can be seen
in Fig. , flow rate decreases when the ratio
Dr/D102 increases. When the material is
compacted well, the effective porosity will
decrease and lead to decrease of flow rate,
however flow rate is more stable for smaller
particle sizes in all experiments of filter pipes. The
tightness keeps small particle, prevents
underground erosion; hence the permeability
becomes more stable and reduces blocking of
narrow-slit pipes.
 Fig. 12. Filter pipe’s capability of collecting
water and material’s tightness A: wire-winding
pipe; B: Mesh pipe; C: Slit pipe
4.5. Effects of the hydraulic slope on filter pipe’s
capability of collecting water.
The slope of filter pipe has effects on capability
of collecting water and its long-term operation of
the entire water collecting system; and we set up
three slopes 0%, 1.5% and 3% for each type of
materials of pebbles (a), pebble mixes with sand
(b) and sand (moderate grain size) mixes with
pebbles (c). The results are presented in Fig. 136.
(a)
(b)
108
(c)
Fig. 136. Flow rate vs filter pipe slope in different
environment (a), (b), (c)
A: wire-winding pipe; B: Mesh pipe; C: Slit
pipe
In case of pebbles (a), the filter pipe slope does
not show much effect on flow rate of wire-winding
pipe, but decrease considerably flow rate of other
pipes. The material (b) and (c) shows a lower rate
of flow decrease. Base on those analysis, it is
proved that the smaller particle size and the lower
permeability coefficient, the lower effect of pipe
slope on collecting water. For the filter pipe with
big area and slit (i.e. wire-winding pipe D110), the
flow rate show an inconsiderable decrease when
the pipe slope increases; and for the material (a),
the flow rate at slope 3% is higher than it is at
slope 1.5%.
The filter pipe slope should increase
permeability, but in this case it reduces flow rate.
When the filter pipe inclines, the vertical
component of slit area reduces and leads to
decrease of flow rate and easily block. In addition,
the pipe’s bottom becomes easy to contain air
when the pipe is full of water; and consequently
there is a decrease of flow rate. In order to prevent
air in the pipe, it is necessary to set up a vent pipe
in the pipe bottom’s cover. The vent pipe functions
more effective for mesh and slit pipe; and air can
strongly escape when the valve is locked.
5. Conclusion
The physical scale mode reproduced properly
the water collecting system on river/stream bed
and its operation in reality. The experiments
carried out correlations between PSD, permeability
coefficient, gradient, tightness, hydraulic slope and
the filter pipe’s capability of collecting water for
different types of filter pipes.
 The correlation between permeability
coefficient and collecting water ability was the
most reliable, thus it was chosen to select filter
pipe’s characteristics. The usage of filter pipe with
big slit, i.e. wire-winding pipe, can get high flow
rate; however if it does not require high discharge,
mesh pipe and slit pipe can be applied. Dimensions
of slit, mesh of filter pipe should be higher than
1.0mm. The pipe’s slope can reduce flow rate
collected by filter pipe, especially when slit width
is larger than 1.0mm; however it should bear in
mind that the filter pipe should incline toward the
collecting pipe by slope 1.5% to avoid deposition.
The tightness of PSD is able to reduce but stabilize
flow rate of filter pipes. To design a HWCS, we
recommend to use experiment results and PSD
with relative tightness Dr = 0.65
Acknowledgements
This research is a part of the National project
“Research and Propose to Apply the Appropriate
Scientific and Technological Solutions on
Improving Efficiency of Weirs in the Northwest
Vietnam, Code name: KHCN-TB.14C/13-18,
implemented by Vietnam Academy for Water
Resources.
We thank the Vietnam National University,
Hanoi and the Program of Science and Technology
to Sustainable Development of the Northwest
region KHCN-TB/13-18 to fund the project
KHCN-TB.14C/13-18 and this research.
References
[1] H. Hunt, J. Schubert, and C. Ray,
“Conceptual design of riverbank filtration
systems,” in Riverbank Filtration,
Springer, 2002, pp. 19–27.
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[2] J. Wang, “Riverbank filtration case study
at Louisville, Kentucky,” in Riverbank
Filtration, Springer, 2002, pp. 117–145.
[3] J. Jasperse, “Planning, design and
operations of collector 6, Sonoma County
Water Agency,” in Riverbank Filtration
for Water Security in Desert Countries,
Springer, 2011, pp. 169–202.
[4] C. Chen, J. Wan, and H. Zhan,
“Theoretical and experimental studies of
coupled seepage-pipe flow to a horizontal
well,” J. Hydrol., vol. 281, no. 1–2, pp.
159–171, 2003.
[5] H. Zhan and V. A. Zlotnik, “Groundwater
flow to a horizontal or slanted well in an
unconfined aquifer,” Water Resour. Res.,
vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 11–13, 2002.
[6] M. S. Hantush and I. S. Papadopulos,
“Flow of ground water to collector wells,”
J. Hydraul. Div., vol. 88, no. 5, pp. 221–
244, 1962.
[7] S.-H. Kim, K.-H. Ahn, S. O. Prasher, and
R. M. Patel, “Extending riverbed filtration
design velocity for horizontal wells from
model to prototypes.,” Can. Biosyst. Eng.,
vol. 54, 2012.
[8] A. Mohamed and K. Rushton, “Horizontal
wells in shallow aquifers: Field experiment
and numerical model,” J. Hydrol., vol.
329, no. 1–2, pp. 98–109, 2006.
[9] T. Grischek, D. Schoenheinz, and C. Ray,
“Siting and design issues for riverbank
filtration schemes,” in Riverbank
Filtration, Springer, 2002, pp. 291–302.
[10] E. M. Onur, “Predicting the permeability
of sandy soils from grain size
distributions.” Kent State University,
2014.
 SETTLEMENT OF SATURATED CLAY LAYER SUBJECTED TO CYCLIC
LOADING WITH A WIDE RANGE OF LOADING PERIODS

Hiroshi Matsuda1, Tran Thanh Nhan2, Hiroyuki Hara1

1
Yamaguchi University, Japan
2
Hue University of Sciences - Hue University, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: tnhan@husc.edu.vn

Abstract: When a clay layer is consolidated under cyclic loading such as traffic load, filling and
discharging of oil tank, seasonal changes of ground water table or ebb and flow of tide, the distribution of
excess pore water pressure and the settlement inside the layer are complicated and affected by the
thickness of the soil layer and the period of cyclic loading. In this study, by using the separate-type-
consolidometer, saturated specimens of Tokyo bay clay with the dimension of H = 100 mm in height and
D = 60 mm in diameter were tested under the various periods of cyclic loading (for the constant loading
duration of 17,200 minutes). The specimen was divided into five sub-specimens (h = 20 mm and D = 60
mm) which were interconnected to satisfy the one way drainage condition, i.e. the bottom surface of the
fifth sub-specimen was undrained and the drainage was permitted only from the top surface of the first
sub-specimen. During experiments, the excess pore water pressure at the bottom surface of each sub-
specimen and the settlement for each sub-specimen were independently measured with time to show the
changes in the distribution of the excess pore water pressure and the settlement inside the layer. The
effects of cyclic loading period on the excess pore water pressure and the settlement were then clarified
by concerning the elasto-visco-plastic consolidation model. In conclusion, it is shown that the settlements
induced by cyclic loading are larger than those induced by the static one and this effect of cyclic loading
increases with the number of loading cycles.

Keywords: consolidation; cyclic loading; clay; settlement; pore water pressure.

1. Introduction static load (Fujiwara et al., 1985; Ohara and

When saturated clays are subjected to cyclic
loading such as traffic load, filling and discharging
from oil tank, changes in the ground water table by
daily or seasonal ebb and flow of tide, the
accumulation of excess pore water pressure and
structural disturbance of the soil have been
confirmed (Ohara et al., 1984; Yasuhara and
Andersen, 1991), resulting in additional settlement
to the soils not only in the primary consolidation
but also in secondary compression (Moriwaki et
al., 2001). In addition, the settlement-time relations
of clay layer have been confirmed to be affected by
cyclic loading and being different from those under
Matsuda, 1988; Matsuda et al., 1995; Nhan et al.,
2018). Although the primary and secondary
consolidation characteristics of clays under cyclic
loading have been studied by various testing
models such as cyclic triaxial tests (Yasuhara et
al., 1992; Hyde et al., 1993), uni-directional
cyclic shear tests [Yasuhara and Andersen, 1991;
Andersen et al., 1976; Suzuki, 1984; Ohara and
Matsuda, 1988], repeated consolidation tests
(Fujiwara et al., 1985; 1987) or separate-type
consolidometer (Matsuda and Shimizu, 1995;
Matsuda et al., 2000) and also by analytical
researches (Wilson and Elgohary, 1974), the

110
effects of loading intensity, drainage conditions
and creep on such consolidation characteristics are
still insufficiently clarified.
During the loading-unloading process of cyclic
loads, the degree of consolidation may or may not
reach 100% resulting in further complication when
investigating the distribution of excess pore water
pressure inside the layer. Because the distribution
of cyclic load-induced excess pore water pressure
inside the soil layer is affected by the layer
thickness and the loading period, the effects of
loading period on the cyclic load-induced
settlement of saturated clay can be clarified based
on observation of the cyclic load-induced excess
pore water pressure and strain inside the layer. In
this study, several cyclic load consolidation tests
were carried out under the same total loading
duration with different number of loading cycles
and the distributions of cyclic load-induced pore
water pressure and the settlement-time relations
were observed and compared with those calculated
by using the elasto-visco-plastic constitutive
model.
2. Cyclic load consolidation test
2.1. Separate-type consolidometer
The outline and operation system of the
separate-type consolidometer (STC) are shown
schematically in Figs 1a and 1b, respectively.
Testing specimen has dimensions of H = 100mm
in height and D = 60mm in diameter which is
divided into five sub-specimens (h = 20mm and D
= 60mm) and placed in the consolidation cells (Fig
1b). In each consolidation cell, porous plates are
placed at the upper and lower boundaries of sub-
specimen and the horizontal displacement is
restricted by the consolidation ring which is
covered by the membrane. Sub-specimens are
interconnected by drainage tubes and the
distribution of excess pore water pressure and the
settlement inside clayey layers are measured
independently. During the test, consolidation cells
with sub-specimen are immerged in the water bath
to control the temperature of specimen as
15±0.5°C during experiment.
The consolidation pressure was applied to all
sub-specimens through the upper pedestal by the
electrically regulated air pressure. In order to
satisfy the saturation of soil specimen and testing
system, back pressure of 98kPa was applied and B
value was confirmed as B  0.95.

Drainage valve
(a) (b)
V0
P
Back pressure
Subspecimen
No.1
V1
Burette
P
Subspecimen
No.2
V2
P
Subspecimen
No.3
V3
Subspecimen
P
Subspecimen D=60mm
No.4 H=20mm
V4
P
V0-V5 : Drainage
Subspecimen
No.5 valve
V5 P : Consolidation
pressure
Pore water pressure
transducer

Fig. 1. (a) Outline and (b) operation system of the separate-type consolidometer

111
 2.2. Sample and specimen
Reconstituted sample of Tokyo Bay clay was
used in this study. Index properties and e-logp
relations of the soil are shown in Table 1 and Fig 2,
respectively. Before the cyclic loading, sub-
specimens were subjected to two steps of pre-
consolidation with the consolidation pressure of
each step as σo/2 = 39.2 kPa. During the pre-
consolidation, drainage was allowed from the top
surface of each sub-specimen and then showing
relatively uniform void ratio.

Tab. 1. Index properties of sample

Properties Value Properties Value
Particle density s (g/cm3) 2.78 Compression index Cc 0.46
Liquid limit wL (%) 66.6 Initial void ratio e 1.63
Plasticity index Ip 41.6 Initial water content w (%) 170.6

All sub-specimens were connected by drainage
tubes and in order to simulate the drainage
condition from the bottom to the top surface of the
whole specimen (consisted of five sub-specimens),
the bottom surface of the fifth sub-specimen was
set as an undrained condition and the drainage was
permitted only from the top surface of the first sub-
specimen. During the cyclic load consolidation
tests, predetermined cyclic load was applied
simultaneously to all sub-specimens and the pore
water pressure at the bottom surface of each sub-
specimen and the settlement were measured with
time.

1.5

1.4

1.3
Void Ratio e

1.2

1.1
Tokyo bay clay
1

0.9

0.8

0.7
1 2 3 4
1 10 10 10 10
Consolidation Pressure (kPa)

Fig. 2. e-logp relations of Tokyo Bay clay

2.3. Loading patterns in cyclic load consolidation
tests
The loading patterns adopting in this study are
shown in Fig 3. After two steps of pre-
consolidation, specimen was subjected to
consecutive series of loading-unloading of  =
78.4 kPa for the total loading duration as 17,200
minutes. Under the same total loading duration, the
number of cycles was set as 1, 2, 20 and 40 (Table
2). After the cyclic loading, soil specimen was
reconsolidated under the pressure of  = 78.4 kPa
for 10,000 minutes and then effects of such cyclic
loading on the settlement-time relations were
observed.

112
 σ (kPa)
Consecutive cyclic loading Static loading
σf

Δσ
σo
σo /2

0 Elapsed time
t1 t2 t1 t1 t2 t３ t (min)
Loading Loading Loading
Unloading Unloading

Fig. 3. Loading patterns for the cyclic-load consolidation test

Tab. 2. Cyclic loading conditions

Number
Test No.  (kPa) t (kPa)  (kPa) t1 (min.) t2 (min.) t3 (min.)
of cycles
I 8,600 8,600 1
II 4,300 4,300 2
78.4 156.8 78.4 10,000
III 430 430 20
IV 215 215 40

3. Elasto-Visco-Plastic model for cyclic load where g(u, εz) is a creep function in EVP
consolidation consolidation equation, mv is the coefficient of
The stress-strain-time relations in the volumetric compressibility, V is the specific
consolidation process have been investigated in the volume, ψ is the creep parameter, to is the curve-
long history (Taylor et al., 1940; Suklje, 1957; fitting parameter related to the choice of reference
Schiffman, 1958; Crawford, 1964; Bjerrum, 1967; time line, Cv is the coefficient of consolidation.
Barden et al., 1969; Garlanger, 1972; Aboshi, 4. The distribution of excess pore water
1973; Leroueil et al., 1985; Mesri, 1994). Yin and pressure and the settlement-time relations
Graham (1996) incorporated the elasto-visco- inside clay layer subjected to cyclic loading
plastic (EVP) model into the consolidation 4.1. Changes in excess pore water pressure
equation which was applied for analysing the inside the clay layer
excess pore water pressure and settlement with When a clayey layer with low permeability is
time under the multi-stage loading (Matsuda et al., subjected to cyclic loads, excess pore water
2000). The original expressions of the model are as pressure may increase and in the unloading stage
follows: the pore water pressure decreases with time. The
changes in excess pore water pressure inside the
 2u u 1 specimen are shown in Figs 4a and 4b for Test No.
Cv   g (u,  z ) (1)
z 2 t mv I and IV, respectively. In the figures, z/H shows the
distance from the drainage boundary (the top
 z u surface of No.1 sub-specimen) and therefore z/H =
 mv  g (u,  z ) (2) 1.0 means the lower surface of sub-specimen No.5
t t
corresponding to the longest distance to drainage
/ boundary (Fig 1a). It is seen in Fig 4 that the
 /V   V   z  u 
g (u,  z )  exp   z   (3) excess pore water pressure instantly approaches 
to      zo 
and then gradually decreases. In Fig 4b, it is seen
that immediately after the unloading, pore water
pressure becomes negative which increases with

113
time and reaches to zero. Then by the reloading,
the pore water pressure increases instantly and
decreases. When comparing the pore water
pressures after unloading and those after reloading,
although the pore water pressure induced by
reloading is constant, those induced by unloading
decreases.
In order to show the changes of excess pore
water pressure during the cyclic load consolidation
test more in detail, the distributions of excess pore
water pressure at the end of loading and at the
beginning of unloading are shown in Figs 5a and
5b for the first and the last cycles of the individual
test, respectively. It is shown in these figures that
although the excess pore water pressures almost
equal to zero before unloading (Tests No. I and II
in Fig 5a and all tests in Fig 5b), the ratio of
negative excess pore water pressure (u/∆) does
not reach unity, i.e. u/∆ = -1.0. Since the
saturation of specimen and the system compliance
has been confirmed (B  0.95), this phenomenon
should be clarified including the effect of friction
between soil sample and surrounding consolidation
ring. In the final loading stage after cyclic loading
the excess pore water pressure inside the specimen
in all tests approaches zero, and the discrepancies
in negative pore water pressures induced by
unloading become negligible irrespective of the
distance from the drainage boundary (i.e. value of
z/H).

1.5 1.5

(a) Test
TestNo.
I I (b) Test
非排水層側 TestNo.
IVIV
1 非排水層側 1

0.5 0.5
u/
u/

排水層側 排水層側
0 0
z/H=0.2 z/H=0.2
z/H=0.4 z/H=0.4
-0.5 z/H=0.6 -0.5 z/H=0.6
z/H=0.8 z/H=0.8
z/H=1.0 z/H=1.0
-1 -1
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
0.1 1 10 10 10 10 10 0.1 1 10 10 10 10 10
Elapsed Time(min) Elapsed Time(min)

Fig. 4. Changes in excess pore water pressures inside specimen for (a) Test No. I and (b) Test No. IV

0.2 0.2
First loading TEST I Last loading stage (b)
TEST II
stage (a) TEST III
0.4 TEST IV 0.4 TEST I
TEST II
TEST III
除荷直後

除荷直前

除荷直後

TEST IV
除荷直前
z/H

z/H

0.6 0.6

0.8 0.8

1 1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2
u/ u/

Fig. 5. Distributions of the excess pore water pressure at the end of loading and immediately after the
unloading in the (a) first loading stage and (b) last loading stage

114
 1.5 1.5

1 1

0.5 0.5
u/

u/
EVP model
0 0
TEST I EVP model
TEST III
-0.5 TEST II -0.5
TEST IV

-1 -1
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Elapsed Time(min) Elapsed Time(min)

Fig. 6. Changes in average excess pore water pressure for all cyclic loading tests

The changes in the average excess pore water observations were also reported by Aboshi et al.
pressure are shown in Fig 6 for all cyclic load (1981). In addition, the differences in the vertical
consolidation tests. Symbols in these figures show settlements of sub-specimens remain when the sub-
the observed data and solid lines correspond to the specimen recompressed under the same vertical
calculated results by using EVP model. Observed stress even after 10,000 minutes.
and calculated results show similar tendencies in Comparisons between the observed results and
the change of excess pore water pressure during those calculated by EVP model on the
cyclic loading. relationships of average settlement of the specimen
4.2. The settlement-time relations inside clay are shown in Figs 8a and 8b for all cyclic load
layer consolidation tests. Reasonable agreements
In Figs 7a and 7b, relationships between between experimental and calculated results are
settlement in strain and elapsed time on Test No. I confirmed for the primary consolidation stage
and No. IV are shown. It is seen in these figures regardless of the number of loading cycles.
that sub-specimens which are closer to drainage However, the calculated results become larger
boundary show larger settlement. Similar during the post-cyclic loading recompression stage.

0 0
Sub-specimen
非排水層側
1 1 No.5
Strain in settlement(%)
in strain (%)
in strain (%)

Sub-specimen
Strain in settlement(%)

2 No.5 2

3 Sub-specimen 3 Sub-specimen
排水層側
No.1 No.1
4 4
Settlement
Settlement

5 No.1 5 No.1
No.2 No.2
No.3 No.3
6 No.4 6 No.4
No.5 (a) Test No. I No.5 (b) Test No. IV
7 7
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 11 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0.1 1 10
10 102
10 103 104
10
Elapsed Time(min)
Elapsed time (min) Elapsed Time(min)
Elapsed time (min)

Fig. 7. Settlement-time relations for each sub-specimen in (a) Test No. I and (b) Test No. IV

115
 -1 -1

0 0
(%)

(%)
in strain(%)

in strain(%)
1 1
Strain in settlement

Strain in settlement
2 2

3 3
Settlement

Settlement
4 4
TEST III
5 TEST I 5
EVP model
TEST II EVP model TEST IV
6 6

7 7
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
0.1 1 10 10 10 10 10 0.1 1 10 10 10 10 10
Elapsed Time (min) Elapsed Time (min)

Fig. 8. Comparisons of the average settlement for the whole specimen between observed data and
calculated results by using the EVP model

Comparisons between the settlement induced for the case of cyclic loading with larger number of
by static load with those generated by cyclic ones cycles (Test No. IV), when t < 2000 minutes cyclic
are shown in Fig 9. It is seen in this figure that the load-induced settlement is smaller than those
tendencies of the settlements in Test No. I and II generated by static load and when t  2000
agree well with those under static load for both minutes, the cyclic load-induced settlement
primary and secondary consolidations. However, becomes larger.

0
in strain (%)

1
Strain in settlement(%)

3
Settlement

4 TEST I
TEST II
TEST III
5 TEST IV
static
6
1 2 3 4 5
0.1 1 10 10 10 10 10
Elapsed Time(min)

Fig. 9. Comparisons between the static and cyclic load consolidation

The changes in the rate of settlement in strain settlement in strain of clayey soil generally
( ) with elapsed time are shown in Figs 10a and decreases with the process of the dissipation of
10b for Test No. I and No. IV, respectively. In cyclic load-induced pore water pressure and that
these figures, the dashed lines were obtained by this tendency is affected by the distance from
Eq. 4. drainage boundary. The rate is higher when the soil
is closer to the drainage boundary and when t <
200 minutes and 100 minutes for Test No. I and
og ( )  og (0.434  )  og t (4)
No. IV, respectively. For longer duration of cyclic
loading consolidation, the discrepancies of the
where  is the coefficient of secondary strain rate between sub-specimens becomes
compression. It is seen that the rate of vertical negligible, especially for the case of z/H  0.4.

116
 1 1
10 10
(a) Test No. I (b) Test No. IV

×(−1)
0 0
×(−1)
10 10 Close to drainage
Close to drainage 排水層側
排水層側 surface
rate| (%/min)

surface

(%/min)
-1 -1
10 10

(%/min)
rate (%/min)

-2 -2
10 10

rate rate|
-3 -3
10 10
z/H=0.2
Strain|strain

z/H=0.2

|strain
Undrained
非排水層側
-4
10 z/H=0.4 Uundrained
非排水層側
-4
10 z/H=0.4 surface
z/H=0.6 z/H=0.6

Strain
surface
-5
z/H=0.8 -5 z/H=0.8
10 z/H=1.0 10 z/H=1.0
 
-6 -6
10 10
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Elapsed Time (min) Elapsed Time (min)

Fig. 10. Changes in the rate of vertical settlement in strain during (a) Test No. I and (b) Test No. IV

4.3. Effects of the number of cycles on the plotted against the number of cycles. The value
cyclic load-induced consolidation settlement corresponding to n = 0 means the settlement under
As mentioned in Table 1, all cyclic load static loading. It is seen that even when under
consolidation tests were performed for the similar similar total loading duration, vertical settlement of
total loading duration of 17,200 minutes and in clayey soils induced by cyclic loading is
order to show the effect of cyclic loading period on considerably larger than those generated by the
the cyclic load-induced settlement of clayey soils, static one and that the larger the number of cycles
the number of cycles were set as n = 1, 2, 20 and of cyclic loading, the higher the vertical settlement
40 for Test No. I, II, III and IV, respectively. In Fig of clay layer.
11, total settlements in strain including the
settlement during cyclic loading (17,200 minutes)
and after 10,000 minutes of recompression are

5.9
Settlement after 27200min induced by
strain in settlement(%)
in strain (%)

5.8 the cyclic load consolidation

consolidation duration 27200min
5.7

5.6

5.5
Totalsettlement

5.4

5.3
Total

5.2

5.1
0 10 20 30 40 50
Number of cycle
Number of cycles

Fig. 11. Relationships between the total settlement and the number of cycles

117
5. Discussion about the effect of cyclic loading
on the consolidation behavior
In this study, the periods of cyclic loading are
relatively large (even when n = 40 for Test No. IV)
and therefore the positive and negative excess pore
water pressures induced by loading and unloading
mostly diminish during every loading cycle (Figs
4a and 4b). When simulating the consolidation
behavior of clay layer under the shorter cyclic
loading period such as by daily ebb and flow of
tide, similar cyclic load consolidation tests should
be carried out under the shorter loading period.
Matsuda et al. (1995) carried out several series of
cyclic load consolidation tests on reconstituted
specimen of Ariake clay (Gs = 2.633, Cc = 0.86, wL
= 118.4% and Ip = 79.2) by using the similar STC
device. In order to show the scale effect of soil
layer, different initial heights of specimen were
used (Ho = 10mm, 20mm, 50mm and 100mm) and
also in order to show the effect of loading period,
Elapsed time in minutes
Excess pore water pressure ratio
(a)
Fig. 12. Changes in excess pore water pressure and the settlement-time relations of Ariake clay subjected
to cyclic loading with relatively short period of loading (Matsuda et al., 1995)
6. Conclusions
To clarify the effects of cyclic loading on the
distributions of excess pore water pressure and on
the settlement-time relations of clay, cyclic load
consolidation tests were carried out for saturated
specimen of Tokyo Bay clay by using the separate-
type consolidometer. During the cyclic loading and
the post-cyclic consolidation, the excess pore water
pressure and the settlement were measured with
time inside the specimen. The main conclusions
are as follows:
Cyclic loading affects the change of excess pore
water pressure and the settlement.
118
all experiments were performed with similar
number of cycles as n = 1000 but with different
loading periods as 10s, 40s, 250s and 1000s for the
specimen with Ho = 10mm, 20mm, 50mm and
100mm, respectively. After finishing the cyclic
loading, soil specimens were consolidated under
static load.
The changes in excess pore water pressure and
the consolidation settlement versus elapsed time
derived from above testing programs are shown in
Figs 12a and 12b, respectively. It is seen that the
specimen height significantly affects the changes
of excess pore water pressure and the settlement-
time relations. In addition, because of the short
period of cyclic loading, relatively large amount of
positive excess pore water pressures are still
remained leading to large residual settlement after
cyclic loading. These observations are different
from those obtained for the longer period of cyclic
loading as confirmed in the current study.
Elapsed time (min.)
(b)
Excess pore water pressure and the settlement
induced by cyclic load can be simulated by using
the elasto-visco-plastic model.
Sub-specimen which is closer to the drainage
boundary shows the larger settlement.
The total settlement of clay induced by the
cyclic load is considerably larger than those
induced by static load and for cyclic loading, the
settlement increases with the number of cycles
when the loading duration is kept constant.
Acknowledgements
Authors would like to acknowledge Mr Y.
Kuno and a number of students at Yamaguchi
University for their supports to the experimental
works of this study.
References
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the consolidation test,” Proc. of the ASCE,
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[8] Fujiwara, H., Ue, S. and Yasuhara, K.
(1987). Secondary compression of clay
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1788S.
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Bouchard, R. (1985). Stress-strain-strain
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rate relation for the compressibility of
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Itadani, Y. (2000). “Effects of creep
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(1994). “Settlement of embankments on
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(2000). “Volumetric and shear
deformation of a saturated clay under
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Recent Advances in geotechnical
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[16] Nhan, T. T., Matsuda, H. and Sato, H.
(2018). A model for multi-directional
cyclic shear-induced pore water pressure
and settlement on clays, Bulletin of
Earthquake Engineering 15(7), p.2761-
2784.
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(1984). Cyclic simple shear tests on
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induced by cyclic shear, Soils and
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[24] Yasuhara, K. and Andersen, K. H. (1991).
Recompression of normally consolidated
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Foundations 31(1), p.83-94.
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(1992). Effects of cyclic loading on
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527.
A CASE STUDY ON THE DETERMINATION OF THE EXCAVATED TRENCH
DEPTH IN UNSATURATED SOIL CONSTRUCTED BY OPEN TRENCH
METHOD WITHOUT SUPPORTING STRUCTURES

Nguyen Xuan Man1, Le Van Hung2, Kenneydy Chibuzor Onyelowe3

1
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam;
2
School of Affairs Officer, Vietnam
3
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Nigeria
Corresponding author’ Email: mannxdoky@gmail.com

Abstract: Together with the excavated width, the depth of trench play a vital role in stability as well
as economics effectiveness of a trench constructed by open trench method. It is widely recognized that a
steeper angle of an open trench, a smaller amount the excavated soil required; however, the trench is
unstable. In this case, an external supporting structure system is obliged to prevent the trench from falling
into the excavation zone. In addition, an open trench is normally located above the water table, hence
under unsaturated condition. One of the most important characteristics of unsaturated soil is negative pore
water pressure which brings about the matric suction, higher negative pore water pressure, higher matric
suction; consequently, higher shear strength of soil. On the other hand, there is a few theories and
research works have been reported on the method of determining a suitable depth of a trench under
unsaturated condition. Previous works tend to assume that the distribution of matric suction is either
constant or linear with depth; as a result of this, the designed results are often overestimated compared to
practical results. In this paper, the effect of distribution of matric suction was taken into account to
propose an equation to estimate the depth of a trench that can be applied without supporting structure.
Finally, an example of numerical calculation of a depth of the open trench was described.

Keywords: stability; supporting structure; excavation zone; unsaturated soil; depth of open trench;
matric suction.

1. Introduction Economically side speaking, once the value of 

One of the most important parameters need to
be considered once dealing with the stability of
underground construction constructed by open
method such as traffic tunnel, cable tunnel (power
electricity cable, communication cable), sub-
pavement tunnel, even some path of railway tunnel
are that the magnitude of the depth (H), and width
(L) of open trench. In other words, the ratio of L/H
must be met both the stability of underground
structure requirement and economic effectiveness.
The L/H ratio controls the angle of the open
trench, hence amount of excavation work
required. Smaller value of , higher stability of the
open trench can be obtained; however, the larger
the amount of excavation work need to be done.
equals to 900 the amount of excavation work
required is lowest, hence the highest of
effectiveness of economic. In spite of this, the
stability of the open trench must be taken into
account. It is widely observed that under this
condition =900, some external supporting
structures (known as the temporary structure)
ought to be applied such as earth anchor, retaining
wall, struts, sheet pile,. As a result of this
requirement, some shortcoming might be seen as
follow:
- Due to the existence of the temporary
structures, the construction area of underground
construction is reduced;

121
 - It is costly since the temporary structures
used;
- Progress of construction work is highly
affected, even much longer compared to that in
case of without using temporary structures.
Based on these problems, this paper aims to
determine the applicable depth of the open trench
without supporting structures under the condition
that the angle of the open trench,, equals to 90
degree.
2. Required depth of an open trench
It’s widely recognized that the open trench is
constructed in somewhere that is normally located
above the water table, hence under unsaturated
condition. Thus, in order to find out the applicable
value of the depth of the open trench,H, without
supporting structures with the angle of open trench
of 90 degree, the depth of water table is assumed to
be D (m) (Fig 1), the type of soil is classified as
cohesionless soil and under unsaturated condition.
Fig. 1. A typical cross section of an open trench
Where:  is the thickness of structure, (mm); r
is the inner radius of circle-structure (or half of
width of rectangular shape), (cm);  is the angle of
the open trench (degree);
According to Kartozia B.A.1983, the required
depth, H, of an open trench must be fulfilled the
following conditions:
H  (2  5)2r  (4  10)r (1)
and, D H m (2)
Where: m is the thickness of backfill soil layer
which used to against the permeating of
groundwater under high water pressure, this
parameter can be defined as below Terzaghi K.
1941:
122
h
m (3)

( s  1)
w
Where s, w are the density of soil, and water
respectively (kN/m3);h is the height of pressurized
water once groundwater seepage into the open
trench.
3. The stress state in soil and shear strength of
soil theory
3.1. Overview of state of stress in soil
3.1.1. Stress state for a saturated soil
In general, the mechanical behavior of a soil
(i.e., the volume change and shear strength
behavior) can be described in terms of the state of
stress in soil (Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993). The
state of stress in a soil consists of certain
combinations of stress variables that can be
referred to as stress state variables which should be
independent of the physical properties of the soil.
The effective stress concept has been well accepted
and studied for saturated soilsand has often been
regarded as a physical law. More correctly, the
effective stress is simply a stress state variable that
can be used to explain the behavior of a saturated
soil. The effective stress variable is applicable to
sand, silts, or clays because it is independent of the
soil properties. The volume change process and the
shear strength characteristics of a saturated soil are
both controlled by the effective stress. (Terzaghi
1936) described the stress state variable controlling
behavior of a saturated soil as follows: The stresses
in any point of a section through a mass of soil can
be computed from the total principal stresses 1,
2, 3which act at this point. If the voids of the soil
are filled with water under a stress, uw, the total
principal stresses consist of two parts. One part, uw,
acts in the water and in the solid in every direction
with equal intensity. It is defined as the pore-water
pressure. Effective stresses in all direct are defined
as:
(4)
(5)
(6)
And the change in stress, such as compression,
distortion, and a change in shearing resistance, are
exclusively due to changes in the effective stress
. Therefore, the stress state variable for a
saturated soil has been called the effective stress Where is the shear stress on the failure plane
and is commonly expressed in the form of an at failure; c’ is the effective cohesion;
equation: is the effective normal stress on the failure plane at
(7) failure; and is the effective angle of internal
Where is the effective normal stress (kPa); friction.
is the total normal stress (kPa); is the pore-
water pressure (kPa).
3.1.2. Stress state for an unsaturated soil
The stress analysis for an unsaturated soil is
presented as an extension of the saturated soil
theory. In other words, the principles used in the
stress analysis of a saturated soil are equally
applicable to unsaturated soils. However,
unsaturated soils are more complex, the use of a
single valued effective stress for unsaturated soils
has encountered many difficulties. Unsaturated Fig. 3. Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for
soils have commonly been viewed as a three-phase saturated soil. Stress state described by Mohr’s
system (Lambe and Whitman 2008) including air circle A is stable. State of stress described by
phase, water phase, and solid phase. Mohr’s circle B represents a failure condition.

As can be seen from Fig 3. The Mohr-Coulomb

failure criterion defines as the straight line with a
slope equal to , and an intercept equals to c’
in the space of effective normal stress and shear
stress
3.2.2. Shear strength of unsaturated soil

Fig. 2. The stress state variables for an

unsaturated soil

3.2. Shear strength of soil

Generally speaking, the shear strength of soil, (a)
whether saturated or unsaturated, may be defined
as the maximum internal resistance per unit area
the soil is capable of sustaining along the failure
plane under external internal stress loading.
3.2.1. Shear strength criterion for saturated soil
For saturated soil, shear strength is commonly
described by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion,
which defines shear strength in terms of the
(b)
material variables ’ and c’, and the stress state
Fig. 4. The relationship between the  parameters
variable stress as: and the degree of saturation, S.
(8) (a)  values for a cohesionless silt;
(b)  values for compacted soils (Bishop and
Donald 1961; Bishop and Blight 1963) (Fredlund

123
 et al. 1978) formulated an extended M-C criterion
to describe the shear strength behavior of
unsaturated soil.
For unsaturated soils, the water phase fills only
parts of the pore volume, whereas the remainder is
covered by air. It is desirable that concept of
effective stress for saturated soils be extended to
unsaturated soils. However, the effective stress
equation has been separated into two dependent
stress state variables. (Bishop 1959) has modified
Terzaghi’s classical effective stress theory and
presented the matric suction coefficient () for the
effective stress of unsaturated soils.
(9)
Where is pore air pressure;  is a parameter
related to the degree of saturation of the soil
(varies from 0 to 1 covering the range from dry to
fully saturated conditions, for fully saturated (=1),
Fig. 5.Simulation of capillary in soil (Budhu 2000).
and dry soil (=0)). The term of is
defined as matric suction. (Fredlund 2014; Fredlund et al. 2012; Fredlund
The failure envelope is a planar surface in the et al. 1996) stated that profile of matric suction in a
space of the stress state variables , and horizontally layered unsaturated soil generally
, hence the shear strength can be written depends on several factors; especially the soil
as properties as given by soil water characteristic
(10) curve and the soil permeability, environmental
Where is an internal friction angle associated factors including infiltration due to precipitation or
with matric suction that exhibits the rate of evaporation rates and boundary drainage
increase in shear strength relative to matric suction. conditions including the location of groundwater
As can be seen from the equation (10), the first two level. The matric suction profile will come to
terms on the right-hand side are to describe the equilibrium at a hydrostatic condition when there
conventional M-C criterion for the strength of is zero net flux from the ground surface. If
saturated soil. The third term captures the increase moisture content is extracted from the ground
in shear strength with increasing matric suction in surface such as evaporation, the matric suction
unsaturated soil. profile will be drawn to the left (matric suction
4. Matric suction in unsaturated soil increases). If moisture enters at the groundwater
One of the most important characteristic of surface such as infiltration, the matric suction
unsaturated soil is the negative pore water profile will be drawn to the right (matric suction
pressure. In other words, the pore water pressure reduces).
due to capillarity is negative (suction), it is defined Under steady state conditions, the water flux in
as a function of the size of the soil pores and the and out of the soil reaches a balance. If the
water content. At the groundwater level, the pore magnitude of water flux is the same as the
water pressure is zero and decreases (becomes hydraulic conductivity of the saturated soil, the
negative) once the capillary zone goes up. As a magnitude of the pore-water pressure is constant
result of the negative pore water pressure, the (Figure 6).
effective stress increases. To specify, for the
capillary zone, zc, the pore water pressure at the
top is -zcw, hence the effective stress

124
 hydrostatic pressure (or hydrostatic suction
profile); g is specific gravity. Taking a look into
the Eq (12a, b), the magnitude of matric suction is
decrease from a value of AD = kD n g (at y=0) to
zero (at y=D). The istribution of matric suction is
showed in the Fig 7.

Fig. 6. Matric suction profile in horizontally

layered unsaturated soil profiles under various
surface flux boundary condition ((Fredlund 2014;
Fredlund et al. 1996)
Fig. 7. The distribution of matric suction with
depth. (1) represent the surface of hydrostatic
From the distribution of matric suction, it’s
suction; (2) the distribution line of matric suction.
found that the matric suction profile varies with
depth and linearly reduced from surface to the
5. Determination of depth of open trench
water table; however, once the boundary drainage
without supporting structure
conditions change is due to either upward flux or
5.1. Earth pressure
precipitation, the distribution of matric suction is
The horizontal pressures act to the wall of open
not linearly. Therefore, in this paper the change in
trench is caused by the active earth pressure, pa,
the distribution of matric suction is assumed as a
which can be determined as follow(Bang 1985;
function of the third order polynomial and
Terzaghi 1941; Terzaghi et al. 1996; Wang 2000):
expressed as below:
   
Fhd ( y)  a  by  cy 2  dy 3 (11) pa  ( n  u a )  ( đ  ua ) cot g 2 (  )  2C. cot g (  ) (13)
4 2 4 2
Where :  đ   đ .g. y
Where y is the considered depth of open trench;
(14)
Fhd is the function of matric suction varies with
depth. The equation (11) must be met the C is the total cohesion stress which consists of
following conditions: two components, one is the effective cohesion, C’;
the other is suction force: (u a  u w )tg b . In other
y  0  Fhd ( y)  max  k n gD
words:
y  D  Fhd ( y)  0
C  C   (u a  u w )tg b (15)
By considering and comparing with the
Combination of Eq (15) and (13):
practical condition, the Eq (11) can be rewritten as

follow: pa  ( n  u a )  ( đ  u a ) cot g 2 (  )
4 2
Fhd ( y) 
D

A 2
D  2y2  y3 / D  (12a)  
2(C   (u a  u w )tg b ) cot g (  )
4 2

Or Fhd ( y)  AD 1  y / D
3 3
 (12b) 2    
 ( đ  u a ) cot g (  )  2C  cot g (  )
4 2 4 2
Where A  k n g , k is the pore water pressure  
 2(u a  u w )tg b . cot g (  )
4 2 , (16)
coefficient, which varies with the slope of

125
 Substitute Eq (12a) into Eq (16): of an open trench, ykc, can be determined by
  solving the following equation:
pa  ( n  u a )  ( đ  u a ) cot g 2 (  ) 
4 2 y
    A PA   pa dy  0 , (20)
2C  cot g (  )  2tg b . cot g (  ). x
4 2 4 2 D 0

[ D 2  2 y 2  y 3 / D] By substituting Eq (17) into Eq (20), and

working out the Eq (20) with y is the variable, the
(17) ykccan be derived, and its value is a function of
Substitute Eq (14) into Eq (17): y kc  f ( ,  b , u a ,  đ , D, A) (21)
 
p a  ( n  u a )  ( đ gy  u a ) cot g (
2
)  6. Numerical calculation
2 4
    A Soil engineering properties was obtained from a
2C  cot g (  )  2tg  b . cot g (  ). x
4 2 4 2 D construction site located in the Southeast of
[ D 2  2 y 2  y 3 / D] Vietnamis described in the Table 1.
(18)
The total magnitude of active earth pressure Tab. 1. Soil parameters used in this paper
acts to the retaining wall with its height of Ht, pa, Description Symbol Unit Value
can be defined as:
Ht
Unit weight  kN/m3 18
PA   p dy
0
a (19a) Effective cohesion c’ kPa 50
Effective friction Degree 22
5.2. Determine the magnitude of depth of open angle
trench
The distribution of active earth pressure can be Effective friction Degree 14
divided into two region, one is tensile region, the angle associated
other one is compression region. Two these regions with matric suction
is separated at a depth of yk. In the tensile region Pore-water k - 1.5
(from the surface to depth of yk), the active earth pressure coefficient
pressure is negative, which causes soil mass
Other parameters
behinds retaining wall tends to move away from
the retaining wall. The magnitude of yk may be Pore air pressure ua kPa 0
estimated by combination Eq (16) and Eq (12a,
12b), together with a condition of 6.1. Effect of level of ground water table
pa  0 and u a  0 : By changing the level of groundwater table, D,
the relationship between depth of an open trench
   
 đ cot g 2 (  )  2C  cot g (  )  without supporting structure and D, can be found
4 2 4 2
  A 2 (Table 2), and (Fig 8).
2tg b . cot g (  ). [ D  2 y 2  y 3 / D]  0
4 2 D
(19b)
After working out the Eq (19b), the value of yk
can be found.
If total active earth pressure Pa acts to the
retaining wall is completely dissipated, the
corresponding depth under that condition will be
the one that can be applied without supporting
structure. In other words, the magnitude of depth

126
 Tab. 2. Relationship between kkc and level of groundwatertable
Description Unit Values
Depth of groundwater table, D m 7 8 9 10 11 13 15
kkc m 4.38 4.97 5.25 5.83 6.19 7.18 7.34

6.2. Effect of effective friction angle (Fig. 9)

Tab. 3. Relationship between kkc and effective friction angle

Description Unit Values
Effective friction angle,φ,’ degree 10 14 18 22 26 30 35
kkc m 4.85 4.55 4.34 4.21 3.87 3.57 3.32

6.3. Effect of effective cohesion (Fig. 10)

Tab. 4. Relationship between kkc and effective cohesion

Description Unit Values
Effective cohesion, c’ kPa 20 40 50 60 70 75 85
kkc m 3.71 4.09 4.23 4.31 4.39 4.45 4.63

6.4. Effect of pore water pressure coefficient (Fig. 11)

Tab 5. Relationship between kkc and pore-water pressure coefficient

Description Unit Values
Pore-water pressure coefficient, k - 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 2.0
kkc m 3.22 3.69 4.23 4.52 4.98

Fig. 8. Relationship between kkc and level Fig. 9. Relationship between kkc and
of groundwater table effectivefriction angle

127
 Fig. 10. Relationship between kkc
and effective cohesion
7. Conclusion
Due to the existence of negative pore-water
pressure, the total cohesion forces increases. There
are some cracks have been observed within the
tensile area, which causes the soil mass (located
behinds) move away from the retaining wall, hence
the negative active earth pressure. This is a point
that can be used to consider whether the open
trench needs to be strengthened at a certain depth
or not;
Previous works assumed that the distribution of
matric suction is linearly decreased with depth; as
a result of this, the tolerate error is normally higher
than that in reality;
In this paper, the distribution of matric suction
is assumed to be third order polynomial to
determine the depth of open trench without
supporting structure;
As can be seen from numerical calculation:
- The magnitude of kkc is nonlinearly increased
with the level of groundwater table; however, once
the level of groundwater reaches a certain value,
the value of kkc almost constant and tends to reach
the critical value;
- Under the same conditions:
+ The value of kkc decrease with increasing of
effective friction angle;
+ The value of kkc does not significantly
increase as the effective cohesion goes up;
+ The value of kkc is notably increased as the
pore-water pressure coefficient, k, increases.
128
Fig. 11. Relationship between kkc and
pore-water pressure coefficient
References
1 Bang S. 1985. Active earth pressure behind
retaining walls. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering 111(3):407-412.
2 Bishop A. 1959. The effective stress
principle. Teknisk Ukeblad 39:859-863.
3 Bishop A, and Donald I. 1961. The
experimental study of partly saturated soil
in the triaxial apparatus. Proceedings of
the 5th international conference on soil
mechanics and foundation engineering,
Paris. p 13-21.
4 Bishop AW, and Blight G. 1963. Some
aspects of effective stress in saturated and
partly saturated soils. Geotechnique
13(3):177-197.
5 Budhu M. 2000. Soil Mechanics and
Foundations: Wiley.
6 Fredlund D, Morgenstern NR, and Widger
R. 1978. The shear strength of unsaturated
soils. Canadian geotechnical journal
15(3):313-321.
7 Fredlund DG. 2014. The emergence of
unsaturated soil mechanics. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 51(12):ix-x.
8 Fredlund DG, and Rahardjo H. 1993. Soil
mechanics for unsaturated soils: John
Wiley & Sons.
9 Fredlund DG, Rahardjo H, and Fredlund
MD. 2012. Unsaturated soil mechanics in
engineering practice: John Wiley & Sons.
10 Fredlund DG, Xing A, Fredlund MD, and
Barbour S. 1996. The relationship of the
unsaturated soil shear to the soil-water
characteristic curve. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 33(3):440-448.
11 Kartozia B.A. 1983. Mechanic of
Tunneling.
12 Lambe TW, and Whitman RV. 2008. Soil
mechanics SI version: John Wiley & Sons.
13 Terzaghi K. 1941. General wedge theory
of earth pressure. American Society of
Civil Engineers Transactions.
129
14 Terzaghi K, Peck RB, and Mesri G. 1996.
Soil mechanics in engineering practice:
John Wiley & Sons.
15 Terzaghi Kv. 1936. The shearing
resistance of saturated soils and the angle
between the planes of shear. Proceedings
of the 1st international conference on soil
mechanics and foundation engineering:
Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA.
p 54-56.
16 Wang Y-Z. 2000. Distribution of earth
pressure on a retaining wall. Geotechnique
50(1):83-88.
 A METHOD OF EVALUATION OF WAVE LOADS ACTING ON VERTICAL
PIER WITH NON-PRISMATIC SECTION IN THE DEEP SEA

Dang Xuan Truong1, Dau Van Ngo2, Le Van Nam3

1
University of transport HCMC,Vietnam
2,3
Ho Chi Minh city University of Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: dangxuantruong@hcmut.edu.vn

Abstract: In this study, the classic equation of Morison is used to analyse and estimate the wave loads
acting on vertical piers of gravity platform structures, built in the deep sea area. The pier cross-section is
non-prismatic. The study is essential as there are a lot of gravity platform structures that are being in
Vietnamese waters as well as all around the world.

Keywords: gravity base structures; vertical piers; deep sea.

1. Introduction So far, the research and calculation of the wave

Gravity Platform Structures (GPS) is a type of
large-scale construction that is classified as
megastructures in construction. The construction
consists of a superstructure, a support pillar and
gravity foundation, which are exposed to the water
surface and the regular load bearing of the wave
are the support pillars. It is a part that is embedded
in the gravity foundation and usually has a variable
cross section (the pillar's foot is larger than the
top). The determination of the ocean wave load
acting on the pillar up to now is still calculated on
the vertical piers with uniform cross-section.
This study will analyze and calculate the load
of wave which are acting on large sized piers with
variable cross-section and located in deep sea, to
assess the load of the wave effecting on gravity
platform structures closer to reality
2. Characteristic of the wave load acting on the
GPS piers
As for GPS wave load is considered as the most
disadvantageous and most frequent environmental
load, in which the support pillar of the construction
is the part that is affected by the waves.
load acting on the support pillars still has many
complex factors that need to be further considered.
The determination of the wave load acting on
the support pillars is mainly based on the Morison
equation. However, the Morison equation only
limits the wave load acting on the vertical piers
with a constant cross-section (circle or or any
cross-section). This is not true with the structural
feature of the construction, therefore in the
calculation one usually refers to the adjustment
factor (or safety coefficient). This may as well be
one of the reasons why this construction type has
not been widely developed in the world.
The study of the wave load acting on a large-
sized support pillar structure with variable cross-
section in deep sea is essential in designing this
work.
3. Issues have been studied
The wave loads acting on off-shore structures
have been studied in-depth over the past few years.
Wave forces acted on the structure proposed by
Morison et al. (1950).
The Morison equation was formulated with the
assumption that the presence of the object does not

130
affect the properties of the incident wave.
However, this formula does not predict waves
caused on large diameter structures, where the
scattering effect of the wave from the structure is
predominant. The identification of waves on large
offshore structures is quite complex mainly due to
the scattering of waves in the vicinity of the
construction.
After Havelock's (1940) study, Mac Camy and
Fuchs (1954) presented a solution for measuring
the dynamic pressure on a large vertical circular
cylinder, which is frequently impacted by waves.
Laird (1955), Priest (1962), Chakrabarti and
Tam (1975), Endo and Tosaka (1985) and
Chakrabarti et al. (1986) conducted a dynamic
pressure distribution experiment around vertical
cylinders. Hellstorm and Rundgren (1954)
measured dynamic pressure around a cylindrical
model of the Soedra Oelands Grund and concluded
that the pressure on the side surface was different
from the pressure on the water surface.
Nakamura (1976) conducted a field study in the
Pacific Ocean and measured the pressure caused
by the MacCamy random wave and the Fuchs
linear diffraction theory assumes that the measured
values are smaller in the deeper part and larger
near the average surface area (SWL) than the
theoretical value.
Borgman (1965) describes a calculation method
of the spectral density of a wave from the spectral
density of the wave height using a transition
function. This theory applies to waves that are
almost a narrow band spectrum. Pierson and
Holmes (1965) studied the unequal wave pressure
based on the concept of time series at different
depths. The correlation of water motion with
historical wave height was performed by Iwagaki
et al. (1973). Particle motions is calculated by
using Reid's linear number transform (1957).
Huntington (1979) studied extending the linear
short-wave diffraction theory by randomness and
showed that in the case of a large cylindrical cross-
surface, the total spectral force on the cylinder was
related to the spectral height of the wave through a
feature function. Wheeler (1969) presented a
method for calculating wave force from an ocean
wave configuration by using a linear filtration
131
technique and showing the comparisons of these
forces with good measurements. Hsu and Nath
(1986) have developed a new technique for
predictions of the random waves on the vertical
plain pillar, the relationship between the frequency
depends on the maximum force coefficient and the
amount depend on Keulegan-Carpenter frequencies
have been studied.
Raman and Sambhu Venkata Rao (1983)
measured dynamic pressure on the vertical shafts
generated by the abnormal wind wave lab and
compared their measurements with a MacCamy
theory and Fuchs linear diffraction theory. It found
the direction of development for the 90° pressure
transducer for the incident wave direction, the
spectral pressure deviated significantly from the
spectral theory obtained from MacCamy and
Fuchs, the main reason being the effect of the
retaining wall.
Hellstorm and Rundgren (1954) and Nakamura
(1976) analyzed the spectral pressure of waves in
the ocean.
Raman and Sambhu Venkata Rao (1983)
applied a spectroscopic method to generate wave
pressure on vertical pier in the laboratory.
However, the wave fields mentioned before are
created by the wind blowing on the water surface.
Remarks
While significant efforts have been devoted to
study loads acting on vertical piers due to random
waves, studies of the wave stress distribution
include the dynamic pressure around the vertical
piers particularly due to random waves, the result
is very limited.
There are almost no other studies concerning
the dynamic pressure on the vertical piers due to
the diffraction of waves.
Wave's pressure acting on large vertical pier
with large diameter in deep sea area has not yet
been studied up to now.
Suggestion
The construction of GPSs has been applied by
some countries in the world. Whereas designers
often use their own national standards. At the same
time, designers and builders almost always have
their own design standards and they keep it secret,
not widely publicized.
 We propose to apply Morison’s equation and b
M (4)
perform mathematical transformations to calculate F
the wave load acting on the large-sized support For this study, deep water uses the formula:
pillar with variable cross section in deep sea. ω2=gk (5)
4. Theoretical basis vx calculation formula:
H ch(ky) (6)
The wave load acting on the stationary vertical v 
x cos(kx  t )
2 sh(kh)
pier was studied by Morison and et al., with the
assumption that the pier diameter is smaller than ax calculation formula:
the wave length (with a ratio of  0.1), ignore the  2 H ch(ky) (7)
ax  sin(kx  t )
distortion of the wave when it impacts the piers. 2 sh(kh)
The symbol f is the wave load distributed in the In which, the y ordinate of the water element is
x-horizontal direction acting on a unit of diameter taken as follows:
D, according to Morison: H (8)
y  h    y  h  cos(kx  t )
 D 2  2
f  0,5Cvt D v x v x  C qt  a x
 4  (1) 5. Research models
5.1. Key parameters of the model
In which:   water density, Cvt, Cqt 
- The support pillar of drilling rig CONDEEP
coefficients of obstructing velocity and inertia, vx,
type of 1 pillar
ax the horizontal velocity and acceleration of the
- Deep sea: 110m
water element being considered by the wave are
- Height of the bottom part of working floor:
calculated according to the pre-selected wave
140m
theory.
- Diameter of constant section pillar: 30m
- Diameter of variable cross-section pillar: from
30m to 15m
- Height of constant section pillar: 60m
- Thick of constant section pillar: 1.5m
- Height of variable cross-section pillar: 80m
Fig. 1. Wave load acting on the vertical pier
- Height of caison: 40m
The first term of (1) is called the obstructing 5.2. Data on wave
velocity component, the second term is the This section assumes two wave parameters H =
obstructing inertia component. Cvt is received in 4.9m with T = 6 sec. These wave parameters are
the range of 0,6 1,0; Cqt received from 1,5 2,0. referenced in the continental shelf area of
As the velocity and acceleration of the fluid southeastern Vietnam.
elements are generally reduced by the depth, the From here calculate   2 / T .
distribution of the load f along the column is in the 6. Calculated results
form of (1). Here the x = 0 axis of y is identical to the axis
The force of the distributed load f acting on the of the pillar, when the wave crests coincide with
pier in the segment from the seafloor (y = 0) to a the y axis, so we have
certain height y: cos(kx  t )  1  (kx  t )  0
(2) therefore y  h  H
y

F  f ( y)dy
0 2
and the moment of this load for the sea bed (y = 0) So in deep sea, we calculate K according to the
is: formula: ω2=kh
y (3)

M  yf ( y)dy
0
Put k=0,1118 ; H=4,9m ; h= 110 m ; D1=30 m
(bottom section) D2 = 15 m (upper section); ω =
The coupling arm of the seabed will be found
1,0473 1/sec; T=6 sec, calculated at x = 0 on the
after determining M and F by the formula:
velocity formula, the acceleration is:

132
  H ch(ky) H
vx  cos(kx  t )  ch(ky ) cos(t )  0,0000234  ch(ky) cos(t )
2 sh(kh) 2sh(kh)
v x  0,0000234  ch(ky) cos(t )
 2 H ch(ky )
ax  sin(t )  0, 0000245  ch(ky )  sin(t )
2 sh(kh)

a x  0,0000245  ch(ky)  sin(t )

In which:
H 4,9
y  h cos(kx  t )  114  cos(t )  114  2, 45cos(t )
2 2
or y  114  2,45 cos(t )
D is calculated by D1 = 30m and D2 = 15m by programming according to the formula:
D  D2  2
h  H cos(t ) / 2  y 
k1
k1 
h  H 2
D1  D2  2
Velocity and acceleration are two-variable computer program. It is simpler than the way to
functions of y-depth and time t (taken through ωt) integrate directly complex as usual .
Thus, they are computed simultaneously by the The values of total force Fx, moment at the foot
program at y and ωt and then added to the Morison of the pillar Mx and the handle jack B are
formula f: determined by analytical solution.
 D 2 
f  0,5Cvt D v x v x  C qt  a x
 4 
From here, the calculated result of the total
force of the graph f and the moment M of Fx for
the pillar bottom according to the Simpson's
formula is easily obtained by a computer program.
This is a new and simpler way than the way to
integrate directly complex as usual
Results:
Fx =4.056,86 Ton
Mx=412.240,53 T.m,
Handle jack b=101,61 m, at ωt=7,75.
In the program also for the Fx chart according
to the different ωt.
7. Conclusions and recommendations
7.1. Conclusions Fig. 2. The values of total force Fx
The problem of vertical pillar of varying
7.2. Recommendations
diameter affected by the sea wave can be identified In calculating the design of the GPS, it is
by integral analysis with programming. necessary to determine the load values on the real
The total force of the graph f and the moment M cylinder (approximate to the actual cylinder head)
of Fx for the pillar bottom according to the in order to reduce the uncertainty factors described
Simpson's formula is easily obtained by a by the coefficients, which helps the calculation of
the design.

133
 Further studies should be continued on the large
vertical cylinders with varying cross sections in
deep water by load weights or loads.
References
[1] Amaziah Walter Otunyo. Design of
offshore concrete gravity platforms.
Nigerian Journal of Technology. Vol. 30,
No.1, March 2011.
[2] Srinivasan Chandrasekaran, Madhuri
Seeram, A. K. Jain and Gaurav. Dynamic
response of offshore triceratops under
environmental loads. Proceedings of
MARTEC 2010, The International
Conference on Marine Technology, 11-12
December 2010, BUET, Dhaka,
Bangladesh.
[3] Dag Myrhaug, Muk Chen Ong. Burial and
scour of short cylinders under combined
random waves and currents including
effects of second order wave asymmetry.
Coastal Engineering 56 (2009) 73–81.
[4] Katrin Ellermann. Analysis of offshore
systems in random wave. Hamburg , 2009.
[5] Mandar M. Dewoolkar, Jeaan Hwang,
Hon-Yim Ko. Physical and finite element
modeling of lateral stability of offshore
134
skirted gravity structures subjected to
iceberg impact load. Ocean Engineering
35 (2008) 1615–1626.
[6] N. Haritos. Introduction to the Analysis
and Design of Offshore Structures – An
Overview. EJSE Special Issue: Loading on
Structures (2007);
[7] James F. Winson, Editor. Dynamics of
Offshore structures. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. Canada 2003.
[8] Thomas H. Dawson. Offshore Structural
Engineering. USA - 1991.
[9] Minoo H Patel. Dynamics of Offshore
Structures. 1989.
[10] V. SUNDAR, S. NEELAMANI and C.P.
VENDHAN. Dynamic Pressures on a
Large Vertical Cylinder due to Random
Waves. Coastal Engineering, 13 (1989) 83-
104.
[11] A.Anagnostopoulos. Dynamic response of
offshore platforms to extreme waves
including fluid structure interaction. Shell
Oil Company, Houston, Texas, USA
(1981).
[12] C.A. Brebbia, S. Walker. Dynamic
analysis of offshore structures. London,
Boston: Newnes-Butterworths, 1979.
 CLASSIFYING THE FOUNDATION STRUCTURE FOR SUSTAINABLE
PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF HANOI URBAN CENTER

Tran Manh Lieu1, Nguyen Huy Phuong2, Duong Thi Toan1, Tran Thi Luu1,
Nguyen Van Vu3,1, Nguyen Van Thuong3,1, Nguyen Ngoc Truc4
1
VNU - Vietnam National University, Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
3
General Dep. of Geology & Minerals, Vietnam
4
VNU-Vietnam National University, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: lieutm@vnu.edu.vn

Abstract: This article presents the methodologies and principles for foundation structure classification
of Hanoi urban center which will be applied for general planning and orientations for sustainable
development planning of the Capital. The classification is based on the application of systematic theory,
the theory of engineering dynamics to the division and evaluation of soils, construction of structural
models, and division of detailed structures. The results show that the geological environment can be
divided in to 19 units with 4 types of structure and 11 subtypes. This classification will be useful for
assessing the convenience and complexity in planning, construction designing, developing the economics
and protecting the environment.

Keywords: foundation structure, geoengineering-geotechnical units

1. Introduction
Hanoi city is now in a period of rapid
development, modernization, starting from the
central city. Hanoi has a very complex geological
and geo-technical condition, thus posing urgent
and specific requirements for planning, surveying,
and designing of construction works. Therefore,
the study of structural characteristics of the Hanoi
area is to build the scientific basis to contribute to
the direction of the construction work on the
surface as well as underground constructions and
rational exploitation of the economy. This article
presents the results of basic research of Science
and Technology project coding 01C-04 / 01-2016-
3 to clarify the characteristics of the foundation
structure and assess its advantages and
disadvantages for planning, construction and
exploitation of the territorial economy.
2. Terms and definitions
Geological Environment
The geological environment is the upper part of
the lithosphere that interacts with the atmosphere,
biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and
engineering sphere.
Geological units
Geological units are parts of the lithosphere
which is divided according to the corresponding
criteria to create a unified system of geological
units at different levels. Example: Geological
formation, original complex etc.
Geoengineering-Geotechnical units
Geoengineering-Geotechnical unit is a part of
the geological environment in which its shape and
size are determined in accordance with the criteria
corresponding to the typical geoengineering-
geotechnical features and their requirements for
planning, designing construction and rational
exploitation and use of the territory and
environmental protection.
Foundation structure
Foundation structure is a systematic spatial
arrangement of geoengineering-geotechnical units,
reflecting the fields which characterized by their
composition, architecture, structure, state and
characteristics. These will decide the behavior and
formation of the mechanical, chemical, and
physical processes due to the impact on the

135
surrounding environment and economic activities,
construction of the human.
3. Principles of soil classification and foundation
structure
3.1. Principles of soil classification and
geological environment
Geological environment is a geological system
which divided in to different grade. The division of
the system into sub-systems at different levels
depending on the scale and objectives of the
research. The system of geoengineering-
geotechnical units is divided according to the
criteria of their homogeneity level.

Tab. 1. Classification Principles of geoengineering-geotechnical units

Geological setting Characteristics Homogeneity level
Formation Soil formed in the same structural Symbiotic
conditions - tectonic and antique geography
Original complex Soil with the same origin Origin
Original complex-geological Soil with the same origin and age Geological age
setting
Geoengineering-Geotechnical Soil with the same origin, age, and Lithological
units (grade 1) lithological composition composition
Geoengineering-Geotechnical Geoengineering-Geotechnical units (grade Classification
units (grade 2) 1) in the same range of classification criteria
criteria
Geoengineering-Geotechnical Geoengineering-Geotechnical units (grade Statistical
units (grade 3) 1) in the same limit of statistical calculation calculation

3.2. Foundation structure classification
The foundation structure can be divided basing
on the common characteristic, indicating the most
important changings of the structure that reflect the
behavior of the external environment and
economic –construction activities - To meet the
objectives of studying and exploiting the use of the
geological environment. For example: foundation
structure with one geoengineering-geotechnical
unit or with two geoengineering-geotechnical
units…or foundation structure with/without soft
soil, with/without hard rocks.
The scope of research of the structure is the
area of influence of economic and construction
activities with consideration of the impact of
geological environment changes.
3.3. Assessment of Geoengineering-
Geotechnical conditions of foundation structure
Assessing the geoengineering-geotechnical
conditions of foundation structure is to estimate the
sensitive and the response of geoengineering-
geotechnical units in particular and of foundation
structure in general under the impacts of
surrounding environment and economic-
construction activities.
For the static load: Use the loading capacity and
deformation modulus of soil
For dynamic load: Use the characteristics of
soil structure.
For the impacts of chemical-biological
processes or pollution: Use the conductivity of soil
4. Soil classification for geological environment
of Hanoi urban center
4.1. Classification of geological units
The Quaternary sediments are classified into
geological units basing on the geological origin
complexes, soil/sediments with the same origin
and geological age as following:
4.2. Classification of Geoengineering-
Geotechnical units
Geological environment of Hanoi urban center
is divided into 19 geoengineering-geotechnical
units, excluding the top soil layers. Each unit is
characterized by the geological age, lithological
composition, the limits of classification criterias
for constructing the base structural map scale 1: 25
000.

136
 Tab. 2. Classification of geological units of Quaternary sediments of Hanoi urban center

Tab. 3. Classification of geoengineering-geotechnical units of Hanoi urban center area

137
 4.3. Assessment the response of foundation is impacted from environment and human
The capacity in the response of the foundation activities, are assessed in 3 following levels:
and the geoengineering-geotechnical layers, which

Tab. 4. Assessment the response of the foundation and the geoengineering-geotechnical layers
Layers Description Static Loading * Dynamic Loading * Environment
Pollution *
Fill Fill material layer with complex component, dominant
W M G W M G E M K
material thickness of 1-5.8 m
1. Mud in bottom of pond/lake x x x
2. Sand in the bed of river, moving river alluvial ground, in
x x x
loose and non-cohesion, thickness of 10-15 m
3. Silt clay – Sandy silt in low river alluvial ground, in soft –
x x x
hard plastic index, thickness of 5-7 m
4. Clay – Silt clay, interlayer with sand layer in dark brown,
x x x
grey brown, in hard plastic index, thickness of 4-5 m
5. Clay, Clayed mixture in yellow brown, hard plastic index,
x x x
thickness of 5-20 m
6. Clayed mixture in grey brown, very soft and mix few
x x x
organic material, thickness of 6-12 m
7. Clayed interlayer with Sandy in grey brow, soft plastic
x x x
index, thickness of 0.2-26 m
8. Sand in medium – fine grain size mix with Silt, in medium
x x x
dense, thickness of 0.6-32.5 m
9. Clayed in grey brow, soft plastic index, interlayer with
x x x
Sandy layer in some area, thickness of 5-15 m
10. Clay in light green grey, in soft-hard plastic index, thickness
x x x
of 0.5-4 m
11. Mud-Clay, in dark grey contain organic material, thickness
x x x
of 2-20 m
12. Clay, Clayed in yellow grey, while grey, spotted colors,
contain aggregate soil, mid-hard to hard plastic index, x x x
thickness of 8-18m
13. Clayed in dark grey contains organic material, in very soft
x x x
plastic index, thickness of 1.6-8 m
14. Sand interlayer with Clayed, in yellow grey, medium plastic x x x

138
 index, thickness of 3.4-7.3 m
15. Fine Sand, in yellow grey, thickness of 3.3-10.3 m x x x
16. Medium Sand with gravel, in yellow - white grey, thickness
x x x
of 8-15 m
17. Clayed - Sandy, in grey brow, dark brow, in soft plastic
index, contains organic material or gravel in some area, x x x
thickness of 5.5-12 m
18. Gravel with yellow grey Clay, thickness of 15-35 m x x x
19. Gravel with Sand, Sandy, dark grey – brow grey Clay with
x x x
gravel in some area, thickness of 14-24m
*Note W = Weak; M = Medium; G = Good; E = Easy; D = Difficult 5. Division of foundation structure

5. Division of foundation structure 4.Type IV. Foundation structure includes

5.1. Objective and Principles
a. Objective: Dividing foundation structure of
geo-environment in the Hanoi urban center to build
knowledge foundation for general planning and
toward direction planning under-ground space,
building under-ground construction, using
effective the geo-environment and exploiting
region economic.
b. Division Principles
Types of foundation structure are divided based
on following criteria: has the same of stratigraphy
structure, geoengineering – geotechnical structure,
hydrogeology, and the same in the response
capacity to impacts from environment and human
activities.
Sub-types foundation structure are divided from
the types off foundation structure with the
presenting of layers having specific component and
properties, which reflect the characteristics of
foundation to impactions.
c. Results of foundation structure division
There are 4 types of foundation structure as
following:
1.Type I. Foundation structure includes
geoengineering-geotechnical layers belong to Vinh
Phu – Ha Noi – Le Chi formations.
2.Type II. Foundation structure includes
geoengineering-geotechnical layers belong to Thai
Binh - Vinh Phu – Ha Noi – Le Chi formations.
3.Type III. Foundation structure includes
geoengineering-geotechnical layers belong to Hai
Hung - Vinh Phu – Ha Noi – Le Chi formations.
geoengineering-geotechnical layers belong to Thai
Binh - Hai Hung - Vinh Phu – Ha Noi – Le Chi
formations.
There are 11 Sub-Type of foundation structure
as following:
- Sub-type I.a missing the soft layer No.13
- Sub-type I.b containing the soft layer No.13
- Sub-type II.a missing the soft layer No.6
- Sub-type II.b containing the soft layer No.6
- Sub-type III.a missing layer No.10 and
containing the soft layer No.11
- Sub-type III.b containing layer 10 and the soft
layer No. 11
- Sub-type IV.a containing the soft layer No.6
- Sub-type IV.b containing the soft layer No.11
- Sub-type IV.c containing 2 the soft layer No.6
and No.11
- Sub-type IV.d containing 2 the soft layer
No.11 and No.13
- Sub-type IV.e containing 3 the soft layer
No.6, No.11, No.13
5.2. Assessment geoengineering –
geotechnical foundation structure in Hanoi
urban center
Assessment geoengineering – geotechnical
foundation structure for the urban center of Hanoi
were implemented based on the advantage level for
building constructions and exploiting region as
following summary in Table 1.

139
Tab. 5. Assessment geoengineering – geotechnical foundation structure for the urban center of Hanoi
No. Types Sub-Types Advantage level for building constructions
1. I.a Strong
I
2. I.b Weak, however, easy treatment
3. II.a Medium to Strong
II
4. II.b Weak, however, easy treatment
5. III.a Weak, however, good in environment protection
III
6. III.b Weak
7. IV.a Weak
8. IV.b Weak, difficult treatment
9. IV.c Non-advantage
10. IV IV.d Non-advantage
11. IV.e Disadvantage

Fig. 1. Division mapping foundation structure types and sub-types for the urban area of Hanoi

140
6. Conclusions and recommendations
Geo-environment in the Hanoi urban center is
great compliable on original formation,
characteristic in space and the geotechnical [5]
properties.
Geo-environment in the Hanoi urban center in
Quaternary formation (upper rock base) can be
divided into 19 layers (excluding fill material),
including types of sand, silt, clay and soft clay,
while the sand and soft layers are sensitive with
dynamic loading and static loading, respectively. [6]
Both types of these layers are disadvantage for
building underground constructions and strongly
transmit pollution.
Foundation structure of Geo-environment in the [7]
Hanoi urban center is divided into 4 types and 11
sub-types based on the advantage level for building
constructions and exploiting region.
Division of Hanoi urban center foundation [8]
structure is building knowledge foundation for
general planning and toward direction planning
under-ground space, designing and building under-
ground constructions, and exploiting effective
urban geo-environment. [9]
References
[1] IBST, 2000. Final report on Technical
Problems on Building underground
Constructions. National Independent
Project. [10]
[2] Nguon, N.D., 2007. Final report on
Planning Direction, Using Management
and Exploiting underground space in the
Hanoi urban center. Hanoi Department of
Science and Technology Project 2006- [11]
2007.
[3] Quang, N.V. and Nguon, N.D., 2006.
Organizing exploit underground space. [12]
Building Publishing House.
[4] Lieu, T.M., 2005. Final report on
Assessment, Forecasting Geotechnical
Condition of urban geo-environment and
141
Suggesting solutions for preventing
geohazard, geo-environment pollution in
some urban area in Hanoi.
Phuong, N.H., 2004. Final report on
Collecting, Verifying previous Research
Documents, Studying and Adding Division
Mapping on soft layer Distribution in
Hanoi for Capital Sustainable
Development. Hanoi Department of
Science and Technology Project.
Lieu, T.M., Tuong, D.T., 2002. Geo-
environment of urban and industrial area.
Journal of Building Science and
Technology, Vol.4/2002.
Tuong, D.T., 2002. Final report on
Technical Problems on Building Vietnam
underground Constructions. National
Independent Project.
Tuong, D.T., 2002. Final report Study on
Controlling Executing Technical for
Building underground Construction in
Vietnam urban. Project approval by
Ministry of Civil Engineering.
Tuong, D.T., 1999. Final report on
Prediction the potential of Land
subsidence due to groundwater extraction.
Project approval by Ministry of Civil
Engineering.
Ilichev, V.A., 2004. Geo technical
problems in urbain underground
construction. Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Vol. 41, No4,
2004.
Левченко А. Н., Ленер В. Г. Организаия
освоения подзмного пространства .
москва 2002
Руководство по комплексному
освоению подземного пространства
крупных городов. Россиская Академия
архитектуры и строительных наук.
2004
ESTABLISHING GEOLOGY ENGINEERING MAP OF THE HAI THINH AREA
FOR PLANNING OF ECO-SOCIAL SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

To Hoang Nam1, To Xuan Vu2

1
General Department of Geology and Minerals of Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: hoangnamldb@gmail.com

Abstract: Many geological, hydro-geological and engineering geological documents in Hai Thinh
area have been researched. It can be based on these sources, combining geological study of additional
works to establish engineering geological map at the scale of 1: 50,000. This article presents the results of
research on engineering geological map of the 1: 50,000 scale in Hai Thinh area according to the
proposed methodology of the International Association for Engineering Geology and UNESCO.
Accordingly, the soil classification system (based on the principle of lithologic - origin) includes 7
lithological series, 17 lithological complexes and map annotation. The methodology was carried out by
synthesizing and analyzing the collected data, identifying the characteristic zones (key zones), field trips,
surveying, additional surveying at the key areas and areas with densely populated survey points, as a basis
for stratigraphic relationships. Then, delineating the spatial boundaries between lithological series and
lithological complexes in the system. split rock, from which establishing engineering geological map of 1:
50.000 scale.

Keywords: engineering geological map; Hai Thinh.

1. Introduction engineering geological conditions to map the

According to the overall planning of socio-
economic development up to the year of 2030 and
approach to the year of 2050 in the north coastal
plain of Viet Nam, Hai Thinh will become a key
economic center. In order to serve the construction
planning, socio-economic sustainable
development, response to climate change and sea
level rise, the establishment of engineering
geological map (1: 50.000 scale) for this area
becomes very necessary.
At present, geological map, engineering
geological map and geo-hydrological map have
been carried out with different scales in Hai Thinh
and surrounding areas. In addition, there are many
results of engineering geological surveying for
specific projects. The amount of collected
information increases day by day, focusing mainly
on the factors of engineering geological conditions.
In particular, characteristics of ground soil
foundation and physico-mechanical properties of
soils have been clarified. This is a very important
source, allowing the combined study of
engineering geological of 1: 50,000 scale, for
planning, serving socio-economic sustainable
development in the North Tonkin Gulf in general,
Hai Thinh area in particular.
2. Choosing the method to establish engineering
geological map of 1:50.000 scale
The engineering geological map can be
established based on two principles: geological
formation principle and engineering geological
principle. Each principle has its own classification
system in accordance with a unified principle, and
the purpose of map (V.D. Lomtadze, 1983).
The principle of geological formation:
The orientation of engineering geological map
is based on the analysis of geological formation
and geological complex origin as a basis for
dividing soils and rocks, then showing them on the
map. According to G.K. Bondaric soils and rocks
are divided into units from overall to detail as
follows: geological formation  origin complexes
 origin stratigraphic complexes  lithologic
type  type  sub - type.

142
 The advantage of this method is very general.
Soils and rocks system reflects the common
features and can be easily determined the
geological conditions.
The disadvantage of this method is difficult to
divide geological formation, geological complexes,
and to express the engineering properties of soil.
The principle of engineering geological:
In this method, soils are divided according to
the classification system already existed in the
engineering geological. According to E.M.
Xergeev, soils are divided into different units:
Level  Group  Sub-group  Type  Form 
Sub-form.
The advantage of this method, which can be
used to solve the specific engineering geological
problems. In addition, the map is clearly and easily
in use.
By contrast, the disadvantage of this method is
not high generality. Hence, it is difficult to predict
the engineering geological properties of soil and
other engineering geological factors.
Therefore, each method of establishing the map
has its own advantages and disadvantages.
According to the proposal of IAEG and UNESCO,
it is possible to establish engineering geological
maps based on the principle of lithological - origin.
In this principle, the soil classification system is
divided as follows:
- Lithological series: It consists of many
lithological complexes which formed and existed
in ancient geographic conditions, similar geo-
tectonic (same origin);
- Lithological complexes: Including sets of
lithological types have the same component and
the same origin, formed and developed under
specific ancient geography and tectonic conditions;
- Lithological types: Including soils, which has
the same composition, texture, but not necessarily
alike in physical state.
- Type of engineering geological (lithological
species): Including homogeneous types of
lithological characteristics and physical state.
It can be seen that the method of establishing
the engineering geological map as proposed by
IAEG and UNESCO is almost similar to the
method of establishing the engineering geological
143
map according to geological formation principle.
However, according to the principle of lithological
- origin of IAEG the soil classification system is
simpler and presents the engineering geological
properties of soils. It increases the advantages and
decreases the disadvantages of the two methods
and is very suitable for the purposes of establishing
engineering geological maps for construction
planning. On the other hand, in Vietnam, the
procedure for establishment of the engineering
geological map of 1: 50,000 scale (1: 25,000 scale)
is proposed by Ministry of Industry in 2000, which
based on classification of lithological- origin
principle of IAEG and UNESCO. Therefore, it is
very convenient for establishing engineering
geological map at the scale of 1: 50,000 in this
area.
3. Establishing engineering geological map of
1:50.000 scale in Hai Thinh area
3.1. Documentation
Documentations are used to establish
engineering geological map in Hai Thinh area
including:
- Topographic map at the scale of 1: 50,000;
- Geological map at the scale of 1: 50,000 (Le
Tien Dung, 2015);
- Hydrological map at the scale of 1: 50,000
(Nguyen Van Lam [4] et al., 2015);
- Site investigation data, result of laboratory test
and field test are taken from the engineering
geological survey in this area (, from 1994 to
2015);
- Field researches document, supplementary
engineering geological data;
- Additional investigation documents;
- Additional laboratory testing;
- Geological, geomorphic and neo-tectonic
documents (Le Tien Dung, 2015), hydrological
geology documents (Nguyen Van Lam [4], 2015),
dynamic geological phenomena documents (Tran
Huu Tuyen, 2015) and natural mineral and
materials for building (Tran Binh Chu, 2015) under
the program of scientific and technological
research of Ministry of Education and Training
(code: CTB-2012-02).
3.2. Showing documentation on the map
The elements are presented on the engineering
geological map including:
- Geological structure: including origin, age,
lithological composition of rocks, bed rocks, folds,
faults, distribution and thickness of primarily
lithological complexes (lithological type);
- Topography: including elevation, terrain,
mudflats, river terraces;
- Hydrological geology: including the sources,
depth, chemical composition o, and corrosion
characteristics of groundwater;
- Dynamic geological phenomena: including
distribution and magnitude;
- Natural minerals and building materials:
including location, distribution, and volume.
3.3. Map annotation
3.3.1. Soil classification system
According to the regulations for establishing
engineering geology map of 1:50,000 scale
(Ministry of Industry, 2000) and Vietnamese
standard of soil classification TCVN 9362: 2012,
in combination with Vietnamese standard TCVN
5747-1993, the classification system of soil on the
map includes: lithological series, lithological
complexes and lithological types:
- Lithological series is the largest engineering
geological unit on the map, including many
lithological complexes which have the same origin.
- Lithological complexes is the smallest
engineering geological unit on the map, consisting
of lithological types which are similar in
composition, origin and age;
Due to the complexity of sediment formation,
in case of mixed soil origins (alluvial, marine and
swampy deposit), the unit of lithological
complexes is divided based on the origin and
determination of the engineering geological
characteristics of sediment mixture.
- Lithological types include soils of the same
composition, texture, but not necessarily
homogeneous in physical state. These types are not
shown on the map, but their characteristics are
described in the report. In the case of lithological
complexes consist of only a lithological type, the
lithological type will be shown.
In Hai Thinh area, there are 7 lithological series
and 17 lithological complexes. (as shown in Table
1).

Tab. 1. The soil classification system and its characteristics in Hai Thinh area
Lithological series
1- Alluvial (a)
2- Marine (m)
3- Fluvial - marine (am)
4- Marine – wind (mv)
5- fluvial – marine - swapm 15- ambQ23tb2: clayey sand mud
(amb)
6- Marine - swamp (mb)
7- Terrigenous sediment (N2vb)
Main litholigical complexes – Litholigical types
1- aQ23tb3: clayey sand, soft to firm
2- aQ12-3hn: fine sand, dense to very dense
3- mQ23tb3: fine sand, loose
4- mQ23tb2: clayey sand, soft
5- mQ23tb2: clayey sand, soft
6- mQ21-2hh2: clay, soft to firm
7- mQ13vp: clay, firm to medium stiff
8- amQ23tb3: clayey sand, soft
9- am Q23tb2: clay, soft to firm
10- amQ21-2hh1: clayey sand, soft
11- amQ13vp: clayey sand, medium firm
12- amQ12-3hn: sandy clay, medium stiff
13- amQ11lc: sand with gravel, dense to very dense
14- mvQ23tb3: fine sand, loose to very loose
16- mbQ21-2hh1: clayey mud
17- N2vb: gravelstone

144
 3.3.2. Presenting the soil classification system
and the engineering geological factors on the map
The soil classification system:
* Lithological origin series are presented by
color and symbol principle of origin (as specified
on the geological map):
+ Quaternary sediments:
- Fluvial origin: bluish;
- Marine origin: bluish;
- Swampy origin: bright grey;
- Windy origin: light yellow.
In the case of a mixed-lithological series, a
mixture of colors is used, in which the main color
is the lithological series that predominates in origin
and thickness.
+ Early Quaternary formation: terrigenous
sediments origin has light purple color.
* Lithological complexes (lithological types)
are represented by lithological symbols of the main
lithological type as defined on the geological map:
- The composition of the main lithological type
of the first lithological complex (exposed on the
ground) is represented by orange color;
- The composition of the main lithological type
of the first lithological complex (below the first
complex) is represented by gray color;
- The thickness of the first lithological complex
(lithological type) is represented by the symbol of
the main lithological type in different directions,
with the divisions: less than 2m; 2 to 5m; 5 to 10m
and above10m. The thickness of the second
lithological complex is not shown on the map;
The boundary of the first lithological complex
is shown by black lines. If it has different
thicknesses, it is represented by black dashed lines;
The boundary of the second lithological
complex is represented by black horizontal lines
The stratigraphic order within the depth of
study is expressed by fractions of the origin, age of
the lithological complex, in order from the top to
down;
Stratigraphic factors, tectonics are represented
similarly to those in geological maps;
Hydrological factors are represented by blue
conventional symbols which are similar to those in
the hydrogeological maps;
Dynamic geological phenomena are represented
145
by red symbols, not to scale;
Natural minerals and building materials are
represented by black conventional symbols;
Exploration works, field tests are expressed by
black symbols;
Other factors are represented by black lines.
3.3.3. Map annotation content
The annotation of engineering geological map
at the scale of 1: 50,000 was established based on
the soil classification system and shown on the
map (Table 2).
3.4. Method of establishing engineering
geological map
To establishing a 1: 50,000 scale engineering
geological map of Hai Thinh area, the geological,
hydrological and engineering geological data are
synthesized and analyzed, in combination with
additional field work. The process is as follows:
+ Collecting data such as engineering
geological map, engineering geological zoning
map at the scale of 1:200.000 of Hai Phong and
Nam Dinh area, geomorphological map, geological
map, hydrology geological map at the scale of
1:50.000 of Hai Thinh area and the engineering
geological survey data are collected in Hai Thinh.
The number of collected data is as follows:
- Number of construction: 83;
- Number of boreholes: 262;
- Total depth of boreholes: 7.324m
- Average distance between engineering
geological survey sites: 790m.
- Average distance between boreholes: 360m
- Number of samples: 1.678
- Number of field tests (standard penetration
test-SPT), vane shear test -VST):1.215 points
+ Based on the same scale of geological map
and the collected data, studying the engineering
geological conditions in the area, identifying the
key zones are used as the basis for field works.
+ Organizing the field trip, supplementary
measurement, paying attention to the key zones
and the area in which the collected data are not
suitable for the standard density of establishing
engineering geological map at the scale of
1:50.000 (1 to 3 engineering geological survey
sites per square kilometer). Contents of this study
include:
 - Topographic, geomorphology factors;
- Characteristics of geological structure,
weathering and their relationships with dynamic
geological phenomena;
- Observation, detailed description of soil and
rock at the sites, identification of characteristics,
composition, color, state, and texture of soil and
rock in laboratory.
- Characteristics of aquifers, groundwater
levels, fluctuation of groundwater, influence of
groundwater on the state and properties of soil and
rock;
Tab. 2. The annotation of engineering geological map of the 1: 50.000 scale in Hai Thinh area
Surveying engineering geological, field testing,
laboratory testing at the key zones. The number of
additional studies, the survey results in this area
are shown in Table 3.
The studying at the key zones allows to
identification of stratigraphy, physico-mechanical
properties, and lithological - sediments
characteristics of geological formations. Then,
146
- Identifying the distribution, characteristics of
factors which affect the development of dynamic
geological phenomena; their impacts on
constructions and environment;
- Identifying the types, the characteristics, and
the distribution of natural materials for building
purposes.
In the field study, it is necessary to pay
attention to the distribution rules, the change rules
of the engineering geological conditions factors, as
a basis for connecting, determining the general
engineering geological conditions in this area.
determining the composition, state, color, physico-
mechanical properties of each lithological complex
(lithological type), determining the layers that has
the distinctive features of the upper and lower
sediment layers. This work which is the basis for
the stratigraphic identification, delineation of
spatial boundaries (by area and depth) among the
mapping units. Stratigraphy is represented at each
key zone in this area as shown in Table 4.
 Tab. 3. Number of engineering geological survey in the key zones
Engineering geological
Laboratory test (sample) Field test (point)
exploration
Key zone Total
Number Normal Special
boreholes SPT VST
(borehole) properties properties
length (m)
Hai Chinh 1 6 142 24 - 41 28
Hai Chinh 2 14 317 99 3 158 30
Hai Ninh 13 190 63 - 95 24
Truc Phu 1 8 275 60 - 90 -
Truc Phu 2 5 162 25 - 30 19

Tab. 4. Main stratigraphy at researching zones

Lithological Depth (m)
Key Zone Soil description
complex From To
Clayey sand with organic, darkish brown,
amQ23tb3 0.0 8.0
brownish grey, soft
Hai Chinh 1 Sandy clay bearing organic, brownish grey,
amQ23tb2 8.0 16.0
yellowish grey, firm
mQ21-2hh2 16.0 >25 Clay, brownish grey, light grey, firm
ambQ23tb3 0.0 4.2 Clayey sand mud, darkish grey, brownish grey
amQ23tb2 4.2 24.5 Clay, brownish grey, firm
Hai Chinh 2
mQ21-2hh2 24.5 29.5 Clay, whitish grey, firm
amQ23vp 29.5 >34 Clayey sand, light brown, medium stiff
amQ23tb3 0.0 5.2 Fine sand, yellowish grey, grey, loose
Clayey sand sandwiched sandy clay, grey,
mQ21-2hh2 5.2 36.0
darkish grey, firm
Hai Ninh amQ21-2hh1 36.0 45.0 Sandy clay, grey, darkish grey, firm
amQ13vp 45.0 93.0 Clayey sand, grey, reddish brown, medium stiff
Coarse sand with gravel, greenish grey, whitish
aQ12-3hn 93.0 >98
grey, medium dense
mQ23tb3 0.0 4.0 Clayey sand, grey, brownish grey, firm
mQ23tb2 4.0 10.0 Clayey sand, grey, light yellow, soft
mQ23tb1 10.0 15.0 Clayey sand, brownish grey, darkish grey, soft
mQ21-2hh2 15.0 27.0 Clay, greenish grey, soft to firm
mQ21-2hh1 27.0 43.0 Clayey sand, grey, firm
Truc Phu 1 Clayey sand, yellowish grey, greenish grey,
mQ13vp 43.0 50.0
firm to medium stiff
Clayey sand, brownish grey, yellowish grey,
amQ13vp 50.0 70.0
reddish grey, medium stiff
Clayey sand, brownish grey, light grey, firm to
amQ12-3hn 70.0 >80
medium stiff
amQ23tb3 0.0 4.0 Clay, brown, soft to firm
Truc Phu 2 amQ23tb2 4.0 14.0 Clayey sand, brownish grey, darkish grey, soft
mQ21-2hh2 14.0 >25 Clay, greenish grey, brownish grey, firm

147
 On the basis of geological maps with the same
scale and supplementary research data, stratigraphy
at the key zones, the accuracy of the existing
engineering geological data, stratigraphic links,
origin of lithological complexes in this area that
determine the spatial boundaries (shown on the
map and in depth - shown on the section) with the
soil units system in the study area. Then,
expressing them together with other engineering
geological factors such as geomorphology,
geological structure, hydrogeology, dynamic
geological phenomena and natural mineral
materials for building on the map.
4. Conclusions
The research results allow to draw some
conclusions:
- Soil classification base on the lithology -
origin principle of IAEG and UNESCO is the
appropriate method for establishing engineering
geological map at the scale of 1: 50,000 for
construction planning, socio-economic sustainable
development in the North coastal plain;
- According to the principle of lithology -
origin, the soil classification system of the
engineering geological mapping at the scale of 1:
50,000 of Hai Thinh area is divided into 7
lithological series (m, mv, mb, a, amb, am, N2vb)
and 17 lithological complexes (mQ23tb3, mQ23tb2,
mQ23tb1, mQ21-2 hh2, mQ13vp; mvQ23tb3; mbQ2 1-
2
hh1; aQ23tb3, aQ12-3hn; ambQ23tb3; amQ23tb3,
amQ23tb2, amQ21-2 hh1, amQ13vp, amQ12-3hn,
amQ11lc; N2vb);
- To establish engineering geological map at the
scale of 1: 50,000, of Hai Thinh area, the "key
zone” can be used on the basic of collected
geological and hydro-geological documents and
the engineering geological survey documents from
the existing construction in this area, combined
with the additional engineering geological research
to set up database mapping.
148
References
[1]. Engineering geological map Committee
(IAEG) (1976). Engineering geological
map - Guide to the establishment. Paris.
[2]. Viet Nam Ministry of Industry (2000).
Regulations on engineering geological
mapping at the scale of 1: 50,000 (1:
25,000). Hanoi.
[3]. Le Tien Dung (2015). Research on
Quaternary geological, geomorphological,
neo-tectonic characteristics of Tonkin
coastal area and accessing the impact of
climate change and rising sea water level.
Final report of ministerial topic, code
CTB-2012-02-01, Hanoi University of
Mining and Geology.
[4]. Nguyen Van Lam (2015). Hydrology
geological map of Hai Thinh area at the
scale of 1: 50.000 - Summary report of
Ministry of Education and Training, code
CTB-2012-02-04. Hanoi University of
Mining and Geology.
[5]. Many authors (1994 - 2015). Geological
report surveying of Hai Thinh area: Kien
Chien dyke; Thinh Long Bridge; Gianh
Bridge; Lac Quan Bridge; Binh Thanh
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[6]. Tran Binh Dinh. (2015). Natural mineral
and materials for building distribution map
of Hai Thinh area - Summary report of
Ministry of Education and Training, code
CTB-2012-02-06. Hanoi University of
Mining and Geology.
[7]. Tran Huu Tuyen. (2015). Erosion and
sedimentation Map of Hai Thinh area -
Summary report of Ministry of Education
and Training, code CTB-2012-02-05.
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 APPLICATION OF ACOUSTIC WAVES FOR ASSESSMENT OF
EXCAVATION DAMAGED ZONE FOR UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION
IN ROCK MASS

Hoang Dinh Phuc1, Chu Viet Thuc2

1
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
2
Electric power University, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: hoangphucmdc@gmail.com

Abstract: It is inevitable that excavation at deep underground powerhouse in high in-situ stresses
induced damages to the surrounding rocks. As a result, reasonable determination of the excavation
damage zone (EDZ) is critical to the design, construction and safe operation of the underground
powerhouse. This study divides EDZ into excavation highly damaged zone (EHDZ), excavation slightly
damaged zone (ESDZ) and undamaged zone (UDZ) so as to better capture the evolving characteristics of
the surrounding rocks at deep underground powerhouse in high in-situ ground stresses. With the
utilization of acoustic detection, this study introduces the damage factor D to quantitatively distinguish
the EDZ. Borehole camera is also employed to observe the characteristics of fissure development within
the surrounding rocks. The observed damage characteristics of the surrounding rocks are then compared
against the acoustic detection results, showing favorable agreement. Based on the actual engineering
practice, this study puts forward the discriminating standard for the EDZ at deep underground
powerhouse in high in-situ stresses during construction. Hopefully, this study could provide some basis
for the evaluation of degree of damage of the surrounding rocks as well as the informational design and
construction at underground powerhouse with similar conditions.

Keywords: rock mechanics; EDZ; acoustic detection; borehole camera imaging; damage factor.

1. Introduction balance and alters the stress regime. Also, the

With the rapid development of China’s
economy, the demand on energy is on the rise.
Since the implementation of policies regards
development of the west regions, more and large
hydropower stations have cropped up across
China, especially in the valley regions of western
China. Construction of the large hydropower
stations in valley regions gives rise to a series of
problems, such as deep burial depth and long span
of the underground powerhouse. In addition,
increasingly serious problems such as the damage
of surrounding rocks during excavation have also
captured more and more attention from the
engineers and scholars in China and abroad.
As a complex geologic body, rock mass is
usually subject to complicated stresses. It is known
to us all that in situ rock mass are subject to three-
dimensional stresses. The excavation of
underground powerhouse disturbs the stress
excavation of underground powerhouse affects the
mechanical properties and water-physical
properties of the surrounding rocks. The effect is
mainly manifested in aspects such as a great
amount of fissures generated within the rock mass,
rapid fissure development and fissure coalescence.
As a result, permeability coefficient of the rock
mass is increased, creating channels for water
intrusion. Therefore, it is of great engineering
significance and theoretical value to study the EDZ
at deep underground openings in high in-situ
ground stresses during construction and its
implications for support parameters optimization,
safe construction and evaluation of engineering
stability and safety.
A significant number of studies at China and
abroad have been carried out regarding EDZ
partition and zonal support during excavation of
underground openings. With consideration of the

149
research results at China and abroad, Li et al [9,10]
systematically analysed and summarized EDZ at
underground openings from aspects such as EDZ
concept, field test, laboratory test, theoretical
analysis and numerical calculation. Xu et al.
(2014)[15] divided EDZ into excavation highly
damaged zone (EHDZ) and excavation slightly
damaged zone (ESDZ) and introduced damage
factor to quantitatively distinguish the EDZ based
on the rationale of acoustic detection. Zhang et al.
(2007) combined the damage evaluation based on
plastic strain within the plastic zone with the
partition of the EDZ and put forward the new
concept of failure approach index (FAI), thus
quantitatively evaluating the stability of rock mass
in different sections of the surrounding rocks. Dai
et al. (2015) utilized multiple monitoring methods
to investigate the forming and evolving mechanism
of the EDZ at the underground powerhouse of
Houziyan hydropower station. Liu et al. (2013)[11]
carried out comprehensive monitoring over the
typical profile of the water diversion tunnel at
Jinping II hydropower station with the use of
acoustic detection and borehole camera. K.Hyung-
Mok et al. (2013)[7] carried out evaluation of the
effect of EDZ on the stability of compressed-air
energy storage (CAES) chamber in South Korea.
Kwon et al. (2009)[8] utilized field geological radar
test and numerical calculation to investigate the
effect of borehole-blasting on elasticity modulus
and EDZ scope during tunnel construction at a 500
m deep underground tunnel. Martino et al.
(2004)[14] carried out pump-in test and acoustic
detection test at a 443 m deep underground
opening and evaluated important factors that affect
the EDZ.
The presence of EDZ has a direct impact on the
mechanical properties of the surrounding rocks,
thus adversely affecting the overall stability of the
surrounding rocks. It should be noted that damage
differs from fracture. The later refers to a
phenomenon that can be directly observed with
naked eyes, while the former refers to the changes
of the mechanical properties of the rocks induced
by stress adjustment. Especially when under the
action of high ground stress, mechanical responses
such as rib spalling and structure fracture triggered
by damage would occur. The presence of EDZ at
150
deep underground powerhouse in high in-situ
ground stresses is a direct threat to surrounding
rocks stability and engineering safety of the
powerhouse. In addition, fissure development
within the EDZ could introduce new channels for
water intrusion, posing really adverse influence to
engineering safety. Therefore, it is of great
engineering significance and theoretical value to
accurately determine the EDZ at deep underground
powerhouse with high in-situ ground stresses
during construction and its implications for support
parameters optimization, safe construction and
evaluation of engineering stability and safety.
2. The theory of EDZ partition and Engineering
overview
2.1. The theory of EDZ partition
EDZ partition has gained more and more
popularities among the engineers and scholars in
terms of characterizing the deformation and failure
of the surrounding rocks (including fissure
generation, propagation and coalescence within the
surrounding rocks) for hard and brittle rocks. Not
only does EDZ include the connotation regarding
rock mass damage and disturbance, it also contains
such connotation as loosing rock mass. For the
present, terminologies such as surrounding loose
zone, broken rock zone, disturbance zone, plastic
zone, damage zone, excavation damaged zone
(EDZ) and excavation disturbed zone (EdZ) are
widely used in Chinese academic literature, with
varying definitions. In Canada and the United
States, EDZ and EdZ virtually share the
connotation; In Sweden and Switzerland, EDZ
refers to the deformation and secondary fissures
adjacent to the underground openings that are
irreversible, while EdZ refers to the elastic
deformation within the rock mass that is
recoverable. Martino and Chandler (2004)[14] put
forward the following definition for EDZ: EDZ
refers to changes of the mechanical and water-
physical properties of the surrounding rocks
induced by openings excavation that are
measurable and irreversible; The damage results
from the energy release, stress redistribution and
thermal loading induced by excavation, which
generally occurs at the adjacent areas of
surrounding rocks of the openings (Wu et al.,
2009).
 So far, the EDZ around underground opening
has been investigating and different definitions and
understanding have obtained by Davies and
Bernier (2003)[4], Martino and Chandler (2004) [14],
Cai and Kaiser (2005) [3]. There are multiple terms
that have the same meaning with the terminology
in excavation of damage, for example: rock
loosening ring, loose circle, disturbed zone, plastic
zone, damaged zone, etc. But in fact, the EDZ
terms is adopted to describe the deformation and
failure processes of an EDZ, including the
surrounding rock mass of crack initiation,
extensions and unstableness. In this paper, the term
EDZ will be used as a contraction Excavation
Damage Zone and the definition of EDZ is defined
as: EDZ is the zone around an excavation at where
Fig. 1. Distribution and partition of EDZ[5]
2.2. Engineering overview
The powerhouse of H hydropower station is
located at the right bank of the Dadu River, with an
axial direction of N61°W. Horizontal depth and
vertical depth of the powerhouse are 280~510 m
and 400~660 m, respectively. With a length of
224.4 m and a span of 25.8~29.2 m, the
powerhouse has a maximum height of 70.5 m.
Stratified excavation is employed to build the
powerhouse, with the current excavation reaching
the fourth layer. The excavation profile is
illustrated in Fig. 2. The net height of the
excavation reaches 37.5 m.
Formation lithology analysis
The powerhouse is set up in the dolomite
limestone and metamorphic lime stone of the ninth
stratum. With a thick to ultra-thick layered
occurrence characteristic, the rocks belong to
lower series of devonian system. Some parts of the
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in situ stress conditions the properties of the rock
mechanical have been changed due to stress
redistribution induced fracturing, blasting damage
have taken place. It can be divided into two sub-
zones excavation highly damaged zone (EHDZ)
and slightly damaged zone (ESDZ) as shown in
Fig. 1. The EHDZ contains a lot of cracks of
macro-scale fracturing which are caused either by
excavation or high stresses induced spalling,
splitting, etc. (EHDZ is also referred as excavation
fracture zone). The ESDZ defined as a zone
containing new born cracks that is caused by
stresses redistribution induced fracture (shear
fracture). Therefore, it is reasonable to use EDZ to
classify different zones within the surrounding rocks
during construction or excavation.
layered rocks occur with a thin to medium thick
characteristics. In addition, the weathering of the
rocks is not significant. Most of the rocks are free
from weathering, showing favourable integrity.
The surrounding rocks are preliminarily
categorized into II~III1 type. In consideration in
high in-situ ground stress, this study finally
categorizes the surrounding rocks into III1.
Characteristics of the high in-situ ground stress
The powerhouse station is located in the deep
valley area, where the overall movement of the
neotectonics is mainly characterized by
intermittent intense lifting of the entire structure.
The maximum principal stress of the regional
tectonic stress manifests itself in a near EW
direction or NWW~SEE direction. The rock mass
is mainly made of hard and integral metamorphic
limestone, in high in in-situ ground stress and easy
to store high level of strain energy.
 The maximum principal stress virtually shares
the same direction with the axis, which is
beneficial to the stability of the underground
openings. However, the in-situ ground stress shows
the following characteristics: Differences among
σ1, σ2 and σ3 are small; The excavation of the
openings results in the release of σ2, introducing a
stretching stress; Also, the release of σ2 results in
an increase of shear stress, posing an adverse
influence to the stability of the surrounding rocks.
Fig. 2. 0+40 m Excavation profile for the
powerhouse and layout of the monitoring
boreholes
Deformation characteristics of the surrounding
rocks in excavation areas
Since the excavation of the powerhouse reaches
the third layer, phenomena such as cracking and
mismatched movement at the anchoring rock beam
have been observed. Some failure phenomena such
Tab. 1. Relation of acoustic wave with EDZ partition
EDZ partition EHDZ ESDZ
Wave velocity Vp (m/s) Vp < 3500 3500< Vp < 5500
The wave velocity varies with surrounding rock
properties, development degree of structural plane
and fissure width, etc. Therefore, the sole use of
wave velocity in quantitatively dividing the EDZ is
not reasonable. However, the introduction of the
damage factor D makes it possible and reasonable
to determine EDZ.
According to classical elastic mechanics theory,
velocity of the plane wave travelling in an infinite
elastic body can be derived. As transverse wave
cannot travel in liquids and the measurement of the
transverse wave is easy to generate errors,
longitudinal wave is used in this study. Therefore,
the velocity of the longitudinal wave is taken to
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as swelling and cracking of the shotcrete lining at
the spandrel and side wall of the anchoring rock
beam are also captured. Ever since then, the
surrounding rocks deform continually.
Fig. 3. Deformation characteristics of the
surrounding rocks
(a) Cracking of surrounding rocks; (b) swelling
and cracking of the shotcrete lining.
3. Discriminant analysis of EDZ partition
3.1. EDZ partition for surrounding rocks of
underground powerhouse based on acoustic
detection
Xu et al. (2014) [15] studied the acoustic wave
versus depth curve for underground openings
excavated in magmatic rock, sedimentary rock and
metamorphic rocks, respectively. They
summarized their research results and divided the
results into three categories. As a result, they were
able to qualitatively and semi-quantitatively
determine the depth of EDZ.
UDZ
Vp>5500
represent the elasticity modulus. The specific
formula is shown below:
(1   )(1  2 )
E  p2 (1)
1 
Where, v p (m/s) stands for the velocity of
longitudinal wave, ρ (g/cm3) stands for the density
and μ stands for poisson’s ratio.
During the construction of underground
openings, the stress redistribution results in fissure
generation, propagation and coalescence, with
macroscopic fissure or failure as the final product.
The damage factor D can be introduced to
represent the above process and result.
 E Specifications on Rock-foundation Excavating
E  1 (2)
E Engineering of Hydraulic Structures (DL/T538-
In consideration of the minor changes of
poisson’s ratio and density of damaged rock mass
during stress redistribution induced by excavation,
the poisson’s ratio and density can be regarded as a
const. Therefore, the damage factor D can be
derived from equation (1) and (2).
E  p2
E  1  1 2 (3)
E vp
Where  is the wave velocity in damaged
surrounding rocks.
Acoustic detection technology is employed to
separately detect the wave velocity in undamaged
and damaged surrounding rocks. As a result, the
damage factor D of the surrounding rocks can be
accurately determined. Prior to the use of the
damage factor D to quantitatively determine EDZ,
a reasonable standard limit is required. In
accordance with the rate of change of the wave
velocity (η) as specified in Construction Technical
2007), the quality of excavation on rock-
foundation can be divided into three levels, near
zero impact (η<10%), slight impact (10%<η<15%)
and apparent impact (η>15%). The rate of change
of the wave velocity is defined as:
  (C p1  C p 2 ) / C p1 (4)
Where C p1 and C p 2 separately stand for the tested
wave velocity before and after excavation at the same
location.
With equation (3) and (4), the value of the
damage factor D corresponding to the rate of
change of the wave velocity before and after
excavation can be determined value of the damage
factor D corresponding to the rate of change of the
wave velocity before and after excavation can be
determined.

Tab. 2. Relation of damage factor with rate of change of the wave velocity
Value of rate of change of Corresponding damage Damage degree
the wave velocity factor D
η<10% D<0.19 Near zero damage
10%<η<15% 0.19<D<0.28 Slight damage
η>15% D>0.28 Apparent damage

In accordance with Code for Engineering
Geological Investigation of Water Resources and
Hydropower (GB50287-2006) of China, the
integrity coefficient (KV) can be expressed as
follows:
Kv  (Vp / VPr )2 (5)
Where VP and VPr separately stand for velocity of
longitudinal wave in rock mass and rock specimen.
The integrity of the rock is divided into five
grades, full integrity, favourable integrity, poor
integrity, relatively broken and broken.
Accordingly, KV is taken as 0, 0.75，0.55，0.35
and 0.15, respectively.

Tab. 3. Relation of damage factor with the integrity

Kv Damage factor D Integrity

0 - Full integrity
0.75 - Favourable integrity
0.55 0.85 Poor integrity
0.35 0.65 Relatively broken
0.15 0.45 Broken

153
For sake of simplicity, the limit value for ESDZ degree of the underground powerhouse can be
and UDZ is determined as D=0.2, and for EHDZ divided into EHDZ, ESDZ and UDZ, as shown in
and ESDZ as D=0.6. In summary, with the Table 4.
introduction of the damage factor D, the damage

Tab. 4. Partition of damage factor D and EDZ

Surrounding Damage Damage
Characteristics of the acoustic wave curve
rocks partition factor D degree
On the curves of acoustic velocity, the P wave
Apparent velocity is suddenly mutation and significant
EHDZ D≥0.6
damage attenuate compared to the initial. The newborn
cracks have been changed and significantly opened.
The P wave velocity is a concussion with low rate in
cracks location. The velocity mutates from low to
ESDZ 0.6>D>0.2 Damage high in a long time on the curves of acoustic
velocity. The new born cracks can be formed but not
clearly significant.
Near-zero The P wave velocity may be smooth or may be a
UDZ D≤0.2
damage little fluctuation on the curves of acoustic velocity.

After unloading, surrounding rocks of the
underground powerhouse of the M hydropower
station become loose. Borehole acoustic detection
and borehole camera imaging have been carried
out since the excavation of the powerhouse reaches
the second layer. A total of 5 monitoring profiles
are set up, with 7~14 detection boreholes being
arranged along each profile. Taking the 0+40 m
excavation profile for the powerhouse as the study
object, a total of 9 geological boreholes are set up,
as shown in Fig.2
The test results of the No.3 borehole that is
below the anchoring rock beam in the 0+40m
excavation profile is taken as an example for
analysis, as shown in Fig. 4. Using the
characteristics of the wave velocity versus depth
curve, the depth distribution of EDZ can be
quantitatively and semi-quantitatively determined,
with the depth of the EHDZ and ESDZ reaching
9.3 m and 15.7 m, respectively.
In order to reduce subjectivity, relation of the
damage factor D with the depth is calculated in
accordance with equation (3), as shown in Fig. 5.
According to the specified limit value as given in
Table 4, the depth distribution of EDZ can be
quantitatively determined, with the depth of the
EHDZ and ESDZ reaching 7.3 m and 15.6 m,
respectively.

Fig. 4. Acoustic wave detection curve of No.3 borehole in the 0+40 m excavation profile for the
powerhouse (by depth)

154
 Fig. 5. Damage factor changing curve of No.3 borehole in the 0+40 m excavation profile for the
powerhouse[5]

Fig. 6. Acoustic wave detection curve of No.3 borehole in the 0+40 m excavation profile for the
powerhouse (by days)

Acoustic detection technology is employed to
carry out the initial monitoring through the No. 6
borehole in the 0+40 m excavation profile during
the excavation of the II layer. Till the excavation
reaching the IV layer, a total of 7 detections have
been made. Then the obtained test results are
processed. According to the damage factor D, the
EDZ can be quantitatively determined. Therefore,
the relation of EDZ with excavation schedule can
be acquired, as illustrated in Fig. 6.
As indicated from Fig. 6, depth of the EDZ of
the surrounding rocks increase with the proceeding
excavation. Especially during the later period of
excavation of the IV layer, depth of ESDZ
experiences a significant increase. In comparison
with the excavation of the III layer, the depth of
ESDZ and EHDZ increase by 4.3 m and 1.3 m,
respectively. In addition, even during downtime
period, the depth of EDZ still has a rapid increase,
with the ESDZ and EHDZ increasing by 1.7 m and
0.2 m, respectively. As of the excavation of the IV
layer, the height of the excavated powerhouse has
stood at 37.5 m. In comparison with the final
design height 74.5 m, excavation needs to be
carried out to increase the present height by 37 m.
It is expected that depth of the EDZ could increase
further when excavation reaches the V layer.
Therefore, prior to the start of excavation,
reinforcement has to be made to areas surrounding
the anchoring rock beam as well as the side wall
between the anchoring rock beam and the spandrel
of the opening.
3.2. Partition of EDZ for underground
powerhouse based on borehole imaging
The distribution of the fracture zones can be
intuitively revealed with the use of borehole

155
camera. The imaging results of the No.3 borehole
that is below the anchoring rock beam in the
0+40m excavation profile is taken as an example
for analysis. The test length of this borehole covers
20.1 m, with fissures mainly developing in the
section ranging from 0~11 m. It is found that
fissures develop by sections, with the fissures
mainly developing in such sections as 0～0.8 m,
1.6～1.8 m, 2.6～3.0 m, 3.6～4.0 m, 4.0～5.1 m,
6.6～6.9 m, 8.4～9.3 m, 10.0～11.0 m and
12.1～13.9 m. Beside those sections, fissures are
not found.
The borehole detection results show that onion
type spalling fissures and cleavage fissures
dominate in the section ranging from 0～0.8 m and
1.6～1.8 m, as shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. The
closer the fissures to the wall of the powerhouse,
the larger the width is. The fracture face of the
fissure trends to the powerhouse openings, with a
dip angle of 75°. Stretching failure mainly occurs
in areas where tensile stress concentrates or the
confining pressure is near 0. In areas of such, the
rock mass is subject to a stress regime similar to
uniaxial compression.
Fig. 7. Distribution of onion type gaping fissures in
section ranging from 0.2 m~ 0.8 m
Fig. 8. Distribution of cleavage fissures in section
ranging from 1.5 m~ 2.0 m
Fissures with sheet, plate and thick-plate
structures parallelly develop in the section ranging
from 2.6～3.0 m, 3.6～4.0 m, 4.0～5.1 m and
156
6.6～6.9 m. At the tip, fissures stretch and extend
in the form of Griffith crack, with the fissures
opening. Down the tip, the width of the fissures
decreases. The fracture face of the fissure trends to
the powerhouse openings with a great dip angle.
However, the dip angle is smaller than tensile
fracture angle, which in general is between 48° and
70°. As shown in Fig. 9, tensor-shear fissures
mainly occur in areas with small lateral confining
pressure, where the rock mass is subject to a stress
state between tri-axial compression and pseud
uniaxial compression.
Fig. 9. Distribution of tensor-shear fissures in
section ranging from of 6.5 m~6.9 m
Fissures in section ranging from 8.4～9.3 m
and 10.0～11.0 m are mainly the shear fissures
with smooth fracture face. The fissure closes or
opens with small width in some areas. The fracture
face of the fissures trends to the powerhouse
openings with a great dip angle, which in general is
45 ~ 65°. As shown in Fig. 10, the rock mass is
subject to tri-axial compression. When the acoustic
waves travel passes, the velocity of the wave
would have a sudden decrease.
Fig. 10. Distribution of shear fissures in section
ranging from 10.2 m~10.7 m
The above analysis shows that tensile fracture
(onion type spalling fracture and cleavage fracture)
and tensor-shear fracture occur in EHDZ and shear
fracture mainly occurs in ESDZ. Therefore, for No.
3 detection borehole, the boundary between EHDZ employed in this study to quantitatively determine
and ESDZ falls between 6.9 m and 8.4 m, with a the classification of EDZ during construction. The
mean value of 7.65 m; the maximum radius of results are listed in table 5.
ESDZ is 13.9 m.
3.3. Comprehensive analysis of EDZ
classification at the power house of H
hydropower station
Borehole camera image covering a region
ranging from 4.2~4.5 m is taken to compare
against the corresponding acoustic wave curve
(shown in Fig. 4). The comparison pictures are
presented in Fig. 21. It is found that when acoustic
wave passes the fracture plane of the fissure,
velocity of the wave suffers a sudden drop. This
finding is also verified by other comparison
pictures. Therefore, it shows that acoustic detection Fig.11. Relation between fracture plane of fissure
proves accurate in predicting fissures. and sudden drop of wave velocity
With the 0+40m profile of the powerhouse as
the research object, acoustic detection, borehole
camera imaging and numerical calculation are

Tab. 5. Partition of EDZ based on results of No. 3 monitoring borehole

in excavation profile of the powerhouse
Partition based on
Partition based on Partition based on borehole
acoustic damage
acoustic detection camera imaging
factor
EHDZ 0~9.7m 0~7.3m 0~7.65m
ESDZ 9.79~15.3m 7.3~15.6m 7.65~13.9m

Tab. 6. Discriminating standard of excavation damage zone (EDZ)

Acoustic detection Borehole camera imaging
Wave
Damage
velocity Wave curve characteristic
factor D
Vp (m/s)
Curve are characterized by abrupt The number of newly created
changes, significantly reduced fissures is more than 2,
EHDZ >0.6 <3500
velocity, and large amplitude. resulting from stretching and
tensile-shear
Curves show vibrating The number of newly created
characteristic. Velocity of wave fissures is between 1 and 2,
ESDZ 0.2~0.6 3500~5500 passes fissures. Velocity of wave resulting from stretching
is high at rock bridge. The dilation and shear dilation
decrease of velocity is moderate
Curves are steady and show The number of newly created
minor fluctuations at some fissures is less than 1. Shear
UDZ <0.2 >5500 points. The decrease of velocity dilation is not pronounced
is insignificant, leveling off to a
constant value

157
 The above analysis is only based on single
typical excavation profile. With the help from the
designers and engineers, the damage zone can be
intuitively captured. If EDZ partition is carried out
on each detection borehole in the 0+40m
excavation profile of the powerhouse, the partition
map for this excavation profile can be determined,
providing basis for support optimization and safe
construction.
4. Comprehensive assessment of excavation
damaged zone (EDZ) at underground
powerhouse in high in-situ stresses
With the proceeding of excavation, EDZ
changes dynamically. In present, no available
mature theory can be used to quantitatively or
semi-quantitatively determine the damaging
characteristics of the surrounding rocks. With
acoustic detection and borehole camera imaging,
this study performed analysis on EDZ at
underground powerhouse of H hydropower station
in high in-situ ground stresses during construction.
With comparisons made among the three methods,
this study finds that the partition of EDZ based on
each method is consistent. Therefore, the three
methods are applicable for engineering of this
kind. Finally, this study proposed the
discriminating standard of excavation damage zone
at deep underground powerhouse in high in-situ
ground stresses (Table 6).
5. Conclusions
It is reasonable and applicable to use EDZ to
perform partition for surrounding rocks at deep
underground openings with high in-situ ground
stress. EDZ is further subdivided into EHDZ and
ESDZ, with the failure mode of the former mainly
dominated by stretching and tensor-shear fracture
and that of the later by shear fracture.
Based on acoustic detection, the characteristics
of the wave curves can be used to qualitatively and
semi-quantitatively discriminate the partition of
EDZ. Also, the damage factor D is introduced to
help discriminate the partition of EDZ. As a result,
predictions can be made to the changes of EDZ
during ensuing excavation, based on changes of
EDZ partition with excavation schedule.
With borehole camera imaging technology,
development of the fissures within the surrounding
rocks of underground openings during excavation
can be accurately and intuitively captured, thus
158
providing direct basis for surrounding rock
structure detection, mechanical properties
estimation and support design. Comparison shows
that acoustic detection and borehole camera
imaging lead to the same interpretation results.
Based on the actual engineering practice, this
study puts forward the discriminating standard for
the EDZ at deep underground powerhouse in high
in-situ ground stresses during construction, thus
providing some basis for the evaluation of degree
of damage of the surrounding rocks as well as the
informational design and construction at
underground powerhouse with similar conditions.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express their sincere
gratitude to professor Xu Guangli, Dr Li Zhipeng
for their help on laboratory and field test. The
author also grateful for support from the National
Natural Science Foundation of China
(No.41472263, 40572152) and China Hydropower
Engineering Consulting Group research (No.
P009).
References
[1] Andersson JC, Martinb CD, 2009. The Aspo
pillar stability experiment: part I--
experiment design[J]. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences,46(5): 865-878.
[2] Andersson J C, Martin C D, 2009. The Aspo
pillar stability experiment: part I-
experiment: part II--rock mass response to
coupled excavation-induced and thermal-
induced stresses[J]. International Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences,
46(5):879-895.
[3] Cai M, Kaiser PK, 2005. Assessment of
excavation damaged zone using a
micromechanics model[J]. Tunneling and
Underground Space Technology,
20(4):301-310.
[4] Davies, C., & Bernier, F. 2003. Impact of
the excavation disturbed or damaged zone
(EDZ) on the performance of radioactive
waste geological repositories. Paper
presented at the Proceedings of the
European Commission Cluster Conference
and Workshop held in Luxembourg.
[5] Dinh Phuc Hoang, et al, 2016. Discriminant
Analysis of Excavation Damage Zone at
 Underground Powerhouse with High In-
situ Ground Stresses during
Construction[J]. Electronic Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, (21.12), pp
4627-4653.
[6] Fairhurst, C. and B. Damjanac. 1996. The
excavation damaged zone – an
international perspective. Proceedings of
EDZ Workshop September 1996 Winnipeg
– International Conference on Deep
Geological Disposal of Radioactive Waste.
[7] Hyung-mok k, et al, 2013. Characterizing
excavation damaged zone and stability of
pressurized lined rock caverns for
underground compressed air energy
storage[J]. Rock mechanics and rock
engineering, 46(5): 1113-1124.
[8] Know S, Lee et al, 2009. An investigation
of the excavation damaged zone at the
Kaeri underground space technology,
24(1):1-13.
[9] Li Yangfan, et al, 2013. Advances in
research on excavation disturbed zone of
underground openings. [J]. Chinese
Journal of Underground Space and
Engineering, v.9; No.71S2:2083-2092.
[10] Li, S., Feng, X, et al, 2011. In situ
experiments on width and evolution
characteristics of excavation damaged
zone in deeply buried tunnels. Science
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174.
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[11] Liu Ning, Zhang Chunsheng, Chu
Weijiang, 2013. Excavation damaged zone
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Rock Mechanics and Engineering, v.32;
No.27411:2235-2241.
[12] Malmgren, L., Saiang, D., Töyrä, J., &
Bodare, A. (2007). The excavation
disturbed zone (EDZ) at Kiirunavaara
mine, Sweden—by seismic measurements.
Journal of Applied Geophysics, 61(1), 1-
15.
[13] Martino J.B. (Ed). 2003. The 2002
International EDZ Workshop on the
Excavation Damage –Causes and Effects.
Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. Report
06819-REP-01200-10105-R00.
[14] Martino J B and Chandler N A, 2004.
Excavation-induced damaged studies at the
underground research laboratory[J].
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[15] Xu Guangli, et al, 2014. EDZ Assessment
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v.3911:1699-1706.
 CALCULATING THE LARGE TWO-WAY BATTER BEARING PILE
FOUNDATION FOR PILLAR SUPPORTED DAM

Tran Van Thai, Nguyen Dinh Truong

Water Engineering Institute, Vietnam Academy for Water Resources
Corresponding author’ Email: tranvanthai.khtl@gmail.com

Abstract: Pillar supported dams have shown both technical and economic efficiency. The
characteristics of the pillar dams are both vertical and horizontal force bearing; the horizontal forces
acting on hydraulic structures are quite large, depending on the difference of the water head of before and
after the structures. Meanwhile, the vertical bearing capacity of the foundation is much greater than the
horizontal bearing capacity of the structures. This paper compares the bearing capacity of the foundation
of different pile arrangements (entire vertical piles, entire inclining piles, and large two-way batter piles)
with the same vertical load (N), horizontal load (H). The result shows the large diagonal batter pile
foundation is optimal for pillar supported dams. The paper also proposes a set of equations for pile
arrangement in the pillar supported dam. Finally, the paper synthesizes results of large two-way batter
pile foundation for some projects that have been constructed or being built in Vietnam.

Keywords: the large two-way batter pile; pillar supported dam; pile foundation.

1.Introduction designers, particularly when using pillar supported

In general, hydraulic structures are different
from the transportation and construction structures
because in addition to carry on vertical load,
hydraulic structures have to subject heavy lateral
load, which is depended on water table before and
behind the structures. In general, pile foundation
structures are able to bear vertical load much larger
than horizontal loads. For example, Thao Long
project with the depth of -4.25 m, water head in
upstream is 0.7 m, water head of downstream is 0.0
m, width of segment is 31.5 m, and each segment
has to be subjected 180 tons horizontal force, it is
needed to arrange 8 bored piles with diameter of
1.2 m. If the structure has depth of -15 m, water
head of upstream is at + 1.0 m, water head of
downstream is at - 2.0 m, the width of segment is
40 m, each segment has to be subjected 3240 tons
of horizontal force that 18 times larger than that in
afore-mentioned case, and if the segment width is
60 m, the horizontal force is 4860 tons, which is 27
times larger than the above case. Therefore, the
layout of the structure and the design of the
foundation stability must be calculated according
to special conditions. This is a real challenge for
dam technology.
In the design of barrier construction of large
river, the most difficult problem that has great
impact on the structure and construction methods is
the depth (water head), not the width of the river. If
the river is wide but shallow, the design and
construction will be much simpler than the narrow
and deep river. Therefore, when we take into
account the difficulty and complexity of the design
and construction of barrier for large river, it
included the depth of the river. For the barrier of
the large river in Viet Nam (mainly in the Mekong
Delta), it usually has a large depth (8 – 20 m),
geology of river bed is usually soft soil or silt, thus,
if the foundation is designed using bored piles, the
construction cost is high. If the foundation is
designed using the normal batter pile foundation
when the water level difference in two directions
appears, the compression force acts on the
compressive pile is usually large, however, the pile
in opposite side will be pulled out.
In order to solve the afore-mentioned problems,
Dr. Tran Van Thai proposed to apply a large two-
way batter pile foundation for the pillar supported

160
dam. The large two-way batter pile foundation is a
pile foundation that includes the large batter pile
(1:m is usually larger than 1:4, i.e. extend in
horizontal direction 1 and extend in vertical
direction 4) in two directions of force bearing, this
direction crosses the other direction to form a
strong foundation system that has horizontal
resistance as well as the best vertical resistance in
many types of foundation (Fig 1).
Fig. 1. Large two-way batter pile foundation
2. Comparison internal force between the large
two-way batter pile foundation and other pile
foundations
Problem 1: We constructed the calculation
model for three pile foundation options (Fig 2) that
Pile 35352000 Pile 35352000
cm cm
a) Vertical pile foundation b)Batter pile foundation
(1:5)
Fig. 2. Calculation model
161
consisting of 18 reinforced concrete piles with size
of cross section 35×35 cm, 20 m in length, spacing
between piles is 3.5 times of the diameter, three
foundations were subjected to simultaneous
loading of 800 kN horizontal load, 3200 kN
vertical load, momentum 1000 kN.m. Foundation
a) entire vertical piles; foundation b) normal batter
pile foundation that has 12 batter piles of 1:5 to the
right and 6 batter piles of 1:5 to the left; foundation
c) large two-way batter pile foundation with 12
batter piles of 1:5 to the right and 6 batter piles of
1: 5 left. Geological condition is the same for three
options.
The results of problem No.1 consisted of
horizontal displacement, internal stress of piles in,
three options are presented in Table 1 and Fig 3.
Comment: The horizontal displacement of the
large two-way batter pile foundation was much
smaller than that of the vertical pile foundation, in
details the horizontal displacement of the large
two-way batter pile foundation was 0.346 cm,
which was 13.7% and 55% compared to the
vertical pile foundation and the batter pile
foundation, respectively. The displacement in the
batter pile foundation is usually approximately
24.4% compared to the vertical pile foundation.
Momentum in the large two-way batter pile
foundation is usually approximately 29.5%
compared to the vertical pile foundation, and
momentum in the batter pile foundation is usually
approximately 29.5% compared to the vertical pile
foundation.
Pile 35352000
cm
c) Large two-way batter pile
foundation (1:5)
 Tab. 1. Displacement values of three pile foundation options

Batter pile foundation Large two-way batter pile

Type of foundation Vertical pile foundation
(1:5) foundation (1:5)
Displacement of
2,530 0,618 0,346
foundation (cm)
Ratio (compared to
100% 24,4% 13,7%
vertical pile)
Momentum (kN.m) 85,34 50,19 25,18
Ratio (compared to
100% 58,8% 29,5%
vertical pile)

a) b)
Fig. 3. The displacement chart (a), momentum diagram (b) of three pile foundation options subjected
simultaneously horizontal, vertical loads, and momentum.

In the case of the vertical pile foundation, the
axial force distributed on the pile is small, thus it
cannot utilize bearing capacity of pile, and in
addition, the momentum in the pile was much large
that requires a large volume of steel bar. The batter
pile foundation can improve some disadvantages of
the vertical pile foundation. Particularly, the large
two-way batter pile foundation overcomes not only
the disadvantages of the vertical pile foundation
but also maximizes the axial bearing capacity by
transferring a part of the axial force (Pi.sin) to the
horizontal resistance for resisting horizontal force,
thus the momentum in the pile will be smaller. The
ability to distribute internal force on the pile head
of the large two-way batter pile foundation tends to
be better.
For conventional pile foundation methods, the
momentum of the pile body and the displacement
of pile are decisive conditions for selecting the
number of piles.
3. The numbers of pile in the large two-way
batter pile foundation is the least
In the problem 2 (Fig 4), we examined the
batter pile foundations that has 9 and 12 piles
subjected to H = 800 kN; vertical load of 3200 kN,
momentum of 1490 kN.m. The objective is to find
out how many piles are needed in the large two-
way batter pile foundation to have the same
momentum and displacement compared to the

162
normal batter pile foundation with 18 batter piles. momentum in problem 2 to achieve the equivalent
Since the adjustment of the number of piles in the displacement.
problem is quite difficult, we increased the

a. Calculation model for the large two-way latter b. Calculation model for the large two-way
pile foundation with 12 batter piles latter pile foundation with 9 batter piles

Fig. 4. Calculation model

c) (a) d) (b)
Fig. 5. The displacement chart (a), momentum diagram (b) of two options with 9 and 12 piles

The displacement of the large two-way batter
pile foundation 1:5 with 12 piles (problem 2) was
0.58 cm, which was approximately the
displacement of the batter pile foundation 1:5 with
18 piles (the displacement in problem 1 was 0.618
cm), and the displacement in this problem was
only 23% compared to the displacement of the
vertical pile foundation with 18 piles (the
displacement in the problem 1 was 2.53 cm). When
the numbers of pile was 9 piles (i.e. equal to 50%
the numbers of pile in the problem 1), the
displacement of the large two-way batter pile
foundation with 9 piles was 0.82 cm corresponds

163
to 32% of the displacement of the vertical pile
foundation with 18 piles.
Based on two above examples, we can see that
it is possible to reduce the number of piles to 50%
in the large two-way batter pile foundation; the
bearing capacity (displacement, momentum) is still
much larger than that in the vertical pile foundation
with 100% number of the pile. Besides, the number
of pile also depends on the axial force, thus, in the
design, we usually choose the numbers of pile in
the large two-way batter pile foundation to 50% -
60% of the number of pile in the vertical pile
foundation.
4. Proposing calculation method for the large
two-way batter pile foundation
In this study we have used some of the results
of previous studies to solve the problems for
verifying efficiency of the large two-way batter
pile foundation [6, 8, 9]: the p~y curve method was
proposed by Matlock (1970), then developed and
widely applied (Reese and Al, 1974; Reese and
Welch, 1975; O'Neill, 1984...). The value of group
coefficient subjected horizontal load was taken
from the experimental group of piles in clay
(Prakash and Saran); reducing coefficient due to
pile group for subgrade reaction coefficient
(Davisson) [6].
Equations (9, 10, and 11) in a previous study
[5] present the preliminary calculation formula for
the numbers of pile in foundations including the
vertical piles and the batter piles. However,
because the horizontal bearing capacity is much
smaller than the vertical bearing capacity of piles,
thus it is only needed to arrange the pile according
to the horizontal bearing capacity, which will
ensure the vertical load bearing capacity. In order
to preliminary calculate the numbers of pile in the
large two-way batter pile foundation, it is
necessary to establish a system of equations for
calculation. We proposed three hypotheses to
simplify the calculation:
Hypothesis 1: The axial load capacity of the
batter pile is equal to the axial load capacity of the
vertical pile. It means that the application of the
calculating method for the bearing capacity of the
batter pile and vertical pile in this study is the
same. Although they have a slight difference in the
164
horizontal earth pressure that causes frictional
forces around the lateral sides of the pile;
Hypothesis 2: The entire batter pile in the
opposite direction is able to bear the horizontal
load as same as that of the vertical piles;
Hypothesis 3: All the pile in the cap is
completely inclined.
The equation system is proposed to calculate
the numbers of pile subjected horizontal load when
two-dimensional force applied as follows:
 n x1 nx2
 
 K  .H1   Pi .sin    H c,i     H c, j 
,
1
 i 1 j1

 
nx2 n x1

 K  .H 2   Pj .sin    H c, j     H c,i   2
,
 j1 i 1

n  n x1  n x 2  3


Equations (1), (2), (3) were proposed by Tran
Van Thai and Nguyen Dinh Truong [1]. Based on
equations (1), (2), (3), when developing TCVN
10400: 2015, for safety reasons, we considered that
the horizontal force resistance is produced by the
batter pile, ignoring components [Hc,i]; [H'c,j];
[Hc,j]; [H'c,i] the set of equations (1), (2), (3)
becomes to formula (10), (11) in standard TCVN
10400: 2015.
Where:
H1; H2- the total horizontal force of saline
prevention combination and refresh water retention
combination;
N- Designed vertical load;
nx1- the numbers of pile subjected horizontal-
inclined force in upstream;
nx2- the numbers of pile subjected horizontal-
inclined force in downstream;
nvertical- the number of piles subjected the
vertical load in the foundation;
Pi: Axial force in the batter pile i (inclining
against H1 force)
Pj: Axial force in the batter pile j (inclining
against H2 force)
Pe- Calculated baring capacity of pile;
[Hc, i]- The horizontal resistance of the batter
pile i in the opposite direction of the horizontal
force;
[H’c,j]- The horizontal resistance of the batter
pile j in the same direction of the horizontal
force;α- inclined angle of pile;
[K]- Load safety factor
 The sequence of calculation steps for large two- Cau Xe culvert – Hai Duong province; Bong Bot
way batter pile foundation is as follows: culvert – Tra Vinh province; Cai Lon culvert –
Step 1: Preparing and collecting of materials for Kien Giang province. The following section will
pile foundation design (construction scale, present two typical pile foundations including Bao
calculated water level, engineering geology etc.) Chau and Cau Xe culvert.
Step 2: Calculating the horizontal force acted 5.1. Bao Chau culvert - Ca Mau[10]
on the structures.
Step 3: Assuming the inclined angle of the pile.
Step 4: Calculating bearing capacity of the pile
(Pe).
Step 5: Calculating the required vertical load
for each inclined angle of pile and preliminarily
determine the number of batter piles to ensure the
resistance to horizontal forces calculated in the
preceding steps according to equations (1); (2) and
(3).
Step 6: Preliminary arranging the layout of the
pile and determining of the dimension of supper
Fig. 6. Bao Chau culvert project
structures satisfies the required vertical load and
arrangement conditions of facilities on the supper
- Bao Chau culvert belongs to irrigation
structures.
management project for rural development in the
Step 7: Preliminary calculating of basic masses
Mekong Delta. Construction location: Phu Tan
based on foundation size and structures defined in
district and Cai Nuoc district, Ca Mau province.
Step 6.
Construction site: Bao Chau culvert is located on
Step 8: Selecting the design inclination for the
Bao Chau channel.
structure on the basis of economic technical
- Construction scale - structural type: The pillar
aspects.
supported dam culvert consists of a 30.0 m width
Step 9: Calculating applied load and optimizing
water channel, 17 × 7 m footing, and ground is
the numbers of pile.
treated using reinforced concrete pile 35×35×2500
Step 10: Calculating and checking pile
cm with inclination of 1: 5. Flat valve door, closing
foundation structure using supported softwares
and opening valve by hydraulic cylinder, the
(can use FB-Pier software, SAP2000 software or
material for gate valve is made from stainless steel
other software with similar features etc.).
Q345, the elevation of culvert overflow is at -4.00,
5. Large two-way batter pile foundations have
the elevation of pillar head is at +2.50, and the
been using in Vietnam
elevation of the top of valve door is at +2.30.
Based on equations (1), (2), and (3), authors
Traffic Bridge crosses over the project: bridge load
have designed the structures using the large
0.65HL 93, bridge deck width of 4 m.
inclined pile foundation: Bao Chau culvert – Ca
Mau province; Nha Mat culvert - Bac Lieu
province; Cai Cung culvert – Bac Lieu province;

Tab. 2. Force combination for saline prevention

Name of load Force combination
No.
combination N Hx My Hy Mx
1 Standard 1607,2 -243,1 -1372,7 117,3 347,5
2 Strength I 2230,4 -234,2 -1244,9 117,3 347,5
3 Strength II 2119,6 -274,2 -1537,5 163,7 452,2
4 Strength III 2205,1 -244,4 -1410,6 174,7 283,7

165
 Tab. 3. Force combination for fresh water retention

Force combination
No. Name of load combination
N Hx My Hy Mx
1 Standard 1678,4 262,1 817,8 117,3 492,7
2 Strength I 2301,6 253,2 698,9 117,3 492,7
3 Strength II 2190,8 293,2 1555,5 163,7 347,8
4 Strength III 2276,3 263,4 859,9 174,7 516,3

Based on the geological data, the following can battered piles; 28 batter piles 1:5 in river side and
be calculated: Qult = 62 T; Lateral bearing capacity 21 batter piles 1:5 in paddy field side. The layout
of pile [H] = 2.83 T. The foundation consists of 49 of foundation is shown in Fig 10.

Fig. 7. Layout of pile foundation of Bao Chau culvert

5.2. Cau Xe culvert [11]

Fig. 8. Perspective of Cau Xe culvert

166
Project location: Upgrading "Cau Xe Cau culvert"
project is located on Cau Xe river, a branch to Thai
Binh river. The construction site is about 270 m
from the old Cau Xe culvert in downstream side.
Construction location: Tu Ky district, Hai Duong
province. Scale of construction – structural type:
The pillar supported dam technology consists of 3
regulating segments, each segment has width of 25
m, the elevation of culvert overflow is at -4.00 m;
and a dock with width B = 10.0 m. Reinforced
concrete girder supporting valve has 1.20 m in
height and 6.00 m in width, two sides laid on two
pillars.

Tab. 4. Load combination at bottom section of foundation – saline prevention

Calculated N Qx Qy Mx My
combination (T) (T) (T) (Tm) (Tm)
Standard 1836,06 9,61 -403,94 3511,48 144,85
Calculated 1980,18 12,49 -455,82 3592,16 188,30
Extreme event 1973,79 55,57 -581,35 4352,62 473,92

Tab. 5. Load combination at bottom section of foundation – fresh water retention

Calculated N Qx Qy Mx My
combination (T) (T) (T) (Tm) (Tm)
Standard 1800,16 9,61 354,69 -1102,69 139,34

Calculated 1944,68 12,49 407,52 -1177,11 181,14

Extreme event 1938,31 55,73 489,68 -1641,28 467,62

Fig. 9. Layout of pile arrangement of middle pier- Cau Xe culvert

5.3. Bong Bot culvert [12] of Tra Vinh province. The project is located in Cau
- Bong Bot culvert belongs to Nam Mang Thit Ke district- Tra Vinh province. The culver has two
sub-project including two districts of Vung Liem compartments, each compartment is 20 m, and the
and Tra On in Vinh Long province and the whole elevation of culvert overflow is at -5.0 m.

167
 Tab. 6. Load combination of saline prevention at bottom section of culvert segment
Load
Combination
TT (T) QxTT (T) QyTT (Tm) MxTT (Tm) MyTT (Tm)
Standard 4827,70 235,15 -784,95 -5728,11 241,46
Service 5404,33 326,87 -790,61 -5668,45 1239,98
Extreme event 4721,19 431,58 -803,80 -9326,23 2027,64

Tab. 7. Load combination of fresh water retention at bottom section of culvert segment
Load
Combination
TT (T) QxTT (T) QyTT (Tm) MxTT (Tm) MyTT (Tm)
Standard 4811,35 248,03 943,52 2462,49 1300,82
Service 5334,69 342,33 949,73 2491,07 2315,33
Extreme event 4685,67 447,04 807,10 3925,12 2123,58

5.3.1 Large two-way batter pile foundation option

Tab. 8. Calculation results of the vertical pile foundation subjected horizontal load
Load combination QyHL (T) QyTL (T) [K] nx1 pile nx2 pile nx
Standard 784,95 943,52 1,3 75 107 196,0
Service 790,61 1043,47 1,3 75 108 197,0
Extreme event 803,80 807,10 1,3 84 85 182,0

Tab. 9. Calculating numbers of pile subjected to vertical load

Nfresh water
Load combination N Saline prevention Pvertical 1 Nvertical
retention

Standard 4811,35 4827,70 64,0 1,3 113

Service 5334,69 5404,33 64,0 1,3 127
Extreme event 4685,67 4721,19 64,0 1,3 111

Conclusions: layout of the large two-way batter pile foundation is shown in Fig 10 with 203 piles.

168
 Fig. 10. Layout of two-way batter pile foundation

5.3.2. Vertical pile foundation option

Tab. 10. Calculating numbers of pile subjected to vertical load

N fresh water
Load combination N Saline prevention Pvertical 1 nvertical
retention

Standard 4811,35 4827,70 64,00 1,3 113

Basic 5334,69 5404,33 64,00 1,3 127
Extreme event –
4685,67 4721,19 64,00 1,3 111
ship collision

Tab. 11. Calculation results of the vertical pile foundation subjected horizontal load
Load combination QyTL (T) QyHL (T) 2 [H] (T) nx Design
Standard -940,71 952,08 1,3 3,0 409
Basic -947,55 1026,97 1,3 3,0 412
Extreme event –
-825,94 832,42 1,3 3,0 348
ship collision

5.3.3. Stability evaluation of large two-way
batter pile foundation and vertical pile foundation
a. Calculation model[8], [9]
Pile foundations were simulated using computer
program namely FB-Pier. Piles were simulated
using beam element, which linked together by pile
cap that is plate element.
The simultaneous operation of the structure -
ground is simulated by the load-deformation curve
(p ~ y curve). The p~y curve of each soil layer is

169
constructed from the physical-mechanical Calculation assumption: It was considered that
properties of the soil layer (undrained shear pile cap is rigid cap and the link between pile head-
strength, coefficient of subgrade reaction, internal cap is fixed.
friction angle etc.).

Fig. 12. Calculation model of two-way batter Fig. 13 Calculation model of vertical pile option
pile option

b. Summary of calculation results of two pile foundation options

Tab. 12. The calculation results of pile’s displacement

COMBINATION Direction of Large two-way batter pile foundation Vertical pile
displacement foundation
Numbers of pile 203 piles 412 piles
Service Extreme event Service
Combination of X 0,372 1,13 0,71
saline prevention Y 0,528 1,04 2,17
Combination of X 0,521 1,29 0,68
fresh water Y 0,757 1,25 2,21
retention
Displacement max 0,757 1,29 2,21

Tab. 13. Synthesized results of calculating internal force of pile

Large two-way batter pile
Vertical pile foundation
foundation
Combination Direction
Momentum Axial force
Moment (T.m) Axial force (T)
(T.m) (T)
Numbers of pile 203 piles 412 piles
Combination of 3 5,16 5,69
53,2 36,6
saline prevention 2 7,86 13,0
Combination of 3 5,62 6,2
51,8 33,7
fresh water retention 2 7,8 13,2
Internal force Max 7,86 53,2 13,2 36,6
Calculated bearing capacity 64 64

170
 From the calculated results in Table 12, it can
be observed that the horizontal displacement of
maximum pile in the vertical pile foundation
(horizontal = 2.21 cm) was 3.5 times larger than
horizontal displacement of the batter pile
foundation (horizontal = 0.757 cm) and the
momentum of the large two-way batter pile
foundation was approximately 61.5% of
momentum of the vertical pile foundation,
although numbers of pile in the large two-way was
approximately 50% compared to the case of the
vertical pile foundation.
As a result, the large two-way batter pile
foundation has advantages in utilizing axial force
resistance, which can increase lateral bearing
capacity of pile because a partial axial force
resistance can bear lateral force. In the case of
Bong Bot culvert, the ratio of vertical
load/horizontal load was large, thus the use of the
batter pile can enhance effectively, avoiding waste
due to excess piles that subjected vertical load.
6. Conclusion
In this paper, we presented the set of equations
(1), (2), and (3) in order to select and arrange the
large two-way batter pile foundation for pillar
supported dam. The article also shows the steps to
calculate the problem of large two-way batter for
pillar supported dam.
Comparison results of some pile foundations
indicate that the large two-way batter pile
foundation only needed to arrange approximately
50% piles compared to the vertical pile foundation,
however the displacement and momentum were
much smaller, the displacement was about 23% -
34,25% and moment was around 29,5-59,5%
compared to the vertical pile foundation. The large
two-way batter pile foundation not only had large
vertical bearing capacity but also safer in horizontal
load and momentum capacity. Particularly, the
settlement of pile group also reduced because the
equivalent footing was expanded following inclined
angle of pile.
In case that the pile foundation can be used to
design the pillar supported dam, the large two-way
batter pile foundation is the optimal option.
Inclined angle of two-way batter pile is selected 1:
5 for concrete pile. For the Steel pile that can be
penetrated with a larger inclined angle, thus the
efficiency is larger.
171
References
[1]. Tran Van Thai, Nguyen Dinh Truong,
Calculating the large two-way batter pile
foundation for pillar supported dam, 2017,
Science and Technics Publishing House,
Ha Noi, Viet Nam (in Vietnamese).
[2]. Truong Dinh Tu, Pillar supported dam,
2014, Agriculture Publishing House, Ha
Noi, Viet Nam (in Vietnamese).
[3]. Vu Cong Ngu, Nguyen Thai, Pile
foundation - analysis and design, 2006,
Science and Technics Publishing House,
Ha Noi, Viet Nam (in Vietnamese).
[4]. Ministry of Science and Technology, TCVN
10304-2014 - Pile foundation - Design
standard, 2014, Ha Noi, Viet Nam (in
Vietnamese).
[5]. Ministry of Science and Technology, TCVN
10400: 2015 - Hydraulic Structures –
Pillar Dam- Technical requirements for
Design, 2015, Ha Noi, Viet Nam (in
Vietnamese).
[6]. Shamsher Prakash - Hari D.Sharma, Pile
Foundations in Engineering Practice,
1999, Construction Publishing House, Ha
Noi, Viet Nam (in Vietnamese-
translation).
[7]. Joseph. E. Bowles, Foundation analysis,
and design, International edition, 1997.
[8]. USA, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specification, 2012
[9]. Com624P - Laterally loaded pile analysis
program for microcomputer Version 2.
[10]. Construction hydraulic Institute,
Construction drawings design records of
the Bau Chau culvert- Ca Mau under the
Irrigation Management Project for Rural
Development in the Mekong Delta, 2013,
Hanoi, Viet Nam.
[11]. Construction hydraulic Institute,
Construction drawings design records of
the Cau Xe culvert- Hai Duong, the project
of upgrading Cau Xe culvert in Bac Hung
Hai irrigation system, Ha Noi, Viet Nam.
[12]. Construction hydraulic Institute,
Construction drawings design records of
the Bong Bot culvert- Tra Vinh, the project
of controlling water resources in response
to climate change for the Southern Mang
Thit region of Vinh Long and Tra Vinh
provinces, 2017, Ha Noi, Viet Nam.
 INFLUENCE OF EMBANKMENT HEIGHT AND SOIL PARAMETERS ON
PILED EMBANKMENTS BY 3D NUMERICAL SIMULATION

Pham Van Hung, Vu Minh Ngan

Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam.
Corresponding author’ Email: phamvanhung@khoaxaydung.edu.vn

Abtract: Piled embankment is a soil improvement method widely used in highway, railway and
industrial storage tank projects all over the world. Although many soil mitigating methods have been
applied recently in road projects in Vietnam, piled embankment still is a state-of-the-art soil improvement
technique which can have a significant economic benefit. This paper investigates the behavior of the piled
embankment based on a 3D numerical simulation with a typical geo-condition in Tan Vu - Lach Huyen
highway in Hai Phong, Vietnam. The analyzed results in the reference case show the efficiency of the
method in terms of load transfer and settlements. The influence of height embankment on both the
arching effect and soft soil and embankment displacements is studied. Additionally, the change in soil
properties, which are the friction angle of embankment and the pre-consolidation pressure of soft soil, are
taken into consideration. The numerical results figure out that the pile efficacy increases with a rising
embankment height as the ratio H/s is lower than 0.5, and it then declines with an increasing embankment
height as the ratio H/s is larger than 0.5. While the friction angle of embankment fill affects the arching
effect, the pre-consolidation pressure of soft soil influences the settlements.

Keywords: piled embankment; settlement; embankment height; friction angle.

such as a decrease in settlements, the reduced
1. Introduction construction time (not necessary for waiting for the
Piled embankments have been widely used in consolidation during the construction), and the
highway projects, railways, oil tanks, buildings, reasonable cost by Magnan, 1994.
retaining walls and wind turbines in Chen et al.,
2008. This system consists of a soft soil reinforced
by rigid piles that is covered by an embankment
fill, and a geosynthetic (optional). The surcharge
and embankment loads are transferred to the piles
and the soil foundation, as can be seen in Fig. 1.
Due to either the significant larger stiffness of the
pile than that of the ground or shearing effect
inside the embankment, the shear stress increases
the pressure acting on the pile heads and reduces
the pressure on the soft soil layer. This load Fig. 1. Sketch of an embankment reinforced rigid
transfer mechanism is namely as ‘arching effect’. piles and soil arches by Hassen et al., 2009
The large part of load, therefore, is carried by the
piles. The remaining part of load is applied to the In order to assess the bearing capacity of the
subsoil, which leads to a reduction of the system (soil arching), an indicator of the efficacy
embankment and soft soil settlements. This method of pile support (pile efficacy, E) is normally
has some advantages compared to other methods, employed. It is defined as the proportion of the

172
weight of embankment carried by the piles. This
ratio is expressed by the following equation in
Hewlett and Randolph, 1988:
P In this paper, a 3D numerical modeling is
E (1)
s 2 (H  q)
Where: P is the total load carried by the pile
caps; s is the center-to-center pile space (Fig. 3); 
is the unit weight of the embankment fill; H is the
height of the embankment and q is the surcharge
load on the crest of the embankment.
With the aim to investigate the settlements of
piled embankments, two types of settlement are
considered, in which the total (maximum)
settlement is defined as the vertical displacement at
a certain point such as embankment or soft soil and
the different settlement is reproduced by the
subtraction between settlements at two points or of
two components. For example, the different
settlement of soft soil is calculated by the
subtraction of the soft soil settlement at the mid-
span of adjacent piles to the pile cap settlement.
Due to the complex nature of the system, there
have not been many the analytical methods
developed to determine the settlements. However,
the experimental studies and the site monitors of
Hewlett and Randolph, 1988 discovered that the
piles used for improving the soft soil under the
embankments (piled embankments) can reduce the
different and total settlements compared to the
non-reinforced case. In addition, Jenck et al., 2006,
2007; Liu et al., 2007 show that numerical
simulations can calculate settlements more
precisely than other methods.
Concerning the influence of embankment
height on the behavior of a piled embankment,
many studies have been carried out. By performing
a 2D numerical analysis, Han and Gabr, 2002
figured out the maximum and differential
settlements (embankment and soft soil) increasing
with the height of embankment. The maximum soil
settlement at the pile head plane is greater than that
at the embankment crest. The results also
recommended that the stress concentration ratio
(SCR) increases with larger values of embankment
height. On the other hand, the 3D numerical results
of Jenck et al., (2006) shows that as the height
increases, the total and different settlements
decreases. In addition, an increase in the height
leads to an increase in the pile efficacy of the
173
system. However, Okyay and Dias, 2010 found
that the pile efficacy decreases with height based
on the numerical result.
performed to investigate the behavior of a piled
embankment with various heights of the
embankment. The geotechnical profile and the soil
parameters are taken from Tan Vu-Lach Huyen
project in Hai Phong, Vietnam. The friction angle
of the embankment fill and the pre-consolidation
pressure of the soft soil are also taken into account.
2. A numer ical simulation for Tan Vu- Lach
Huyen pr oject
Lach Huyen port is a large international
container port project. It contains lots of work
items such as buildings, yards, storages and
infrastructure systems. The study is applied for the
cross section at Km 3 + 675 of Tan Vu - Lach
Huyen highway. The width of cross section is 29.5
m, and the embankment height is 6 m. A soil
profile of three layers includes the 11m thickness
of soft clay, a stiff soil layer of 6.5 m then, and a
medium stiff layer of 12 m beneath. The
idealization is that the piled embankment is applied
for this section. The piles of 0.4 m diameter
arranged in the square 2  2 m are installed to
embed the stiff clay at the elevation of -11.5 m as
described in Fig.2.
Because of the symmetry of load and geometric
feature, a quarter of the model was studied, as can
be seen in Fig. 3. The simulations are solved by the
finite element method in ABAQUS 6.14 software.
In the model, the soils, piles and embankment are
meshed by the volumetric elements (C3D8
elements). The embankment fill was modeled by
the linear elastic perfect-plastic model (MC). The
clayey soils were characterized by the modified
Cam-clay model (MCC). The interfaces were set
between soils and pile. The soil and embankment
fill parameters were taken from the study of
Nguyen et al., 2017 as presented in Tables 1 and 2.
The vertical boundaries are blocked at their
perpendicular directions. The bottom boundary is
fixed at the level of -17.5 m. The problem is
considered for the long-term service, so the drained
condition is performed in the analyses. In analysis
phases, the models first set up the initial stage
through geostatic analysis. The embankment
weight is then activated. The surcharges are
applied onto the embankment crest in the final 3. Numerical results
phase. The results are observed at four points A, B, 3.1. Reference case
C and D as presented in Fig. 3. In order to investigate the behavior of the piled
In the study, the cases of non-surcharge and embankment, a reference case with the
surcharge loads are applied on the crest of embankment height of 1.5 m is computed. The
embankments with various values of embankment uniform surcharge loadings are taken by 10, 20, 35
height. The parametric studies related to the and 55 kPa.
friction angle and the pre-consolation pressure are Figs. 4 and 5 show the stress distribution on the
taken into account as well. pile and in the soft soil. It can be seen that stresses
occurred on the pile is significantly higher than
29.50
that observed in the soft soil. The pressure on the
Embankment pile increases in line with the surcharge as well.
H

Pile D=0.4 m
Fig. 6 presents the change of pile efficacy of the
11m

soft clay pile embankment with various surcharge loads. It

can be seen that when the surcharge load increases
2m
6.5m

stiff clay
from non-surcharge load to 55kPa, the pile efficacy
has a slightly reducing trend from 82% to 75%.
ELEVATION VIEW This concludes that the pile can carry about 80% of
2m Grid A the total load induced by the embankment weight
and the surcharge load.
2m

PLAN VIEW

Fig. 2. The idealization of the piled embankment in

the study

p
Elementary grid part Unit cell modelled
A B
Embankment
H

C D

Pile
11m

D =0.4 m
a quarter of pile
s

Pile 0.4m in diameter Soft clay

Stiff clay
6.5m

s
s/2

Fig. 3. The quarter of the simulated model

Tab. 1. The clayey soil parameters in Nguyen et

al., 2017
Clayey soils    M e
Soft clay 0.03 0.3 0.187 0.621 1.379
Stiff clay 0.017 0.3 0.126 0.73 0.932

Fig. 4. Graphics of stress distribution inside the

Tab. 2. The embankment soil parameters in
embankment with different surcharge loads:
Nguyen et al., 2017
a) q = 0 kPa; b) q = 20 kPa; c) q = 55 kPa
c 
E (MPa)   (°) (kPa)  (°) (kN/m3)
10 0.3 30 0.0 0.0 18

174
 Distance, m
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0

-500

Vertical stress, kPa

-1000

-1500

-2000
Without surcharge
Surcharge load, q = 10 kPa
-2500 Surcharge load, q = 20 kPa
Surcharge load, q = 35 kPa
Surcharge load, q = 55 kPa
-3000

Fig. 5. Stress distribution on the pile and the soft soil along CD line with different surcharge loads
100

90
Pile efficacy, %

80

70

60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Surcharge load, kPa

Fig. 6. Pile efficacy of the piled embankment with different surcharge loads

The settlements of the piled embankment are bottom of the embankment in Fig. 7.b. The
illustrated in Fig. 7. Generally, the method could settlement of the pile head, the range of distance
reduce significantly the settlements. As the from 0 to 0.2 m, is really small while the
embankment is constructed, the embankment and settlement on the soft soil increases largely in the
soft soil settlements were only about 10 mm. These distance from 0.2 to 0.6 m before becoming
settlements then increase to nearly 50 mm as the constantly in the larger distance. Based on the
surcharge load increases to 55kPa. The settlement above results, the method demonstrated its
on the surface of the embankment has no change advantages in terms of load transfer and
along the AB as can be seen in Fig.7a. In contrast, settlements.
there is a noted change in the settlement at the
a) b)
Distance, m Distance, m
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0 0

-10 -10
Settlement, mm

Settlement, mm

-20 -20

-30 -30

-40 -40

-50 -50

-60 -60
0 kPa; 10 kPa; 20 kPa; 35 kPa; 55 kPa 0 kPa; 10 kPa; 20 kPa; 35 kPa; 55 kPa

Fig. 7. Settlements of the piled embankment with different surcharge loads:

a) Embankment settlement along AB; b) Pile and soft soil settlements along CD

175
 3.2. Influence of embankment height Fig. 10 shows the relationship between the
In order to investigate the influence of height of the embankment and the pile efficacy of
embankment height on the structural behavior, the the system with various surcharge loads. It is
height of the embankment is varied from 0.5 to 6 obviously seen that the pile efficacy increases
m in the simulated model. noticeably in line with the embankment height
corresponding to the ratio of H/s less than 0.5. By
Height of embankment, m contrast, it decreases gradually when the ratio H/s
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
is superior to 0.5. For the non-loading case on the
-10
embankment, the pile efficacy is about 76% as an
embankment height of 0.5 m, it reaches to a peak
Stress on soft soil, kPa

-20
value of 85% corresponding to the height of 1.0 m.
-30
The reason is that the full arching is established
-40
inside the embankment fill when the ratio H/s is of
-50
0.5. When the height of embankment increases
-60 Surcharge load, q = 0 kPa
Surcharge load, q = 20 kPa
from 1.0 to 6.0 m, the pile efficacy reduces by
Surcharge load, q = 55 kPa
-70 12%. The similar tendency of the pile efficacy
Fig. 8. Influence of height of embankment on versus height also is found in the cases of different
stress on soft soil (point D) values of surcharge load p = 20 and 55 kPa.
However, there is a slight reduction in the pile
Fig. 8 shows the effect of the embankment efficacy when increasing the surcharge load
height on the stress on soft soil layer (point D), applied to the embankment crest.
while Fig. 9 presents the change of pressure on the
100
pile head (point C) with various surcharge loads. In Surcharge load, q = 0 kPa
general, the stress in the soft soil and the pressure 90
Surcharge load, q = 20 kPa
Surcharge load, q = 55 kPa

on the pile have an increasing trend with larger the

80
Pile efficacy, %

embankment heights and surcharge loads.

However, it is noted that the stress on the soft soil 70
reduces and the pressure on pile increases
60
significantly as the height of embankment changes
from 0.5 to 1m. The reason for this is that the soil 50
arching is formed partly to completely by van
40
Eekelen et al., 2013. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height of embankment, m
Height of embankment, m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fig. 10. Influence of height of embankment
0
on the pile efficacy
-1000
Pressure on pile head, kPa

The effect of the embankment height on the

-2000 settlements is shown in Fig.11. It can be seen that
the embankment and soft soil settlements increase
-3000 as the height of embankment increases in the case
of piled embankment under its body weight while
-4000
Surcharge load, q = 0 kPa these settlements reached the lowest point in the
Surcharge load, q = 20 kPa
Surcharge load, q = 55 kPa case of the system subjected to a surcharge load of
-5000
55 kPa. In fact, the total settlement is naturally
Fig. 9. Influence of height of embankment on caused by both the settlement of the embankment
pressure on pile head (point C) fill and the soft soil. The increase in the

176
embankment height induces a more load on soft 100
soil. This leads to an increase in the settlements of Surcharge load, q = 0 kPa
Surcharge load, q = 55 kPa
crest embankment and the soft soil. A peak
settlement obtained at the height of 1.0 m can be 90
explained by the existence of completed arching

Pile efficacy, %
effect as presented in Figs. 8 and 9.
80

Height of embankment, m 70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
-20 60
-40
-60 50
Settlement, mm

15 20 25 30 35 40 45
-80
o
Friction angle,
-100
Fig. 12. Influence of friction angle
-120
on the pile efficacy
-140
-160 q = 0 kPa - at the crest
Friction angle, o
q = 0 kPa - at the soft soi
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
-180 q = 55 kPa - at the crest 0
q = 55 kPa - at the soft soi
-200
-10

q = 0 kPa - at the crest

Fig. 11. Influence of height of embankment -20
Settlement, mm

q = 0 kPa - at the soft soi

on settlements q = 55 kPa - at the crest
q = 55 kPa - at the soft soi
-30

3.3. Influence of friction angle of

-40
embankment soil
The effect of the friction angle of embankment -50
soil is also investigated in this study. The reference
case is employed, in which the friction angle of the -60
embankment fill varies from 20° to 40°. Fig. 12
Fig. 13. Influence of friction angle on embankment
shows that the arching effect is not almost
settlement
influenced by the friction angle in the case of non-
surcharge load. It is presented by a stable value of
pile efficacy of about 83%. Meanwhile, the 3.4. Influence of pre-consolidation pressure of
percentage of the load carried by piles increases by soft soil
The previous analytical methods (BS8006,
10% as the friction angle increases from 20° to 40°
2010; EBGEO, 2010) have not taken the presence
in the case of the surcharge load of 55 kPa. Fig. 13
of soft soil into account. It might lead to an
presents the effect of friction angle of embankment
inaccurate prediction of a piled embankment
fill on the embankment and soft soil settlements. It
behavior. The effect of Young’s modulus of foam
can be seen that these settlements are not affected
material (soft soil) was studied in Jenck et al.,
by the friction angle in the case of non-surcharge
2007, in which the pile efficacy was constant while
load, whereas they decrease in the case of
the settlements decreased as the elastic modulus
surcharge load of 55 kPa when increasing the
increased.
friction angle from 20o to 40o.

177
 Tab. 3. Influence of the pre-consolidation
pressure
Pre-
consolidation
50 80 150 300
pressure
(kPa)
Pile efficacy
77 75 75 75
(%)
Soft soil
settlement -78.45 -76.05 -46.58 -43.51
(mm)
Embankment
settlement -80.13 -77.79 -48.33 -45.26
(mm)
However, the theoretical aspect demonstrates
that the pre-consolidation pressure has a significant
influence on clayey soil behavior. In reality, the
initial pre-consolidation pressure (pc) varies by
depth. To simplify the analyses, the value of pc is
assumed to be a constant for each clayey soil layer.
In the study, a range of pre-consolidation pressure
of soft soil from 50 to 300 kPa is applied in order
to investigate the effect of the pre-consolidation
pressure of soft soil on the behavior of the piled
embankment. The analysis results are shown in
Table 3. It is shown that the arching effect is not
affected by the pre-consolidation pressure while
the settlements reduced remarkably. The reason is
that the lower consolidation pressure induces the
early plastic behavior, which exceeds the
settlements. It is also indicated that the pre-
consolidation pressure of the soft soil needs to be
taken into account in analyzing the behavior of the
system on the settlements and the pile efficacy.
4. Conclusions
The behavior of piled embankments has been
investigated by a numerical simulation in this
paper. The advantages of a piled embankment
method have been figured out in terms of an
increase in the pile efficacy and a decrease in
settlements. The numerical results also show that
an increase in the surcharge load results in a
decrease in the pile efficacy and an increase in
settlements. The parametric study related to
embankment height indicates that the pile efficacy
increases significantly as the ratio H/s is less than
0.5, and it then decreases with the embankment
178
thickness as the H/s is superior 0.5. An increase in
the embankment and soft soil settlements are
observed as the embankment height increases. In
addition, the friction angle of embankment fill has
a less influence on the soil arching and settlements
in the case of non-surcharge load, while it affects
steadily in the cases of including various values of
the surcharge load. The soft soil properties
including Young modulus and pre-consolidation
pressure do not influence the soil arching
mechanism but affects significantly the soft soil
and embankment settlements.
Nomenclatur e
E = Young’s modulus, Pa
e = initial void ratio of a soil (dimensionless)
H = height of the embankment, m
M = slope of the critical state line in the Modified
Cam Clay model (dimensionless)
MC = Mohr-Coulomb
MCC = Modified Cam Clay
pc = pre-consolidation pressure in the Modified
Cam Clay model, Pa
s = distance between two adjacent piles, m
 = unit weight of material, N/m3
 = friction angle, o
 = angle of dilation, o
 = slope of swelling line in the plot of lnp’-v in
the Modified Cam Clay model (dimensionless)
The following symbols are used in this paper:
c = cohesion, Pa
 = slope of normal consolidation line in the plot
of lnp’-v in the Modified Cam Clay model
(dimensionless)
 = Poison’s ratio (dimensionless)
Reference
[1] BS8006. 2010. Code of Practice for
Strengthened/reinforced Soils and Other
Fills.
[2] Chen, R. P., Chen, Y. M., Han, J., Xu. Z.
Z., 2008. A Theoretical Solution for Pile-
Supported Embankments on Soft Soils
under One-Dimensional Compression.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 45(5), pp.
611-623.
[3] EBGEO, 2010. Empfehlungen für den
Entwurf und die Berechnung von
Erdkörpern mit Bewehrungen aus
Geokunststoffen e EBGEO, vol. 2. German
Geotechnical Society, Auflage,ISBN 978-
3-433-02950-3 (in German).
[4] Han, J., Gabr, M., 2002. Numerical
Analysis of Geosynthetic-Reinforced and
Pile-Supported Earth Platforms over Soft
Soil. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 128(1),
pp. 44-53.
[5] Hassen, G., Dias, D., Buhan, P., 2009.
Multiphase Constitutive Model for the
Design of Piled-Embankments:
Comparison with Three-Dimensional
Numerical Simulations. International
Journal of Geomechanics, 9(6), pp. 258-
266.
[6] Hewlett, W. J., Randolph, M. F., 1988.
Analysis of Piled Embankments. Ground
Engineering, pp. 12-18.
[7] Jenck, O., Dias, D., Kastner, R., 2006.
Three-Dimensional Modelling of an
Embankment over Soft Soil Improved by
Rigid Piles. Numerical Methods in
Geotechnical Engineering – Schweiger
(Ed.) © 2006 Taylor & Francis Group,
London, pp.817-822.
[8] Jenck, O., Dias, D., Kastner, R., 2007.
Two-Dimensional Physical and Numerical
Modeling of a Pile-Supported Earth
Platform over Soft Soil. Journal of
179
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 133(3), pp. 295-305.
[9] Liu, H., Charles, W. W. N., Fei, K., 2007.
Performance of a Geogrid-Reinforced and
Pile-Supported Highway Embankment
over Soft Clay: Case Study. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 133(12), 1483-1493.
[10] Magnan, J. P., 1994. Methods to Reduce
the Settlement of Embankments on Soft
Clay: A Review. In Vertical and
Horizontal Deformations of Foundations
and Embankments, ASCE Geotechnical
Special Publication, pp. 77-91.
[11] Nguyen, H. T., Mai, Q. K., Nguyen, T. T.,
2017. Choosing a compatible soil model
for analyzing consolidation of weak clay
ground. Journal of Water Resource &
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Engineering Geology, 114(1-2), pp . 34-
44.
 APPLICATION OF TRANSFORMATION THEORY OF ENGINEERING
GEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS TO DETERMINE THE
DISTRIBUTION OF HAI HUNG FORMATION IN THE HANOI AREA

Ta Duc Thinh
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: taducthinh@humg.edu.vn

Abstract. The sedimentary compositions of the Hai Hung Formation consist mainly of clay, silt, mud,
and peat, with low construction ability, unfavorable for any type of construction, especially for
underground construction. Therefore, the determination of the spatial distribution law, especially the
thickness and the depth distribution of this formation in the Hanoi area, has great scientific and practical
significance. This paper presents the method of determining the spatial distribution of the Hai Hung
formation within Hanoi city by applying the transformation theory of engineering geology properties of
soils.

Keywords: sediment; soft soils; Hai Hung; transformation; geological; thickness; depth.

1. Introduction overall, and in a systematic manner, especially to

The Quaternary sediment in the Hanoi area, in
order from top to bottom, including the Thai Binh,
Hai Hung, Vinh Phuc, Ha Noi, and Le Chi
formation. In which, the Hai Hung Formation (m,
lbQ21-2hh) is the marine origin (m) and lacustrine-
swampy origin (lb), widely distributed, located
near the ground in the Hanoi area. Marine deposits
(m) have a fairly uniform composition of
petrography, mainly greenish-grey clay, sandy
clay, mixed peat, and fossils. Lacustrine-swampy
deposits (lb) are mainly composed of sandy clay
mud, clay mud, mud mixed with the trace of the
plant, peat. From the construction point of view,
these are soft and very soft soils which are very
sensitive to the external loads and unfavorable for
the construction of different types of structures [1].
Up to now, there have been many studies on
lithological composition, mineral composition,
mechanical properties, and the distribution
characteristics of the Hai Hung formation in Hanoi.
However, from the geological point of view, these
studies are still limited, localized, lack of
systematic approach, and mainly for the
construction of a number of types of works in
isolated areas of the city. Therefore, study the
determine the distribution law, thickness, depth
distribution of sediments in the Hai Hung
formation to serve for the construction of various
types of construction works, especially for
planning and development of underground space
such as the construction of metro system,
underground parking lots, basements of high
buildings, tunnels, underground supermarkets in
the Hanoi area have significant scientific and
practical significance.
2. Transformation theory of engineering
geological properties of soils
The theory of transformation of soils is based
on the basic concepts of "geological features",
"geological parameters field" as well as the
arguments of the values of geological parameters,
regimes, and the variation law in space
Geological features are the spatial region in
which there exist continuous geological
parameters. These geological parameters are the
basis for dividing the geological boundaries of the
spatial region [2].
The spatial region in the geological boundary is
a geometrical set of points. The value of geological
parameters can be determined at each point.

180
According to Bondaric G.K [2], the space in which
there exists a function of determining the
geological parameters R (P), where P - any point in
space, is called the geological parameters field. In
other words, the geological parameters field is
defined as a function that describes the geological
features within the study area. The name of the
field depends on the geological parameters field
studied, such as the thickness field, iso-depth field,
cohesion force field, stress field, etc.
The composition and properties of soils are the
results of the interaction between the physical
fields of the natural system. The law of distribution
and transformation of the components and
properties are inherited and to some extent reflect
the physical field characteristics of the dynamic
system. This system causes the transportation of
the original materials, the sedimentation processes,
and the soil-rock formation [2]. Studies have also
shown that the process of forming the composition
and properties is not entirely a deterministic
process (regional correlation) but is always
complicated by a random process (localized). The
compositions and properties of soils, if considered
in terms of time-space relationship, are the
combination of the determinant field and the
random field. That is, the value of the geological
parameters R at a certain point in the geological
space is considered to be the result of the
reciprocal effects of different geological processes.
These processes are divided into the regional
process (determinant) and the local process
(random). The regional process determines the
trend of geological parameters while the local
process appears as separate fluctuations on the
general font of geologic parameters studied.
Therefore, the value of the geological parameters
at any point in space consists of two components:
the regional correlation component (the
determinant component) and the random
component (including the randomness in the
process). It is possible to express the numerical
value of geological parameters by the following
mathematical formula:
R(x,y,z,t) = R’ (x,y,z,t) + R” (x,y,z,t) (1)
Where:
181
R(x,y,z,t): The values of the geological
parameters at any point in the geological space
have spatial coordinates x, y, z and at any time t;
R’(x,y,z,t): Regional correlation coefficient of
geological parameters;
R”(x,y,z,t): Random components of geological
parameters.
Each component of the geological parameters
field has a certain geological significance.
Regional correlations reflect the general rule of
transportation and deposition of sediment. The
random component characterizes the homogeneity
of soil and rock formation. Thus, the values of the
geological parameters measured at certain points of
the geological space carry information about the
two components of the geological parameters field.
Depending on the purpose of the study, whether
the regional correlations or random components
are studied.
3. Spatial distribution law of the Hai Hung
formation in the Hanoi area
3.1. Research methodology
In order to determine the spatial distribution of
sediments of the Hai Hung formation in Hanoi, it is
necessary to select the field of geological
parameters for study. The geological parameters
field of the distribution in space of the sediments
of Hai Hung formation includes the depth
distribution and thickness.
According to the transformation theory of
engineering geological properties of soils [2], the
field of depth distribution, as well as the filed of
thickness of Hai Hung formation, consists of two
components: the determinant (regional correlation)
and local component (random). The regional
correlations reflect the general pattern of sediment
transportation and sedimentation which is a
reflection of the general trend of sedimentation in
the Hanoi area. Therefore, the selection of the
regional correlations of the field parameters for the
study is appropriate.
Up to now, the study of the spatial distribution
of geological parameters field has been carried out
in three methods: stratigraphic method, statistical
probability method, and modeling method. The
stratigraphic method is the establishment of
geological cross sections in the direction of the
study based on the borehole, excavation data, to
compare and draw the rules of distribution, The results of modeling the field of thickness
thickness, direction change of the regional and depth of the Hai Hung formation are shown in
correlations of study parameters. According to this Figures 1 and 2.
method, it is necessary to have a large number of
boreholes and excavations which can take a lot of
time, money, and effort. The principle of the
statistical probability method is the use of
mathematical and computerized tools to process
statistics on survey data, plot measurements, and
with draw the sediment variation rules of each
region, each cross section. This method is limited
to showing the results of the study by the data
alone, so it is difficult to imagine the variation of
sediment in space. Modeling method is the use of
information technology and computational
software which simulates the spatial variation of
sediment through the study of geological
parameters. This method is fast, objective, and
inexpensive. Research results in this method are
expressed in numerical and graphical forms, so it is
convenient to use [4]. Therefore, the modeling
method will be employed to determine the regional
correlation of the depth distribution and thickness
field of the Hai Hung formation. Fig. 1. The iso-thickness map of Hai Hung
The steps of the mathematical model of the formation[4]
geological parameters field are as follows:
- Determine the purpose of the model,
- Collecting and adjusting database on
geological parameter modeled,
- Initiating geological hypothesis, evaluating
the database on geological parameter modeled,
- Establishment of geological parameters
database model,
- Input the database of geological parameters
field to the computer and get model results,
- Establish geological parameters field,
- Evaluate the accuracy of the geological
parameter field maps.
3.2. Research results
The research area of Hanoi city is divided into a
grid of 1 km. At the center of each square with the
coordinates x, y, set the measured values of the
thickness field and the depth field of the Hai Hung
formation (elevation z). Modeling these fields with
the help of SURFER software associated with
MAPINFO identified the iso-depth and iso- Fig. 2. The iso-depth map of Hai Hung
thickness maps of the Hai Hung formation. formation[4]

182
 3.3. Analysis of the modeling results
The modeling results show that sediments of
Hai Hung Formation have a small thickness,
varying from 4 to 15 m, an average of 8 m. This
indicates that the depositional environment is as
stable as the paleontologists. They have been
determined that the depositional environment isthe
shallow sea. The surface bottom of this formation
in the Hanoi area and its vicinity is fairly convex,
concave which reflects the interruption of the
earlier erosion.
The sediment of Hai Hung formation is absent
or of insignificant thickness in most of the northern
study area, from the north of the town of Dong
Anh. In the northwest corner (Phu Cuong, Thanh
Xuan, Soc Son district), sediments are distributed
in an area of about 10 km2 with thickness of 3-8 m.
On the iso-depth map, the bottom of the Hai
Hung formation is separated and related to the
major fault in the area, namely the Red river fault.
At the beginning of the Holocene age, the Red
river and the Duong river were not connected. The
Duong river is still in the system of Thai Binh
rivers. It then begins the largest post-glacial sea
level rise Frandri (Early Holocene) in the region,
submerging the entire region below sea level,
beginning the deposition of marine sediments.
On the iso-thickness map, the extreme points
form the longitudinal lines in the northwest-
southeast in accordance with the general structure.
They may be formed by the sliding forces of the
Red river fault. The resulting of plastic
deformation and folding has formed the resulting
picture. The sediments of the Hai Hung formation
filled the erosion face of the Vinh Phuc formation,
created a convex bottom surface. Soft soil bands
also tend to remain in this direction. According to
the iso-thick map, it is possible to delineate the
coastline from Dinh Bang through Tu Duc to Bac
Hong. This is the edge of the basin with the
characteristics of river mouth sediments.
4. Conclusions and recommendations
From the above research results, the following
conclusions and recommendations can be drawn:
1. The transformation theory of engineering
geological properties of soils has marked the
change of direction from qualitative to the
183
quantitative research of modern engineering
geology. It is easy to study the law of spatial
distribution of any geological parameter by
applying the theory of transformation.
2. The modeling of the thickness and the depth
field of the Hai Hung formation in the Hanoi area
has high scientific and practical significance. The
model results show that sediments of Hai Hung
formation are widely distributed in the Hanoi area,
only absent in the north of the city. The thickness
of the sediment varies from 4 to 15 m, an average
of 8 m, and quite stable in the research area.
3. Sediments of Hai Hung formation are mainly
clayey mud, sandy clay mud, clayey sand mud
mixed with peat, and the trace of the plant which
are soft and very soft soil layers with a small
bearing capacity and a large deformation ability.
When constructing all kinds of construction works,
especially underground works in places where such
layers are distributed, appropriate soil
improvement and treatment methods must be
applied to ensure the stability and strength of the
works.
References
[1]. Nguyen Huy Phuong, Ta Duc Thinh
(2004). Collecting, verifying the existing
documents, studying and supplementing to
establish the map of soft soil distribution
for sustainable development in the Hanoi
area. Completion report of the major
project in Hanoi.
[2]. G.K. Bondaric (1970). The theoretical basis
of the engineering geological properties
transformation of soils. Publishing
"Nhetđra", Moscow (in Russian).
[3]. Ta Duc Thinh (1990). The law of spatial
distribution of the Quaternary sediments of
the Northern Delta on the basis of
analyzing the field mathematical models of
their geological parameters. PhD thesis,
MGRI, Moscow, 1990 (in Russian).
[4]. Tran Duc La (2002). Study on the
transformation law of the thickness field of
Quaternary sediments in Hanoi by
mathematical models for urban
construction planning. Master thesis,
University of Mining and Geology.
 ANALYSIS OF METAL POLLUTION IN GROUNDWATER OF
PLEISTOCCENE AQUIFER IN HO CHI MINH CITY, VIETNAM

Tran Thi Phi Oanh, Nguyen Viet Ky, Dau Van Ngo,
Ho Chi Thong, Mai Hoang Phuc, Nguyen Thi Ngoc Thuy
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: tranthiphioanh@gmail.com

Abstract: Nowadays, the environmental pollution has become more and more serious, especially the
pollution in groundwater of Pleistocene aquifers have been recognized and attracted many researchers’
concerns. The results of water quality monitoring from different monitoring networks such as the
National Monitoring Network of the Division for Water Resources planning and Investigation for the
South of Vietnam, the monitoring network of Ho Chi Minh City Department of Natural Resources and
Environment, the observation network of the Saigon Water Supply Corporation’s factories, ... show that
heavy metals such as copper, lead, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, manganese (Mn), aluminum (Al) have been
appeared in the groundwaters of the Pleistocene layers. However, the content of many metals has not
reached the pollution limit. In this study, the authors used the monitoring results from the groundwater in
the Pleistocene aquifers of the National Monitoring Network in Ho Chi Minh City for the period 1997-
2001, focused on metals such as Al, Mn, Pb and heavy metals observations from projects implemented in
2006-20017. In addition, the study also used the lithological analysis results from a number of projects to
evaluate the metals supply in groundwater. The results show that Fe, Al, Mn exist in soil with relatively
high content, while the ores associated with Pb, Hg, Cd are absent. In addition, the results of heavy metals
monitoring from those projects implemented in 2006-20017 show that the appearance of Pb, Hg, Cd
metals are due to the external environment’s influence. The causes of Al and Mn pollution are mainly due
to geological and hydro-geological conditions and the impacts caused by heavy exploitation in
groundwater from Pleistocene aquifers.

Keywords: pollution in groundwater; metals Fe; Mn; Al and As; pleistocene aquifer.

1. Introduction in the Pleistocene aquifers. In the first stage, this

In Ho Chi Minh City there are 7 aquifers that
have ages from the Holocene to the Mesozoic
foundation, in which the Pleistocene aquifers (qp3,
qp2-3 and qp1) are mainly used to supply water for
the living needs of people because of their shallow
distributions, with simple exploitation conditions
and the quality and water reserves of these aquifers
can meet daily needs. Because of the importance of
these aquifers, there are 28 wells by a total of 39
observing wells of the National Observing
Network in Ho Chi Minh City are monitoring in
these aquifers. This Observing Network has been
established and operated since 1991 with 15 wells
network of observing wells is used to measure
water levels and to analyze the water chemistry
twice a year (once in the dry season and once in
the rainy season), with analyzed metals are only
iron, aluminum and manganese. Since the 2000s,
besides iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), manganese
(Mg), metals such as copper (Cu), lead (Pb), zinc
(Zn), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd),
selenium, nickel, chromium ... began to be
analyzed with more advanced analytic techniques.
The metals pollution assessment such as Al,
Mn, Fe, As... have been concerned for a long time.
Most heavy metals in water, in spite of their high

184
or low content, will affect our lives and health. The
use of water contaminated with metals will inhibit
growth and development, may cause organ
damage, nerve damage, cancer, or death. The water
with high content of manganese can damage the
human nerve system, severely on the elderly and
pregnant women ... and may cause the syndrome
similar to the Parkinson. Aluminum contaminated
drinking water can cause a number of conditions
such as dementia, kidney diseases, or Alzheimer’s.
Lead is particularly toxic to the brain, kidneys,
reproduction system and cardiovascular system.
When your body is poisoned by lead, the function
of the brain, kidneys is severely affected, which
can cause infertility, miscarriage and hypertension.
In Vietnam, there are many researches and
warnings related to this problem from the
Department of Water Resources Management
under the Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment [1]. However, researches in Ho Chi
Minh City and the surrounding areas can be found
in some references of Nguyen Viet Ky and Nguyen
Kim Ngoc [2], [3].
In this paper, the research team assessed the
metals pollution in the Pleistocene aquifers in Ho
Chi Minh City through the water observing results
of 28 observing wells from 1997 to 2017 and
focused on metals exceed the allowed standards
such as manganese, aluminum, cadmium and lead.
The research team also have initial conclusions
about the pollution of these metals.
2. Research methods
2.1. Data Base
The paper is based on two basic data sources:
- References from more than 100 national
monitoring wells surveyed by the Division for
Water Resources planning and Investigation for the
South of Vietnam, by the Ho Chi Minh City
Department of Natural Resources and Environment
and the Saigon Water Supply Corporation in the
period of 1991 - 2006 [4]. In the period of 1991-
1997, the first industrial zone - Tan Thuan Export
Processing Zone was built in the city, new
residential areas also started to appear – in this
period of time, the human and economic -
technical impacts to the aquifers are almost
negligible and the regime of the groundwater in
this period can be considered as natural regime,
185
which is not yet destroyed. The values of the metal
content analyzed in this time can be regarded as
the background content of the elements. Therefore,
in this period, the authors refer to 14 national
monitoring wells’ data.
In the period of 2000-2006, the authors used a
set of water’s chemical components data,
especially the metal content data from 28
monitoring wells in Pleistocene aquifers, which
were separated by rainy season and dry season.
However, with this data, only aluminum criteria
has enough analysis data for all 28 wells. The
remaining metals such as Mn, Hg, Pb, Cd, Zn,
As... are analyzed for 7 wells only, these wells are
distributed mainly in Cu Chi, Binh Chanh, Binh
Tan, Tan Phu, Hoc Mon, Can Gio districts, and
District 12 – those areas are considered as
recharge-zones for Pleistocene aquifers (except
Can Gio district) and are heavily impacted by
groundwater extraction. The monitoring wells’
position shown in Table 1. Diagram of monitoring
wells’ locations shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Diagram of National monitoring
wells’s locations.
- Analysis data of more than 600 wells used for
domestic supply in Pleistocene layers in the period
of 2006-2017 belonged to the projects are mainly
surveyed by authors in Cu Chi, Binh Chanh and
Hoc Mon districts. These areas are considered as
recharge-zones for Pleistocene aquifers and are
heavily impacted by groundwater extraction. The
Diagram of sampling places for the period of 2013-
2017 is shown in Figure 2.
 5667-11:2009 [5], [6], [7]. The sampling procedure
is as follows:
The criteria’s to be analyzed including pH, Cl-,
total hardness, SO42- and 7 metals such as iron,
aluminum, manganese, arsenic, cadmium,
mercury, lead. The pH, Cl , total hardness, SO42-
-

criteria are based on the methods of Standard

Fig. 2. Diagram of the sampling places for the
period of 2013- 2017.
2.2. Target and analysis methods
All samples are sampled and analyzed directly
by researcher team. Sampling and preserving
process are strictly complying with the current
regulations (TCVN 6000: 1995). Water samples
are taken according to TCVN 6663-11: 2011; ISO
Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater (2012) and are carried out in the
Laboratory of Analytical and Quality Assessment -
Research Center for Technology and Industrial
Equipment (Vilass1025). For metal criteria, to
ensure high accuracy, samples are performed by
ICP - OES method on ICP - OES machine in the
Center of Analytical Services and Experimentation
HCMC (Vilass092). The methods for analyzing
criteria are given in Table 2.

Tab. 1. The position of monitoring wells that are analyzed metal contents
No. Station No. Project No. Aquifers Commune/Ward District
1 Q002 Q00204A qp1 Binh My Cu Chi
2 Q019 Q019340 qp2-3 Dong Hung Thuan 12
3 Q099 Q09902B qp2-3 Pham Van Coi Cu Chi
4 Q605 Q605040 qp1 Tan Tuc Binh Chanh
5 Q011 Q011020 qp3 Trung My Tay 12
6 Q007 Q007030 qp2-3 Vinh Loc A Binh Chanh
7 Q033 Q003340 qp2-3 Xuan Thoi Thuong Hoc Mon

Tab. 2. The methods for analyzing criteria.

No. Criteria Unit Analysis method Analysis device Accuracy
1 pH - TCVN 6492-2011 pH meter ±0.01
Magnetic Mixer,
2 SO42- mg/l SMEWW-4500-SO42—E HACH DR3900 ±0.001
machine
3 Cl- mg/l SMEWW-4500-Cl--B-2012 Buret ±0.03
4 Total hardness mgCaCO3/l SMEWW – 2340 – B – 2012 Buret ±0.03
5 Fe mg/L ICP-OES ICP-OES ±0.01
6 Al mg/l ICP-OES ICP-OES ±0.01
7 Mn mg/L ICP-OES ICP-OES ±0.01
8 As mg/L ICP-OES ICP-OES ±0.01
9 Cd mg/l ICP-OES ICP-OES ±0.01
10 Hg mg/L ICP-OES ICP-OES ±0.01
11 Pb mg/L ICP-OES ICP-OES ±0.01

186
 2.3. Evaluation regulation
Regulations used are National technical
regulation on underground water quality QCVN
09:2015/BTNMT and issued by the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment.
3. Result and Discussion
3.1. Determine the base concentration values
of Manganese and Aluminum
In the data set of water’s chemical components
that were observed from the National Observing
Network for the period of 1991-1997, we only
have the data of 14 wells, but the Q011340
observation well in Tan Chanh Hiep, Hoc Mon
was not sampled for water’s chemical components
analysis. Through over time and seasonal statistics,
the results are shown in Table 2. The deviation
from the seasonal values of aluminum and
manganese contents very small, which can be
considered as unchanged. In this dataset, there are
2 observing wells with abnormally high aluminum
content: the Q00202A well at the Cu Chi
Engineering Military School that was surveyed in
qp2-3 aquifer with a maximum value of 1.08ppm
and the Q808030 well at Le Minh Xuan, Binh
Chanh, with a maximum value of 1.17ppm,
however, the average value of these two wells is
below the allowed standards. Based on the results
of observing aluminum content, we can choose the
value of base content for aluminum is around 0 –
0.01ppm. Particularly for manganese, we have not
detected manganese value in all of the water
samples that were analyzed in the observing wells.
Thus, the content of manganese in groundwater of
the Pleistocene aquifers is very low (Table 3)

Tab. 3. Observing results of Manganese and Aluminum concentration values in the period of 1991-1997
Mn concentration value Al concentration value
No. Observed well
max min average max min average
1 Q01302A - - - 0.05 Not detected 0.01
2 Q09902C - - - 0.07 Not detected 0.01
3 Q804020 - - - 0.02 Not detected 0
4 Q011020 - - - 0.02 Not detected 0
5 Q00202A - - - 1.08 Not detected 0.16
6 Q808202 - - - 0.04 Not detected 0.01
7 Q017030 - - - 0.06 Not detected 0.01
8 Q018030 - - - 0.07 Not detected 0.02
9 Q808030 - - - 1.17 Not detected 0.13
10 Q822030 - - - 0.2 Not detected 0.03
11 Q004030 - - - 0.06 Not detected 0.01
12 Q011340 - - - KPH Not detected 0
13 Q003340 - - - 0.1 Not detected 0.02
14 Q015030 - - - 0.13 Not detected 0.03

3.2. Distribution in depth of metals
There is a noticeable change in the heavy
metals distribution in depth. Most of the heavy
metals are highly distributed in the lower
Pleistocene aquifer and sparsely distributed in the
middle-upper Pleistocene aquifer. Specifically,
Figure 3 shows that Fe is highly distributed from
20 meters to 30 meters in depth with low
concentrations of 0-0.1 ppm and sparsely
distributed at high concentration points. The
highest Fe content was about 0.68 ppm at 58
meters in depth.
Same for the distribution of Mn (show in Figure
4), Al (show in Figure 5), As (show in Figure 6),
most of these metals are distributed from 20 to 60
meters in depth, mostly distributed at the depth of
20 to 30 meters with the concentrations of 0-
0.1ppm with Mn and Al. As concentration in water
is low with most of the sample sites’
concentrations are less than 0.0125ppm. Mn
reached the highest concentration of 0.75ppm at
140 meters in depth, Al reached the highest
concentration of 0.8ppm at 22 meters in depth. As
reached the highest concentration of 0.3ppm at the
depth of 36meters.

187
 Fig. 3. Distribution in depth Fig. 4. Distribution in depth Fig. 5. Distribution in depth
of Fe. of Mn. of Al.

Fig. 6. Distribution in depth of As. Fig. 7. Distribution in depth of Fe, Al, Mn, As.

At the same time, there is a correlation in
distribution in depth between Fe, Al, Mn and As,
as shown in Figure 7, the lower the concentrations
are, the higher the correlation is.
Same for the metals distribution of Cu, Pb, Cd.
These metals are also distributed in the lower
Pleistocene aquifers at the depth from 20 to 40
meters with a very low content of <0.02ppm in
water, in which Cd has the lowest concentration
with most of the samples’ content are
approximately 0.0ppm. Cu reached the highest
concentration of 0.058 ppm at 37meters in depth,
Pb reached the highest concentration of 0.018ppm
at 40meters in depth, Cd reached the highest
concentration of 0.05 ppm at 28meters in depth
(Figure 8÷10).

Fig. 8. Distribution in depth Fig. 9. Distribution in depth Fig. 10. Distribution in depth
of Cu. of Pb. of Cd.

Figure 11 shows the distribution of Cu, Pb, Cd between Cu and Cd at low concentration, when Pb
in depth, therefore there is a strong correlation has a weaker correlation

188
 .
Fig. 11. Distribution in depth of Cu, Pb, Cd.

In general, most of the heavy metals are
distributed and reach high concentrations from the
depth of 20 to 60 meters, in the depth less than 20
meters and over 120 meters the concentrations of
metals are quite low. Especially there is no
occurrence of heavy metals at a depth of 80 to 100
meters.
3.3. Interrelation between pH value and
metals
From the analytical results, there is a close
relationship between pH value and the content of
metals in groundwater. pH value significantly
affects the dissolution of metals in water.
.
Specifically, with Fe, Al, Mn, As, from Figures
12÷ 15, show that the dissolved metals in water in
acidic environment exist with relatively high
content. High concentrations of Al and Mn were
found in acidic environment, reach the highest
concentrations at pH 4.5 with the metals’
concentrations are 0.98ppm with Fe, 0.97ppm with
Mn and 0.7ppm with Al. In more neutral
environment, the dissolution of the metals in water
decreases.

Fig. 12. Interrelation between Fig. 13. Interrelation between Fig. 14. Interrelation between
pH value and Fe concentration. pH value and Mn concentration. pH value and Al concentration.

Fig. 15. Interrelation between Fig. 16. Interrelation between pH value and Fe, Al, Mn, As
pH value and As concentration. concentration.

189
 At the same time, there was a correlation found when the metals content was <0.2ppm with
between Fe, Al, Mn, As in the distribution of pH value in between 4.5 and 5.2 (Figure 16).
concentration by pH, the highest correlation was

Fig. 17. Interrelation between Fig. 18. Interrelation between Fig. 19. Interrelation between
pH value and Cu concentration. pH value and Pb concentration pH value and Cd concentration.

Similarly, Cd, Cu, Pb the more acidic the
environment is, the higher the dissolved metals
concentrations in water are, mostly distributed at
pH from 4.5 to 5.0 and decreases in neutral
environment. However, the concentrations of these
metals in the water were quite low, Cu reached the
highest concentration of 0,058 mg/l (Figure. 17),
Pb reached the highest concentration 0.02ppm
(Figure 18) at pH 4.5, Cd reached the highest
concentration of 0.053ppm (Figure 19).
Fig.19 shows the interrelation between pH
value and Cu, Pb, Cd concentration. There is a
correlation between three metals in acidic
environment, but the correlation is quite low and
unclear.

Fig. 20. Interrelation between pH value and Cu, Pb, Cd concentration.

In general, most heavy metals have a good
dissolution in the medium acid environment (pH =
4.5-5.0), the presence of the metals in the water
decreases when the environment turns neutral, is
almost non-existent with Pb. At the same time,
there are correlations in the distribution of
concentration by pH at some pairs of metals
indicating that these metals may have the same
natural origin.
3.4. Correlation and Pearson correlation
between metals
The pearson correlation between the metals is
shown in Table 4.

190
 Tab. 4. Pearson correlation Table.
Cd Fe Mn Al As Cu Pb
Pearson Correlation 1 -.024 -.047 -.008 .032 -.028 .182*
Cd
Sig. (2-tailed) .751 .535 .914 .670 .715 .015
Pearson Correlation -.024 1 .013 .062 .268** .060 -.124
Fe
Sig. (2-tailed) .751 .861 .409 .000 .431 .100
Pearson Correlation -.047 .013 1 .354** .020 .122 -.082
Mn
Sig. (2-tailed) .535 .861 .000 .793 .107 .276
Pearson Correlation -.008 .062 .354** 1 -.112 .045 .182*
Al
Sig. (2-tailed) .914 .409 .000 .138 .548 .015
Pearson Correlation .032 .268** .020 -.112 1 -.042 -.084
As
Sig. (2-tailed) .670 .000 .793 .138 .579 .266
Pearson Correlation -.028 .060 .122 .045 -.042 1 -.020
Cu
Sig. (2-tailed) .715 .431 .107 .548 .579 .787
Pearson Correlation .182* -.124 -.082 .182* -.084 -.020 1
Pb
Sig. (2-tailed) .015 .100 .276 .015 .266 .787

The Pearson correlation table shows that the
content of Cd and Pb, As and Fe, Al and Mn, Pb
and Al have linearly correlated with each other
because the sig value of Pearson correlation
between these pairs are smaller than 0.05. The
other pairs with the sig>0.05 have not correlated
with each other or their correlations are unclear.
As can be seen from the table above, the
Pearson values in the correlation between those
pair of variables are less than 0.5, therefore the
correlations between Cd and Pb, As and Fe, Al and
Mn, Pb and Al are relatively weak. Specifically:
+ Al and Mn have the strongest correlation with
the pearson correlation 0.354.
+ As and Fe have a weaker correlation with the
pearson correlation 0.268.
+ Cd and Pb, Pb and Al have the weakest
pearson correlation with 0.182.
The results are shown in Figure 20 ÷ 23:

Fig. 21. The correlation between Al and Mn. Fig. 22. The correlation between As and Fe.

191
 Fig. 23. The correlation between Pb and Cd.
3.5. Map for distribution of and metals in
groundwater in studied area.
Through the map of Mn, As, Al, Pb pollution
status in Figures 24 ÷ 27, there are signs of
Manganese and Aluminum pollution in some
South areas of Cu Chi district, some adjacent areas
between Hoc Mon district and District 12 and
some central areas of Binh Chanh district. Arsenic
pollution is at an alarming level with high level of
pollution occur on many places in Cu Chi and Binh
Chanh districts. There are signs of lead pollution in
some areas in Cu Chi district and on the East of
Hoc Mon district. Most of Cu and Cd metals are
appeared in trace form (Figure 28-29).
Fig. 25. The map of Mn pollution.
192
Fig. 24. The correlation between Al and Pb.
It can be seen that most of the heavy metals
pollution occurs in Cu Chi and Binh Chanh
district, especially in Cu Chi district with
widespread pollution at high level of heavy metal.
This may be due to the concentration of too
many industrial zones as well as livestock
activities in this area, which in turn increases the
concentration of heavy metals in soil and water.
Timely suggestions and solutions are needed to
minimize and prevent heavy metal pollution in
order to ensure the quality of water resources as
well as the health of the people in contaminated
areas.
Fig. 26. The map of As pollution.
 Fig. 27. The map of Al pollution.
Fig. 29. The map of Cu pollution.
4. Conclusion
Metals pollution in groundwater of Pleistocene
aquifers in Ho Chi Minh City is real, they have
negative impact on human health with few related
researches. With those metals, the content of
manganese, aluminum, lead, mercury, cadmium in
water in many observing wells have exceeded the
allowed limits. These values are typically
concentrated in the period from 2009 to 2016, with
much focus on the 2013-2015 period in the urban
and industrial development areas where
groundwater is heavily exploited. The supply of
these metals is mainly from water-bearing
sediments and is dependent on changes in the
geochemical environment under the influence of
human activity. Other metals are present in the
193
Fig. 28. The map of Pb pollution.
Fig. 30. The map of Cd pollution.
sediment in dispersive form and their content in
groundwater is very low compared to the
standards, therefore it is not yet harmful to human
health.
Acknowledgements
This research is funded by Ho Chi Minh City
University of Technology – VNU-HCM under
grant number T-TNMT-2017-83.
References
[1] Ly Thanh Huong, Underground water is
seriously polluted, News - Events »Water
resources 4/11/2013
(http://dwrm.gov.vn/index.php?language=
vi&amp;nv=news&amp;op=Tai-nguyen-
nuoc/Nguon-nuoc-ngam-dang-o-nhiem-
nghiem-trong-3097)
[2] Nguyen Viet Ky, Bui Trong Vinh, Tran Anh
Tu, al. Origin of aluminum in ground
water in Pleistocene layer in Ben Cat area,
Thuan An, Binh Duong province. Journal
of Science and Technology Development
VNU HCMC. HCM K5 / 2014 episode 17,
13-20, 2014
[3] Nguyen Kim Ngoc. Geochemical chemistry.
Transportation Publishing House, 2005.
[4] Department of Geology & Minerals of
Vietnam, Ministry of Industry.
Groundwater dynamics in the Southern
Delta (1991 - 1997). Hanoi,1998.
[5] Ministry of Science and Technology, TCVN
6663-11:2011, ISO 5667-11:2009: Water
quality - Sampling - Part 11: Guidance on
194
sampling of groundwaters, Ha Noi, 2011.
/ Full name of the parallel conference 00
(2012) 000–000 11
[6] Ministry of Science and Technology, TCVN
6663-3:2008, Water quality - Sampling -
Part 3: Guidance on the preservation and
handling of water samples, Ha Noi, 2011.
[7] Ministry of Science and Technology, TCVN
6663-3:2008 compiled by the Technical
Committee of Water Quality, suggested by
Directorate for Standards, Metrology and
Quality, published by Ministry of Science
and Technology, Ha Noi, 2011.
EVALUATION OF THE OPERATING CAPACITY OF PORTS BASED ON THE
ANALYSIS OF HYDRODYNAMICS AND THE EROSION - ACCRETION
REGULATION OF THE COASTAL AREAS IN THE NORTH VIETNAM

Nguyen Huy Phuong1, Duong Van Binh2, Nguyen Huy Quang3

1
Vietnam Association of Engineering Geology and Environment, Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
3
Consultant and Inspection JSC of Construction Technology and Equipment, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: duongvanbinh@humg.edu.vn

Abstract: In the coastal areas of Northern Vietnam, the interaction between the geological
environment and the external environment (hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere) and socio-economic
activities has performed and developed geodynamical processes. In those processes, the most important
and prominent process is the erosion-accretion process. This process is very complex and changes with
rules. It has a strong influence on marine economic activities in general and the exploitation of ports in
particular. The analysis of dynamics and rules of the erosion-accretion is a scientific basis for the
planning of the port construction and effective exploitation, as well as put forwards to clear the canals to
ensure waterway traffic.

Keywords: coastal erosion; port; Northern Vietnam.

Geological features and natural conditions the scientific basis to evaluate the exploitation of
(meteorology - hydrology - oceanography) in the ports based on hydrodynamic conditions, dynamics
coastal areas in northern Vietnam are very and rules of formation and development of erosion
complex and change by rules. The paper analyzes and accretion of this region.

Fig. 1. Location of research “Northern coastal region”

195
1. The natural condition of the region
The topography of the region (from Quang
Ninh to Ninh Binh) is mainly low plain, quite flat,
only some hills and mountains in the north (from
Mong Cai (Quang Ninh) to Do Son, Kien An (Hai
Phong)). Mountain topography consists primarily
of terrigenous sedimentary rocks or biochemical
sedimentary rocks. Plains of 0.5-4.0 m in altitude
are composed of soft sediment, intermingled with
sandy beaches, tidal flat. Topography of shallow
seafloor is subterranean delta, relatively flat with
slope below 3 degrees. The topography is
complicated by the channel system and bars at the
river mouth. The development of the coastal zone
creates typical terrain types: straight shorelines,
tidal flats, tidal creeks, submarine zones ...The
climate of the area is tropical monsoon, hot,
humid, heavy rain and is divided into two distinct
seasons. Therefore, it contributes to promote the
erosion-accretion process.
2. Geohydrodynamic zoning in the region
Geohydrodynamic zoning is to build up a
scientific basis for analyzing the causes,
mechanisms, forming conditions and development
rules of erosion and accretion.
Applying a general and systematic approaches,
change theory, hydrodynamic theory, equilibrium
theory to analyse the geohydrodynamic processes.
Assuming that the geohydrodynamic process is
a system, it may include sub-systems of
hydrogeological structure (geosytem) and
hydrodynamic (waves, currents, and tide).
The interaction between the components of the
system reflects the geohydrodynamic feature of the
system and determines the erosion-accretion.
Thus, it is necessary to analyze the
characteristics of the two components and evaluate
their interactions.
2.1. Hydrogeological structure
2.1.1. Classification of hydrogeological classes
The coast is composed of many layers of rock
and soil, which are resistant to erosion at varying
degrees. These levels are evaluated according to
the reducing strength when touching water or easy
to destroy in water. Soft soil is classified by
structural strength and sensitivity.
Cohesive soils, according to the structural
strength, can be roughly classified according to
196
their state. Sandy soil has very low structural
strength, so it is easy to erode. Rocks have a
specially high architectural strength, should be
classified as a special level.
The research results are classified into 5 levels
as follows:
- Layers have a very low degree of erosion
protection: Level I - Sand
- Layers have a low degree of erosion
protection: Level II – Mud; Clayer sand; Sandy
clay; clay, very soft.
- Layers have a medium degree of erosion
protection: Level III – Clay; Sandy clay, soft-firm;
Clayer sand, plastic
- Layers have a high degree of erosion
protection: Level IV – Clay; Sandy clay, stiff-very
stiff
- Layers have a special high degree of erosion
protection: Level V – Bedrock
2.1.2. Hydrogeological structure
As erosion occurs mainly in layers above the
ground, the depth of the classification is about 15-
20 meters. They are mainly Holocene sediments in
the distribution areas of Quaternary sediments, the
bedrocks are terrigenous sediments and
biochemical sediments. They have been evaluated
and classified according to the erosion levels that
mentioned above, so that they can be selected as
criteria for classification of hydrogeological
structure.
The research region is classified into five types
of structure as follows:
- Type A has a very low degree of erosion
protection (level I) as sand.
- Type B has a low degree of erosion protection
(level II) as mud.
- Type C layers with moderate levels of erosion
protection (level III, IV) are sticky soils.
- Type D1 has a particularly high erosion grade
(level V) as terrigenous sedimentary rocks.
- Type D2 has a special high level of erosion
protection (level V) that is biochemical
sedimentary rocks.
2.2. Hydrodynamic zoning
Hydrodynamic zoning reflects the mechanism
and intensity of river flow, sediment flow, coastal
currents, waves, and tide, which are factors that
cause erosion.
 The research results are classified into two
areas as follows:
- Zone I: Coastal area from Mong Cai (Quang
Ninh) to Yen Hung (Hai Phong).
- Zone II: Coastal area from Hai Phong to Ninh
Binh.
2.2.1. Coastal area from Mong Cai (Quang
Ninh) - Yen Hung (Hai Phong)
Low flow discharge, low flow of sediment,
about 0.079.106 tons. The sea current flows from
Hai Phong to Quang Ninh and rounds the sea. The
dry season (April - November) is a tidal diurnal.
During high tidal period, the tide level is 2.6-3.6
m; during low tidal period, the tide level is 0.5-
1.0m. The waves are mainly in the direction of
northeast wind, followed by the direction of North
and East winds. The southwest flow is the main
flow (Mong Cai - Hai Phong).
In May to October, the southeastern wind is
mainly, the average sea wave is 0.7-0.9 meters, the
maximum is 3.5-4.5 meters. The main flow is the
North East (Hai Phong to Mong Cai). The average
Tab. 1. Annual average amount of sediment deposited in estuaries of the Red river and Thai Binh river
No Estuary Total amount of sediment (106 tons)
1 Day
2 Lach Giang
3 Ba Lat
4 Tra Ly
5 Nam Trieu
6 Van Uc
Coastal flow is strongly influenced by the
season. In general, the flow from north to south in
winter and vice versa in summer. In the estuary
area, the flow is very complex due to high river
flow dynamics.
The tide is the diurnal tide. The flood tide level
is 3.0-3.5m, average 1.7-1.9m, minimum 0.3-0.5m,
maximum tide level can reach 4.0m. Saline
intrusion varies seasonally.
Sea waves change with the seasons. In winter,
the wave direction is mainly East, Southeast, North
East; The wave level is 0.4-0.9m, the highest is
0.75-3.0m. In summer, the wave direction is
mainly Southeast, South and Southwest, wave
197
flow rate is from 15 to 40 cm/s. The rate of flood
tide is 25-35 cm/s, the rate of ebb tide is 30-100
m/s.
2.2.2. Coastal area from Hai Phong to Ninh
Binh
This area has many large rivers, river flow has a
great impact on erosion-accretion.
System of Red river - Thai Binh river has a
large amount of water. Red River flow (through
Son Tay) reached 118 billion m3, equivalent to
3743m3/s. Including both Thai Binh river and Day
river, the total flow discharge is up to 135 billion
m3. Heavy rainy season usually occurs in July and
August. Red river dyke system is 5000km long.
Therefore, the flow mainly flows to the sea, there
is no overflow on the face. In the dry season, the
flow discharge is low. The total amount of
sediment transported through the main river
mouths is as follows:
19.312
2.577
27.774
9.003
5.0
11.0
level is 0.7-1.2m, the highest is 2.6-6m. In
summer, there are usually higher waves due to
storms.
The two regions have different hydrodynamic
characteristics, so they have different roles causing
erosion.
2.3. Geohydrodynamic zoning (corresponding
to the erosion - accretion zoning)
The combination of geohydrological structure
(five types) with two hydrodynamic zones allows
us to classify into the 2 zones and 4 sub-zones
geohydrodynamic zones. These zones have
different erosion behavior characteristics, which
are summarized in the following table:
 Tab. 2. Geohydrodynamic zoning in the coastal areas in Northern Vietnam
Zone Structural features Hydraulic features Erosion-Accretion
Mong Cai to - The sinuous shore - Short, steep river - Slowly accretion, the
Yen Hung - The structure of - Poor materials shoreline is relatively
shore is rock - High tidal tides, but stable.
- Coastal wetlands are tidal currents are - The coastline from
very popular severely divided by Mong Cai to Van Don
- There are few many islands is relatively untouched.
Zone I
beaches - Small waves - From Van Don to
- Many islands - The flow is not clearly Yen Hung coast, the
- Sea floor: Mud, sand, defined leveling process has
gravel developed strongly
- Mangrove is very
popular
Hai Phong to - The coast is - Long river, high river - Accretion prevails
Kim Son composed of loose and dynamics, seasonal over erosion.
soft sediment change - Erosion occurs
- There is no island - River material is rich strongly in Hai Hau. In
- The seabed but uneven between other places, accretion
composed of sediment rivers and erosion occur
such as sand, clayer - Tide level is lower alternately
sand, mud. from Hai Phong to Kim
Son
- Strong waves, wave
direction and intensity
change with season and
area
- The coastal currents
vary seasonally
Sub- Hai - Coast to NE- SW. - Many rivers, - Accretion is the main
zone Phong - Accumulative Plain characterized by large process
Zone II
IIA to - Sediment on the funicular estuary, NW- - Erosion occurs
Diem surface: sandy clay, SE. alternately.
Ho clayer, clay, sand of - Tidal: diurnal tide,
Thai Binh Formation high
- Waves, currents:
+ Winter: North,
Northeast, East
+ Summer: SW, S, E.
Sub- Diem - The N-S shoreline - Large estuaries in the - The accretion occurs
zone Ho to - Accretion occurs direction of W-E. very strongly, the
IIB Giao very strongly - Rich materials typical sand dunes
Thuy - Sediment: mainly - Diurnal tide develop.
sand dunes - Waves and currents
+ Winter: NE, E
+ Summer: S, SE, E;
but Southern waves are
almost non-effect on

198
 shore.
Sub- Hai - Straight seashore in - There is almost no - Before the So estuary
zone Hau to the NE-SW direction river so there is no is filled, accretion
IIC Thinh - Sediment is mainly material from the river occurs strongly.
Long fine sand, very fine - Diurnal tide. - Since the So estuary
sand - Waves, flows vary is filled, erosion occurs
- Sea dykes, with the season. continuously.
embankments and + Winter: NE, E, SE.
breakwaters. + Summer: S, SE, E.
Sub- Nghia - The coastline is in - There are two large Accretion occurs most
zone Hung the NE-SW and NW - river mouths, rich strongly.
IID to Kim SE. materials
Son - Sediments are mainly - The river is mainly N-
sand dunes S.
- Diurnal tide.
- The same wave as
above.
- The flow is mainly N-
S

3. Assessment of exploiting capacity of seaports
Zone I: From Mong Cai (Quang Ninh) to Yen
Hung (Hai Phong):
Coastal areas are mainly rocky mountains,
abrasive terrain and erosion mixed with small
accretion. The topography varies greatly, with no
large flat areas, the coast is jagged limestone so it
is not convenient for the port layout. Rivers are
small, the material is poor, seabed sediment is not
significant. The depth of the sea changes rapidly
from shore to sea.
Cua Ong, Cam Pha and Hon Gai ports are small
ports that transport coal. Only Cai Lan area has
good conditions for port development and
relatively deep channel (20-22 meters at Bai
Chay). However, due to Bai Chay bridge, it has
limited capacity to exploit the port. To develop
large ports, they have to go far away from the
mainland, but these are limestone mountains so it
is not feasible.
Zone II: From Hai Phong to Ninh Binh: Can be
classified into two sub-zones:
Sub-zone IIA: From Yen Hung (Quang Ninh)
to the end of Hai Phong.
Hai Phong coastal area is transition from rocky
shore to soft sediment shore.
This area has a large river flowing into the sea,
forming large canals to build ports. Due to the
strong interaction between the river and the sea,
between the rivers, the seabed topography and the
canal change strongly. The sedimentation rate here
is higher than the erosion rate, but the total amount
of sediment is limited so the coast is accreted but
slow, usually 5-10 meters/year. Therefore, there
are some convenient locations to build ports such
as Dinh Vu, Lach Huyen.
However, accretion and erosion here still occur
complicated, causing fluctuations in flow,
deposition of canals. Therefore, in order to
maintain port operation, dredging and clearing of
canals should be carried out regularly.
The development of Hai Phong, Chua Ve, Dinh
Vu, Lach Huyen ports is evidence of the
development of accretion towards the sea, the coast
moving away, the port also moved. That also
shows that even Lach Huyen port will only have
large capacity in certain time period. Therefore, in
order to improve the port's exploitation efficiency,
it is necessary to increase the scale of Lach Huyen
port and orientation for long-term development.
Sub-zone IIB. From Thai Binh to Ninh Binh:
The coastal area is composed of soft soil. Every
year the mudflats grow hundreds of meters to the
sea. The seabed has a small slope. The ability to
build ports is not appropriate. From Thai Binh to

199
Ninh Binh, there are no suitable conditions for the The results of the actual survey of the ports is
construction of valuable ports. presented in the table below:

Tab. 3. Some major ports in Northern Vietnam

Navigable party
No Zone Port Location Capacity (DWT)
Length (Km) Depth (m)
1 Cam Pha 65.000 40 7,4-11,0
I Quang Ninh
2 Cai Lan 50.000 36 10,0-20,0
3 Vat Cach 3.000 20 3,7
4 Hai Phong 40.000 30,2 5,5-7,3
5 Cua Cam 7000 20 5
6 Doan Xa 10.000 30 4,5
II Hai Phong
7 Transvina 12.000 42 5,7
8 Chua Ve
9 Dinh Vu 40.000 7,6 5,7
10 Lach Huyen 100.000 20,8 14

4. Conclusion and accretion.”. Code: CTB2012-02-05, proposed

The coastal areas in northern Vietnam (from
Quang Ninh to Ninh Binh) has geological features,
natural conditions vary by space and time.
According to the ability to prevent erosion, the
study region is classified into five geographic
areas. According to hydrodynamics, the study
region is classified into two zones. Combining
these results, together with the current status and
erosion prediction study, the study area can be
classified into five zones with different erosion
characteristic.
Analysis of port exploitation, research region
can be classified into two zones and two sub-
zones. Zone I have the capacity to build large ports
in the Cube Bay area, and other areas can only
build small ports. Sub-zone IIA can build large
ports, but the accretion process develops to the sea,
so the port life is limited. Sub-zone IIB is not
capable of building valuable ports.
Acknowledgement
This research is a part of the Ministry project
“Researching on the coastal erosion and accretion
in Northern Vietnam, estimation of climate
changing and rise of sea level to coastal erosion
and implemented by Hue University of Sciences.
References
1 Tran Huu Tuyen, Nguyen Huy Phuong et
al.,: “Researching on the coastal erosion
and accretion in Northern Vietnam,
estimation of climate changing and rise of
sea level to coastal erosion and accretion”.
Project final report CTB2012-02-05.
Hanoi (2015). Vietnamese
2 Do Minh Duc: “The formation and
transformation of the accretion - erosion in
Thai Binh - Nam Dinh littoral zone”,
Geology PhD Thesis, Hanoi (2004).
Vietnamese
3 Pham Huy Tien, Nguyen Van Cu et al.:
“The erosion and accretion forecast in
coasts and estuaries in Vietnam and
prevention solutions”. Final report of the
state project KC.09.05, Hanoi (2005).
Vietnamese.

200
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CYCLIC DEFORMATION PHASES OF SOILS DISTIBUTED IN
THE URBAN AREA OF HANOI FOR SEISMIC DESIGN

Nguyen Van Phong

Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: nvphongdcct@gmail.com

Abstract.The article introduces the characteristics of cyclic deformation stages and divides the cyclic
strain into four phases: elastic, assuming elastic (linear), elastic - plastic (non-linear) and slide. From
which, the paper presents results of defining cyclic deformation characteristics of seven soil types within
the study area for the first three phases for seismic design. In which, the characteristics of elastic phase
(Gmax) are determined by the experimental formula, while the characteristics of the next two phases (G tl,
Dtl and Gtv, Dtv) are determined directly by cyclic triaxial apparatus. The cyclical deformation
characteristics of each soil type in each phase were analyzed in stress – strain loops to illustrate and
clarify the phasic characteristics of the soil.

Keywords: cyclic triaxial test; earthquakes in Hanoi; cyclic characteristics; cyclic deformation stages.

1. Introduction small strain level for some soil types. Therefore,

Now days, construction activities in Hanoi are in
the process of rapid development, more and more
great structures such as high buildings, overhead
and underground traffic systems are being built
and planned. In addition, Hanoi is located in the
strong earthquake zone. As a greater structure, the
impact of earthquakes and other seismic are also
increasing. Therefore, the design of these
structures must be involved earthquake resistance.
In handling these, the dynamic properties of the
ground are essential for modeling.
Under the effect of dynamic loads, the soil is
deformed to varying degrees depending on the
magnitude of the dynamic stress, each dynamic
deformation phase has specific characteristics
needed for the design. The design of seismic
resistance only ensures accuracy and reliability if
the full soil characteristics of each dynamic
deformation phase are defined fully.
In recent years, some researches on the soil
dynamic properties in Hanoi have been published.
These results, however, are limited to the
introduction of deformation characteristics at very
the study and identification of specific indicators
for different dynamic deformation phases has both
scientific and practical significance.
2. Theoretical basis of cyclic deformation phases
Dynamic deformation at a point in the ground
depends on the magnitude of the dynamic load, the
stress condition, the soil type and the distance from
the point to the load. The law of changing dynamic
deformation characteristics has been studied by
many authors such as Ishihara, Vucetic, ... ([3],
[4]). Whereby, soil strain is divided into 3 phase
based on the degree of strain: very small strain, the
strain () is smaller than the threshold of elastic
strain (tl); small strain, when  is larger than tl
and smaller than the threshold of volumetric strain
(tv); medium to large strain: the strain  is larger
than 10-2% to a few percent.
Based on the characteristics of each phase and
mechanical models can be used, this paper divided
the soil strain into four phases: elastic, assuming
elastic (linear), elastic - plastic (non-linear) and
slide (summarized in table 1).

201
 Tab. 1. The phrases of soil cyclic deformation
The Deformation
The model of Deformation Volume
degree characteristics Type of loads
the phases phrases change
of strain Change
Elastic Elastic very No No Seismic waves;
(≤ tl) small (Gmax, Dmin = 0) Transportation,. . .
Assuming linear small Yes Yes Transportation,
elastic (compaction) (Gl, Dl) machine foundations,
tl ≤ ≤ tv weak earthquakes

Elastic - plastic non-linear medium Yes Yes Strong earthquake

tv<< (Gnl, Dnl)
sl=0,5÷2%
Plastic slide large No No Strong earthquake
(Gmin, Dmax)

depth distribution of the top layer is about 15m, the

Thus, the design of the seismic resistance
deepest is 28m.
should be based on specific characteristics
3. Alluvial deposits (aQ23tb1): medium dense,
corresponding to the level of dynamic deformation
fine sand with blackish grey – brownish grey in
and chosen the appropriate calculation model. The
colour (layer 3). The depth distribution of the top
strain thresholds of each soil are different
layer is about 10-20m, the deepest is 34m.
depending on the composition, properties and
4. Marine deposits (mQ21-2hh2): firm to stiff,
stress conditions.
bluish grey clay (layer 4). The thickness of the
3. Characteristics of stratigraphy and soil
layer is small and scattered.
properties in Hanoi area
5. Lake - swampy deposits (lbQ21-2hh1): very
3.1. Characteristics of stratigraphy
soft to soft clay – sandy clay with blackish grey in
Based on the analysis of documents on
colour, mixed organic matter (layer 5). Depth
Quaternary geology and engineering geology [2],
distribution is from a few meters to over 20m.
sedimentary components of Hanoi and Le Chi
6. Alluvial deposits (aQ13vp2): stiff to very stiff
formation are mostly gravel and its distribution is
clay - sandy clay with spotted yellowish brown –
in great depth, so studying their dynamic properties
redish brown in colour (layer 6). The depth and
is less meaningful. Meanwhile, sediments
thickness of the layer varies sharply from a few
formations of Vinh Phuc, Hai Hung and Thai Binh
meters to tens of meters.
distributed at a depth close to the surface and have
7. Alluvial deposits (aQ13vp1): medium dense to
sensitive component with the effect of dynamic
dense, fine - medium sand with yellowish grey
loads. So that, the soil of this sediments is the
(layer 7).
object of study and divided in detail to 7 types of
The distribution characteristics of these layers
soil:
are shown on table 1. It can be seen that the depth
1. Alluvial deposits (aQ23tb1): stiff to very stiff
and the thickness of each soil layer in the research
clay - sandy clay with greyish brown to yellowish
area vary significantly. Soils with swampy origins
brown in colour (layer 1). The average depth of the
(layer 2, 5) are the most variable; followed by soils
top layer is around 3.0 m;
with fluvial origins (layer 1, 3, 6, 7); the
2. Alluvial - lake - bog deposits (albQ23tb1): soft
distribution depth and the thickness of soils with
clay - sandy clay with greyish brown, darkish grey
marine origins (layer 4) are relatively stable.
in colour, mixed organic matters (layer 2). The

202
 Tab. 2. The distribution characteristics of different soil layers in the Hanoi area
No Soil Main distribution areas Distribution Thickness/ average
types depth/average (m) (m)
1 Layer1 Center, the west and the south of Hanoi (110)/5 (216)/8
2 Layer 2 The south of Hanoi (Hoang Mai, Thanh (3  20)/10 (1,220)/12
Tri district) and center (Hoan Kiem, Hai
Ba Trung district)
3 Layer 3 The south of Hanoi (Hoang Mai, Thanh (330)/12 (430)/14
Tri district)
4 Layer 4 Scattered distribution in the center and the (36)/4 (13)/2
west of Hanoi (Nam Tu Liem district) and
the east (Gia Lam district)
5 Layer 5 Distributes widely from the west to the (230)/16 (220)/12
east, and extends to the south.
6 Layer 6 The north and the east of Hanoi (117)/10 (510)/7
7 Layer 7 Distributes popularly in almost areas, (1035)/18 (616)/10
except for the south of Hanoi.

3.2. Characteristics of stratigraphy and soil
properties
The results of some main physical –mechanical
properties of different soil types are shown on table
3 and 4. Accordingly, the layer 2 and 3 have the
low strength with the small friction angle which
will cause the high lateral earth pressure; layer 1
and 6 have the small internal friction angle varying
from 130 to 140 but high cohesion force (28 to 29
kPa), so it is a favorable condition for stability of
underground work; sand layers (3, 7).

Tab. 3. Synthesis of some main properties of cohesive soils

Water Wet Specific Settlement Cohesion Internal
content density density parameters force friction angle
Soil layers
W (%)  (g/cm3) s (g/cm3) a1-2 (cm2/kG) C (kPa)  (degree)
Layer 1 32,3 1,90 2,70 0,042 28 13o15’
Layer 2* 52,7 1,67 2,61 0,088 19 2o20’
Layer 4 32,8 1,89 2,69 0,076 22 8o38’
Layer 5* 49,3 1,69 2,65 0,085 17 1o10’
Layer 6 29,3 1,91 2,70 0,036 29 14o23’
* Strength properties of soft soils (layer 2 and 5) were derived from UU triaxial test.

Tab. 4. Grain composition characteristics and mechanical properties of cohesiveness soils

Grain composition (%) SPT (blow) Internal
Sand Number of
friction angle
layers samples Pebble Gravel Sand Silt ** (degree)
Layer 3 685 0 0,3 89,7 10 12 27
Layer 7 476 0 3,7 92,0 4,3 29 32,3
** The internal friction angle of cohesiveness soils was calculated from SPT values

203
4. Characteristics of cyclic deformation in
different phases
4.1. The basis of the research methodology
selection
It is necessary to use a variety of methods
(Table 5) to determine the adequate dynamical
characteristics at different phases of soil
deformation. However, the method is selected
based on the objective research and available
equipment is as follows:
At elastic phase, elastic modulus Gmax was
determined based on the SPT results by using
formula:
Gmax = Vs2 (1)
Where,  - soil density,  = /g; Vs - shear wave
velocity, was determined by these formulas:
Vs = 132 N 0,271 (for clayey soils – Pitilakis,
1999) and
Vs = 157,13 + 4,74 N0,5 (for sandy soils – Lee,
1992)
The typical parameters for phases of assuming
elastic and elastic - plastic were determined by
cyclic triaxial test (type Tritech 100 – Controls) in
accordance with ASTM - D3999;

Tab. 5. The dynamic deformation phases, computational models and appropriate methods
Phases Typical Assumptions and Appropriate methods
parameters computational models
The methods of wave propagation
Gmax
Elastic Elastic deformation ground test in the field, cyclic torsional
(D =0)
shear tests
Assuming elastic
Gl, Dl Linear deformation ground Cyclic simple shear tests, cyclic
(linear)
triaxial tests; cyclic torsional
Elastic - plastic
Gnl, Dnl Non -linear deformation ground shear tests, resonant column tests
(non-linear)
Cyclic simple shear tests, cyclic
Plastics (sliding) CRS Sliding***
triaxial tests
*** Sliding phase is characterized by parameters of cyclic strength.

4.2. The quantity and method The quantity of specific research was selected
To ensure objective research, sampling sufficiently for the identification of the full phases
locations were determined in accordance with and was summarized in Table 5.
common distribution area of study subjects [2].

Tab. 5. Quantity of cyclic triaxial test for each soil

Layer Soil type Quantity of cyclic triaxial test
Layer 1 Stiff, yellowish grey sandy Clay (Stb2) 7
Layer 2 Soft, blackish grey sandy Clay (Ytb) 5
Layer 3 Bluish grey fine Sand (Ctb) 9
Layer 4 Firm, bluish grey Clay (Shh) 7
Layer 5 Soft, blackish grey sandy Clay (Yhh3) 7
Layer 6 Very stiff, reddish brown sandy Clay (Svp) 7
Layer 7 Yellowish grey fine Sand (Cvp1) 5

Each soil was tested in the same frequency stress was determined based on earthquake level
(2Hz) and pressure chamber under the different for each soil. The cyclic deformation phases were
amplitude of cyclic stress. The maximum of cyclic devided base on the graphs of stress, strain and

204
pore pressure. Finally, the characteristics of cyclic
deformation ware determined for each phase.
4.3. Research results
The soil deformation characteristic is reflected
by strain graphs, stress - strain loops, correlated
curves of stress – strain and the increase of pore
pressure. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze these
graphs to study dynamic deformation at different
phases.
In the first phase (elastic), stress – strain loops
are a straight line, the damping ratio D is zero;
elastic strain threshold (tl) is approximately 10-6 or
10-4%. Thus, the characteristic parameter for this
phase is only Gmax and was determined by (1). The
results are summarized in the table 6.
In the second phase (Assuming linear), the
loops are stable and the deviation between the
loops is very small (fig.1). The characteristics of
this phase (Gl, Dl) do not change over time loading
and the strain threshold (tv) of the soils is about
0,010% to 0,036% (Table 7).
In the non-linear phase: When strain is over the
threshold of small strain, pore water pressure
started to increase and reached its highest value in
sliding phase, strain graph and loops are unstable
and disproportionate, so that Gnl and Dnl change
simultaneously by experimental cycle that
expressed in separation of the stress – strain
curves. The values of Gnl and Dnl in table 7 were
average values.
Summary of the research results is represented
in Table 7.

Fig. 1. The typical form of stress-strain loop in Assuming linear phase (a) and Non-linear phase (b)

Tab. 6. The results determining the elastic modulus Gmax for each soil
Vertical effective According to the results of SPT
Soil types stress, (’v) N30 N1(60) (Vs) (Gmax)
kPa Blows m/s kPa
Layer 1 70 6 7,02 214,5 87890
Layer 2 94 4 4,04 192,2 62793
Layer 3 110 16 14,94 176,1 55814
Layer 4 94 6 6,06 214,5 85129
Layer 5 126 3 2,62 177,8 52147
Layer 6 150 11 8,79 252,8 127824
Layer 7 230 27 17,43 181,8 61118

205
 Tab. 7. The characteristic parameters of phases for each soil
Cyclic Stress Ratio Assuming elastic Elastic - plastic
Soils The Strain threshold
threshold Phase Phase
CSRl CSRnl tv sl Gl (kPa) Dl Gnl (kPa) Dnl
Layer 1 0.13 0.41 0.018 0.5 15233 0.112 5195 0.194
Layer 2 0.18 0.42 0.025 0.42 6799 0.092 2769 0.182
Layer 3 0.22 - 0.01 - 18325 0.089 12545 0.128
Layer 4 0.14 0.25 0.03 0.62 8816 0.112 2429 0.176
Layer 5 0.13 0.46 0.036 0.055 6943 0.115 1787 0.200
Layer 6* 0.22 - 0.025 - 43736 0.101 13177 0.141
Layer 7* - - - - 26415 0.114 13701 0.120
* The soils were tested with maximum of cyclic stress but had not reached the sliding phase.

5.Conclusions and Recommendations characteristic parameters corresponding to the

The cyclic deformation of the soils in Hanoi
area is divided into four phases based on the cyclic
deformation characteristics and usable models:
elastic, assuming elastic (linear), elastic - plastic
(non-linear) and slide. In which, the first three
phases belong to the issue of dynamic deformation
and dynamic stress propagation, while the fourth
phase belongs to the dynamic strength. The stress
and strain threshold of each phase varies by the
soil type (summarized in table 7). The specific
characteristic of elastic phase is Gmax. While, Gl, Dl
are characteristic parameters of assuming elastic
phases and have little change. In non-linear phase,
the characteristic parameters Gnl and Dnl change
over time under dynamic load.
The seismic design should be based on the
cyclic stress threshold and the soil type to select
the calculation model, thence determining the
model (in phase) for calculation.
References
[1] Nguyen Van Phong, Le Trong Thang,
2013. Study of dynamic properties of
clayed soil of Thai Binh formations
distributed in the Hanoi area by Cyclic
triaxial tests, Scientific - Technical Journal
of Mining and geology, Hanoi, No. 44/10,
pp 5-11.
[2] Nguyen Van Phong, 2016. Research on
mechanical properties of Quaternary
sediments distributed in Hanoi area under
dynamic loads, PhD thesis, Hanoi
University of Mining and Geology.
[3] Ishihara K. (2003), Soil Behaviour in
Earthquake Geotechnics, Oxford Sience
Puplications
[4] Vucetic M. (1994). Cyclic threshold shear
strains in soils, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE, vol. 120, no. 12.

206
THE SAND-CEMENT-LIME COLUMN METHOD FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT:
A CASE STUDY IN TAY THAI THUY HIGH SCHOOL, THAI BINH PROVINCE

Ta Duc Thinh1, Nguyen Duc Ly2

1
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
2
Quang Binh Department of Science and Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: taducthinh@humg.edu.vn

Abstract. The sand-cement-lime column is a new method for soft soil treatment in Vietnam. This
method is proposed based on the principles of the sand column, soil-cement column, and soil-lime
column methods. The scientific basis of this method is mechanical compression, consolidation, and soil
strength reinforcement. This paper presented the research results of the sand-cement-lime method applied
to soft soil improvement in Tay Thai Thuy High school, Thai Binh province. The research results showed
that the cohesion of reinforced soils increased by 126%, the coefficient of settlement decreased by 55%,
and the deformation modulus increased by 277%.

Keywords: soft soils; sand-cement-lime column; bearing capacity; settlement.

1. Introduction construction works can be built immediately.

Soft soil is a type of soil which has special
states and characteristics, widely distributes in
Vietnam, especially in the Northern Delta and the
Mekong Delta (University of Mining and Geology,
2016). These are soils with low shearing
resistance, high deformation ability, and very
sensitive to the impact of external loads. When
building on these soils, in spite of medium and
small load, if there is no suitable solution in
foundation design and soft soil improvement, the
foundation will be damaged, even destroyed due to
the instability of strength and deformation (Trap et
al., 1985).
There are currently many methods of treatment
and reinforcement of soft soil applied in Vietnam
such as the sand column, vertical drains (sand
wells, pre-fabricated vertical drain-PVD), soil-
cement column, soil-lime column and has brought
positive effects, meeting the requirements of
construction practice (Bergado, 1994). However,
each method has its own advantages and
disadvantages as well. The method of the sand
column has the basic advantages that after the
construction of sand column, the mechanical
compression effect is promoted and the
However, in some areas where the groundwater
level fluctuates sharply, the sand columns are more
likely to break, sliding, and sand grains at the
bottom of the columns can move to other places,
leading to the load capacity of columns and
reinforced ground are significantly reduced over
time, then causing instability. The methods of sand
wells, PVD have the advantage of accelerating the
consolidation process of soft soils. However, the
disadvantage is that the consolidation time is too
long and the works are then slow to be built,
leading to low investment efficiency. The method
of soil-cement columns has the advantage of
increasing the load-bearing capacity of the
columns as desired, the construction can be
immediately erected after the completion of the
columns. However, in this method, the bearing
capacity of the reinforced ground may not increase
significantly and in the case, if the soft soils
distribute at the bottom of the columns, then the
treatment efficiency is not high (Ta Duc Thinh,
2002).
In order to overcome the disadvantages and
promote the advantages of the above methods, the
soft soil treatment using sand-cement-lime column

207
method is proposed. This is a new approach to
bring into play the advantages and limit the
disadvantages of sand columns, soil-cement
columns, and soil-lime columns while also uses the
local materials in accordance with conditions in
Vietnam and brings about high economic and
technical efficiency. However, this method has not
been widely applied so far, partly due to the lack of
a firm theoretical and empirical basis, the
construction technology is still not modern, and the
more important part, that is, has not been
authorized by the competent authority. In order to
further improve the theoretical and experimental
basis, we have applied this method to treat and
reinforce soft soils in some medium and small-
scale works in Quang Ninh, Thanh Hoa, especially
in Tay Thai Thuy High School, Thai Binh
province, and initially brought about remarkable
results both technically and economically.
2. Theoretical principles of sand-cement-lime
column method
As mentioned above, the sand-cement-lime
column method is a combination of sand column,
soil-cement column, and soil-lime column
methods. The principles of this method are to use a
specialized equipment to put a mixture of sand,
cement, and lime into the ground to create a
mixture column of sand-cement-lime in order to
increase the strength and reducing the settlement.
The methodological basis of the sand-cement-
lime column method is based on the theoretical and
empirical basis to elucidate the mechanical
compression process, the consolidation process,
and the intensification process of the column and
reinforced ground.
*Mechanical compression process
This process is similar to the mechanical
compression process of the sand column method.
The only difference here is materials used. In sand-
cement-lime column method, a mixture of sand,
cement, and lime is injected into the ground. This
mixture will occupy the void volume of the
ground, then the void ratio decreases, and the soil
strength increases. This process can be described
as follows:
For one specific volume of soil, at first (before
reinforcement), it has the total volume is V0, the
208
volume of grains is Vh0 and the volume of the void
is Vr0.
V0=Vh0+Vr0
After reinforcement, the total volume of soil is
V, the volume of grains is Vh and the volume of
the void is Vr:
V=Vh+Vr
The change in total volume of soil
V=V0-V= (Vh0+Vr0) – (Vh+Vr)
= Vho + Vro – Vh – Vr.
The volume of grains can be considered
constantly before and after reinforcement, Vro =
Vh
Thus, V= Vho – Vr or V=Vr
The final formula shows that the change in total
volume of soil after reinforcement is equal to the
change in volume of the void.
*The consolidation process
In addition to the mechanical process, this
method also has the effect of accelerating the
consolidation process. This is because the sand-
cement-lime mixture is dry-mixed, this mixture
will absorb water in the ground to become the
grout and then form concrete. This process occurs
shortly after the construction of mixture columns
and is divided into two periods. At first, the cement
grout gradually losses the plasticity to become
denser, but there is almost no strength. The second
process is hydration. In the hydration process,
there are some chemical reactions between the
water molecule and cement components (clinker
minerals, consisting of silicate tri-calcite
3CaO.SiO2, bi-calcite silicates 2CaO.SiO2,
tri-calcite aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3, feroaluminate
tetracalcite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3. These reactions are
as follows:
3CaO.SiO2 + nH2O
= Ca(OH)2 + 2CaO.SiO2(n-1)H2O
2CaO.SiO2 + mH2O = 2CaO.SiO2mH2O
3CaO.Al2O3 + 6H2O = 3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 + nH2O
= 3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O + CaO.Fe2O3.mH2O
The products of the hydration process
(Ca(OH)2, 3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O) will experience
three stages of solubilization, colloidal and
crystallization, which consume a large amount of
water in the voids of the soil. In addition, the
hydrolysis of lime accompanied by exothermic
heating accelerates the consolidation of the soil
which is expressed by the following reaction:
CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2 +15.5 kcals.
On the other hand, if using coarse sand mixed
with cement and lime in appropriate proportions,
after concreting, the column of sand-cement-lime
mixtures will have a honeycomb structure, can
allow water to permeate and works similarly to a
vertical well. Under the effect of external load,
along with time, the effective stress () increases,
the pore water pressure (U) decreases, and the
water in the voids of the soil will horizontally
penetrate to the columns and escape to the ground
in the length of the column. This process can be
expressed by the equation: z =  + U, z is the
total normal stress.
* The intensification in the strength of column
and reinforced ground
In principle, the sand-cement-lime column
method is different from the soil-cement method is
that the sand-cement-lime column composes of
sand, cement, and lime whereas the materials of
the soil-cement column are only soil and cement.
Thus, when mixing sand with cement and lime,
this mixture absorbs water to produce lime-
cement-lime mortar and harden, the shear strength
of the mixture increases significantly due to an
increase in bond cementation. This process can be
explained as follows:
Without cement and lime, the shear strength of
dry sand is   tg , with  is internal friction
angle of sand. However, after mixing with cement
and lime and inputting to the ground, this mixture
absorbs water in the ground to become mortar and
then hardening. The shear strength of the mixture
will increase by cohesion force cxm due to the
formation of cementation bonding, =tg+cxm.
In addition, the sand-cement-lime columns also
produce ion exchange and puzzolan reactions
which occur at the contact surface between the
mixture columns and the soil. Divalent calcium
ions replace the sodium and hydrogen ions that are
in the electrical double layers surrounding each
clay mineral. Because less divalent calcium ions
are needed to neutralize the negative grid on the
surface of each clay mineral, the size of the double
layer is reduced and hence the attractive force
209
among clay particles increases, resulting in
increased soil cohesion. On the other hand, silicon
and aluminum in clay minerals react with calcium
silicate and calcium aluminum hydrate in the
puzzolan reaction to form highly durable
compounds in the water environment. These
processes increase the friction and cohesion of the
soil around the columns, leading to an increase in
the strength of the reinforced ground (Ta Duc
Thinh, 2002).
*The calculation of bearing capacity and
settlement of the stabilized ground
The calculation of bearing capacity and
settlement of reinforced ground in an accuracy and
reliability manner is one the most important issue
to evaluate the efficiency of sand-cement-lime
column method. Since this is a new method, the
calculation of bearing capacity and settlement of
the reinforced ground still have different opinions.
Some scientists have proposed calculating the load
capacity of the mixture columns and the settlement
of the construction works according to the current
methods like the calculation method for reinforced
soil-cement column method (Bergado et al., 1994).
However, this method has limitations, especially
when the soft soil layers distribute at the bottom of
the columns (Ta Duc Thinh, 2017). From the
geological point of view, all soft soil treatment
methods are of improving the mechanical
properties of the soil, making the soil after
reinforcement have a good construction ability that
is increase the load capacity, reduce the settlement.
Therefore, we believe that the soft ground after
reinforcement with sand, cement, and lime is a new
ground with the new composition, state, and
mechanical properties. It is then possible to
calculate the bearing capacity and the settlement of
the ground according to the theory of elastic and
linear deformation. The problem is to determine
the suitable amount of sand, cement, and lime so
that the strength of the mixture column is not so
different compared to the reinforced ground. In this
case, the reinforced ground can be considered as
linear, uniform, and isotropic ground. However,
when calculating the settlement after
reinforcement, there are some issues: the amount
of sand, cement, and lime is considered as the
cause of settlement or not? This is a complex issue,
and there is much debate. We consider that it is
important to distinguish between slow construction
and quick construction.
In the case of slow construction, it is the case
that the construction works are built after some
time of the reinforcement. In this case, it is
possible to consider the reinforced ground as a new
natural ground, because the amount of sand,
cement, and lime added to the ground has been
fully utilized (mechanical compression,
consolidation, and strengthening of the columns
and soils). As a result, the reinforced soft ground
turns into a new ground, with the new composition,
state, and mechanical properties, and the
calculation of the bearing capacity and deformation
was the same as for the natural ground. That is, the
amount of sand, cement, and lime cannot be
considered as an external load caused settlement.
In the case of fast construction, the construction
works are immediately erected after completion of
the reinforcement process. In this case, it is clear
that the amount of sand, cement, and lime added to
the ground only promotes the effect of mechanical
compression while the effect of consolidation
process and increasing the strength of columns and
soil around the columns has not yet finished. Thus,
only a part of sand, cement, lime is considered the
external load causes deformation. The rest, over
time, will continue to promote consolidation effect,
increase the intensity of columns and reinforced
soils. That is, only a part of the mixture is an
external load caused the settlement. However, the
Tab. 1. Physico-mechanical properties of soils in the research area
Properties Unit
Unit weight g/cm3
Void ratio
Water content % 47.18
Liquidity index
Friction angle Degree
Cohesion force kG/cm2
Coefficient of compression cm2/kG
Modulus kG/cm2
With the above soil ground structure, the
engineers consulted using the reinforced concrete
pile with the size of 20x20 cm, pile length of 25 m
and placed on layer 4. However, the use of
determination of how many percentages of sand,
cement, and lime to put into the ground and acts as
external load causing instantaneous settlement and
how many percentages of sand, cement, and lime
causing consolidation is still unclear and needs
further investigation in theoretical and empirical
research. We proposed that about 50% of sand,
cement, and lime can be considered as the external
load to calculate the settlement.
3. A case study: Soft soil improvement in Tay
Thai Thuy High School, Thai Binh province
3.1. Soil profile
Tay Thai Thuy high school, Thai Binh province
was built in Thuy Anh commune, Thai Thuy
district, Thai Binh province. It is a 3-floor building
with 21 classrooms, 2 stairs, and 3 toilets. The
construction has the length of 82.4 m, the width of
11.0 m, the height 10.8 m, and the area used of
2006 m2.
The ground structure of this site to the depth of
21 m consists of 4 soil layers (Thai Binh
Construction Surveying and Design Consultant
Company, 1999) in order from top to bottom as
follows:
Layer 1: covered soil, composed of clay mixed
with broken bricks, the thickness of 0.6 to 1.0 m;
Layer 2: Sandy clay mud mixed with grey silty
sand, organic matter, thickness from 7.0 to 8.0 m.
Layer 3: Clay mud mixed with sandy clay mud,
an average thickness of 12.0 m.
The mean values of some physico-mechanical
properties of these layers are presented in Table 1.
Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3
1.67 1.65 1.72
1.387 1.315 1.006
46.25 45.3
1.351 1.274 0.75
6o35’ 6o12’ 10o12’
0.05 0.07 0.18
0.101 0.107 0.054
22.0 21.0 59.0
reinforced concrete pile will increase the cost of
the project, so after analyzing and calculating the
technical and economic factors, we recommend the
210
solution of strip footing placed on the reinforced
ground using sand-cement-lime column methods.
3.2. Determine the suitable cement and lime
contents
The determination of appropriate cement and
lime content is very important, both economic
savings and create a ground that can be considered
as homogeneous, isotropic to apply the method of
elastic theory and linear deformation calculation.
To determine the suitable cement and lime
content used, we prepared the remolded samples
with medium grain sand, P300 Hoang Thach
cement, and lime powder. The content of cement
and lime is calculated in percentage of dry sand,
respectively, cement: 5.0, 7.5, 10, 12.5, and 15%,
lime: 5.0, 7.0, 9.0, and 11%. Dry sand, cement, and
lime are mixed in the pot and add water slowly by
spraying. The specimen is molded in the plastic
tube with a diameter of 86 mm and a height of 172
mm. When molding, only let the water soak the
sample so that it does not drain and flow out of the
plastic tube. After molding the samples, the
samples were sprayed with water on the surface
and after 28 days of curing, the samples were taken
for permeability and compression testing. The total
number of samples was 25. The results of the
experiment are shown in Table 2 and Table 3.

Tab. 2. The average value of permeability, k (m/day)

No Cement Lime content (%)
content (%) (in the percentage of dry sand)
0.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0
1 0.0 26.45
2 5. 0 22.85 21.82 20.46 18.77 17.12
3 7.5 18.49 17.27 16.09 14.78 13.56
4 10.0 3.66 3.14 2.67 2.06 1.64
5 12.5 1.17 1.00 0.80 0.61 0.38
6 15.0 0.80 0.70 0.47 0.33 0.23

Tab. 3. The average value of unconfined compression strength (kG/cm2)

No Cement Lime content (%)
content (%) (in the percentage of dry sand)
0.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0
1 5.0 1.6 2.3 3.5 4.8 6.6
2 7.5 5.5 7.2 9.2 11.8 15.0
3 10.0 21.2 22.7 24.2 25.7 27.6
4 12.5 49.8 49.8 50.1 50.5 50.7
5 15.0 60.4 60.4 60.6 60.5 60.6

From the experimental results, some comments
can be drawn as follows:
-The permeability coefficient of medium grain
sand without cement and lime is 26.45 m/day;
-The permeability coefficient of the sample
gradually decreases as the cement and lime content
increases;
-When the cement content increases to above
10%, the permeability of the sample reduces
significantly;
- The appropriate cement content in the sand-
cement-lime mixture should be less than 10%, the
lime content should be less than or equal to 9%
because then the permeability (k)is above 2m/day
can allow water to permeate.
- The compressive strength of the samples is
proportional to the content of cement and lime.
However, since the post reinforcement, the total
deformation modulus of the columns and the soil
around the columns should be almost similar to
apply the elastic theory in calculating the bearing

211
capacity of the ground and the settlement of the
building. The cement content and lime used should
be less than or equal to 10%.
Based on the experiments and analysis of
technical and economic efficiency, we recommend
to choosing the cement content of 7.5%, lime
content of 7%. At that point, the sand-cement-lime
columns will have a permeability coefficient of k =
16.09 m/day, the compressive strength is 9.2
kG/cm2.
3. Design of sand-cement-lime column
*Reinforced area
The reinforced area at the bottom of the
foundation shall be calculated according to the
following formula:
Fgc = 1.4b×(a+0.4b) (Trap et al., 1985)
In which: Fgcis the reinforced area; a, b is the
length and width of the foundation bottom.
Reinforced depth
The depth of reinforcement is also the length of
the column, depending on the soft soil and the
depth of influenced zone caused by the external
load. If the soft soil layer is distributed near the
surface and beneath it is a strong soil layer, the
thickness of the soft soil layer should be
reinforced. However, it is better to reinforce
the soil to the depth of influenced zone, usually at
a depth that satisfies one of the following
conditions (Thinh and Phuong, 2002):
- The compressive stress caused by the external
load is less than or equal to 0.1 of the stress caused
by the soil weight at that point;
- Compressive stress due to the external load is
equal to the stress which starts causing
consolidation;
- Compressive stress caused by the external
load is equal to the structural durability of the soil;
- Compressive stress caused by the external
load is less than 0.2 kG/cm2 (20 Pa).
The results show that, at a depth of 7.5 m, the
compressive stress caused by the external load is
less than or equal to 0.1 of the stress caused by the
soil weight. Therefore, the length of the reinforced
column is of 7.5 m.
Diameter and distance between columns
Based on the size and load of construction
works, the length of the column, and features of
212
construction equipment, the diameter of the
column of 30 cm is chosen.
The distance among the columns is calculated
depending on the grid layout. The rectangular grid
is proposed with the distance among columns is
1m.
Construction equipment
Special equipment such as LPS-3 from Linden
Alimak – Sweden or vibrating hammer with steel
tube can be used. However, the use of specialized
machines requires a large construction site while
the use of vibrating hammers affects the
surrounding constructions. Thus, we use the
construction equipment UGB-50M drilling
machine of the Russian Federation. This is a
versatile drilling machine with a capacity of 150
HP which can be drilled by torsion springs with
reverse rotation. The working principle of the
equipment is to use the hydraulic system of the
machine and the weight of the equipment to
counterbalance when input materials into the
ground.
The sand-cement-lime column after rein for
cement (Figure 1).
Fig. 1. The sand-cement-lime column
4. Results
After reinforcement, we have drilled 3 holes
directly into 3 columns, taken 6 samples (at
different depths), drilled 3 holes in the reinforced
ground and taken 6 soil samples. In addition, we
also conducted 3 static penetration tests, 3 plate
loading tests to check and evaluate the efficiency
of the reinforcing process. The plate loading test
should cover a group of four columns and the soil
around the pile. Laboratory and field experiments
showed that the mechanical properties of the
reinforced ground have been significantly
improved. The porosity decreased, the unit weight
increased. The natural water content and liquidity
index decreased. The increase in the strength of the
ground is shown by the increased friction angle,
viscosity, and total deformation modulus, and
reduced compression coefficient (see Table 4).
The physico-mechanical properties of the
reinforced ground are used to calculate the load
bearing capacity and the settlement according to
the formulas of elastic theory and linear
deformation. The calculated results show that the
bearing capacity of the ground after reinforcement
is greater than the stress caused by the external
load at the bottom of the foundation, the settlement
is smaller than the allowed limit.

Tab. 4. Physico-mechanical properties of layer 2 before and after reinforcement

Before After
Properties Unit Evaluation
reinforcement reinforcement
Unit weight g/cm3 1.67 1.78 increased by 6.6%
Void ratio 1.387 1.131 decreased by 18.5%
Water content % 47.18 41.05 decreased by 13%
Liquidity index 1.351 1.232 decreased by 10%
Friction angle degree 6 35’
o
9 39’
o
increased by 68%
Cohesion force kG/cm2 0.05 0.113 increased by 126%
Compression
cm2/kG 0.101 0.045 decreased by 55%
coefficient
Modulus deformation kG/cm2 22.0 83 increased by 277%
2
Compressive strength kG/cm 24 18 (practical)

5. Conclusions and recommendations should be taken equally to the depth of the

The following conclusions can be withdrawn as
follows:
- The sand-cement-lime column method for soft
soil improvement is a new method. The
methodological principles are to increase the
bearing capacity of the ground, reduce the
settlement of the construction works, including
mechanical compression, consolidation, and
intensification of the strength of columns and soil
around columns. The soft ground after
reinforcement can be considered as a new ground
with the new composition, state, and mechanical
properties, and can use elastic theory, linear
deformation theory to calculate the bearing
capacity and settlement.
- The suitable content of cement, lime used is
7.5 to 10% and 7 to 9% respectively (compared
with the weight of medium to coarse grain sand).
The diameter of the sand-cement-lime columns can
be taken from 30 to 60 cm, the column length
compression area caused by the external load.
- The soft soil improvement results at Tay Thai
Thuy High School, Thai Binh using the method of
sand-cement-lime column shows that, after
reinforcement, the shearing resistance of reinforced
ground significantly increased (cohesion increased
by 126%, friction angle increased by 68%), the
settlement significantly decreased (i.e.,
compression coefficient decreased by 55%).
- Currently, the lime powder is less and less
used, so in practice, it is possible to use only sand
and cement. However, medium and coarse sand
materials are increasingly scarce, so further
research is needed to use fine and small grain sand
References
[1] Bergado D.T, Chai J.C, Alfaro M.C,
Balasubramaniam A.S (1994).
Improvement techniques of soft ground in
subsiding and lowland environment.
A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam.

213
[2] Thai Binh Construction Surveying and
Design Consultant Company (1999).
Report of Geological engineering
investigation in Tay Thai Thuy High
School, Thai Binh province.
[3] Trap, N, Dung, N. A (1985). Completion
report of scientific and technical progress
application program (code 26-03-03-07).
Institute of Civil Engineering, Hanoi.
[4] Thinh, T. D. (2017). On the calculation of
bearing capacity and settlement of soil-
cement reinforced ground. Journal of
Mining and Earth Science. No 58, Volume
5 (in Vietnamese).
214
[5] Thinh, T. D. (2002). Completion report of
the Ministerial project. Research on the
method of soil-cement-lime stabilized
ground (in Vietnamese).
[6] Thinh, T. D, Phuong, N. H. (2002). Soil
mechanics. Construction Publishing
House, Ha Noi (in Vietnamese).
[7] University of mining and geology (2016).
Completion report of the Ministerial
project for Research and Evaluation of
integrated Geological conditions of the
Northern coastal area in service of socio-
economic development planning, security
defense and response to climate change,
sea level rise (in Vietnamese).
 EFFECTS OF LIME ON IMPROVING SWELLING CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE SOILWEATHERED FROM ACID MAGMATIC ROCK IN THE CENTRAL
HIGHLANDS OF VIETNAM

Nguyen Huy Vuong1, Vu Ba Thao1, Dang Hoang Thanh2, Nguyen Manh Ha4,
Bui Truong Son3, Pham Tuan1, Dinh Van Thuc1, Tran Van Quang1
1
Hydraulic Construction Institute, Vietnam
2
Vietnam Academy for Water Resources, Vietnam
3
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
4
Institute of Geography, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: huyvuongdkt@gmail.com,

Abstract: This paper presents the research results on the effects of lime on improving expansive
characteristics and shear strength of soils weathered from acid igneous rocks in the Central Highlands of
Vietnam. Swell tests were implemented for the mixtures of soil and lime with variety of lime contents of
1%, 3% and 5% over periods of 0, 7, 14 and 30 days. Direct shear tests on soil-lime mixtures were also
carried out to analyze the effects of lime on shear resistance characteristics of those samples. By adding
5% of lime, the swelling degree of the soil shows a significant decrease, from 19% to 4%. In addition, the
shear strength of the soil also has a noticeable improvement.

Keywords: soil improvement; swelling soil; lime; shear resistance; central highlands of Vietnam.

1. Motivation of the soil might develop cracks in the dam body,

Swelling, shrinkage and disintegration are the
particular properties of soil that characterize
weathered root of the soil. In comparison with
sedimentary soil that was formed by depositing in
water, weathered soil is formed by processes of
changing in physical and chemical characteristics
and thus, changing in soil’s properties. In other
words, the weathered soil in the process of
formation and existence “do not absorb water" so
under the effect of watering, the soil will show
phenomena of swelling, shrinkage and
disintegration in different levels. The phenomena
of swelling can cause erosion, damage on
structures or buildings, for instance: pavement,
roof tile of dam, canal, roof overflows, [7] etc.
Swelling of the soil can also result in instability of
dam’s faces, roads roofs. Swelling and shrinkage
road body and consequently, cause leaking which
can lead to dam failure if there is no appropriate
solution [7].
The Central Highlands is a large area and its
surface is covered by weathered shell of
terrigenous sedimentary formations, basalt, acidic
igneous and metamorphic rocks. In that weathered
soil from acidic igneous rocks occupies
approximately 30% [1] [2] [3] the whole area with
a wide range of construction works on it. Even
though the weathered soil from acidic igneous rock
is a disadvantage to construction but the
construction works to serve the economic
development and improve people's daily lives in
the region is inevitable. Therefore, the research
problems overcoming their adverse properties,
especially the swelling to build is needed.

215
 This paper presents the results of research
examining the effects of lime on swelling
properties and shear resistance of the weathered
soil from acid magma rocks in the Central
Highlands. In this study, the experiment of
swelling - lime and soil mixture made with lime
content of 1%, 3% and 5% in the old days 0, 7, 15
and 30 days. Direct shear test of soil mixed with
5% lime is also performed to determine the
influence of lime and shear strength of reinforced
lime soil.
2. The scientific basis of improving soil by
applying lime
When soil become swelling makes the binding
force between soil particles is reduced, until the
swelling pressure is greater than the binding force
of the soil particles, the disintegration phenomenon
starts happening to lead to the work incident. On
that view, when add lime to increase the binding
force of the soil particles do eliminate swelling
pressure which can reduce the swelling of the land.
2.1. The Role of Lime in Soil Improvement
When mixing lime with the soil, due to the
physical and chemical reactions processes
occurring it has changed the physical and chemical
properties of the soil. The reason is because: when
mixing lime with the soil has 2 effects [6]:
Dehumidifying with small dispersal land with
high humidity, reduce soil moisture
Lime acts as a soil binder
In fact, there are two common types of lime:
slake lime and finely shredded lime do not slake.
Lime do not slake have different advantages
compared with slaked lime, which is: when
interacted with water it is capable of agglutination
and frozen quickly, may be in 5 to 10 minutes,
which means 50 to 100 times faster with slaked
lime. When hydration it, it has the ability to absorb
a large water amount, from (32 to 100% of the
original volume).
2.2. The chemical and physical processes
occurring when mixing lime with the soil
When mixing lime with the soil, the lime
hydration process happens as follows [6]:
CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2 + 1.53 KcaL (1)
The energy generated by the process of lime
hydration effect to reduce moisture of soil.
216
According K.B. Eegorov (1962), increasing the
durability of land at initial period under K.B.
Eegorov (1962) is formed by the hydroxide -
Silicates, when the effect of Ca (OH) 2 with SiO2
particles dispersal small, according to the
following equation:
SiO2 + X Ca(OH)2 +nH2O = x CaO.SiO2 (n+1)H2O
(2)
Crystallisation process Ca(OH)2 should have
the certain conditions, the crystal Ca(OH)2 can also
soluble in water.The increased durability followed
by the formation and sustainability of silicate
hydroxide, carbonate calcium hydroxide and
magnesium. The carbonate calcium Ca (OH)2 takes
place under the effect of CO2 in the air and in the
water.
Simultaneously with the process of cation
exchange absorption in the soil, the land
environment rich in ion Ca2+ (Ca(OH)2 dissociate
under reaction Ca(OH)2 →Ca2+ + 2OH-). Soil
aggregates are formed, CaCO3 as well as other
chemical compounds are a major role combine
particles and the volume of sustainable, increasing
the durability of the land.
According to Prof Ho Chat [6], when reinforce
soil, the presence of water (including the amount
of hydrated molecules) is a necessary condition for
the chemical and physical effects of lime with
organic mineral composition of the soil. In which a
mixture of lime mixed with soil, first occurs
hydrate turned completely CaO into Ca (OH) 2.
Then from there arises the phenomenon hydrated
soil particles are absorbed by the ions Ca++
and element Ca(OH)2 to form silicate hydrogen
compound (CaO.SiO2(n + 1) H2O). Besides, the
penetration into the soil, mechanical composition
(degree of dispersion) of the mixture will be major
changes due to the presence of an extra amount of
fine particles of slake lime Ca(OH)2. That
conditions increase the glue activity of the soil.
3. The research methodology and results
3.1. Objectives and Methodology
Test with original soil (soil do not mixed lime
yet):
The purpose of this series of experiments was
to determine the physical and mechanical
characteristics, physical, mechanical and special
properties of original soil to assess the quality of
the made ground material and a basis comparable
with the targets lime soil mixture material later.
After compaction determine the targets as the
best density, the best moisture, conduct to prepare
in the density pattern K = 0.90; 0.93; 0.95; and
0.98. The level of preparation compaction will be
unchanged for the whole of the next series of
experiments in order to ensure comparable
conditions in the degree of compaction. The
number of samples are prepared to ensure quantity
test 03 samples for each property in the non -
saturated and saturated condition.
Conduct mix soil with lime under different
ratios: 1%, 3% and 5% rate namely lime - soil at
levels 11,7,5,3 and 1% to make each series of
corresponding experiments. For each rate, which
chosen to implement mixing in accordance with
standards. After mixing will receive 5 categories
lime - soil mixture. Test results not only show
reasonable soil mixture control of the soil swelling
but also know rules variable nature of reinforced
lime - soil properties according to the change of
function of lime in the soil.
To study the effect of lime to soil swelling
properties as well as some of the physical and
mechanical soil we conducted tests the following
properties (Table 3.1)
Tab. 3.1. The properties test and applied
standards.
No Properties test Applied standards
1 Water content TCVN 4196:2012
2 Compaction test TCVN 4201:2012
3 Atterberg limit TCVN 4197:2012
4 Direct shear test TCVN 4199:2012
5 Swelling Test TCVN 8719:2012
6 Cured sample 22 TCN 81-84
3.2. Test results Mechanical – Physical
properties of natural soil
To define Mechanical - physical properties of
soil materials sample: mixed soil samples taken
from the field on together then divide into 4 parts
and 03 samples taken randomly in part to conduct
tests determine the physical properties and
compaction properties of soil sample.
Experiments soil we select clayed soil
weathered derived from acid magma rocks taken
from expected mine to exploit to upgrade Sen
Lake, M’dr k District, Dak Lak province.
Requirements of the experiment soil sample is
characteristics soil mines and simultaneous has
high homogeneity in to research results reflect the
correlation between the concentration of limestone
with clay content, avoid being affected by the
variation of clay content. Test results are presented
in Table 3.2

Tab. 3.2. The physical properties of the initial soil sample.

Particle-size distribution (%) Atterberg limits Optimum

Specific Maximum
Sample Cobble Sand Clay Liquid Plastic Plastic water
Silt (mm) gravity Density
symbol (mm) (mm) (mm) limit limit index content
>2 2-0,05 0.05-0.005 <0.005 LL PL IP  c, max Wp
VL01 2,9 56,8 20,7 19,6 37,7 21,4 16,3 2,70 1,68 18,5
VL02 3,7 55,7 21,4 19,1 36,9 20,4 16,5 2,71 1,67 18,9
VL03 1,8 57,8 20,2 20,2 38,1 21,5 16,6 2,70 1,67 18,7
Average 2,8 56,8 20,8 19,6 37,6 21,1 16,5 2,70 1,67 18,7

Thus, the selected soil the results determination
clay content is very stable, the largest deviation
compared to an average value only 0.6%. It can be
concluded selected and chose to test is met
requirement.
3.3. Effect of lime on the swelling properties of
soil.
The mixing ratios is the optimal mixing ratio
how the proportion of lime mix in the soil so that
the product obtained when put into construction for
maximum dry density, shear strength, smallest
permeability coefficient, null or reduce the

217
swelling soil below the permitted level. To choose
the best mix ratio we have conducted soil mixed
with lime at the different levels of detail: 1%, 3%,
and 5%, 7% and 11%. each mixing ratio we
conduct the test compaction standards and samples
are prepared in accordance with the density K =
0.90; 0.93; 0.95; 0.98 to test method in Table 3.1.
Summarize test results of swelling and swelling
pressure of the soil are presented in Table
3.3a,3.3b,3.3c.3.3d

Fig. 3.1. Test sample

Tab. 3.3a. Swelling degree and swelling pressure of the soil before and after mixing lime at 0 days

Soil, which do not mix lime Soil after mixing lime at 0 days old
Density
Swelling degree Swelling Swelling degree Swelling Pressure
K
(%) Pressure (kPa) 1% 3% 5% 1% 3% 5%
0,90 15,9 0,21 15,7 11,8 5,3 0,20 0,14 0,08
0,93 16,9 0,24 16,5 12,7 6,1 0,22 0,15 0,09
0,95 18,3 0,31 17,2 13,1 7,4 0,26 0,16 0,10
0,98 19,0 0,37 18,2 14,4 7,6 0,32 0,18 0,12

Tab. 3.3b. Swelling degree and swelling pressure of the soil before and after mixing lime at 7 days
Soil, which do not mix lime Soil after mixing lime at 7 days old
Density
Swelling Swelling Soil swelling degree Swelling Pressure
K
degree (%) Pressure (kPa) 1% 3% 5% 1% 3% 5%
0,90 15,9 0,21 10,3 6,1 1,1 0,13 0,12 0,04
0,93 16,9 0,24 10,5 7,2 1,2 0,16 0,13 0,04
0,95 18,3 0,31 12,1 7,4 1,4 0,17 0,13 0,04
0,98 19,0 0,37 13,8 8,2 1,4 0,19 0,14 0,03

Tab. 3.3c. Swelling degree and swelling pressure of the soil before and after mixing lime at 14 days

Soil, which do not mix lime Soil after mixing lime at 14 days old
Density
Swelling degree Swelling Soil swelling degree Swelling Pressure
K
(%) Pressure (kPa) 1% 3% 5% 1% 3% 5%
0,90 15,9 0,21 8,7 5,4 0,9 0,11 0,07 0,02
0,93 16,9 0,24 9,4 6,6 1,1 0,14 0,08 0,02
0,95 18,3 0,31 9,5 7,1 1,3 0,14 0,09 0,02
0,98 19,0 0,37 10,2 7,4 1,4 0,15 0,10 0,02

218
 Tab. 3.3d. Swelling degree and swelling pressure of the soil before and after mixing lime at 30 days
Soil, which do not mix lime Soil after mixing lime at 30 days old
Density
Swelling Swelling Soil swelling degree Swelling Pressure
K
degree (%) Pressure (kPa) 1% 3% 5% 1% 3% 5%
0,90 15,9 0,21 8,3 4,6 0,9 0,10 0,05 0,02
0,93 16,9 0,24 8,8 5,7 1,1 0,11 0,06 0,02
0,95 18,3 0,31 9,1 6,1 1,3 0,12 0,07 0,02
0,98 19,0 0,37 9,4 6,7 1,3 0,13 0,07 0,02

To achieve the goal, from the results of test we
established the relationship between lime content
with swelling degree, swelling pressure, for each
degree of compaction. The vertical axis - the
numerical function axis are the targets, a horizontal
axis - the variable is lime content. Charts is
correlative 5 density degrees on the drawing. The
chart which in turn is shown in Fig.3. 2, Fig.3. 3,
Fig.3. 4, Fig.3.5.

Fig. 3.2. Relations between swelling, swelling pressure and lime content at 0 days old

Fig. 3.3. Relations between swelling, swelling pressure and lime content at 7 days

219
 Fig. 3.4. Relations between swelling, swelling pressure and lime content at 14 days

Fig. 3.5. Relations between swelling, swelling pressure and lime content at 14 days

From the test results shown in Fig.3.2 to Fig.3.5
shows, in the same day old at all tightness, lime
content increases, the pressure of swelling and
swelling reduce, except for 0 days old, remaining
in the case of 7-days old and the older days when
the lime content of about 4% to 5%, the swelling
were reduced smaller on the allowed swelling and
when that remaining swelling pressure reduce
down very small, about 0.02 kg / cm2. Thus the
best mixing ratio to swell reaches standard for the
selected original soil lime is 5%.
3.4. To study the effect of lime content on the soil
shear resistance
The lime-soil mixture’s shear resistance is
defined by the direct shear test so to determine the
effect of lime content of the soil to the shear
resistance we conduct the prepared soil samples
with the lime content of 1%, 3% and 5% in density
K = 0.90; K = 0.93; K = K, 95; K = 0.98, and
curing at the old days (0, day, 7 days, 14 days and
30 days), then develop the direct shear test soil
samples were non-saturated and water saturated.
Test results shear resistance of the material sample
are presented in Table 3.4a, 3.4b, 3.4c, 3.4d.

220
 Tab. 3.4a. The shear resistance of the soil before and after mixing lime at 0 days
Soil after mixing lime at 0 days
Soil do not mix lime
1% lime 3% lime 5% lime
Density Non- Non- Non- Non-
Saturated Saturated Saturated Saturated
saturated saturated saturated saturated
sample sample sample sample
sample sample sample sample
0,90 1,748 0,731 1,802 0,765 1,785 0,833 1,819 0,876
0,93 1,870 0,813 1,921 0,884 1,972 0,969 2,006 0,978
0,95 1,961 0,842 2,040 0,901 2,066 1,284 2,066 1,318
0,98 2,136 0,995 2,136 0,995 2,219 1,454 2,270 1,522

Tab. 3.4b. The shear resistance of the soil before and after mixing lime at 7 days
Soil after mixing lime at 7 days old
Soil do not mix lime
1% 3% 5%
Density Non- Non- Non- Non-
Saturated Saturated Saturated Saturated
saturated saturated saturated saturated
sample sample sample sample
sample sample sample sample
0,90 1,748 0,731 1,927 0,805 2,210 1,275 2,788 1,972
0,93 1,870 0,813 2,035 1,199 2,329 1,326 2,984 2,040
0,95 1,961 0,842 2,165 1,292 2,389 1,462 3,018 2,117
0,98 2,136 0,995 2,323 1,405 2,525 1,522 3,094 2,125

Tab. 3.4c. The shear resistance of the soil before and after mixing lime at 14 days
Soil after mixing lime at 14 days old
Soil do not mix lime
1% 3% 5%
Density Non- Non- Non- Non-
Saturated Saturated Saturated Saturated
saturated saturated saturated saturated
sample sample sample sample
sample sample sample sample
0,90 1,748 0,731 2,029 0,850 2,363 1,343 2,805 2,057
0,93 1,870 0,813 2,125 1,221 2,567 1,377 3,086 2,159
0,95 1,961 0,842 2,230 1,323 2,576 1,590 3,145 2,227
0,98 2,136 0,995 2,329 1,414 2,933 1,658 3,341 2,304

Tab. 3.4d. The shear resistance of the soil before and after mixing lime at 30 days
Soil after mixing lime at 30 days old
Soil do not mix lime
1% 3% 5%
Density Non- Non- Non- Non-
Saturated Saturated Saturated Saturated
saturated saturated saturated saturated
sample sample sample sample
sample sample sample sample
0,90 1,748 0,731 2,102 1,235 2,550 1,360 3,026 2,210
0,93 1,870 0,813 2,142 1,258 2,635 1,411 3,256 2,210
0,95 1,961 0,842 2,267 1,337 2,695 1,675 3,315 2,380
0,98 2,136 0,995 2,369 1,422 3,213 1,785 3,502 2,380

Based on the test results we established charts
the relationship between the lime content of the
soil shear resistance according the same days old in
the Non-saturated and saturated conditions. In
which the vertical axis indicates the shear
resistance of the soil, the horizontal axis indicates
the lime content. These relations are shown in
Fig.3.6.

221
Fig. 3.6. Relations between the shear resistance and lime content in non-saturated and saturated
conditions at different days old.

222
 Test results showed that the soil shear
resistance depends on the lime content and curing
days. For this type of selected soil for test, the
increase of the soil shear resistance by mixing
more lime is described as follows:
When mixed more 1% lime, in the non-
saturated conditions, the shear resistance of the
lime - soil mixture in non-saturated conditions
increase compared with soil do not mix lime 4% at
0 days old, 10% at 7 days old, 13% at 14 days old
and 15% at 30 days old compared with soil do not
mix lime. In saturated conditions the shear strength
increase 7% days old, 53% at 7 days old, 57% at
14 days old and 59% at 30 days old compared with
soil do not mix lime.
When mixed more 3% lime, in the non-
saturated conditions, the shear resistance of the
lime -soil mixture in non-saturated conditions
increase compared with soil do not mix lime 5% at
0 days old, 22% at 7 days old, 31% at 14 days old
and 37% at 30 days old compared with soil do not
mix lime. In saturated conditions the shear strength
increase 52% at 0 days old, 74% at 7 days old,
90% at 14 days old and 99 % at 30 days old
compared with soil do not mix lime.
When mixed more 5% lime, in the non-
saturated conditions, the shear resistance of the
lime - soil mixture in prepared conditions increase
compared with soil do not mix lime 5% at 0 days
old, 54% at 7 days old, 60% at 14 days old and
69% at 30 days old compared with soil do not mix
lime. In saturated conditions the shear strength
increase 57% at 0 days old, 152% at 7 days old,
164% at 14 days old and 183 % at 30 days old
compared with soil do not mix lime.
4. Conclusion
Swelling properties of the soil weathered from
acid igneous rocks can be completely solved by
adding lime. Results of swelling test and direct
shear test show that the mixture of weathered soil
and 5% lime, the swelling rate might decrease
from 19% to less than 4%, and so satisfy the
requirement of embankment’s soil. The shear
strength also has a significant increase, by 69%
and 183% in the non – and saturated the saturated
conditions, respectively.
223
5.Acknowledgement
This research is a part of the National project
“Research on the use of natural puzolan in
construction and maintenance of rural traffic and
irrigation works in Dak Nong province.”. Code:
ĐTĐL.CN-55/16, proposed and implemented by
Hydraulic Construction Institute.
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 SOIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BIOLOGICAL - BASED METHOD

Pham Phu Vinh1, Leon A. van Paassen2

1
Thuy Loi University, Vietnam
2
Arizona State University, United State
Corresponding author’ Email: phamphuvinh@tlu.edu.vn

Abstract: Improving and altering soil foundation conditions is a common task in construction and
civil engineering. Besides conventional ground improvement methods, there are several biological
processes that can improve ground properties by precipitating calcium carbonate. Microbially Induced
Carbonate Precipitation, MICP, using microbially catalyzed hydrolysis of urea has been demonstrated at
field scale to significantly increase the soil strength. Another biological process that can be used for
MICP is denitrification. In this process indigenous denitrifying bacteria are supplied with a solution
containing calcium fatty acids and calcium nitrate, which allows them to precipitate calcium carbonate,
which forms cementing bonds between the sand grains increasing strength and stiffness. Besides
precipitating calcium carbonate, these bacteria also produce nitrogen gas. The formation of gas reduces
the water saturation, which may be utilized to increase the soil resistance to dynamic loading. Hence,
denitrification based MICP or Microbially Induced Desaturation and Precipitation, MIDP, has two ways
in which it alters ground properties and therefore expands the potential of biological processes to improve
the ground conditions for different applications. Appropriate substrate concentrations and supplying
regimes are required to maintain a good microbial activity and obtain a high reaction rate. To a certain
extent the process can be directed towards one of the reaction products by adjusting the treatment regime
in order to obtain the desired properties for specific applications.

Keywords: MICP; MIDP; denitrification; precipitation; soil improvement.

1. Introduction favorable conditions to induce calcium carbonate

Ground improvement is commonly applied in
construction and civil engineering, which aims to
ensure the stability of a foundation to support the
structures above such as buildings, dams or
highways. There are various techniques of ground
improvement, corresponding with different soil
types, structural load and depth that can be listed:
compaction, preloading and drainage, stabilization
by mixing with lime or cement, jet grouting, deep
mixing or compaction piles (Das 2007). Besides
these conventional methods, there is another
approach which aims to learn from the natural
transition of soil into rock and tries to apply (and
accelerate) this natural ground improvement
process. In nature, this transition can be stimulated
by many different organisms which can produce
carbonate and alkalinity and therefore create
(CaCO3) precipitation, which cements the soil and
increase its strength. Following this approach,
various researchers and studies have reached
significant progress proving the applicability of
such methods for ground improvement purposes.
This paper will give an overview of those
biological methods for soil improvement and focus
on the method whose effects are to desaturate and
strengthen the soil.
2. Overview of biological methods for soil
improvement
Attention to microbial induced carbonate
precipitation (MICP) has increased in recent years
thanks to its potential of bonding soil particles. The
bonding effect has been considered for a wide
range of geotechnical and environmental
applications (Dejong et al. 2013, Phillips et al.

225
2013). There are several biological processes that
can trigger MICP as generalized by Zhu and
Dittrich (2016), namely photosynthesis, ureolysis,
denitrification, ammonification, sulfate reduction
and methane oxidation. In principle all these
metabolic pathways, which are conducted by
different microbial groups, result in an increase of
dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and increase the
alkalinity in the environment. In the presence of
dissolved calcium and available nucleation sites,
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) precipitation will take
place. For the interest of ground improvement
techniques, most studies on MICP were based on
the hydrolysis of urea, more recently followed by
the denitrification.
It has been demonstrated at laboratory scale
(DeJong et al. 2006, Whiffin et al. 2007, Harkers et
al. 2010, Chu et al. 2012, Montoya et al. 2013) and
field scale (DeJong et al. 2009, Van Paassen et al.
2010b, Burbank et al. 2011, van Paassen 2011) that
MICP by urea hydrolysis can significantly
strengthen granular soils, which leads to a wide
range of potential applications. However
commercial applications of MICP by urea
hydrolysis are still limited, partly due to the costs
for cultivation of ureolytic bacteria and the
required removal of ammonium chloride, which is
formed as a by-product of the process. MICP by
denitrification has been considered as a potential
alternative bio-mediated ground improvement
process, as it has several advantages over urea
hydrolysis (Karatas 2008, van Paassen et al. 2010a,
Kavazanjian et al. 2015). When nitrate is
completely reduced to nitrogen gas, no adverse by-
products are formed for which removal effort is
required. The required substrates for denitrification
are sufficiently soluble to limit the number of
injections that are required to reach a target amount
of calcium carbonate. Substrates for denitrification
can even be produced from waste streams and the
conversion does not require cultivation of very
specific organisms. In fact of indigenous
populations of denitrifying bacteria can be used or
stimulated in situ (Paassen 2009, Van der Star et
al. 2009, Martin et al. 2013).
The full system of reactions for denitrification-
based MICP can be divided in three parts: (i)
226
biological denitrification, (ii) acid-base equilibrium
reactions and (iii) phase separation. This system is
described in Fig. Biological denitrification is the
irreversible reaction, in which microorganisms
consume nitrate (NO3-) or nitrite (NO2-) and a
carbon source, which is acetate (C2H3O2-) in this
study. When the denitrification reaction is
complete dinitrogen (N2) and dissolved inorganic
carbon (DIC) are produced. Through acid-base
equilibria, ions can be present in an aqueous
solution as different soluble species depending on
the chemical composition and the pH of the
solution. Inorganic carbon dissociates into carbon
dioxide (CO2), bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonate
(CO3-2) and forms complex species with cations in
solution. Bicarbonate is the main product at neutral
pH. At a suitable pH and with dissolved calcium
ions (Ca+2) in excess, calcium carbonate will
precipitate and transfer to the solid phase. In a soil
this would decrease porosity and permeability,
increase bulk and dry density and support particle
bonding, which may increase strength and
stiffness. On the other side phase separation can
also occur when produced nitrogen or carbon
dioxide transfer to the gas phase. Introducing a gas
phase into the system can form a water barrier,
reducing hydraulic conductivity or reduce water
saturation, reducing bulk liquid stiffness, which
can improve the undrained strength of a soil
(Rebata-Landa and Santamarina 2011).
The MIDP method has some challenges that
need to be overcome. The method is expected not
to have harmful by-products, but incomplete
denitrification can result in accumulation of its
intermediates which are toxic to the environment
(Zumft 1997, Madigan et al. 2012). Therefore, one
of the challenges in studying MIDP is to ensure a
complete denitrification without accumulation of
its toxic intermediates. Employing the gas
production for ground improvement purposes
raises the question about stability and persistence
of the gas phase, so another challenge is to control
the gas formation and distribution and endure its
stability in the soil. About the calcium carbonate
precipitation, the reported rate of precipitation of
MIDP is limited within several weight-% in a
treatment duration of several months, which is
significantly lower than the rate obtained in MICP
based on urea hydrolysis. Therefore, increasing the
precipitation rate is desirable on one hand. On the
other hand, optimizing the process for applications
Fig. 1. Calcium carbonate precipitation induced by denitrification
and its potential impact on a unit volume of soil (Pham et al. 2018a)
3. Study MIDP on sandy soil using triaxial test
3.1. Method
Gas formation and carbonate precipitation by
MIDP are controlled by the soil conditions,
including the grain size characteristics and pressure
conditions. To study effect of the method on sandy
soil, taking the grain size and pressure conditions
into consideration, a modified triaxial test set-up
was used for the experiments. Details of the
experimental have been described by Pham et al.
(2018b). The triaxial test set-up was customized
with the third pressure controller allowing flushing
the samples under a hydraulic head of 1.5m in the
tested pressure states. Denitrifying microorganisms
were enriched from organic soil extracted 10 cm
below the surface from the Botanic garden of Delft
University of Technology. The tests were
performed on sandy soil with variations of grain
sizes at different back – cell pressure conditions.
Treatment strategies were also examined,
considering two regimes of different substrate
concentrations with different flush frequencies.
3.2. The influences of grain sizes and pressure
conditions
227
which do not require significant strength
improvement but require stabilization at small
strain is an opened option.
To evaluate the impact of grain sizes and
pressure conditions, two set of single treatment
experiments were performed, and the results are
evaluated based on the change of water saturation,
which is the direct consequence of the gas
production. Grain size variation was examined
with 3 different values of average particle diameter
d50, all the samples were tested at 100 - 200 kPa
back - cell pressure, and the results are presented in
Figure 2a. Pressure condition variation was
examined on medium sand d50 = 0.123mm, the
results are presented in Figure 2b. All the samples
were treated with 30mM Ca(C2H3O2) - 25mM
Ca(NO3)2, 40 mL/L inoculum containing
denitrifying bacteria suspension, and other
nutrients and trace elements as described in the
experiments of van Paassen et al. (2010a).
All the tests, except for the test performed at the
highest pressure of 250 kPa back pressure - 300
kPa cell pressure, showed similar desaturation
profiles: Over a period of 1 to 4 days the
desaturation rate gradually increased until a
threshold was reached after which the water
saturation was hardly reduced any further. For the
test performed at 250 kPa back pressure the
threshold was not reached. The rates of water
desaturation however show a significant variation.
It is reasonable because the water desaturation rate
is controlled not only by the gas production rate,
which is attributed to the microbial activity and the
reaction rates, but also by the gas exsolution rate,
which is attributed to the soil matrix and the pore
pressure states. The coarser sand has a lower
capillary effect and hence it has lower threshold of
gas nucleation and growth, allowing larger bubbles
sizes (Lubetkin 2003), the medium sand d50 =
0.25mm was the one that had the fastest water
desaturation rate among the three sand types. With
the fine sand (d50 = 0.123mm) at different pressure
conditions in Figure 2b, lower pore water pressure
resulting in lower phase transition threshold, so the
fastest gas formation rate was seen with the cases
at 50 kPa back pressure and the slowest rate at 250
(a)
\
Fig. 2. Gas production corresponding with various grain sizes and pressure conditions
Fig. 3. Changes of stress path and tangent stiffness
228
kPa back pressure. The difference between the
rates in fine sand at 50 kPa – 100 kPa and 50 kPa -
150 kPa back - cell pressure is attributed to the
effect of confinement conditions, which can
influence the mass transfer inside the pores when
the gas dissolution rate is high (Li and Yortsos
1995). Overall, the water desaturation effect is
strongly dependent on the soil matrix characteristic
and pore pressure state, and predicting the effect
requires further study regarding multiphase
transportation in micro scale.
Undrained monotonic loading was applied on
the very fine sand sample d50 = 0.100 mm. Thanks
to the gas phase, the pore pressure was dampened
resulting in the overlap of its effective and total
stress paths. The treatment helped to increase the
tangent stiffness of the soil by a third, as seen in
Figure 3.
(b)
 3.3. The influences of treatment strategies
The treatment protocol for MIDP, or
denitrification based MICP, needs to consider
several variables, among which there are substrate
concentrations and flushing frequency. Applying
high substrate concentrations has the advantage
that less frequent substrate supplies are required to
reach the target amount of desired product, but it
may result in temporary or permanent nitrite
accumulation, which leads to inhibition of further
denitrification (Almeida et al. 1995, Glass and
Silverstein 1998, Dhamole et al. 2007). To study
the effect of the regime with which substrate is
supplied, two treatment protocols were evaluated,
which both aimed to produce 1 w% calcium
carbonate in about one month. One, using a low
number of 3 flushes with relatively high substrate
concentrations (50 mmol/L calcium nitrate - 60
mmol/L calcium acetate) and a long hydraulic
residence time of 10 to 12 days. The other, using a
high number of 15 flushes with low substrate
concentration (10 mmol/L calcium nitrate - 12
mmol/L calcium acetate) and a short hydraulic
residence time of 2 to 3 days. The samples were
firstly prepared with the inoculum containing
denitrifying bacteria and the substrate solution,
after which they were kept at 100 - 200 kPa back -
cell pressure during the reaction phase. The
following flushes were only with the substrate
solution. The study has been published as Pham et
al. (2018b), reused with permission from ASCE.

Fig. 4. Water saturation and hydraulic conductivity reduction

Fig. 5. CaCO3 distribution in the treated samples.

229
 Fig. 6. Drained monotonic loading results
Multiple treatment experiments showed that
within each reaction phase, the water saturation
reduction profiles were similar to that of the single
treatment experiments. Flushes of new substrates
increased partly both the water saturation and
hydraulic conductivity, but a proportion of the gas
phase remained in the samples persistently. The
persistent gas content was about 10 -15% of the
pore space, corresponding with a water saturation
of about 85% - 90% (Figure 4). There results show
that the gas production by MIDP can provide a
sufficiently stable gas phase for practical
applications.
Post treatment analysis using 10% hydrogen
chloride solution showed that the average CaCO3
content for the high concentration regime was
about 0.28 w%, which is 19.4 mmol CaCO3. The
distribution along the column of this regime did
not show a clear trend. For the low concentration
regime, the measured CaCO3 content showed an
uneven distribution along the column, ranging
from 0.77 weight% close to the inlet at the bottom
to 0.53 w% tp close to the outlet at the top of the
column (Figure 5). The average value was about
0.65 w% which is 44.1 mmol CaCO3. Microbial
230
activity was extrapolated from the desaturation rate
results, showing that substrate conversions in the
low concentration regime were all completed
before new substrates were supplied, and
consequently the average precipitation rate was
calculated to be 0.26 w%/day. This rate is
significantly higher compared with results of other
previous studies, and it is comparable with the rate
obtained by urease hydrolysis based MICP.
In the low concentration regime, a higher yield
of CaCO3 precipitation was obtained together with
an efficient substrate conversion. No nitrite and left
over substrates were detected throughout the
experiment of this regime, and microbial growth
was successfully stimulated resulting in loss of the
hydraulic conductivity and clogging in the last
flushes of the experiment.
Drained monotonic loading was applied on the
samples at the end of the experiments. The amount
of precipitated CaCO3 did not seem to be sufficient
to improve the peak strength of the samples, but a
sharp increase in small strain stiffness was
observed. Particularly for the low concentration
regime, the pore pressure response dropped by
several kPa as soon as the sample started to dilate
(Figure 6). This may be the result of the reduced
hydraulic conductivity through the combined
formation of gas, CaCO3 and biomass, preventing
water from filling up the dilating pore space.
Between the two regimes, the low concentration
treatment obtained a better stimulated microbial
growth and comparable precipitation yield and
rate. It could even alter the pore pressure response
of the sandy soil sample due to the low hydraulic
conductivity. These results indicate that selecting
the appropriate substrate concentrations, inoculum
and environmental conditions are important to
obtain fast reactions, high yield and efficient use of
resources.
4. Conclusions
MIDP has shown its capability to change
hydro-mechanical behaviour of sandy soils at
laboratory scale. Both the precipitation of calcium
carbonate and the biogenic formation of nitrogen
gas may be applied for ground improvement
applications. For applications, substrate
concentrations and supplying regimes have to be
appropriately selected to maintain a good microbial
activity with negligible accumulation of toxic
intermediate nitrogen compounds and obtain a high
conversion rate and product yield. The formation,
distribution and persistence of the gas phase are
affected by the substrate regime, environmental
pressure conditions and the grain size distribution
of the soil. Further study and upscaling are needed
to optimize the process for practical applications.
Acknowledgements
This study was performed at Delft University
of Technology in close cooperation with Deltares,
and the authors are grateful for the support of the
two institutes. The research was funded by the
Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, through STW
perspective program BioGeoCivil (11337).
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232
 RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
AND ITS SHEAR DISPLACEMENT RATE DEPENDENCY: AN OVERVIEW

Motoyuki Suzuki, Nguyen Thanh Duong

Yamaguchi University, Japan
Corresponding author’ Email: nguyenthanhduong@yucivil.onmicroft.com

Abstract: Residual strength of soil plays an important role in slope stability analysis of reactivated
landslides or slopes that contain a pre-existing shear surface. This parameter depends not only on the
physical properties of the soil, but also on shear displacement rate and other testing conditions. The paper
aims to review the shear rate dependency of residual strength and the residual interface strength between
bi-materials. In addition, the methods of determination of residual strength and its application to slope
stability analysis are also reported. The literature review shows that the shear displacement rate affects the
residual strength to some extent, especially at a fast shear rate. It is also recommended that the reasons for
the rate dependency of residual strength should be further examined. In addition, with regard to the
change in shear velocity, the effect of acceleration change on residual strength has not yet been studied.
The behaviour of residual interface strength is similar to that of the soil. Nevertheless, the behaviour of
residual strength at the boundary between two soil layers having different physical properties (e.g.
plasticity and permeability) requires further investigation.

Keywords: rate dependency; residual interface strength; first-time slides; strength recovery.

1. Introduction preparation. The factors affecting the residual

Residual shear strength has been investigated
since the 1930s (Skempton, 1964). However, the
significance of residual shear strength became
considerably more evident after the 4th Rankine
Lecture of Skempton (1964). In this lecture, the
residual shear strength was defined as the
minimum drained shear strength, at which the soil
undergone a large shear displacement under the
given effective normal stress.
The residual strength plays an important role in
evaluating and predicting the stability of slopes
that contain a pre-existing shear surface or
comprise stiff and fissured clay. The residual
strength mainly depends on the physical properties
(plasticity characteristics), size and shape of
particles, mineralogical compositions, and pore
water chemistry. It also depends on testing
conditions, such as normal stress and shear
displacement rates. However, the residual strength
is mostly independent of the stress history
(overconsolidation ratio: OCR), the initial water
content, the initial void ratio, and sample
strength have been extensively investigated in the
literature. Nevertheless, the effects of some other
factors (e.g., shear displacement rate) on the
residual strength are still in doubt.
The main objectives of this study are to review
the shear rate dependency of residual strength and
the behaviour of residual interface strength
between bi-materials. In addition, reliable methods
used to determine the residual strength and the
application of residual strength to slope stability
analysis are reviewed.
2. Determination of residual strength of soil
The residual strength can be obtained by
various laboratory testing methods, such as the
triaxial shear test on precut specimen (TS), reversal
direct box shear test (RDBST), and ring shear test
(RST). In the RDBST and RST, a large shear
displacement on the shear surface must be reached
to obtain the residual state of soil when subjected
to shear stresses.
The main differences between the three basic
methods are the amount of shear displacement that

233
can be accumulated in each method. In the TS, the
amount of axial strain is limited of about 15% of
the 100 mm-height of the sample (axial
displacement 15 mm). This deformation cannot
represent the true residual state. However, the
orientation of particles isn’t changed during
shearing. Thus, if the sample is precut and polished
to orient the particles on the shear surface, the
residual shear strength can be achieved by this
method. Nevertheless, using the TS on the precut
specimen to determine the residual strength still
results in uncertainty (Chen and Liu, 2014). In the
RDBST, the amount of horizontal displacement in
one cycle is about 6–7 mm, and the shear
displacement can reach the residual state by
reversing the direction of shearing (about five
cycles or more). However, reversing the shear
direction (upward and backward) may disturb the
orientation of particles on the shear surface.
Different from TS and RDBST methods, the
unlimited displacement can be obtained in one
direction in the RS so that the orientation of grains
on the shear surface is not changed during
shearing, and a good preferred orientation of grains
can be achieved. Therefore, the RS can yield a
residual strength that is in good agreement with the
field value. Table 1 shows the test result of the
residual strength of some clays obtained from
different testing methods. It can be seen that the
residual strength (expressed in term of friction
angle) of all clays obtained from RST is the lowest
values.

Tab. 1. Residual friction angles of some clays obtained from different testing methods

Average, r
Soils Type of sample Test methods References
(deg), cr=0

Undisturbed, wL=70%; PI=29%;

RDBST 13.50
CF=58%.
Drained TS, presheared to
10.50
Undisturbed, wL=72%; PI=29%; large displacement Bishop et al.
Blue London clay
CF=57%. RST (Bishop’s type) 9.40 (1971)
(Wraybury) Remoulded, wL =72%; PI=29%; RST (Bishop’s type)
CF=57%. (one sample) 9.50
Undisturbed, WL=71.5%;
RST (Bishop’s type) 9.30
PI=22.4%. La Gatta
(1970)
Remoulded, wL=71.5%; PI=22.4%. RST (Bishop’s type) 8.30
Slip surface, wL =43-76%; PI=22-
Drained, direct shear test 14.00
46%; CF=40-65%.
Undisturbed, cut-plane
Brown London Drained, direct shear test 14.20
wL=70%; PI=26%; CF=50%.
clay
Slip surface, wL=71%; PI=26%;
(Walthamstow) Drained TS 13.70
CF=63%.
Undisturbed, wL=66%; PI=24% RST (Bishop’s type) 10.00
Remoulded, wL=66%; PI=24% RST (Bishop’s type) 9.70 Bishop et al.
Undisturbed, wL=81%; PI=33%; (1971)
RDBBST 13.50
CF=61%.
Remoulded, wL=85%; PI=34%;
RDBST 12.50
CF=59%.
Blue London clay
Undisturbed, cut-plane wL=81%;
(Herne Bay) Drained TS 14.70
PI=33%; CF=61%
Over-consolidated, wL=95%;
RST (Bishop’s type) 9.40
PI=61%; CF=59%

234
 Ring shear apparatus have been widely
developed and used to determine the residual shear
strength for many years. The RST was first used to
investigate the residual strength of undisturbed
clays and of clays consolidated from slurry
conditions in the 1930s (Skempton, 1964).
However, the use of ring shear apparatus to
investigate residual strength was substaintially
developed after the 4th Rankine Lecture
(Skempton, 1964). In general, there are two
original versions, one was developed based on the
principles of the Imperial College–Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute (Bishop’s type) (Bishop et
al., 1971), and the other on the Bromhead ring
shear device (Bromhead’s type) (Bromhead, 1979).
The main difference between the two these types is
in the location of the shear plane. In Bishop’s type,
the shear plane is taken place at the midheight of
the specimen, whereas in the Bromhead’s type, the
shear zone is at the top of the specimen. Both these
types of ring shear apparatus have been modified
and improved from their original designs. The
Bromhead’s type was modified by Stark and Eid
(1993), Stark and Poeppel (1994), Stark and
Contreras (1996), Sedano et al. (2007), Meehan et
al. (2007, 2008), and Merchan et al. (2011), and
the Bishop’s type was developed by Sassa (1984),
Hungr and Morgenstren (1984), Tika et al. (1996),
and Suzuki et al. (1997). Sadrekarimi and Olson
(2009) also have developed a new ring shear
apparatus based on the Bromhead’s type. However,
in this device, the shear zone is located at the
bottom of the specimen.
In recent, two types of ring shear apparatus, as
mentioned above, have often been widely
employed to determine the residual strength of soil.
However, each type of device exhibits its own
advantages and disadvantages. In the Bromhead’s
type, the magnitude of the wall friction along the
inner and outer circumferences of the specimen is
one of the main factors affecting the residual
strength. The wall friction increases with
increasing settlement of the top porous stones,
consequently results in an increase in residual
strength. In addition, some soils may be extruded
during shearing and trapped between the top planes
and the shear box. This phenomenon also brings
235
about an increase in shearing resistance (Stark and
Vettel, 1992). To minimise the settlement of the
top porous stone, Stark and Vettel (1992) proposed
the ‘flush’ test procedure in which the remoulded
soil is added and reconsolidated to ensure that the
porous stone is approximately flush with the
container before being sheared. However, the flush
test procedure does not apply for the multistage
procedure. Hence, Stark (1995) suggested the
multistage test procedure using a modified
Bromhead device (Stark and Eid, 1993) and
overconsolidated, precut, remoulded samples to
measure the residual shear strength of a pre-
existing slip surface.
In the determination of residual strength of soils
using a Bishop-type ring shear apparatus (Bishop
et al., 1971), the normal stress, the frictional force
(F), and the gap between upper and lower rings
might affect the test results. The testing conditions
may be either stress or strain controlled. To obtain
the residual strength in ring shearing, the strain-
controlled method is often executed, i.e.
displacement rate and normal stress are severally
controlled, and shear stress is measured. The
frictional force is induced by the relative
displacement of the specimen to the shear box,
which develops between the specimen and the
inner perimeter of the shear box. It acts upward in
the case of specimen contraction and downward in
the case of specimen dilation (Fig. 1). The net
normal stress is calculated by subtracting the
measured frictional force. With regard to the gap, it
is closed during consolidation to prevent soil from
being leaked and kept opening during shearing to
mitigate the contact friction between the halves of
the shear box. However, during shearing, some soil
particles might leak out through the gap between
the upper and lower ring of the shear box. The
amount of soil leakage depends on the magnitude
of the gap and then affects the measured shear
strength. Suzuki (2008) investigated the effect of
the gap (d) on the measured shear strength in the
RS (Fig. 2). This figure shows that the gap
significantly affects the measured shear strength of
Ube Masado (weathered granite soils) and Toyoura
sand. Nevertheless, the ratio (d/D50) of about 5 to
10 has a little effect on the test results. Therefore, it
 is important to measure the frictional force (F) and Bishop’s type. However, in Bromhead’s type, the
design a suitable gap (d) to obtain an accurate shear surface is located at the boundary between
value of shear strength. the loading platen and specimen, which may not
Briefly, the wall friction and the soil extrusion reflect the actual contact in landslides. In addition,
are the two main factors affecting the residual the wall friction is not measured in Bromhead’s
strength value in both Bromhead- and Bishop-type type, and it may cause an error in test results. By
ring shear apparatus. The Bromhead-type contrast, the slip surface in Bishop’s type is at the
apparatus is quite straightforward (in term of soil–soil contact, and the frictional force is
technique and its system), and less expensive than measured to calculate the net normal stress.

Load cell
for F
N-F Loading platen
N+F Porous stone

 Upper ring

F F
F F
Slip surface
N N
Specimen
Lower ring
Porous stone
(b1) Contraction:  > 0 N: Initial normal force (b2) Dilation:  < 0
F: Frictional force
: Vertical displacement
b)
Fig. 1. System for measuring friction force and controlling normal force (Suzuki et al., 1997)

50 50

45
45 Peak state, p Peak state, p
Friction angle pss (deg)
Friction angle pss (deg)

Steady state, ss Steady state, ss

40
(Mean diameter D50=0.22 mm) (Mean diameter D50=0.15 mm)
40
35
35
30

30
25
a) b)
25 20
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Normalized gap, d/D50 Normalized gap, d/D50

Fig. 2. Relation between normalised gap and internal friction angle for (a) Ube Masado soil and
(b) Toyoura sand (Suzuki, 2008).

Although the RST may yield an accurate value precut specimens (specimens for which a failure
of residual strength, it is expensive and difficult to surface exists) can be used to determine the
prepare annular specimens. In some cases, the residual strength of soils using RDBST (Townsend

236
and Gilbert, 1976; Chowdhury and Bertoldi, 1977;
Askarani and Pakbaz, 2015). To reduce the test
duration in determining residual strength, a
multistage procedure (increasing or decreasing the
effective normal stress) can be employed in the
ring shear apparatus or reversal direct shear test
with precut specimens (e.g. Anderson and
Hammoud, 1988; Stark and Vettel, 1992; Stark,
1995; Tiwari and Marui, 2004, 2005).
The hyperbolic approximation method was
applied to determine the residual shear strength
from the test results. In this method, the
relationship between, /(/N), and shear
displacement angle,  was plotted (>p with p is
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram for determining the residual strength by a hyperbolic curve approximation
method (Suzuki et al., 1997)
3. Shear rate dependency of residual strength
A better understanding of the shear rate effect
on the residual strength of a soil would be
beneficial for predicting and evaluating the
behaviour of reactivated landslides. Tika and
Hutchinson (1999) suggested that catastrophic
landslides at the Vaiont Dam occurred because of a
negative rate effect. Accordingly, the fast residual
strength was reduced to approximately 60% of the
slow residual strength when the shear displacement
rate exceeded 100 mm/min. Conversely, Leroueil
(2001) and Wang et al. (2010) reported that a
positive rate effect could avoid catastrophic
landslides, even when a large shear displacement
occurred in a short period of time. This is because
of the positive rate effect, which might increase the
residual strength as the shear displacement rate
237
the shear displacement angle at the peak stress).
Hyperbolic approximation parameters, a and b, are
given by the segment, and the gradient of the
straight line are fitted to the measurement of the
relationship between /(/N) and  by the least
square method. If the approximated hyperbola is in
good agreement with the measurement, (/N)r is
given as the inverse of b. The validity of the data
fitting can be assessed using the correlation
coefficient, R2 (Fig. 3) The application of this
method was based on the test results of kaolin and
natural clays under various test conditions (Suzuki
et al., 1997).
increases, resulting in an increase in stability of
slopes. Moreover, rate effects play a significant
role in the application of laboratory testing
methods and test results. Therefore, numerous
studies have examined the rate dependency of the
residual strength of various soils. Differences in
clay contents and particle shapes lead to different
shear modes, resulting in different rate effects
(Lupini et al., 1981; Skempton, 1985; Tika et al.,
1996) (Fig. 4). In general, three possible rate
effects – positive, neutral, and negative – have
been studied in the literature (Fig. 5). It can be said
that the rate dependency of residual strength may
not be generalised.
Some causes of the rate effect have been
proposed to explain the rate dependency of
residual strength. A positive rate effect can be
attributed to a change from sliding to turbulent
shear mode (e.g. Skempton, 1985; Tika et al.,
1996; Lemos, 2003; Bhat, 2013), the shear
viscosity effect (Tika et al., 1996; Lemos, 2003;
Carrubba and Colonna, 2006), and the crushing of
round particles (Fukuoka and Sassa, 1991). On the
contrary, a reduction in fast residual strength can
be caused by the delayed dissipation of excess pore
water pressure (e.g. Skempton, 1985; Parathias,
1995a, b; Petley and Taylor, 1999; Li et al., 2013).
It is noted that the excess pore water pressure
may not affect the residual shear strength when a
soil specimen is sheared at slow rates (e.g. Saito et
al., 2006, 2007; Wang et al., 2010; Bhat, 2013;
Kimura et al., 2013) or in sand or silty sand (Wang
et al., 2010; Li et al., 2017). An increase in the
porosity (void ratio) and water content in the shear
zone also reduces the fast residual strength (Tika et
al., 1996; Li et al., 2017), as does an increase in
finer particles in the shear zone, as larger particles
are pushed out of the shear zone (Saito et al., 2007;
Li et al., 2017) or angular particles are crushed
(Fukuoka and Sassa, 1991). Furthermore, the
negative rate effect can be attributed to the testing
conditions. Tika et al. (1996) stated that the
penetration of free water from the water bath into
the shear zone can accelerate the reduction of the
residual shear strength. More recently, Gratchev
and Sassa (2015) suggested that small rates of
broken bond recovery and particle rebound at fast
Fig. 4. Clay fraction, shear modes and rate effect relationship (after Lupini et al., 1981; Skempton, 1985;
Tika et al., 1996).
238
shear rates may reduce the residual strength.
Although the factors related to the rate effect
have been extensively studied, there is still no
consistent theory that precisely describes the rate
effect on residual strength. This may be due to the
differences in the test conditions and types of soil
used in the various studies. The rate effect may
also depend on the design of the apparatus and test
procedure (Bromhead, 2004). In addition, the
magnitude of the rate effect on residual strength
may be influenced by the effective normal stress
(e.g. Carrubba and Colonna, 2006; Kimura et al.,
2013; Gratchev and Sassa, 2015), the clay fraction,
the plasticity index (Suzuki et al., 2001, 2009), the
soil density (Li and Aylin, 2013), and the pore
water chemistry (Scaringi and Di Maio, 2016).
Therefore, the reasons for the rate effect on the
residual strength of soils should be further
investigated.
In a creep landslide at residual state, the
velocity or shear displacement rate of a landslide
block is not always constant. The irregular change
in velocity leads to a change in the acceleration,
which may affect the residual strength (this is
known as the acceleration effect). Although the
rate effect is a basic factor affecting the stability of
old landslides, changes in acceleration should be
considered in the analysis. However, reliable in-
formation on how the acceleration effect influences
the residual strength is not available
 2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
r'r (at slow shear rate)
Positive effect
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6 Negative effect Neutral line
(Neutral effect)
0.4
0.2
0.0
1E-4 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 . 10
Shear displacement rate,  (mm/min)
Silty clay (Ramiah et al., 1970)
Pepper shale (La Gatta, 1970)
Cucaracha shale (La Gatta, 1970)
London clay (La Gatta, 1970)
Some positive effects from Tika et al., 1996
Some negative effects from Tika et al., 1996
Kaolin (Suzuki et al., 2001)
Mudstone (Suzuki et al., 2001)
Cowden till (Carrubba and Colonna, 2006)
London clay (Carrubba and Colonna, 2006)
Silica sand (Saito et al., 2006)
Sand-10%bentonite (Saito et al., 2006)
Sand-20%bentonite (Saito et al., 2006)
Sand-10%illite (Saito et al., 2006)
Sand-20%illite (Saito et al., 2006)
Kaolin (Suzuki et al., 2007)
Landslide clay B (Suzuki et al., 2007)
Cemented kaolin (Suzuki et al., 2007)
Mudstone (Suzuki et al., 2009)
Yuya B (Suzuki et al., 2009)
Fig. 5. Rate effect on the residual strength of different soil
4. Residual interface strength
The residual strength at the interface between
bi-materials has been received much attention from
the literature. The residual interface strength
between soils and solid materials or between solid
and solid materials (steel, concrete, geotextiles,
geomembranes) relating to the stability of friction
piles, retaining walls, anchor rods, earth
reinforcement, offshore pipelines, and landfill
cover has been studied extensively. In general, the
residual interface strength is similar to the residual
strength of the soil itself. It also depends on the
properties of soils, size and shape of particles,
applied normal stress and shear displacement rate.
However, unlike the residual strength of the soil,
the residual interface strength depends on the
interface characteristics and the surface roughness
of solid materials (Lemos and Vaughan, 2000).
In a landslide, the shear zone develops not only
within the soil mass of one layer but also along the
bedding plane, discontinuous plane or the interface
between two soil layers (e.g. Bromhead and Ibsen,
2004; Tiwari et al., 2005; Sassa et al., 2005;
Chigira and Yagi, 2006; Wang et al., 2007;
239
100 1000 10000
Yuya C (Suzuki et al., 2009)
Yuya D (Suzuki et al., 2009)
Yuya A (Suzuki et al., 2009)
Kaolin (Suzuki et al., 2009)
Shiraishi landslide (Wang et al., 2010)
Terano soil (Szuzuki et al., 2012)
Higashi-Takezawa A (Suzuki et al., 2012)
Sand-bentonite (Suzuki et al., 2012)
Sand-bentonite-cement (Suzuki et al., 2012)
Kaolin (Bhat 2013)
Kaolin-Glass beads (Li et al., 2013a)
Three Gorges soil (Li et al., 2013b)
Krishnabhir soil (Bhat and Yatabe, 2015)
Skikohu soil (Bhat and Yatabe, 2015)
Toyota-Kita soil (Bhat and Yatabe, 2015)
Sand (Scaringi and Di Mao, 2016)
Bentonite (Scaringi and Di Mao, 2016)
Kaolin (Scaringi and Di Mao, 2016)
Costa della Gaveta (Scaringi and Di Mao, 2016)
Landslide soil (Li et al., 2017)
Bromhead, 2013; Has and Nozaki, 2014).
Bromhead and Ibsen (2004) described numerous
landslides that occurred in sedimentary rocks on
the coastline of Southeast Britain. These landslides
are referred to the bedding-controlled landslides
with rotational and transitional forms. The
bedding-controlled landslides are the main types of
instability along the southeast coastline of Britain.
Chigira and Yagi (2006) and Wang et al. (2007)
also reported that most of the landslides triggered
by the 2004 Mid-Niigata-Prefecture earthquake
occurred along the planar bedding. The planar-
bedding-parallel-sliding surfaces were formed
between sandstone and siltstone or between
weathered and unweathered rocks. Has and Nozaki
(2014) investigated the role of geological structure
in landslides triggered by the 2007 Mid-Niigata
offshore earthquake. These authors indicated that
the bedding plane plays an important role in
landslides. The slopes comprise sandstone and
siltstone are easily sheared off along the bedding
planes. Therefore, the residual strength at the
interface between two layers should be considered
in evaluating and predicting the slope stability.
 Fig. 6. Relationship between residual friction coefficient at the interface and shear displacement rate
(Scaringi et al., 2017)
Recently, some studies have been conducted to
examine the residual strength at the interface
between two soil layers. Suzuki et al. (2017)
conducted the RST on the samples composed of
two halves to investigate the residual interface
strength between two layers with different degrees
of cementation (different cement content). The test
results showed that the rate effect on residual
strength also occurred in discontinuous planes.
Scaringi et al. (2017) investigated the rate
dependency of residual strength at the interface of
soil to soil, rock to rock, and soil to rock at
landslide stress level (Fig. 6). The test results
showed that all sample assemblies exhibited a
positive rate dependency of residual strength.
However, depending on the materials in contact,
the normal stress, and the stress history (OCR), the
rate dependency of residual strength is different
from each other. The investigations of Suzuki et al.
(2017) and Scaringi et al. (2017) partly reflected
the behaviour of residual strength on the boundary
between two soil layers and the effects of some
factors, such as stiffness, normal stress, shear
240
displacement rates, and stress history. However,
the behaviour of residual strength between two soil
layers with different physical properties (plasticity,
permeability) should be further examined.
5. Application of residual strength in slope
stability analysis
In general, the residual state mostly exists in old
landslides that have undergone a large shear
displacement. However, the residual state may be
present in bedding shears in folded strata, sheared
joints or faults, an embankment failure, or
stratigraphic discontinuities (weathered and
unweathered; soft and stiff layer) (Skempton,
1985; Mesri and Shahien, 2003). In addition, the
residual state may exist in first-time slides in clay
fills and cutting slopes in fissured clays or a part of
progressive failure (Mersi and Shahien, 2003). In
these cases, although the slopes have undergone a
small shear displacement, the shear strength
becomes closer to the residual value. Therefore,
the residual strength can be applied to reactivated
landslides (post failure) or first-time failures in
some specific cases, as mentioned above.
 At the residual state, the experimental results
show that the residual cohesion may be different
from zero (Fig 7) (Tiwari and Marui, 2005).
However, this value is insignificant. In addition,
Skempton (1985) noted that the residual cohesion
can be very low. Therefore, Stark et al. (2005)
suggested that, at the residual state, the cohesion
value should be zero in the stability analyses
except for the result of back-analysis, which shows
a value of cohesion greater than zero.
In some cases, the shear strength on the pre-
existing shear surface may increase with elapsed
time after failure because of the reconsolidation
and the ageing or healing processes, especially at
effective normal stresses of 100 kPa or less (Fig 8)
(Stark and Hussain, 2010). However, it decreases
to the residual strength value after a small shear
displacement (Gibo et al., 2002; Stark et al., 2005;
Stark and Hussain, 2010; Bhat et al., 2013a, b).
Therefore, the shear strength recovery is not
recommended for the design and repair of pre-
existing shear surface slopes (Stark and Hussain,
2010).
Fig. 7. Residual shear envelope for mixture
samples (Tiwari and Marui, 2005).
Fig. 8. Relationship between normalized
strength ratio and the rest time (Stark and Hussain,
2010)
241
6. Conclusions
From the literature review conducted, some
main conclusions are withdrawn as follows:
1.The RST is the most suitable method for
determining the residual strength. However, the
RDBST and precut specimens can be used to
determine the residual strength. The multistage
procedure (increasing or decreasing normal stress)
is useful for determining the residual strength to
reduce the testing duration.
2.The residual strength may depend on the
shear displacement rates. However, a consistent
theory for the rate dependency of residual strength
has not been established. Therefore, it requires a
further examination. In addition, regarding the
change in shear rate, the acceleration effect on
residual strength is still vague.
3.The residual interface strength plays a key
role not only in the stability of friction piles,
retaining walls, anchor rods, earth reinforcement,
offshore pipelines, and landfill cover but also in
the stability of slopes that contain bedding or
discontinuous planes. The behaviour of the
residual strength of the interface is similar to that
of the soil itself. Nevertheless, the residual strength
at the interface between two soil layers having
different physical properties should be further
studied.
4. The concept of residual state strength is
applicable for reactivated landslides, first-time
slides in stiff and fissured clays, embankment
failures, and slopes having bedding or
discontinuous planes. For some soils, residual state
strength may recover after the reconsolidation and
the aging or healing processes. However, it rapidly
losses and reaches the residual value after a small
shear displacement. Therefore, the residual
strength recovery is not recommended for slope
stability analysis.
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245
APPLICATION OF ROCLAB SOFTWARE IN DEFINING THE MECHANICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTACT ROCK IN DAM FOUNDATION FOR
SMALL-SCALE HYDROELECTRIC PROJECTS: A CASE STUDY IN THE
LONG TAO HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT, DIEN BIEN PROVINCE

Bui Truong Son, Vu Thai Linh

Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: buitruongson@humg.edu.vn

Abstract: Roclab software (Hoek-Brown standard) is considered as an advanced approach to

determining the mechanical parameters of rock mass. The results of calculating the mechanical values of
rock by Roclab software are quite consistent with the values obtained by field tests. Therefore, it is
possible to use this software to save costs for works that do not have an opportunity of implementing field
tests but still have equivalent calculations.
The results of determination of the mechanical characteristics of the dam site of the Long Tao
hydroelectric project in Dien Bien Province show that the Vietnam’s standard values for the results are
too low and too safety-prone, so they are used for references. The results of Roclab software are similar to
those of field tests. It should be possible to use the rock mass index calculations using Roclab software to
recommend design metrics.

Keywords: Roclab; Hoek-Brown standard; dam base; Long Tao

1. Introduction Tinh province, Dac Cong 1 hydropower plant -

Rocscience's Roclab software of Canada built
basing on the Hoek-Brown standard and the Mohr-
Coulomb standard has been free since 2006. The
software has been quite well-structured and well-
reflected in rock mechanics.
Currently, in Vietnam, to determine the
mechanical characteristics of underground rock
masses, hydraulic works ... there are many
different methods as defined by TCVN 4253-2012
standard, determined by the in-situ tests, using
Slope software to solve the inverse problem,
determined by the continuity coefficient of cracks,
determined by the Hoek-Brown standard, etc.
Among these methods, based on the Hoek - Brown
standard, Roclab software has been applied in
some hydroelectric power plants, such as irrigation
works, CuaDat - Thanh Hoa hydroelectric power
plant, Vu Quan hydroelectric power plant - Ha
Kon Tum province.
Based on the results of the above studies, the
friction angle values in rock masses (m of the rock)
determined by field experiment were varied by 2 to
50 compared to those calculated using Roclab
software. Cohesive force value determined by field
test method is 1.2-1.5 times higher than that
determined by Roclab software.
RocLab software for calculating rock mass
norms is built according to Hoek-Brown standard.
It is a rigorous and logical experimental theoretical
standard. Calculation parameters: Deformation
modulus, shearing resistance, compression
resistance are quantified by mathematical functions
on the basis of factors such as GSI geological
durability index (based on Bieneawski rocks
classification - RMR of Barton - Q) The mi -
specific coefficient characterized for each rock; D -
coefficient due to influence of construction. All

246
indicators are defined on a united system, which
makes it convenient for users to collect and process
data.
Therefore, the research, study and application
of this Roclab software in determining the
mechanical characteristics of rock bed for small-
scale projects is urgent, practical and scientific
significance.
2. Geological features of the rock foundation of
the Long Tao hydroelectric power plant
2.1. Overview of the Long Tao Hydropower
Project
The Long Tao hydropower project is located in
Muong Mang commune, Muong Cha district and
part of Tham mu village, Hua Muc 3 in Muong
Mun commune, Tuan Giao district, Dien Bien
province. The Long Tao hydroelectric power
project is constructed with the mission as follows:
Power supply with installed capacity of 42MW
and integrated into the regional electric network.
The project is responsible for generating electricity
to the national grid to meet part of the load in the
area, Tuan Giao district, Muong Cha district, Dien
Bien province.
Strengthening the infrastructure of the project
area, socio-economic development in the project
area in particular and mountainous districts in
general.
Creating the landscape of the project area and
gradually improving the environment.

Tab. 1. Scale parameters of the main items of the works

Order Parameters Notation Symbol Value
I Hydrological
1 Basin area Flv Km2 1932.30
2 Average annual rainfall Xo mm 1800.00
3 Total flow of the year Wo 106m3 1922.56
4 Flow module Mo l/s.km2 31.55
5 Year flow Qo m3/s 60.96
Flood flow at the frequency dam site QP0,5%
6 m3/s 4961
P = 0.5%
Flood flow at the frequency dam site QP0,1%
7 m3/s 6421
P = 0.1%
8 Guaranteed flow rate at 90% Q90% m3/s 15.64
II Hydropower
1 Installation capacity Nlm MW 42.00
2 Guaranteed capacity Nđb MW 5.74
3 The highest water column Hmax m 54.15
4 The lowest water column Hmin m 50.58
5 Calculated water column Htt m 50.58
6 Power generation max Qpđ m3/s 98.31
7 Annual average power Eo 106Kwh 169.794
8 Hours of installed capacity h h 4042.7
III Reservoir
1 Normal rising water level MNDBT m 350.00
2 Flood water level design MNLTK m 350.37
3 Dead water level MNC m 349.00
4 Total volume Vtb 106m3 38.098
5 Dead volume Vc 106m3 35.127
6 Useful volume Vhi 106m3 2.971

247
 2.2. Geological features of the dam foundation
On the original rock formations of the study
area, the weathered shell section includes the
following zones:
-Residue layer (edQ): Developed on the surface
of sound rock with a thickness of 0.5 > 1.0m. The
composition includes clay, sandy clay and gravel,
boulder are underweathered, the upper part of the
layer as well as the roots of plants.
- Fully weathered rock (IA1): The sound rock is
completely weathered, mixed with soft gravel. This
zone appears on the right side of the dam shoulder.
The thickness varies from 4.0 > 8.0m.
-Strong weathering zone (IA2): The rock is
cracked and strongly weathered, most of the
minerals are changed, the rock is no longer the
same as original color, the cracks are enlarged,
filled with the gravel and clay, the surface of
cracks are iron oxide. The physico-mechanical
properties of rock are reduced sharply, rocks are
soft. Particles of strong weathering rock (IA2) can
be broken by hand. The thickness of the zone
varies from 3.0 > 9.0m.
- Medium weathered rock (IB) zone: The rocks
are medium to strong cracked, the mineral
composition is almost unchanged, the rocks retain
the original color, the open fracture, fractures’
surface covered by iron oxide. Physico-mechanical
Fig. 1. Geological profile of the rock foundation of the Long Tao hydroelectric plant
248
properties vary depending on location. The rocks
in the medium weathered zone have to use
geological hammer to break. The thickness of the
zone varies from 0.5 > 2.0m.
-Relatively intact rock (IIA) zone: slightly
weathered rock with less color variation, weak to
medium crack. The rock is hard to very hard, this
slightly weathered rock is only broken when it is
smashed really hard by hammers, and the sound
from these hits is echoed and pure.
- Intact rock (IIB) zone: Fresh rock is not color
change, less chapped, not weathered. The sound
when smashing these rocks by hammers is very
echoed and pure, these stones are from hard to
extremely hard.
- Surface layers (edQ+IA1) on the right
shoulder of the dam are quite thick, from 8 to 10
meters. The left shoulder of the dam barely has no
covering layers, so from the medium weathered
rock (IB) to the equivalent stone blocks are clearly.
The weathering crust is shown on the cross
sections at the dam site of the Long Tao
hydroelectric power plant as shown in Figure 1.
 Tab. 2. Laboratory testing results of rock samples of the dam
Rock type: Sericit quartz schist
Medium Light PH Fresh rock
Degree of weathering, cracking
PH (IB) (IIA) (IIB)
Wet (g/cm3)
Volume
Dry (g/cm3) 2.38 2.61 2.64
Density 2.80 2.76 2.72
Dry 139.7 723.3 1060.1
Compressive strength (kG/cm2)
Saturation 87.9 636.9 1013.3
Dry 15.5 72.0 97.3
Tensile strength (kG/cm2)
Saturation 9.8 63.2 93
Intensity of shearing resistance
Cohesion (kG/cm2) 17.0 66.5 92.5
Dry o
Friction angle ( ) 36°30 37°57 38°47
Cohesion (kG/cm2) 10.0 60.0 88.1
Saturation
Friction angle (o) 36°10 37°41 38°29
horizontal stress value 3max (Mpa)): σ3max=γH, c:
3. Application of Roclab software to calculate Unit weight (Mpa).
the mechanical characteristics of the foundation Calculation for the tunnel: select Application -
stone of the Long Tao hydroelectric dam Tunnels-Enter Unit weight (Mpa) and Tunnel
3.1. Input parameters of Roclab depth (m).
Roclab software contains all expressions, which Calculation for slopes: select Application-
allow to calculate the physical values of rock Slopes-Enter Unit weight (Mpa) and Slope Height
blocks. Input parameters for Roclab software are as (m).
follows: Roclab software will calculate and deliver the
ci: Compressive strength of saturated rock following results:
samples, (MPa); - Hoek-Brown criterion: mb, S and a.
GSI: Index of geological durability of stone - Mohr-Coulomb fit includes: Cohesion C
blocks, determined by formula: (Mpa), Friction angle (deg),
GSI = RMR - 5 - Rock mass parameters includes: Tensile
mi: The Hoek-Brown coefficient characterizes strength t (Mpa), Uniaxial compressive Strength of
each rock, The harder the rock is and the harder the rock column c (Mpa), Modulus of deformation
grain, the higher the mi. The constant of the mi is (Mpa)
determined by three-axis compression test or table - Compression and cut resistance graphs: This
test. There are no triaxial experiments with rock allows the display (and not display) of the Mohr -
samples, So the value of the rock material constant Colomb standard curve, values of 1, 3, n, C', '.
(mi) is checked. 3.2. Calculation results
D: Impact factor of the construction method on Based on laboratory results (Table 1), the
the level of rock integrity; Roclab software input parameters provide the
Calculation for the stone background: select results shown in Figures 2,3,4 and Table 2.
Application-Custom- (Enter the maximum .

249
 .
Fig. 2. Calculation for medium weathering shale sericit for the Hydroelectric Hydropower project of
Long Tao - Dien Bien

Fig. 3. Calculation for light weathering shale sericit for the foundation of Hydroelectric Hydropower
project of Long Tao - Dien Bien

Fig. 4. Calculation for the fresh sericitic shale for the foundation of
Hydroelectric Hydropower project of Lung Tao - Dien Bien

250
 Tab. 3. Results of the physical properties of the rock foundation
of the hydroelectric dam project using the Roclab software
Sericit schist
Order Parameters Units
IB IIA IIB
3
1 Unit Weight g/cm 2.38 2.61 2.64
3
2 Density g/cm 2.80 2.76 2.72
3 Calculation for the background (general case)
Cohesion kG/cm2 1.0 8.0 35.0
Friction Angle degree 19.0 46.0 51.0
2
Compressive strength kG/cm 5.00 93.00 261.30
2
Deformation Modulus kG/cm 1686 80421 321312
4 Calculation for slopes
Cohesion kG/cm2 0.3 4.2 30.6
Friction Angle degree 30.0 54.0 54.0
2
Compressive Strength kG/cm 3.90 80.60 238.20
2
Modulus deformation kG/cm 1430 59385 261394

Comments: The value of the cohesive force
parameter Cm of the rock varies considerably. The
affinity coefficient determined by the field test
method varies from 1.2 to 1.5 times the value
determined by the Roclab software.
Since the Long Tao hydropower project did not
conduct field experiments with horizontal tunnels.
So, we can use the results from Roclab software to
propose the mechanical properties of the dam
foundation.
4. Conclusion
From the results of analysis, research and
evaluation, we have some conclusions as follows:
The sericitic shale of the Lung Tao Hydropower
Project as well as the rocks in general have a very
different and complex structure, forming a
discontinuous, heterogeneous and anisotropic
environment.This feature affects the mechanical
features of the stone and makes a difference
between the properties of the stone and the stone.
Therefore, when determining the mechanical
characteristics of rock masses for design and
construction calculations, it is necessary to fully
evaluate the factors influencing the mechanical
characteristics of the rock.
Roclab software (Hoek-Brown standard) is
considered as an advanced approach to
determining the mechanical parameters of a rock.
The results of calculating the mechanical
values of rock by Roclab software are quite
consistent with the values obtained by field
experiments.Therefore, it is possible to use this
software to save costs for works that do not have
field testing conditions but still have equivalent
calculations.
The results of the determination of the
mechanical characteristics of the dam of Lien Tao
Hydroelectric Project in Dien Bien Province show
that the values determined by TCVN standard are
low, so they are just for refrences.The results of
Roclab software are similar to those of in-situ tests.
Therefore, it is possible to use the rock mass index
calculations using Roclab software to recommend
design metrics.
References
[1] Geological report of Long Tao Hydropower
project - Dien Bien province.
[2] Geological report of Cua Dat Reservoir
Project - Thanh Hoa province.
[3] Nguyen Van Vu (2010) "Study on the
mechanical characteristics of stone blocks
of Dakrong hydropower plant in Quang

251
 Ngai province, propose appropriate values
for designing works" ” master thesis,
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology.
[4] Nguyen QuangPhich (2000), Theory of
solid and solid mass mechanics, University
of Mining and Geology, Hanoi.
[5] Nghiem Huu Hanh (1997), Rock
Mechanics, Publishing House, Hanoi.
[6] History of Hoek-Brown's destructive
standards and the latest version 2002 -
Translation of Master of Technology
Nguyen DucToan Institute of Transport
and Technology, 2006.
[7] Barton N (1995). Design of Tunnels using
NMT and Verification with UDEC-BB.
[8] Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion (2006)
Edition by Evert Hoek, Carlos Caranza-
Torres and Brent Corkum.
252
[9] Hoek E. and Brown E.T (1980),
Undergrown excavation in rock, London.
[10] Hoek E. and Brown E.T (1983), Strength
of jointed rock masses,
[11] Hoek E. and Brown E.T (1988), The Hoek-
Brown failure criterion a 1988 apdate.
[12] Ta Minh Duc (2003), "The study evaluates
the applicability of the Hoek-Brown
standard to determine the rock
characteristics in Vietnam, take some
blocks of hydroelectric foundation for
example” master thesis, Hanoi University
of Mining and Geology.
[13] Roclab - User's guide for Rock mass
Strength analysis using the Hoek-Brown
criterion software, 2002.
[14] Vietnamese Standard 4253: 2012 on
Irrigation Works - Hydropower Projects -
Design Requirements.
 CONSOLIDATION PROPERTIES OF SOME HOLOCENE
SOFT CLAYEY SOILS IN QUANG NAM - DA NANG COASTAL PLAIN

Nguyen Thi Ngoc Yen1, Nguyen Hoang Giang2, Do Quang Thien2

1
Da Nang University of Technology, Vietnam
2
Hue University of Sciences -Hue University, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: ngocyendc@gmail.com

Abstract: Based on laboratory tests and solving the problem of back analysis (from settlement
monitoring data of roadbed on soft soil in the area [8]), the paper presents the results of determination of
the horizontal/vertical consolidation coefficient (Ch; Cv) and the ratio m = Ch/Cv of some Holocene soft
clayey soil in Quang Nam - Da Nang coastal plain from laboratory testing.
This research results is high reliability and suitable with other studies in Vietnam and all over the
world. These Ch, Cv values can be used to predict the residual settlement of the ground more accurately
and useful for reference in soil improvement design work in the studied area.

Keyword: consolidation coefficient; soft clayey soils; ground treatment; soil improvement; ratio.

1. Introduction matter in the Southern, m = 2,0 - 2,5 [9]. Thus, it is

Consolidation properties in general and
horizontal/vertical consolidation coefficient (Ch;
Cv) and ratio m = Ch/Cv in particular are carried out
in many kinds of soft soils in the world. These
results show that m value altered in a wide range,
for example, m = Ch(ap)/Cv = 1,5-3,0 (in Singapore)
[5]; m = Ch(ap)/Cv = 1,5-3,0 (in Sweden) [5]; and m
= 1,0 (in Japan) [5].
In Viet Nam, according to 22TCN262-2000, we
can use the relative empiric formula Ch = (2-5)Cv
[7]. However, it is very difficult to choose this
value exactly in reality because it depends on
ground treatment quality, drainage equipment
network and the construction cost. Therefore, we
usually use the formula Ch = mCv. For soil
improvement work, m = 2-6 in common; soft
clayey soils in the South of Ho Chi Minh City area,
m = 4 - 12 [11]; in Ha Noi, m = 1,06 - 4,01 [12]; in
Northern plain, m = 1,3 - 7,6 [14]; in Hai Phong, m
= 1,5 [4]; soft soil amQ22-3 in Cuu Long river plain,
m = 1,35 - 5,61 [13]; mud clay containing organic
very important to use a correct m value that
suitable with each soil type.
Although many researchers have studied m
ratio of soft soils in Viet Nam, multi origin soft
soils in Quang Nam - Da Nang coastal plain are
not deal with. Hence, we the authors not only carry
out these consolidation properties determination
for this area, but also solve the back analysis
problem from settlement monitoring data of
roadbed on soft soils in the area in order to have
most accurate ratio m = Ch/Cv complying with
ground profile.
2. Basis of data and Methodology
2.1. The main basis of data for this study
include
Engineering geological investigation boreholes
were carried out by the authors in cooperation with
many different construction survey consultancy
companies in Quang Nam - Da Nang area The
location and quantity of tested samples displayed
in table 1.

253
 Tab. 1. Location and quantity of researched soil samples
Formation Location (quantity of tested samples)
Tuyen Son - Hoa Cuong (06); An Hai Tay Shipyards - Son Tra (05); Phuoc My -
Son Tra (05); Tho Quang - Son Tra (06); Hoa Xuan urban zone (12); Khue Dong
ambQ23 Bridge - Cam Le (12); Southern belt road - Hoa Qui to Hoa Phuoc (14); Qua Giang
Bridge - Hoa Phuoc (10); Dien Phuoc - Dien Ban (08); Dien Minh - Dien Ban (05);
Phong An - Son Phong (05); Cam An - Hoi An (06); Cua Dai - Hoi An (08); Cam
Ha - Hoi An (10).
Golden Hill urban zone (14); Thuy Tu urban zone (15); Hoa Hiep fixed reresidence
zone, b (15); Hoa Khanh industrial zone (10); Northern West road - Hoa Minh
mbQ22 (12); Da Phuoc urban zone (12); Haa An - Cam Le(12); Mieu Bong - Cam Le (10);
Khue Trung - Nguyen Tri Phuong Bridge (14); Hoa Xuan - Cam Le (12); Hoa
Phuoc - Hoa Khuong road (10);
Dien Duong - Dien Ban (15); Dien Nam - Dien Ban (12); Nam Phuoc - Duy Xuyen
ambQ22 (14); Binh Tu - Thang Binh (08); Binh Hai - Thang Binh (08); Tam Thang - Tam
Ky (12); Chu Lai open economic zone - Nui Thanh (15);
abmQ21 Cam Thanh - Hoi An (08); Dien Duong - Dien Ban (05); Dien Ngoc - Dien Ban
(06); Duy Chau - Duy Xuyen (06).

Settlement monitoring results of Da Nang - be determined by unconfined compression test for

Quang Ngai Highway, elongated Nguyen Tat
Thanh street and approaching road to Khue Dong
bridge [8].
General Investigation, Research, Assessment on
geomorgraphical – geological conditions of Quang
Nam coastal plain in climate change situation [10].
2.2. In order to reach the above target, we the
author used these study methods as follow:
-Vertical consolidation coefficient: Vertical
consolidation characteristics of soft soils were
determined by oedometer compression instrument
VJ Tech (VJTO650) after ASTM D2435, TCVN
4200-2012 standards. Through this test instrument,
soil samples were consolidated under vertical load,
unconfined and undrained condition. Saturated soil
samples were laid in compressive box (figure 1),
pore water was drained in vertical and horizontal
dimensions, then volume of samples changed (their
high changed in correspondence). We measured
the change of high h. Tested samples were loaded
12,5; 25; 50; 100; 200 and 400 or 800 kPa
depended on their states and depth of sampling
with stable monitoring time 24 hours. After
finishing the test, we determined and calculated
consolidation parameters.
-Horizontal consolidation coefficient:
Horizontal consolidation coefficient (Ch) can
undisturbed samples took in horizontal dimension
(ASTM D2435, TCVN 4200-2012), soil samples
were special handled for horizontal permeability
test (create a sand core in the center of each soil
sample then determine the horizontal permeability
coefficient), tested by radial compressive box type
Rowes and tested by compressive box CRS – R
with radial drained path. Besides, Ch can be
determined in in-situ by pore water dissipation
with CPTu test or solve the back analysis problem
from in-situ settlement monitoring data. Since the
limitation of testing condition, we the authors
determine the horizontal consolidation coefficient
by unconfined one dimensional compression test
(ASTM D2435, TCVN 4200-2012) and use the
back analysis solution from in-situ settlement
monitoring data.
Horizontal consolidation coefficient was
determined by standard consolidation test (ASTM
D2435, TCVN 4200-2012), Testing method and
process were the same to vertical one. (figure 1).
However, the tested samples were taken into
cylinder by horizontal direction and the coefficient
was calculated by formula 1. This test method
brings the dependability as other methods, but we
should specially pay attention to taking sample and
handling sample processes.

254
 Th H 2 maxinmum permeability path during consolidation
Ch  , m2/year (1)
t process.
Where: t - consolidation time, minute. After Determinating horizontal consolidation
A.Casagrande t=t50, D.Taylor t=t90. Th - time factor coefficient Ch by using back analysis soution from
(A.Casagrande Th=0,0198, D.Taylor Th=0,111). H in-situ settlement monitoring data.
- ½ average length (or high or thickness) of

a) b)
Fig. 1. Preparing sample (a) and horizontal consolidation compression test (b)
on one dimensional testing instrument VJTO650

a) Relative chart between

b) Relative chart between Si, Si-1
settlement and time
Fig .2. Settlement analysis steps after Asaoka to define Ch

Based on in-situ settlement monitoring data, we De2 F ln 1 (3)

define the settlement S1, S2, …Si-1, Si in
correspondence with fixed time range t,
2t,…nt where t = ti – ti-1. The last settlement is
the intersection of the lining points and the line
connecting the origin of coordinates in 42 degrees
angle. From the relative chart S1, Si-1 in figure 2 a
& b, shows that, this relation is linear and the
equation as follow:
Si   0  1Si1
(2)
Ch  
8 t
Where: F = F(n)+F(s)+F(r) is the factor
influened by turbulence, De - well distance and
resistance of well; t - time range of settlement
determination; i - slope Asaoka settlement path.
Once we have the equivalent horizontal
consolidation coefficient Ch(ap) of ground, the
factor F will be taken place by the arranged
distance of vertical drained instrument F(n) defined
by the below formular (4).

255

D e F (n) ln 1
2
Ch ( ap)   (4)
8 t
Once we have the ratio 1, we can define the
horizontal consolidation coefficient Ch after
Hansbo’s theory (1981) by formular (3).
3. Distribution feature and physico-mechanical
properties of soft soils in researched area
Quang Nam - Da Nang coastal plain multi-
origin soft soils have unstable distribution,
alternative thickness and almost not expose to
surface. Based on additional engineering
geological investigation [5] showed that there are 8
soft soils formations which had the different
composition, origin, time of forming. They are
ambQ23, mbQ22, ambQ22, mQ22no, abmQ21,
amQ13(2) mQ13(2)đn, mlQ13(1)ht but only four of
them (ambQ23, mbQ22, ambQ22 and abmQ21
sediments) have the larger distribution and relate to
ground and foundation designing work. So that, we
the authors deeply studied consolidation
coefficient characteristics (Ch, Cv) of above these 4
formations, those are in detail as follow:
- ambQ23 sediment with the composition includes
clay mud, sandy clay mud with bluish – blackish
grey, contained much organic. Its thickness
changes from 2 - 8 m, creating 50 m - 200 m band;
stretch over 10 km lengths. This formation
distributes along with modern swamp or lagoon,
(De Vong, Phu Loc, Yen, Cu De rivers), (Bau
Tram, Dam Rong lakes), (Nam O, Hoa Phuoc, Hoa
Quy bays) in Da Nang city, (Dien Phuong, Dien
Minh communes of Dien Ban town), (Cam An,
Cam Ha of Hoi An city), or (Binh Tu, Binh Quy,
Binh Trung communes of Thang Binh district) in
Quang Nam province.
- mbQ22 soft soil with sandy clay mud, clay
mud contained peat with blackish grey. Average
thickness of it changes from 2 to 4 m,
particularly>5m. This sediment exposes to the
256
surface at downtown Da Nang city and Nam O,
Hoa Phuoc, Hoa Tien area or covered by fine sand.
- ambQ22 soft soil formation included clay mud,
sandy clay mud with bluish – blackish grey,
contained shells, which have top layer’s depth at
2,5 - 4,0 m and thickness alter 5 - 10 m to > 10 m,
and organic matter content is about 1,4 - 3,2%. It
has a popular distribution, occupies at Dien Hoa,
Dien Tien, Dien Phuoc of Dien Ban town, along
Vu Gia river valley and scattered appears at Dien
Ngoc, Dien Duong communes of Dien Ban town.
- abmQ21 sediment with composition included
clayey sand mud, sandy clay mud with bluish –
blackish grey, soft to very soft state. Top layer’s
depth is 5 - 20m, its thickness vary from 5m to
over 20m, average in 15 - 20m. This formation
distributes at Dien Ban town, Hoi An city, along
Vinh Dien, Can Bien rivers, and covered by a quite
big thickness and younger windy – marine
sediment (mvQ23).
Graded composition and some physico-
mechanical properties of researched soft clayey
soils are listed on table 2.
4. Study results and discussions
4.1. Vertical consolidation coefficient
Based on vertical consolidation coefficient test
results displayed on table 3 and figure 3a, show
that:
-Studied soft clayey soils has not been
consolidated, low pre-consolidated pressure (Pc =
52,6 - 61,5 kPa for sandy clay mud and Pc = 45,5-–
58,8 kPa for clay mud), high compression
coefficient (a1-2 ≥ 10 kPa ).
-1
- Soft soils having different composition, state,
properties, age or/and origin bring the change of
vertical consolidation coefficient. In which, sandy
clay mud ambQ22 gave the highest vertical
consolidation coefficient (Cv = 2,14 m2/year) while
clay mud mbQ22 gave the lowest one (Cv = 1,31
m2/year).
 Tab. 2. Composition and some physico-mechanical properties of above soft soils

Properties Sandy clay mud Clay mud

(ambQ23) (mbQ22) (ambQ22) (abmQ21) (ambQ23) (mbQ22)
<0,005 mm (24,9) (24,2) (24,5) (23,7) (35,9) (36,1)
0,05-0,005
Particle (42,6) (29,2) (35,3) (28,6) (28,8) (40,9)
mm
size, %
2-0,05 mm (32,7) (46,3) (40,1) (47,3) (35,2) (22,7)
>2 mm (0,2) (0,4) (0,2) (0,4) (0,1) 0,0
Natural moisture (43,3) (43,1) (46,7) (48,4) (51,4) (57,5)
content W, %
Void ratio e0 (1,3) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,5)
Liquid limit WL, % (39,6) (38,5) (40,9) (39,2) (43,3) (48,7)
Plasticity index IP, % (13,6) (15,1) (15,2) (14,8) (18,6) (22,6)
Consistence B (1,3) (1,3) (1,4) (1,6) (1,4) (1,4)
 uu ,,degre (0048’) (0040’) (0039’) (0035’ ) (0031’) (0035’)
UU es
Cuu, kPa (7,98) (7,86) (7,18) (5,7) (7,13) (7,24)
Direct  u degree (4026’) (4016’) (4003’) (3031’) (3009’) (3012’)
shear
test Cu, kPa (6,44) (6,38) (5,62) (3,7) (4,93) (5,12)
VST Su, kPa 10,5 9,69 8,05 6,45 8,98 7,45

Total  cu 12016' 12031' 11035' 11028' 12011' 11006'

stress
Ccu 11,73 10,08 11,85 9,95 9,9 11,55
CU

Effective  ' 0
20 33' 0
19 19' 0
20 02' 0
17 10' 0
16 48' 17043'
stress ’
C kPa 7,67 6,8 7,5 6,2 6,6 6,85

Tab. 3. Determination of horizontal consolidation coefficient of soft clayey soil result

Sandy clay mud Clay mud

Properties
(ambQ23) (mbQ2 ) 2
(ambQ2 ) 2
(abmQ2 ) 1
(ambQ23) (mbQ22)
Quantity of samples 93 98 84 25 19 38
Pc, kPa (56,8) (61,5) ) (52,6) (59,3) (45,5) (57,9)
Cc (0,64) (0,44 (0,81) (0,76) (0,51) (0,59)
Standard consolidation

Cr (0,08) (0,06) (0,09) (0,08) (0,07) (0,07)

compression

Cc/Cr (8,41) (7,69) (8,55) (8,65) (7,67) (8,40)

Cv m2/year (1,89) (1,70) (2,14) (1,84) (1,43) (1,31)
Kv.10-7, cm/s (0,42) (0,25) (0,52) (0,38) (0,24) (0,21)
a1-2, kPa-1 (10,5) (11,7) (13,8) (10,7) (12,3) (13,8)
E0 kPa (1398) (1239) (1577) (1405) (808) (738)

257
 Cv, m2/year
Cv, m2/year
P, kPa
Fig. 3a. Vertical consolidation coefficient
of sandy clay mud
4.2. Horizontal consolidation coefficient
According to in-situ settlement monitoring data
[8], we analysed the horizontal consolidation
coefficient for clay mud and sandy clay mud
(ambQ23 and mbQ22), the authors analysis
horizontal consolidation coefficient Ch for these
soft soil formations. Horizontal consolidation
coefficient by in-door test:
Based on 24 soft clayey soil samples, the results
expressed in table 4 and figure 4a,b show that:
- Be the same as vertical consolidation
coefficient Cv, in-door horizontal consolidation
coefficient Ch(tp) varies in other soft clayey soils
(ambQ23, mbQ22). The value of Ch(tp) of ambQ23 is
higher than mbQ22 ones. Although soft clayey soils
have the same age and origin, the horizontal
consolidation coefficients are distinct because their
physico-mechanical properties (natural moisture
content, void ratio, compression coefficient, ...)
altered in a rather wide range.
- The ratio m=Ch(tp)/Cv also changed in a wide
range, so that it expressed clearly non-isotropic
permeability. The value m of mbQ22 soils are
higher than ambQ23 ones.
258
P, kPa
Fig. 3b. Vertical consolidation coefficient
of clay mud
- Other test results on soft soils of various
researchers showed that the ratio m changed once
soils had different composition, age, origin and
location. For example, Bangkok (Thailand) soft
soil gave m = 4 - 10 [13], Ha Noi soft soil gave m
= 1,06 – 4,01 [12]; Viet Nam’s Northern plain soft
soil brought m = 1,3 - 7,6 [14] and Cuu Long river
plain soft soil gave m = 1,35 – 5,61 [13]. So that,
our study complies with above researchs and be
dependable.
Horizontal consolidation coefficient by in-situ
settlement monitoring:
With the result on in-situ settlement monitoring
[4], we determined settlement at the time t = 3, 5
or 7 days; 2t = 6, 10 or 14 days,... then
established the relative chart between S1 and Si-1 as
showed in figure 5a.
Ch(tp), m2/year

m = Ch(tp)/Cv
P, kPa P, kPa
Fig. 4a. Horizontal consolidation coefficient Fig. 4b. Ratio m= Ch(tp)/Cv through other
through other compression pressures compression pressures
Tab. 4. Test results on Ch(tp) and m=Ch(tp) /Cv of soft clayey soils

Vertical consolidation coefficient Horizontal consolidation m= Ch(tp)/Cv by in-door test

Quantity of Cv m2/year coefficient
samples C h(tp) m2/year
Average Max Min Average Max Min Average Max Min
Sandy clay mud (ambQ23)
06
1,69 2,56 1,27 2,47 5,42 1,96 1,95 3,51 1,32
Sandy clay mud (mbQ22)
06
1,43 2,26 1,03 2,40 4,84 1,89 2,34 4,14 1,09
Clay mud (ambQ23)
06
1,35 1,77 1,12 2,25 3,88 1,80 2,17 4,19 1,25
Clay mud (mbQ22)
06
1,31 1,72 1,10 2,14 3,75 1,61 2,22 3,55 1,12

Tab. 5. Calculation results on Ch and m=Ch/Cv by various methods

Horizontal consolidation Vertical

Origin and coefficient consolidation Ratio Average ratio
Soil type
age 2
2
Ch(ap) m /year coefficient Cv m=Ch(tp) /Cv m=Ch(ap)/Cv
Ch(tp) m /year m2/year
after Asaoka
Sandy clay 1,96-5,42/ 2,84-3,32/ 1,27-2,56/ 1,32-3,51/
1,82
mud (2,47) (3,08) (1,69) (1,95)
ambQ23
1,89-4,84/ 2,51-2,99/ 1,03-2,26/ 1,09-4,14/
Clay mud 1,91
(2,40) (2,73) (1,43) (2,34)
Sandy clay 1,80-3,88/ 1,21-4,76/ 1,12-1,77/ 1,25-4,19/
mud (2,25) (2,51) (1,35) (2,17) 1,86
mbQ22
1,61-3,75/ 1,39-2,91/ 1,10-1,72/ 1,12-3,55/
Clay mud
(2,14) (1,99 (1,31) (2,22) 1,52

259
 Si, m

Si-1, m
Fig. 5a. Chart of Si=f(Si-1) at landmark SP-07(Km 12+500) on
Da Nang -Quang Ngai express way
Consolidation coefficient,
m2/year

Fig. 5b. Vertical consolidation coefficient (Cv) and horizontal one (Ch(tp))
and after Asaoka’s one (Ch(ap))

Tab. 6. Ratio m=Ch/Cv of some soft soils in Viet Nam and over the world

Origin and age,

Author Soil type Location Ratio, m
formation
Peaty soil lbQ21-2hh1 Ha Noi 1,15 - 4,01
Nguyen Viet Tinh, 2001
Organic mud lbQ21-2hh1 Ha Noi 1,08-1,52
[12]
Organic sandy clay mud lbQ21-2hh1 Ha Noi 1,06 -2,17
Nguyen Manh Thuy, South of Ho Chi Minh
m=Ch /Cv

Soft clay 4 - 12
2002 [11] City
Organic clay mud lbQ21-2hh1 Northern plain 2,4 - 3,5
Pham Thi Nghia, Pham
Sandy clay mud maQ21-2hh1 Northern plain 1,5 - 6,1
Van Ty, 2005 [14]
Sandy clay mud mbQ21-2hh1 Northern plain 1,3 - 7,6
Nguyen Thi Nu, 2014 Clay mud amQ22-3 Cuu Long river plain 1,62 - 5,61
[13] Sandy clay mud amQ22-3 Cuu Long river plain 1,35-3,12
Suzuki et al, 2008 [4] Soft clay Hai Phong 1,5
m=Ch(ap) /Cv

Koji Suzuki et al, 2011

Soft clay Ho Chi Minh, Vung Tau 2 - 2,5
[13]
Tan, Chew, 1996 [5] Soft clay Singpore, Sweden 1,5 - 3
Tan, Chew, 1996 [5] Soft clay Japan 1
Nguyen Duy Quang et
Soft clay Ba Ria – Vung Tau Ch(ap)=2,06 m2/year
al, 2010 [6]
Nguyen Thi Nu, 2014
Soft clayey soil amQ22-3 Cuu Long river plain Ch(ap) =1,27 -3,03 m2/year
[13]

260
 Determination results on horizontal
consolidation coefficient and the ratio m by
different methods are showed in table 5.
Based on table 4, 5 and figure 4 a,b; 5b, we
realize that:
-Horizontal consolidation coefficient and the
ratio m between in-situ settlement monitoring
result (Ch(ap)) and in-door test (Ch(ap)) are different.
For sandy clay mud (ambQ23, mbQ22), Ch(ap) = 2,51
- 3,08 m2/year and Ch(tp) = 2,25 – 2,47 m2/year;
while for clay mud (ambQ23, mbQ22), Ch(ap) = 1,99 -
2,73 m2/year and Ch(tp) = 2,14 – 2,40 m2/year.
These results may be affected by taking,
preservating, preparing, or testing samples
processes that could make the natural structure or
physical properties of soil samples had changed.
However, the distinct value between Ch(ap) and C-
h(tp) is not much, so that our study is highly
dependable.
- The back analysis result after in-situ settlement
monitoring data showed that soft clayey soils
(sandy clay mud, clay mud) in the researched area
has the horizontal consolidation coefficient Ch(ap) =
1,99 - 3,08 m2/year. This value matches other
studies in Viet Nam and some countries in the
world (table 5): soft soils in Cuu Long river plain
Ch(ap) = 1,27 - 3,03 m2/year [13]; soft clayey soils
of Ba Ria - Vung Tau Ch(ap) = 2,06 m2/year [6].
- Besides, the ratio m of studied soils change as
follow: m = Ch(tp) /Cv = 1,95 - 2,34 m2/year; m =
Ch(ap)/Cv = 1,52 - 1,91 m2/year. These results are
also suitable with other achieved researches in Viet
Nam as well as all over the world (table 6).
In general, our study on soft clayey soils in
Quang Nam – Da Nang coastal plain is compatible
with variuos researches not only in Viet Nam but
also over the world. Thus, it is suggested to use as
reference documents for designing work of soil
improvement.
5. Conclusions
According to tested and analyzed results, we
have some conclusions summarized as follows:
Soft soils in the researched area have many
diffrernt origin, irregular distribution. Soft soil
thickness changes in a wide range and occasionally
exposes to the surface. Among the soft soils,
261
ambQ23, mbQ22, ambQ22 and abmQ21 sediment
formations are more popular, they are direct
relative objects may concern to construction
building.
Studied soft clayey soils are not consolidated,
have low pre-consolidated pressure (for sandy clay
mud, Pc = 52,6 – 61,5 kPa and for clay mud, Pc =
45,5 – 58,8 kPa), high compression coefficient (a1-
2 ≥ 10 kPa ).
-1
Sandy clay mud of ambQ22 sediment brought
the highest vertical consolidation coefficient (Cv =
2,14 m2/year) and sandy clay mud of mbQ22
formation brought the lowest one (Cv = 1,70
m2/year). While Cv of mbQ22 clay mud formation
(Cv = 1,31 m2/year) is less than ambQ23 sandy clay
mud one (Cv = 1,34 m2/year).
In-door horizontal consolidation coefficient
Ch(tp) of ambQ23 sandy clay mud, clay mud
sediments are higher than mbQ22 ones. The ratio m
= Ch(tp)/Cv changes in a wide range. The ratio m =
Ch(tp)/Cv of mbQ22 sandy clay mud is higher than
ambQ23 one, but m = Ch(tp)/Cv of clay mud is on the
contrary.
Horizontal consolidation coefficient and ratio m
between in-situ settlement monitoring result and
in-door test are a little distinct. For sandy clay mud
(ambQ23, mbQ22), Ch(ap) = 2,51 – 3,08 m2/year and
Ch(tp) = 2,25 – 2,47 m2/year; for clay mud (ambQ23,
mbQ22), Ch(ap) = 1,99 – 2,73 m2/year and Ch(tp) =
2,14 – 2,40 m2/year.
The study is concordant with other achieved
researches in Viet Nam and all over the world
[table 5].
In general, it is suggested to use our study as a
reference document for designing work of soil
improvement
References
[1] Akira Asaoka, 1978, Observational
procedure of settlement prediction,
Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, vol. 18 (4), 87-
101.
[2] Barron R. A 1948, Consolidation of fine-
grained soils by drain wells, Transaction
ASCE, 113, 42-718.
[3] Monika De Vos & Valerie Whenham, 2000,
Innovative design methods in geotechnical
engineering, Belgian Building Research
Inst, European Geotechnical Thematic
Network.
[4] Suzuki, K. and Takeuchi, H., 2008,
Performance of band shaped vertical drain
for soft Hai Phong Clay, Soils and
Foundation, Vol. 48, No. 4, pp. 577-585.
[5] Tan.S.A and Chew.S.H, 1996, Comparison
of the hyperbolic and Asaoka
observational method monitoring
consolidation with vertical drains, Soils
and Foundations, Vol.36, No.3, pp. 31-42.
[6] Nguyen Duy Quang, P.H.Giao, T.Seah,
2010, Settlement calculation and back -
analysis of soil properties for a test
embankment on a soft clay ground
improved by PVD and vacuum – assisted
at a site Vung Tau, Vietnam, Viet Nam
Geotechnical journal, No.14/2010.
[7] 22TCN 262-2000, Specification for
surveying and designing the motorway
sub-grade on the soft ground, M.O.T,
2010.
[8] Report on settlement monitoring of project
“Da Nang - Quang Ngai Express way,
Package A1 (Km0+000÷Km8+800);
Package A2 (Km8+000÷Km16+800),
Package A4 (Km21+500÷Km32+600). Da
Nang priority infrastructure investment
project: Lengthen Nguyen Tri Phuong
Street (Km 2+715,04 ÷Km 5+987,50) and
approach road to Khue Dong bridge.
[9] Duong Diep Thuy, 2013, Back analysis
selection value of suitable ratio Ch/Cv for
262
soil improvement in Southern area, Journal
of Construction Technology and Science,
no. 17/2013, pp. 68-76.
[10] Do Quang Thien et al., 2014, Investigation,
research, assessment of general
topographical - geological conditions of
Quang Nam - Da Nang coastal plain in
climate change. Quang Nam. Science
Project code DPDT20122014.
[11] Nguyen Manh Thuy, 2002, Selection
suitable technical solution for soft soil
improvement in Southern of Ho Chi Minh
city, geological doctor of philosophy
thesis.
[12] Nguyen Viet Tinh, 2001, Engineering
geological features of lower - middle
Holocene sediment originated lacustrine -
swampy of Hai Hung formation (lbQ21-
2
hh). Assessment the application ability
and prediction the change under
engineering work and urban development,
example for Ha Noi area, geological
doctor of philosophy thesis. Mining -
Geology University.
[13] Nguyen Thi Nu, 2014, Research on
engineering geological features of soft
clayey soil amQ22-3 located in Cuu Long
river plain for road ground improvement,
geological doctor of philosophy thesis.
Mining - Geology University.
[14] Pham Thi Nghia et al., 2005,
Determination of horizontal permeability
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 EFFECTS OF CYCLE NUMBER OF TRIAXIAL CYCLIC TEST
AND SAND DENSITY ON DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF SAND
OF THE THAI BINH FORMATION IN HANOI AREA
Nguyen Van Hung, Nguyen Thanh Duong,
Bui Van Binh, Phung Huu Hai, Pham Thi Ngoc Ha
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: nguyenvanhung.dcct@humg.edu.vn

Abstract: Hanoi area is home that has many constructions with different loads. There are many
building, which has foundation on sand layer of Thai Binh formation. However, this soil is very sensitive
to liquefy. Based on the sand density, it is possible to assess the liquefaction ability of this layer, from that
assessing the stability of these buildings. In general, sand of Thai Binh formation is at risk of liquefaction
when subjected to dynamic loading. However, depending on the density and depth of ground water table
in the area, as well as the dynamic loading conditions, liquefaction ability is different. From this, it is
possible to set the foundation solutions and appropriate treatment to ensure stable and long-term works.
The article used a cyclic triaxial equipment to investigate the effect of sand density on Thai Binh
formation sand's ability to liquefy. The research result shows that with density of sand is over63 %, it is
not liquefied (the liquefaction cyclic number is 48 with cyclic loading amplitude is 40kPa and effective
consolidation pressure is 110kP).

Keywords: density, liquefaction, sand, Thai Binh formation, Hanoi area

1. Introduction formation allows to predict the impact of

Liquefaction is a geological phenomenon
caused by cyclical dynamic loadings such as
earthquakes, foundation of dynamical engine, pile
driving, train, etc. This phenomenon greatly affects
the constructions, which have foundation
distributed on the saturated sand. In the world,
many buildings are destroyed by the phenomenon.
These earthquakes caused the liquefaction that
makes thousands of people died or injured,
thousands of houses were destroyed. For example,
the earthquake had occurred on Christchurch (New
Zealand, on 22 February 2011) - a magnitude 6.3
earthquake caused severe damage, killing 185
people and injuring several thousand,
Kashiwarashi, Niigata (Japan, July 16, 2007) -
caused minor tsunamis and buckled roads and
bridges in the region.
Hanoi capital is a cultural and political center of
Viet Nam, where important works are
concentrated. It also means ensuring the safety of
constructions in the city. Therefore, study on the
liquefaction phenomenon of sand of Thai Binh
earthquakes on the stability of construction works
with foundation related to sand layer of Thai Binh
formation in Hanoi area. On the other hand, it also
allows for earthquake safety assessments for newly
constructions. At present, the impact of sand
density of Thai Binh formation sand's ability to
liquefy has not been researched. On the other hand,
this effect is one of the major causes of
liquefaction. Thus, the study of sand density of
Thai Binh formation sand has the potential to
minimize the incidents occurring with buildings
2.Characteristics of sand in the Thai Binh
formation (aQ23tb)
Characteristics of sand in the Thai Binh
formation (aQ23tb) in Ha Noi area:
According to the study of dynamic
consolidation phenomenon and change the
durability of soil foundation in Ha Noi area under
dynamic loading to improve the geotechnical
information system for sustainable development

263
and prevention of hazard, Nguyen Huy Phuong, The characteristics of sand in this study: In
the physico-mechanical of Thai Binh formation this study, 11 sand samples were taken at
sand is the fine sand, greenish gray, yellowish Electronic triangles Works, To Huu Road, Trung
gray, medium density Van Ward, Nam Tu Liem District and FLC
In general, the thickness of this layer changes complex twin tower, Cau Giay District, Hanoi.
sharply from 0.6m to 32.5m, average 14.2m. The Results of particle size and physico - mechanical
particle size and some physico-mechanical properties of this soil are shown in Table 2.
properties of this layer are presented in Table 1.

Tab. 1. The particle size and physico-mechanical properties of Thai Binh formation sand
5-2 Angle of Repose for sand
2-0.5 0.5-0.25 0.25-0.1 0.1-0.05 SPT
(mm), <0.05
(mm), % (mm), % (mm), % (mm), % Dry Saturation (N)
%
0.3 5.3 25.8 43.3 15.2 10 31008’ 24059’ 12
Number of specimens n=685 R0=150 kPa E0=10800 kPa

Tab. 2. Particle size and physico – mechanical properties of sand used in testing

No. Content Symbol Units Value

1-0,5 4.9
0,5-0,25 51.4
1 Particle size (mm) 0,25-0,1 P % 26.4
0,1 -0.05 9.1
< 0.05 8.2
2 Bulk density c g/cm3 2.66
Max. emax 1.200
3 Void ratio -
Min. emin 0.592
D60 0.121
4 Size diameter D30 mm 0.107
D10 0.06
Percentage of cumulative particle size

Diameter of particle

Fig. 1. Percentage of cumulative particle size

264
 Testing procedure: According to ASTM
D5311- 92, cyclic triaxial test to determine the
liquefaction characteristics of sand are carried out
in the following steps: Specimen saturation,
consolidation and cyclic loading.
Specimen saturation: To fill water in the voids
of the sand. This step is carried out by increasing
the cell pressure and back pressure at each level,
until the saturation rises above or equal to 95%.
The difference between the cell pressure and the
back pressure is 10kPa in all pressure levels.
Specimen consolidation: Specimen is
consolidated by increasing the cell pressure to the
desired effective coherent pressure value.
Meanwhile, back pressure is kept constant. The
effective consolidation pressure is the difference
between the cell pressure and the back pressure.
This process ends when the consolidation reaches
over 90%. According to the study's research, for
the tests to determine the effect of sand density
(Dr) on the liquefaction cycle, the effective
consolidation pressure σ'3c was obtained in the
range of 50 kPa to 110 kPa for all samples.
Cyclic loading: At this stage, the cyclic loading
diagram and parameters: frequency, amplitude and
number of cyclic are set for each specimen. This
stage ends when the liquefaction occurs or after a
certain period of time and number of cycles, the
specimen is not liquefied. Figure 3 shows the result
Fig. 2. Specimen is liquefied (a) and not liquefied (b)
265
of two specimens corresponds to the case specimen
is liquefied and not liquefied.
Based on historical earthquake characteristics in
Hanoi, the largest earthquake in Hanoi corresponds
to level 8 (6-6.8 Richter scale), the experiment
parameters are as follows:
Frequency (f): The data show that in the Hanoi
area, earthquakes usually occur with a common
cycle of 0.2 - 2s equivalent to the frequency f = 5 -
0.5Hz. Within the scope of the study, for the
purposes of the study and laboratory equipment,
the frequency of f = 2Hz was chosen and applied to
all experiments.
Amplitude (σd): To determine the effect of
density on sand liquefaction ability, the amplitude
σd = 40kPa (corresponding to the level 8
earthquake, from 5 to 7m depth) was selected for
all experiments.
The initial mean effective stress(σ’3c): In this
experiment, the initial mean effective stress was
used to tighten the sample for each purpose. The
greater the cohesive force, the stronger the sample.
Within the scope of the topic, the initial mean
effective stress σ'3c is taken from 70 - 110kPa.
 Tab. 3. The result of cyclic triaxial test to determine the effect of sand density on liquefaction cycle
Cyclic Effective
Density of Porewater Liquefaction
Frequency loading consolidation
No. Specimen sand pressure cycle
amplitude pressure
Dr(%) f (Hz)  d (kPa)  '3c (kPa) ru N
1 C9 53.9 2 40 70 1 11
2 C10 51.7 2 40 70 1 5
3 C11 56.1 2 40 70 1 13
4 C12 58.6 2 40 90 1 14
5 C13 55.9 2 40 90 1 12
6 C14 80.1 2 40 90 0.3 >150
7 C15 65.9 2 40 100 1 43
8 C16 72.6 2 40 110 1 78
9 C17 77.3 2 40 110 1 107
10 C19 63.1 2 40 110 1 48
11 C20 60.1 2 40 100 1 21

Fig. 3. Relation between sand density and liquefaction cycle of Thai Binh formation sand

3. Results and discussions = 51.7%, the number of liquefaction cycles is 5,

Eleven specimens of sand were tested to
determine the effect of sand density (Dr) on the
liquefaction cycle of sand in the Thai Binh
formation in Hanoi. Specimens were reconducted
and consolidated under different effective
consolidation pressure levels to achieve the desired
density. In the study, the samples with a density
were in the range of 54.9% to 80.1%, the
frequency f = 2Hz, the cyclic loading amplitude σd
= 40 kPa, effective consolidation pressure σ'3c is
between 70 kPa and 110 kPa. The experimental
results are shown in Table 3.
From the test result, it was found that, as sand
density increased, the number of liquefaction
cycles increased. For specimen with a density, Dr
with density of Dr = 80.1%, the specimen is not
liquefied. The results are shown in Figure 4.
This is explained as follows: when the density
of sand, Dr is increased, the density of solid
particles in the soil increases. When subjected to
dynamic loading on the specimen, the particles
tend to realign. The higher the relative density of
sand, the realignment is faster. And it will be to
achieve stability. As sand density increases, excess
pore water pressure increases slowly, making sand
hard to liquefy. On the other hand, the greater the
density of the sand, the friction between the
particles increases, resulting in increased
liquefaction resistance.
Discussions

266
 - Sandy soil of Thai Binh Formation is a type of
soil that is prone to occur when liquefied by the
dynamic loading. However, depending on the
location of the site, the depth of the water table, the
particle size, as well as the dynamic loading
conditions, their liquefaction capacity may vary.
- The density of sand influences the liquefaction
cycle. As the density increases, the number of
liquefaction cycles increases. With fine sand and
very tight, liquefaction does not occur. For sand in
the Thai Binh Formation, under undrained
conditions, with frequency f = 2Hz, Cyclic loading
amplitude σd = 40kPa (corresponding to
earthquake level 8, at depth 5-7m), when sand
density more than 80%, liquefaction is not likely to
occur.
References
1Nguyen Huy Phuong (2010), the dynamic
consolidation phenomenon and change the
durability of soil foundation in Ha Noi
area under dynamic loading to improve the
geotechnical information system for
267
sustainable development and prevention of
hazard, Summary report of Ha Noi city.
2 ASTM D5311 Standard test method for load
controlled cyclic triaxial strength of Soil.
3 Marcuson, W. F., III (1978), Definition of
terms related to liquefaction, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE.
4 Sladen, J. A., DHollander, R. D., and Krahn,
J. (1985), The liquefaction of sands, a
collapse surface approach, Can. Geotech.
J., 22, 564– 578.
5 Seed, H.B. (1979), Soil liquefaction and
cyclic mobility evaluation for level ground
during earthquakes, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering.
 EFFECTS OF SOFT GROUND STRUCTURE ON THE HAU RIVERBANK
FAILURE PROCESS IN AN GIANG PROVINCE, VIETNAM

Tran Le The Dien1, Huynh Trung Tin1, Trang Nguyen Dang Khoa1,
Bui Trong Vinh1, Ta Duc Thinh2
1
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: dien.tran@vnrentop.com

Abstract: Riverbank erosion and landslides have been occurring in Quaternary sediments
complicatedly in Mekong River. The riverbank in An Giang province has been instability. This province
is located at the upstream of the Mekong river system flowing into the Vietnam territory where there are
three large rivers flowing through, such as the Tien, Hau and Vam Nao Rivers. In recent years, the
phenomenon of riverbank erosion and landslides has been occurring with strong intensity and large scale
in An Giang province. Some parts of riverbanks have been seriously slid especially in Hau riverbank on
Highway 91 in 2010, in Binh Duc and Binh Khanh Wards in 2012, and My Hoi Dong commune in 2017.
The soft ground structure of the riverbank in Quaternary sediments is mainly important factor caused
riverbank unstable. This factor may cause formation and development of the riverbank landslide
phenomenon. In this paper, MIKE and Geoslope/W models were used to investigate the mechanism of
riverbank erosion and landslide in An Giang province. Research results shown that soft ground structure
of riverbanks have fine sand traps distributes from the depth of 14.0 to 29.0m that has eroded by flow rate
with eroded speed of 0.6 to 1.25m/year and Fs<1.Following the results, we proposed the other research
application of riverbank instability for the Mekong Delta areas.

Keywords: riverbank erosion and landslide; riverbank instability; Hau riverbank; geological structure.

1. Introduction 2012; the segment at the confluence of the Vam

In recent years, landslides and erosions along Nao river in 2017 (Figs.1-4).
Hau riverbanks in An Giang province have
occurred seriously and caused a huge loss in
human life and social - economic development.
This province is located at the upstream of the
Mekong river system flowing into the Vietnam
territory where there are three large rivers flowing
through, such as the Tien, Hau and Vam Nao
rivers. In recent years, the phenomenon of
riverbank erosion and landslides has been
occurring with strong intensity and large scale in
An Giang province. According to statistics, 21
riverbank segments have been unstable and eroded
with total length of 61.72 kilometers along Hau
River. Some segments occurred seriously such as
the segment of National Road No 91 in 2010, the
segment in Binh Duc ward, Binh Khanh ward in Fig. 1. Location of the research area

268
 In general, riverbank erosion and landslides
have occurred frequently and complicatedly along
Mekong riverbanks including Hau riverbanks.
Especially, the formation and development of
landslides often take place and affect on human life
significantly.
The main objective of this paper is to clarify the
effect of soft ground structure on the formation and
Fig. 2. The riverbank landsides Fig. 3. The riverbank landslides
in segment of No 91 road in in Binh Duc ward, Long Xuyen
Binh My commune, Chau Phu city (4/3/2012)
district (22/3/2010)
2. Characteristics of soft ground structure and
geomorphology of the research area
Structure characteristics and physico-
mechanical property of soft ground in the research
area are shown in figure 5 and table 1.
Shape of Hau river that flows through An
Giang – Vietnam, divides into 3 segments as
follows:
Segment I: From Cambodia border to Khanh
Hoa islet (Chau Doc town, An Giang). This
segment is divided at the middle by Vinh Tuong
isle, at the beginning of this section, there is a
division into the Binh Ghi river, between the
receiving section from Vam Xang canal. There is a
corner in Chau Doc near 900 (Figure 6).
Segment II: From the North of Khanh Hoa isle
to the South of Binh Thanh isle (Chau Phu district,
An Giang), which passes Vam Nao. At the
beginning and the end of this segment, river is
divided into flows by Khanh Hoa, Khanh Binh,
Binh Thuy, Binh Thanh isles. At the end of this
269
development of landslides and erosions in the Hau
riverbanks in An Giang province. In addition, the
mechanism, rules, and causes of the instability of
riverbank were also investigated to propose the
suitable countermeasures.
Fig. 4. The riverbank
landslides in My Hoi Dong
commune, Cho Moi district
(22/4/2017).
segment, the flow receives more water from Vam
Nao river branch (Figure 7).
Segment III: From the South of Binh Thanh isle
to Vam Cong (Long Xuyen city, An Giang). At the
beginning of this segment, the flow is divided by
My Hoa Hung, Pho Ba, An Thanh Trung, Con Moi
isles. This flow receives water from Ong Chuong,
Cai Tac channels and supplies to Long Xuyen
tetragonal area via canal system (Figure 8).
In order to clarify the riverbed topography and
river cross section of research area ([1]- Binh My
commune, Chau Phu district; [2] - Binh Khanh
ward – Long Xuyen city; [3] -Binh Duc ward,
Long Xuyen city; [4] - My Hoi Dong commune,
Cho Moi district), the research team has referred
topography document in 2009 and mapping river
cross section in 2012, 2016. The results are shown
in Fig. 10.
 Fig. 5. Graphic log of soft ground of Hau riverbank in An Giang - Vietnam

Tab. 1. Physico-mechanical property of ground layers

of Hau riverbank in An Giang province from 0.0m to 40.0m depth

River origin Sea origin Sea origin

River-sea origin
Hau Giang formation late Pleistocene Long My
(amQ22-3)
Physico- (aQ23-2) (aQ23-2) (mQ21-2hg) formation (mQ13lm)
No. mechanical Unit Mud
Clay, Mud Sand
property Sandy Mud Mud silty Clayey
Silty Sand Clay silty - Clay Clay Sand-
- Clay clay clay - sand
-clay clay Silt
clay
1 Grain size distribution %
- Clay 44.7 0.5 36.4 55.0 44.0 50.0 48.6 44.5 37.8 31.3 46.0 9.4
- Silt 39.6 26.9 24.3 32.4 42.0 38.0 38.2 35.1 36.7 28.4 24.7 13.2
- Sand 15.3 72.6 39.7 12.6 14.0 12.0 13.2 20.4 25.6 40.3 29.1 77.4
2 Moisture content % 34.32 23.50 21.9 39.91 65.63 55.40 65.76 48.36 42.27 24.52 26.24 24.75
3 Unit weight g/cm3 1.78 1.803 1.985 1.76 1.58 1.65 1.59 1.70 1.73 1.97 1.94 1.94
4 Dry weight g/cm3 1.33 1.46 1.628 1.27 0.96 1.06 0.96 1.15 1.22 1.58 1.54 1.58
5 Specific gravity g/cm3 2.63 2.65 2.684 2.62 2.62 2.58 2.64 2.67 2.66 2.67 2.66 2.66
6 Saturation % 91.70 76.41 90.7 95.15 97.53 99.34 98.38 96.79 93.99 93.94 95.03 87.52
7 Porosity % 49.56 44.90 39.4 51.79 63.48 58.95 63.70 56.88 54.12 40.76 42.05 40.80
8 Void ratio - 0.984 0.815 0.649 1.097 1.752 1.437 1.766 1.331 1.191 0.691 0.735 0.692
9 Liquid limit % 43.57 - 34.8 52.43 54.42 51.80 54.42 45.34 46.42 32.19 40.30 25.71
10 Plastic limit % 17.98 - 19.0 23.38 20.17 20.6 21.63 17.77 18.08 12.30 18.63 4.76
11 Liquidity Index - 0.48 - 0.33 0.44 1.58 1.19 1.52 1.17 0.77 0.39 0.25 0.82
12 Cohesion kG/cm2 0.15 0.078 0.133 0.178 0.105 0.113 0.110 0.125 0.153 0.279 0.213 0.084
13 Friction angle deg 1203’ 27051’ 10028’ 7052’ 3012’ 3043’ 1020’ 5027’ 6035’ 14035’ 11013’ 26001’
14 Coeff. Compress cm2/kG
- 0.25
0.129 0.545 0.386 0.597 0.377 0.295
- 0.5 0.097 0.106 0.062 0.062 0.051
0.095 0.407 0.298 0.456 0.256 0.194
- 1.0 0.079 0.067 0.050 0.050 0.041
0.066 0.272 0.187 0.270 0.156 0.136
- 2.0 0.057 0.038 0.036 0.038 0.032
0.038 0.148 0.122 0.158 0.100 0.089
- 4.0 0.031 0.018 0.022 0.027 0.023
15 Module Strain E1-2 kG/cm2 21.58 26.90 22.07 7.44 12.38 7.00 14.45 9.85 29.12 18.26 39.13
16 Standard pressure kG/cm2 1.05 1.63 0.95 0.99 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 0.84 1.83 1.32 1.59

270
 Fig. 6. Shape of Hau river Fig. 7. Shape of Hau river from Chau Fig. 8. Shape of Hau river
from Cambodia border to Doc to Vam Nao river from Vam Nao river to Vam
Chau Doc Cong ferry

3. Stability analysis of the Hau riverbank
In general, the river includes two main factors:
flow and structure of riverbank and riverbed. Thus,
the causes of landslides in riverbank will relate to
the structure of riverbank, riverbed, and
characteristics of the flow. In addition, the human
activities on riverbank and riverbed also affect and
promote the occurrence of landslides.
Some parts of Hau riverbanks landslide from
2010 to 2017 have been geological structure,
topography, and physical - mechanical properties
which is shown in Fig.9, Fig.10 and tables 2-5.

0.0 0.0 0.0

-0,8 A A -1,2 A
-2,8
-4.0 -4,5 1 -4.0 -4.0 -3,8 1
-5,4 1
-8.0 -8.0 -8.0
2
2
-12.0 -12.0 -12.0 2
-14,0
-16.0 -16.0 -16.0
-19,0 -18,9
3 -20.0 -20.0
-20.0
-23,0
-24.0 -24.0 3 -24.0 3 1 2
4
-28.0 -28.0 -29,5 -28.0
-28,7 -30,8
-32.0 -32.0 -32.0

-36.0 -36.0 4 -36.0 4

5
-40.0 -40.0 -40.0

-42.0 -42,0 -42.0 -42,0

-42.0 -42,0

1 2 3 4 3
4

Fig. 9. Graphic log of soft ground at the
landslide locations along the Hau river:
[1]- Binh My commune, Chau Phu district;
[2]- Binh Khanh ward, Long Xuyen city; [3]
Binh Duc ward, Long Xuyen city;
[4] My Hoi Dong commune, Cho Moi
Fig. 10. River cross sectional drawing before sliding at
landslide locations along the Hau river:
[1]- Binh My commune, Chau Phu district;
[2]-Binh Khanh ward, Long Xuyen city;
[3]- Binh Duc ward, Long Xuyen city;
[4]- My Hoi Dong commune, Cho Moi district.

271
Tab. 2. Soil properties in Binh My commune, Chau Tab. 5. Soil properties in My Hoi Dong commune,
Phu district Cho Moi dist
Direct shear Thick Unit Direct shear stress
Thick Unit stress Soil
No. ness weight C φ
No. Soil layer ness weight C layer
φ (m) (g/cm3) 2
(kG/cm ) (deg)
(m) (g/cm3) (kG/c
(deg) Silty
m2) 1 2.3 1.73 0.228 14035’
1 Silty clay 3.3 1.985 0.133 0
10 28’ clay
Mud -
2
Mud -
10.0 1.481 0.078 3042’ 2 15.4 1.61 0.067 3050’
clay clay
Silty
Mud-clay 3 21.8 2.01 0.235 16005’
3 fine sand 9.0 1.821 0.075 0
8 40’ clay
trap Sand
4 Silty clay 5.7 2.001 0.230 1605’ 4 fine- >11.2 1.98 0.052 35032’
Sand fine medium
5 >10.0 2.021 0.087 30029’
- medium
The factor of safety (Fs) will be a function of
Tab. 3. Soil properties in Binh Duc commune, elements that are the structure of river-bank and
Long Xuyen city bed, the element of hydrodynamic flow, and
Thick Unit Direct shear stress element of human activities .Fs=f(x,y,z)
Soil Where: x = element of river-bank and bed
No. ness weight C φ
layer
(m) (g/cm3) (kG/cm2) (deg) structure; y = element of hydrodynamic of flow; z=
Silty element of human activities.
1 2.6 1.92 0.228 14032’
clay The element of x is determined based on the
Mud- result of field investigation as mentioned above.
2 13.6 1.58 0.049 4026’
clay The element of y is directly measured and
Mud - calculated based on the MIKE model. The variable
clay
of z is assumed according to different scenarios.
3 fine 10.5 1.76 0.077 7028’
sand
The Modul SLOPE/W in Geostudio 2012 was
trap employed to analyses and evaluate the factor of
Clay, safety. The Fs was determined based on the
4 Silty >11.5 1.66 0.075 7043’ equilibrium method which is the ratio of resisting
clay moment to driving moment [1]:

Tab. 4. Soil properties in Binh Khanh ward, Long

Resisting Moment 
c'.b  (W.cos α  u.b)  '
1
Xuyen city Fs   m ( 1)
Direct shear Driving Moment  W.sin α
Thick Unit
Soil stress Where: c’=effective cohesive force;
No. ness weight
layer
(m) (g/cm3)
C φ ’=effective friction angle;
(kG/cm2) (deg) W=the weight of each slice;
Silty b=the width of each slice;
1 3.6 1.94 0.245 16009’
clay u= the water pressure;
Mud
=angle of each slice;
-clay
5003’ tan  '.sin 
2 fine 30.0 1.56 0.083 m  cos   (2)
sand Fs
trap
3 Sand 3.0 1.97 0.047 29004’
4 Clay > 3.5 1.88 0.158 13053’

272
 4. Analysis results
Base on analysis results of geological structure
and riverbed topography, landslide locations along
Hau river in the research area are emulated and
analyzed by Geo-Slope/W 2012 in order to assess
the stability of riverbank (Fig. 12 to 15).
However, the formation and development of
erosion in sandy-clay-mud, clay-sand and fine sand
layers in the body and toe of slopes play an
important role in the stability of riverbanks. This
Fig. 11. Principle of the Bishop method with
effect was simulated and analyzed using the MIKE
circular failure surfaces based on methods of slices
model shown in Fig 16 and table 6.

Fig. 12. Model analysis landslide Hau riverbank in Fig. 13. Model analysis landslide Hau riverbank
Binh My commune, Chau Phu District Binh Duc ward, Long Xuyen city

Fig. 14. Model analysis landslide Hau riverbank Fig. 15. Model analysis landslide Hau riverbank
Binh Khanh ward, Long Xuyen city in My Hoi Dong commune, Cho Moi District

Tab. 6. The results of erosion analysis

in soft soil layers
Erosion speed
Location
(m/year)
Binh My commune, Chau Phu
0.6 - 1.05
district
Binh Duc ward, Long Xuyen 0.8 -1.15
Fig. 16. Model analysis erosion soil layers in the Binh Khanh ward, Long Xuyen 0.7 -1.15
body and toe of slopes My Hoi Dong commune, Cho
0.9 -1.25
Moi district

273
 The prediction of formation and development
of slide surface was simulated by model
Fig. 17. Model analysis landslide Hau riverbank
in Binh My commune, Chau Phu District
included toe erosion
Fig. 19. Model analysis landslide Hau riverbank
Binh Khanh ward, Long Xuyen city included toe
erosion
Tab. 7. Result of slope stability analysis
Location FS
Binh My commune, Chau Phu district 0.856
Binh Duc ward, Long Xuyen city 0.615
Binh Khanh ward, Long Xuyen city 0.821
My Hoi Dong commune, Cho Moi district 0.953
5. Discussions
5.1. Effects of soft ground structure
The soft ground structure in the research area
includes soft soil layers in Holocene age. These
layers distribute along the Hau riverbanks with
different origins and compositions. The main
compositions of fluvial sediment (aQ23) are sand,
silt, clay, and organic matter. The main
compositions of fluvio-marine sediment (amQ22-3)
are clayey mud, clay, and those of marine sediment
(mQ21-2) are clayey silt, sandy silt, clay, and sandy
clay.
The soft ground structure of each landslide site
as following:
- In Binh My commune, Chau Phu district: the
274
GeoSlope/W2012 (including toe erosion) and
result shown in Fig 17 to Fig 20.
Fig. 18. Model analysis landslide Hau riverbank
Binh Duc ward, Long Xuyen city included toe
erosion
Fig. 20. Model analysis landslide Hau riverbank in
My Hoi Dong commune, Cho Moi District included
toe erosion
Fs (including sediment transport-induced
erosion)
0.827
0.578
0.773
0.904
ground structure includes the sandy clay mud
sandwiches fine sand traps layer which distributes
from the depth of 14.0 m to 23.0 m. According to
the observation results before March 22nd, 2010,
the cross profile of riverbed is imbalance, some
water swirling form gulch with the depth of 18.00
m to 23.00 m. These results are consistent with the
model results of GeoSlope/W with the stability
factor of riverbank of 0.856. The toe of slide
surface was formed and developed in the sandy
clay mud sandwiches with fine sand lenses layer.
The safety factor decreased significantly when
considering the erosion at the toe of slopes. This
erosion promoted the occurrence of landslides. The
result of erosion has been applied in MIKE model
with the average erosion speed from 0.6 m/year to
1.05 m/year. In this case, the stability factor of
slope (FS) was 0.827.
- In Binh Duc ward, Long Xuyen city: The
ground structure includes clayey sand mud
sandwiches fine sand traps layer which distributes
at the depth of 19.0 m to 29.0 m. The cross profile
of riverbed was V right-skewed shape along the
road No. 91 in Binh Duc ward. The centerline of
flow was about 75 m to 100 m from the bank, at
the depth from 18.0 m to 26.0 m. According to the
GeoSlope/W model with the Fs=0.615, the toe of
landslide formed and developed in the clayey sand
mud layer. The safety factor decreased
significantly when considering the erosion at the
toe of slopes. This erosion promoted the
occurrence of landslides. The result of erosion
from 2009 to 2012 has been applied in MIKE
model with the average erosion speed from 0.8
m/year to 1.15 m/year. In this case, the slope
stability factor of riverbank was 0.578.
- In Binh Khanh ward, Long Xuyen city: the
ground structure includes the sandy clay mud
sandwiches with fine sand traps layer which
distributes from 1.36 m to 32.46 m. The cross
profile of riverbed was V right-skewed shape along
the road No 91 in Binh Khanh ward. According to
the GeoSlope/W model with the Fs=0.821, the toe
of landslide formed and developed in the sandy
clay mud sandwiches with fine sand lenses layer.
The safety factor decreased significantly when
considering the erosion at the toe of slopes. This
erosion promoted the occurrence of landslides. The
result of erosion from 2009 to 2012 has been
applied in MIKE model with the average erosion
speed from 0.7 m/year to 11.5 m/year. In this case,
the slope stability factor of riverbank was 0.773.
- In My Hoi Dong commune, Cho Moi district:
the ground structure includes the fine-medium sand
layer which distributes from the depth of 30.0 m to
50.0 m. The cross profile of riverbed was V shape.
This location was the crossing of the Vam Nao
river and the Hau river, so the flow was
complicated, and appeared some deep vortex holes
from 40.0 m to 45.0 m. According to the
GeoSope/W model with the Fs=0.953, the toe of
landslide formed and developed in the fine-
medium fine sand layer. The safety factor
275
decreased significantly when considering the
erosion at the toe of slopes. This erosion had
promoted the occurrence of landslides. The result
of erosion from 2009 to 2016 has been applied in
MIKE model with the average erosion speed from
0.9 m/year to 1.25 m/year. In this case, the safety
factor is 0.904. This result is consistent with the
result of deep measurement of the riverbed after
the occurrence of landslides at the depth of 42.00
m.
In the research area, the ground structure often
includes soft soil layers such as sandy clay mud
sandwiches with fine-grained sand lenses, clayey
sand mud layer, and clayey sand mud layer. In
addition, in these areas, the water river flow is very
strong and complicated. This leads to occur the
erosion at the toe of slope and then reduces the
resisting force. These conditions are disadvantages
and promote the formation and development of
landslides.
5.2. River morphology
River morphology at landslide and ecrotion
locations are:
- Landslide and erosion site along Hau river at
Binh My commune, Chau Phu district, An Giang,
Vietnam is river loop with bend coefficient of αc
=1.11, relation coefficient of width and depth in
river cross sectional drawing of K=0.76 it is shown
that stability of flow and riverbank in this area is
very low. The simulation results show that the
dynamic axis and the current direction of river loop
promote destabilizing of riverbank on soft ground.
Fig. 21. Distribution field of current velocity and
direction on Hau river at Binh My commune, Chau
Phu district
 The landslide and erosion location along Hau
river at Binh Duc, Binh Khanh wards, Long Xuyên
city, An Giang, Vietnam is typical morphology of
braided river. This segment, the river is braided by
My Hoa Hung isle with length from 4,300m to
4,500m. Coefficient K swings from 0.7 (Binh Duc)
to 0.83 (Binh Khanh), this is also proved that
stability of flow and riverbank in this area is very
low.
increased significantly due to the change in the
distribution of flow at the beginning of My Hoa
Hung islet. The measurement results at 8h30 on
November 25th, 2011 at two branches showed that
the flow of the right branch was 9,474 m3/s
accounting for 75 %, while the flow of the left
branch was about 3,184 m3/s, about 25 % of total
river flow. The total flow volume of the two
branches was 12,658m3/s, resulting in strong slides
in the riverside area of Long Xuyen City and the
Pho Ba islet. In contrast, the left branch of My Hoa
Hung islet was deposited to form large sand dunes,
and An Thanh Trung, Con Moi islets due to the
decreasing of flow volume.

Fig. 22. Distribution field of current velocity and

direction of the river through My Hoa Hung isle
when ebbing

The simulation results show that the dynamic

axis and the flow velocity of river branch running
Fig. 23. Flow volume chart of two river branches
through Long Xuyen city is very close to the
running throught My Hoa Hung islet
riverbank and causes landslide process faster.
- The landslide and erosion sites of Hau
6. Conclusions and recommendations
riverbanks in My Hoi Dong commune, Cho Moi
6.1. The causes of the instability in riverbanks
district, An Giang, Vietnam were at the junction of
of the Hau river are mainly related to the ground
rivers Vam Nao and Hau river, where these rivers
structure, river morphology and hydrodynamic
intersect and create deep whirlpool with depth
characteristics. The soft soil layers distribute
swing from 40.0m to 45.0m.
largely on the riverbanks and riverbeds.
Thus, the river morphology is one of the factors
Components of these layers are clay mud
that promote the formation and development of the
sandwiches with fine sand traps, sandy mud. These
landslides and erosion of riverbank in the research
layers were formed in Holocene sediments of river,
area.
river-sea, and sea origin. Shear resistance of these
5.3. Flow volume layers was low that promoted to form and develop
The maximum flow volume of the Hau river at
riverbank landslide in An Giang.
Chau Doc was 7,580 m3/s and increased to 16,900
6.2. The formation and development of
m3/s at downstream – the Vam Nao river. This
landslide in the study area are rule-based and
means that the riverbed of this segment was wide
repetitious: In some places in the riverbank where
and deep. This promoted the instability of the
exist the fine sand traps which are eroded and
riverbanks.
swept away by flow. This results in an imbalance
Impacts of the flow were demonstrated by two
in force and causing deep slides. The mechanism
slides in the Binh Duc and Binh Khanh wards. In
of riverbank landslides can be simulated as shown
particular, the flow of the right branch of river
in Fig. 24.

276

Fig. 24. The riverbank landslide mechanism in An
Giang, Vietnam
6.3. For analyzing the stability of riverbank in
An Giang province in particular and in MeKong
delta area in general, the ground structure of
riverbank and riverbed should be clarified.
Specially, distribution and thickness of fine-
grained sand lenses should be determined clearly.
6.4. For the engineering and geological
investigation, the grid of boreholes and penetration
holes need to be placed suitably to determine
accurately the soil strata and the distribution of the
fine-grained sand lenses in the ground structure of
riverbank and riverbed.
References
1 Abramson L.W, Lee T.S., Sharma S. and
Boyce G.M., 2002. Slope stability and
stabilization methods, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, 712pp.
2 Hai, H. Q., Trinh, V. T. M., 2011.
Correlation of erosion-aggradation in areas
along Tien and Hau rivers. Vietnam
Journal of Earth Sciences 33(1), 37–44.
3 Hai, H. Q., 2009. Survey report, detailed
survey and topography of the Tien, Hau,
and Vam Nao riverbeds. Propose solutions
to reasonably exploit and open up the
current to mitigate slides.
4 Center for Monitoring and Technology of
Natural Resources and Environment, An
Giang, 2009 - 2017. Report on the
monitoring results and landslide warning
in An Giang province.
277
5 Center for Monitoring and Technology of
Natural Resources and Environment, An
Giang, 2009. Report on engineering
geology investigation of landslide control
and prevention project from Km88 +917 to
Km88 + 967 National Road No 91.
6 Center for Monitoring and Technology of
Natural Resources and Environment, An
Giang, 2012. Report on engineering
geology investigation of erosion recovery
project in Hau river in Binh Thoi 1, Binh
Khanh ward, Long Xuyen city, An Giang.
7 Center for Monitoring and Technology of
Natural Resources and Environment, An
Giang, 2013. Report on engineering
geology investigation of landslide recovery
project in Hau river in Binh Duc 3, Binh
Duc ward, Long Xuyen city, An Giang.
8 Center for Monitoring and Technology of
Natural Resources and Environment, An
Giang, 2017. Report on engineering
geology investigation of the project of
rehabilitation of the Hau riverbank in My
Hoi Dong commune, Cho Moi district, An
Giang.
9 Tran Le The Dien, Nguyen Ba Hoang, Bui
Trong Vinh, Dau Van Ngo, 2012. The
erosion state of Hau riverbank in An Giang
province, south of Vietnam and
recommended solutions for riverbanks
protection, Proceedings of the
International workshop, HueGeo
engineering 2012, p.101-108.
10 Tran Nguyen Hoang Hung, Nguyen Cuong
V.H., Tran Hoang H, Le Viet X., 2011
Sliding of highway embankments along
riverbanks on soft ground in An Giang
Province, Vietnam: A case study, 5th
International symposium on Deformation
Characteristics of Geomaterials (IS-Seoul
2011), Paper No.414.
EFFECTS OF UNDRAINED CYCLIC SHEAR AND ATTERBERG’S LIMITS ON
THE SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION OF SOFT SOILS

Tran Thanh Nhan1, Hiroshi Matsuda2, Hoang Thi Sinh Huong1, Hidemasa Sato3, Do Quang Thien1,
Duong Phuoc Huy1, Nguyen Van Thien1, Lai Phuoc Thanh Hoai1, Vo Thanh Men1,
Tran Thi Anh Dai1, Nhu Viet Ha4
1
Hue University of Sciences - Hue University, Vietnam
2
Yamaguchi University, Japan
3
Fukken Co. Ltd, Japan
4
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: nhan_hueuni@yahoo.com

Abstract: Soft soils of Phu Bai formation continuously spread along the coastal areas from Thua
Thien Hue to Quang Tri provinces (central regions of Vietnam). In Hue city and surrounding areas, these
soft soil deposits are close to the ground surface and therefore significantly affects the stability of
structures and the economic efficiencies of construction. In this study, the silty clay which is partly
composing the Phu Bai formation (wL = 29.4 % and Ip = 10.7) and hereafter called as Hue clay, and
Kaolinite clay (wL = 47.8 % and Ip = 25.5) were used in the unloading-reloading tests and undrained
cyclic shear tests with various cyclic shear directions and a wide range of shear strain amplitudes. Then
the coefficient of secondary consolidation in the recompression stage following the undrained cyclic shear
(Cdyn) and also those in the reloading stage of one cycle of unloading-reloading (CUR) were observed
and the effects of cyclic shear on the secondary consolidation of clays were discussed based on the ratio
of Cdyn to CUR. In conslusion, it is clarified that Cdyn is generally higher than CUR and that Kaolin with
higher Atterberg’s limits shows the larger ratio Cdyn/CUR. The effect of cyclic shear direction on the
secondary consolidation is evident on Kaolin while negligible on Hue clay with lower Atterberg’s limits.
The threshold shear strain amplitude, the threshold pore water pressure ratio and the threshold post-cyclic
settlement for becoming as Cdyn/CUR > 1 were shown with the plasticity index of clays.

Keywords: Atterberg’s limits; cyclic shear; secondary consolidation; soft soil; unloading-reloading.

1. Introduction carried out extensively through both experimental

Under cyclic loading, clayey soils show more
compressible than those under static loading. The
differences in the compressibility or settlement
between the two loading conditions have been
confirmed not only on the primary consolidation
but also on the secondary compression (Fujiwara et
al., 1987; Moriwaki et al., 2001). As a fundamental
problem in soil mechanics, studies on the
consolidation of clay under static loads
accompanied by calculation methods, have been
and numerical approaches for a long history
(Buisman, 1938; Koppejan, 1948; Taylor and
Merchant, 1948; Barden, 1968; Mesri, 1973;
Aboshi, 1973; Sekiguchi and Toriihara, 1976;
Mesri and Godlewski, 1977; Zeevaert, 1983). The
consolidation of clays under cyclic loading has
also been studied by various testing models such as
cyclic triaxial tests (Yasuhara et al., 1992; Hyde et
al., 1993), cyclic simple shear tests (Andersen et
al., 1976; Suzuki, 1984; Ohara and Matsuda, 1988;

278
Yasuhara and Andersen, 1991; Shafiee et al., 2015;
Shafiee, 2016; Nhan et al., 2017; 2018; Sato et al.,
2018; Matsuda et al., 2018), repeated consolidation
tests (Fujiwara et al., 1985; 1987) or separate-type
consolidometer (Matsuda and Shimizu, 1995;
Matsuda et al.,
2000). Therefore, the consolidation
characteristics of the soil have been clarified under
various cyclic loading conditions such as number
of cycles, loading frequency, loading intensity and
pattern (Fujiwara et al., 1987).
Based on the calculated and observed
settlement on an alluvial clayey layer (called as
Ma13 layer) in the soil profile at Port-Island
(Kobe, Japan) induced by Hyogo-ken Nanbu
earthquake, the settlement of S90% = 10.3 cm due
to the dissipation of the earthquake-induced pore
water pressure was confirmed to be completed at
260 days after the earthquake. Meanwhile, the total
earthquake-induced settlement of the layer become
constant as S = 17.0 cm at 600 days after the
earthquake and therefore, the difference as S -
S90% = 6.7 cm was considered as the secondary
settlement of the clay layer induced by Hyogo-ken
Nanbu earthquake (Nhan et al., 2017; Sato et al.,
2018). Athough the effects of the earthquake-
induced cyclic shear strain including cyclic shear
direction, shear strain amplitude and the number of
cycles on the secondary compression were
preliminary clarified on Kaolinite clay (Nhan et al.,
2018), in this study, the effects of earthquake-
induced cyclic shear on the secondary
consolidation were investigated more in detail.
2. Index Properties of Clays and Experimental
Procedure
Reconstituted samples of Hue clay and
Kaolinite clay were used in this study. The grain
size distribution curves and index properties of the
soils are shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1, respectively.
In order to prepare soil specimen, the soils were
remolded at a water content of about 1.5wL and
kept for one day under the constant water content.
The slurries were then de-aired in the vacuum cell
before the standard consolidation test, unloading-
reloading test and undrained cyclic shear test.

100
Percent finer by weight (%)

50

Kaolinite clay
Hue clay
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Grain size, d (mm)

Fig. 1. Grain size distribution curves of clays

Tab. 1. Index properties of clays

Soil Specific gravity Liquid limit wL Plasticity index Ip Compression

Gs (%) index Cc
Kaolinit 2.71 47.8 25.5 0.31
clay
Hue clay 2.68 29.4 10.7 0.20

279
 0.008
(a) Kaolinite clay (b)
1.5
Void ratio, e Kaolinite clay Hue clay

C
1.0

Hue clay

0.5 0.000
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
Vertical effective stress, ’v (kPa)

Fig. 2. e-log’v relations and the changes in C with vertical effective stress for Kaolin and Hue clay

The e-log’v relations and the coefficient of
secondary consolidation (C) obtained from
standard consolidation test are shown in Fig. 2 for
Kaolin and Hue clay. Specimen used for the
oedometer test was prepared by applying load
increments of ’v = 4.9, 9.8, 19.6 and 39.2 kPa
with the duration of 24 hours for each increment.
The observed results in Fig. 2b indicate that under
the same vertical effective stress, Kaolinite clay
with higher plasticity index (Ip = 25.5) shows
larger secondary compressibility than Hue clay (Ip
= 10.7). Also in Fig. 2b, it is evident that C
increases with ’v and for Kaolin, C reaches the
maximum values at about ’v = 300 kPa before
decreasing. Meanwhile for Hue clay, the increasing
tendency of C still remains even at considerably
higher consolidation stress (’v = 1254.4 kPa).
Such tendencies in Fig. 2b have been confirmed
and explained by Mesri (1973) who carried out a
series of one-dimensional consolidation tests on an
organic clay to investigate the effect of remolding
on the secondary compression of the soil. The
author indicated that at small consolidation
pressure, remolded specimens with a more
dispersed fabric show smaller value of C
compared with the undisturbed ones and when a
consolidation pressure increases, C on remolded
specimens increases to a maximum value and then
decreases and finally approaches to those of
undisturbed specimens.

(a) Undrained cyclic shear (b)

Reloading
Void ratio e

NCL NCL
Void ratio e

Recompression
Unloading

Cdyn CUR
Udyn ’v = 0.8’v
’v log ’v ’v log ’v
’v = 49 kPa ’v = 49 kPa

Fig. 3. Test programs for determining the coefficient of secondary consolidation (a) after undrained cyclic
shear and (b) after one cycle of unloading-reloading

280
 Tab. 2. Conditions for undrained cyclic shear test
Uni-directional cyclic
Soil Period Number
of
shear
(s) cycles n Shear strain amplitude
 (%)
Kaolinite 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5,
clay 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 2.0
2 200
Hue clay 0.05, 0.1, 0.4, 1.0, 2.0
Fig. 3 schematically shows the experimental
programs for determining the coefficient of
secondary consolidation in this study. In Fig. 3a,
after pre-consolidation under the vertical effective
stress as ’v = 49 kPa, specimens were subjected
to undrained cyclic shear for various cyclic shear
directions and a wide range of shear strain
amplitudes (Table 2), and in the post-cyclic
recompression stage, drainage was allowed from
the top surface of specimen and the settlement was
measured through the secondary consolidation to
determine the coefficient of secondary
consolidation induced by undrained cyclic shear
(Cdyn). In Fig. 3b, after the pre-consolidation
under similar effective stress as ’v = 49 kPa, the
soils were subjected to one cycle of unloading-
reloading and in the reloading stage, the settlement
was also measured through the secondary
consolidation for determining CUR which denotes
the coefficient of secondary consolidation of
specimen without cyclic shear history. Based on
the comparisons between Cdyn and CUR, the
effects of cyclic shear conditions and the
Atterberg’s limits on the secondary consolidation
of soft clays were discussed.
3. Test Results and Discussions
3.1. Coefficient of secondary consolidation
of clays with and without cyclic shear history
The coefficients of secondary consolidation
observed after undrained cyclic shear tests (Cdyn)
and at the reloading stage in the unloading-
281
Multi-directional cyclic shear
Phase Shear strain amplitude
difference  ()  (%)
20, 45, 70, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5,
90 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 2.0
0, 45, 90 0.05, 0.1, 0.4, 0.8, 1.0,
2.0
reloading test (CUR) are shown in Fig. 4 for both
clays. It is seen in Fig. 3b that after the pre-
consolidation at ’v = 49 kPa (the slurry was
firstly pre-consolidated under ’v1 = 24.5 kPa and
then additional pressure of ’v2 = 24.5 kPa was
applied), clays were subjected to one cycle of
unloading-reloading with ’v = 39.2 kPa (equal to
0.8’v). Despite of several scattering of the
observed results, it is seen in Fig. 4 that the soil
with higher Atterberg’s limits (Kaolin in Fig. 4a)
shows larger value of Cdyn when subjected to the
same conditions of cyclic shear. However, when
comparing the value of CUR between the figures,
such an effect of the Atterberg’s limits becomes
negligible when the soils subjected to one cycle of
unloading-reloading (at least for the plasticity
index is in the range from Ip = 10.7 to Ip = 25.5). In
this paper, the effect of cyclic loading on the
secondary consolidation of clays is confirmed
when the ratio of Cdyn to CUR is larger than unity
(i.e. Cdyn/CUR > 1) and then the changes in this
ratio are shown against the shear strain amplitude,
the pore water pressure ratio (Udyn/’v) and the
post-cyclic settlement in strain (v) for each clay.
 0.008 0.008
(a) Kaolinite clay; Ip = 25.5; n = 200 (b) Hue clay;
Ip = 10.7;
n = 200

CUR and Cdyn

0.000 0.000
0.0 1.0 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0
Shear strain amplitude,  (%)
CUR; Cdyn (Uni-direction); Cdyn (Multi-direction)

Fig. 4. Coefficient of secondary consolidation of Kaolin and Hue clay with and without cyclic shear
history

3.2. Cdyn/CUR versus shear strain amplitude, of undrained cyclic shear on the secondary
pore water pressure ratio and post-cyclic compression of Kaolin is confirmed irrespective of
settlement the cyclic shear direction and shear strain
The tendencies of the ratio Cdyn/CUR with the amplitude. As to Hue clay in Fig. 5b, the ratio
shear strain amplitude () are shown in Fig. 5 for Cdyn/CUR generally increases with  and
different clays and cyclic shear directions. In Fig. becoming as Cdyn/CUR > 1 only when   0.4 %.
5a, although a scattering is seen on the observed These observations indicate that the Atterberg’s
data, there is a tendency that Cdyn/CUR is limits significantly affect the secondary
generally larger than unity and therefore the effect consolidation of clays subjected to undrained
cyclic shear.
3.0 3.0
(b) Hue clay; Ip = 10.7; n = 200
C dyn /CUR

2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0

(a) Kaolinite clay; Ip = 25.5; n = 200

0.0 0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0
Shear strain amplitude,  (%)
Uni-directional and multi-directional cyclic shears

Fig. 5. Changes in Cdyn/CUR with the shear strain amplitude for Kaolin and Hue clay

In Fig. 6, the ratio Cdyn/CUR is plotted against Udyn/’v for different cyclic shear directions and
the pore water pressure ratio (Udyn/’v) to show clays. The unloading-reloading tests were carried
the increasing tendencies of Cdyn/CUR with out with ’v = 39.2 kPa = 0.8’v and therefore

282
comparisons between Cdyn and CUR should be higher than CUR and this relation is independent of
considered for the case Udyn/’v = 0.8. Despite of the cyclic shear direction and the Atterberg’s
the limited observation on Hue clay, it is seen in limits.
Fig. 6 that when Udyn/’v  0.8, Cdyn is generally

3.0 3.0
(b) Hue clay; Ip = 10.7; n = 200
C dyn /CUR

2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0

(a) Kaolinite clay; Ip = 25.5; n = 200

0.0 0.0
0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0
Pore water pressure ratio, Udyn /’v
Uni-directional and multi-directional cyclic shears

Fig. 6. Changes in Cdyn/CUR with the pore water pressure ratio for Kaolin and Hue clay

Relationships between Cdyn/CUR and the post-
cyclic settlement in strain (v) are shown in Fig. 7
and similar to the tendencies in Figs. 5 and 6,
Cdyn/CUR increases with v. When comparing the
ratio Cdyn/CUR between the uni-directional and
multi-directional cyclic shears, it is seen in Figs. 5
- 7 that for Kaolin with higher Atterberg’s limits,
3.0
C dyn /CUR
Cdyn/CUR obtained by the multi-directional cyclic
shear is larger than those by the uni-directional one
and therefore the effect of cyclic shear direction
on the post-cyclic secondary compression is
confirmed. However, such an effect is negligible
on Hue clay.
3.0
(b) Hue clay; Ip = 10.7; n = 200

2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0

(a) Kaolinite clay; Ip = 25.5; n = 200

0.0 0.0
0.0 4.0 8.0 0.0 4.0 8.0
Post-cyclic settlement in strain, v (%)
Uni-directional and multi-directional cyclic shears

Fig. 7. Changes in Cdyn/CUR with the post-cyclic settlement for Kaolin and Hue clay

Under the undrained cyclic shear, the pore
water pressure was confirmed to increase with the
cumulative shear strain and also with the
cumulative disturbance of the soil microstructure
(Dobry et al. 1982). Matsuda et al. (2013)
indicated that by the uni-directional and multi-
directional cyclic shears with the same shear strain
amplitude () and number of cycles (n), the
cumulative shear strain under the multi-directional
cyclic shear is larger than those of uni-directional

283
one and therefore the soil structure suffers from The threshold shear strain amplitude (tC), the
higher disturbance by the multi-directional cyclic threshold pore water pressure ratio ((Udyn/’v)tC)
shear. Although such effects of cyclic shear and the threshold post-cyclic settlement (vtC) for
direction on the dynamic properties of soil deposits Cdyn/CUR > 1 are plotted against the plasticity
have been confirmed (Matsuda et al., 2011; 2013), index in Fig. 8 for uni-directional and multi-
the above observations suggest that the effects of directional cyclic shears. Despite of a scattering
undrained cyclic shear on the post-cyclic due to limited observation on Hue clay, it is
secondary compression of clays largely depend on apparent that tC, (Udyn/’v)tC and vtC increase
the Atterberg’s limits and for the soil with low when the plasticity index decreases and that the
plasticity such as those of Hue clay (Ip = 10.7), the effect of cyclic shear direction on these tendencies
effect of cyclic shear direction on this property is negligible. Finally, when the plasticity index
becomes negligible. decreases from Ip = 25.5 to Ip = 10.7, tC,
3.3. Threshold shear strain amplitude, pore
(Udyn/’v)tC and vtC increase from tC = 0.1% to
water pressure ratio and post-cyclic settlement for
tC = 0.4%, from (Udyn/’v)tC = 0.2 to
Cdyn/CUR > 1
(Udyn/’v)tC = 0.8 and from vtC = 0.2% to vtC =
The effects of repeated loading by means of
2.0%, respectively.
increasing and decreasing of the vertical loads on
4. Conclusions
the settlement and the secondary compression of
The main conclusions are as follows:
clays have been confirmed (Fujiwara et al., 1985;
The Atterberg’s limits significantly affect the
1987; Matsuda and Shimizu, 1995; Matsuda et al.,
secondary compression of clays. Under the same
2000). In this study, one cycle of unloading-
cyclic shear conditions, clay with higher
reloading with ’v = 0.8’v was used as a
Atterberg’s limits shows the larger ratio
criterion for clarifying the effect of undrained
Cdyn/CUR.
cyclic shear on the secondary compression of
When Kaolinite clay with Ip = 25.5 subjected to
clays. This means that the effect of undrained
undrained cyclic shear with n = 200, Cdyn/CUR > 1
cyclic shear on the secondary compression of clay
is confirmed, regardless of the shear strain
is confirmed when Cdyn/CUR > 1 and the
amplitude and the cyclic shear direction.
amplitude of cyclic shear strain, the level of pore
The effect of cyclic shear direction on the post-
water pressure accumulation and the post-cyclic
cyclic secondary compression is confirmed for
settlement for becoming as Cdyn/CUR > 1 are
Kaolin meanwhile this effect is negligible for Hue
considered as the threshold conditions for the
clay with lower plasticity index (Ip = 10.7).
effects of undrained cyclic shear on the secondary
Cdyn/CUR generally increases with , Udyn/’v
compressions of clays.
and v. When the plasticity index decreases from Ip
= 25.5 to Ip = 10.7, the threshold shear strain
Uni Multi
amplitude (tC), the threshold pore water pressure
2.0
tC
(Udyn/’v)tC
ratio ((Udyn/’v)tC) and the threshold post-cyclic
tC , (Udyn /’v)tC , vtC

vtC
settlement (vtC) for Cdyn/C > 1 increase from
1.0
tC = 0.1% to tC = 0.4%, from (Udyn/’v)tC = 0.2
to (Udyn/’v)tC = 0.8 and from vtC = 0.2% to vtC
= 2.0%, respectively.
Nomenclature
0.0 Cc compression index;
0 10 20 30
Plasticity index, Ip C coefficient of secondary consolidation;
Cdyn coefficient of secondary consolidation in
Fig. 8. Changes in tC, (Udyn/’v)tC and vtC with the recompression stage after undrained cyclic
the plasticity index of clays shear;

284
 CUR coefficient of secondary consolidation in
the reloading stage of one cycle of unloading-
reloading;
d grain size of soil;
S90% settlement of Ma13 layer at Port-Island
after Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake induced by the
dissipation of earthquake-induced pore water
pressure;
S settlement of Ma13 layer at Port-Island
after Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake induced by the
dissipation of earthquake-induced pore water
pressure and by the secondary consolidation;
’v load increment;
e void ratio;
v post-cyclic settlement (in strain);
vtC threshold post-cyclic settlement (in
strain) for becoming as Cdyn/CUR > 1;
Gs specific gravity of soil;
 shear strain amplitude;
tC threshold shear strain amplitude for
becoming as Cdyn/CUR > 1;
Ip plasticity index;
n number of cycles;
NCL normally consolidation line;
 phase difference;
’v vertical effective stress;
’v vertical effective stress before undrained
cyclic shear and before unloading-reloading test;
Udyn/’v pore water pressure ratio;
(Udyn/’v)tC threshold pore water pressure
ratio for becoming as Cdyn/CUR > 1;
wL liquid limit;
wP plastic limit.
References
[1] Aboshi, H., 1973. “An experimental
investigation on the similitude in the
consolidation of a soft clay, including the
secondary creep settlement,” Proc. 8th
ICSMFE. Moscow, p.81-83.
[2] Andersen, K. H., Brown, S. F., Foss, I., Pool,
J. H. and Rosenbrand, F. W.,1976. “Effect of
cyclic loading on clay behaviour,” Proc. of
Conf. Design and Construction of Offshore
Structures. London, p.75-79.
[3] Barden, L., 1968. Primary and secondary
consolidation of clay and peat, Geotechnique
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[5] Dobry, R., Ladd, R. S., Yokel, R. Y. and
Chung, R. M., Prediction of pore water
pressure buildup and liquefaction of sands
during earthquakes by cyclic strain method,
National Bureau of Standards Building
Science, Series 138, Washington D.C, 1982.
[6] Fujiwara, H., Yamanouchi, T., Yasuhara, K.
and Ue, S., 1985. Consolidation of alluvial
clay under repeated loading, Soils and
Foundations 25(3), p.19-30.
[7] Fujiwara, H., Ue, S. and Yasuhara, K., 1987.
Secondary compression of clay under
repeated loading, Soils and Foundations
27(2), p.21-30.
[8] Hyde, A. F. L., Yasuhara, K. and Hirao, K.,
1993. Stability criteria for marine clay under
one-way cyclic loading, J. Geotechnical Eng.
ASCE 119(11), p.1771-1788.
[9] Koppejan, A. W., 1948. “A formula
combinating the Terzaghi load compression
relationship and the Buisman secular time
effect,” Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. SMFE.
Rotterdam, p.32-38.
[10] Matsuda, H. and Shimizu, Y., 1995.
“Laboratory tests of cyclic-load
consolidation,” Proc. of the 11th European
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Found.
Eng. Vol.3, p.179-184.
[11] Matsuda, H., Sutoh,Y., Sato, H. and Itadani,
Y., 2000. “Effects of creep deformation on
the settlement-time relation of clay,” Proc. of
the Geotech-Year 2000, Developments in
Geotechnical Engineering, p.193-202.
[12] Matsuda, H., Andre, P. H., Ishikura, R. and
Kawahara, S., 2011. Effective stress change
and post-earthquake settlement properties of
granular materials subjected to multi-
directional cyclic simple shear, Soils and
Foundations 51(5), p.873-884.
[13] Matsuda, H., Nhan, T. T. and Ishikura, R.,
2013. Prediction of excess pore water
pressure and post-cyclic settlement on soft
clay induced by uni-directional and multi-
directional cyclic shears as a function of
strain path parameters, Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering 49, p.75-88.
[14] Matsuda, H., Nhan, T. T., Sato H. and Hara,
H., 2018. “Multi-directional cyclic shear-
induced pore pressure and settlement of
undisturbed clay”, Eveventh U.S. National
Conference on Earthquake Engineering -
11NCEE, Los Angeles, paper No. 967 (11
pages).
[15] Mesri, G., 1973. Coefficient of secondary
compression, Journal of the Soil Mechanics
and Foundations Division ASCE 99(SM1),
p.123-137.
[16] Mesri, G. and Godlewski, P. M., 1977. Time
and stress-compressibility interrelationship,
Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering
Division ASCE 103(GT), p.417-430.
[17] Moriwaki, T., Okumiya, E. and Saitoh, M.,
2000. “Volumetric and shear deformation of
a saturated clay under cyclic loading,” Proc.
of 4th Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in
geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and
Soil Dynamics. paper #1.55, p.1-6.
[18] Nhan, T. T., Matsuda, H. and Sato H., 2017.
A model for multi-directional cyclic shear-
induced pore water pressure and settlement
on clays, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering
15, p.2761-2784.
[19] Nhan, T. T., Sato H., Matsuda, H., Huong, H.
T. S., Thien, D. Q. and Tin, T. N., 2018.
“Effects of multi-directional cyclic shear on
the secondary consolidation of saturated
clay”, Eveventh U.S. National Conference
on Earthquake Engineering - 11NCEE, Los
Angeles, paper No. 987 (11 pages).
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the settlement of saturated clay layer induced
by cyclic shear, Soils and Foundations 28(3),
p.103-113.
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[21] Sato, H., Nhan, T.T. and Matsuda, H., 2018.
Earthquake-induced settlement of a clay
layer, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering 104, p. 418-431.
[22] Sekiguchi, H. and Toriihara, M., 1976.
Theory of one-dimensional consolidation of
soft clays with consideration of their
rheological properties, Soils and Foundations
16(1), p.27-44.
[23] Shafiee, A., Stewart, J. P. and Brandenberg,
S. J., 2015. Reset of secondary compression
clock for peat by cyclic straining, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering ASCE 141(3). 02815001.
[24] Shafiee, A., Cyclic and post-cyclic behavior
of Sherman Island peat, Doctoral
dissertation, University of California, Los
Angeles, 2016.
[25] Suzuki, T., 1984. Settlement of saturated
clays under dynamic stress history, Journal
of the Japan Society of Engineering Geology
25(3), p.21-31 (in Japanese).
[26] Taylor, D. W. and Merchant, W., 1948. A
theory of clay consolidation accounting for
secondary compression, Journal of Math.
and Phys. 19(3), p.167.
[27] Yasuhara, K. and Andersen, K. H., 1991.
Recompression of normally consolidated
clay after cyclic loading, Soils and
Foundations 31(1), p.83-94.
[28] Yasuhara, K., Hirao, K. and Hyde, A. F. L.,
1992. Effects of cyclic loading on undrained
strength and compressibility of clay, Soils
and Foundations 32(1), p.100-116.
[29] Zeevaert, L., 1983. Foundation engineering
for difficult subsoil conditions, Van
Nostrand Co. Ltd., New York.
 DOWNHOLE SEISMIC TESTING TO DETERMINE ELASTIC PARAMETERS
OF THE GROUND FOR ANTI - SEISMIC DESIGNS: A CASE STUDY IN THE
INDUSTRIAL ZONE VUNG RO, PHU YEN

Bui Truong Son, Vu Thai Linh

Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: buitruongson@humg.edu.vn

Abstract: This paper presents an application of downhole seismic testing to determine elastic
factors of the ground for anti-seismic designs. The research result illustrates elastic factor including
dynamic elastic modulus (E), shear modulus (G), bulk modulus (Kd), Poisson ratio (υ) will be determined
from the work of insitu tests in downhole seismic testing.

Keywords: downhole sesmic; shear modulus; shear modulus; bulk modulus; Poisson ratio.

1. Introduction modulus, bulk modulus, Poisson's coefficient of the

At present, it is considered that the
constructions in industrial parks do not need to
account for the earthquake load. But after the
impact of earthquake shakes off the South Central
Coast in 2005, the system of high buildings in Ho
Chi Minh City shook, the anti-seismic designs for
high buildings have been taken into account. Some
investors of large projects have requested the
design of buildings to be subjected to earthquakes,
especially large load works.
In anti-seismic design, there are many methods
that can determine the parameters of the ground.
One of these methods is to measure the horizontal
velocity (Vs) and longitudinal (Vp) waves by
measuring downhole seismic along boreholes at
the construction sites the horizontal velocity (Vs)
and longitudinal (Vp) waves by measuring
downhole seismic along boreholes at the
construction sites. However, in reality in Vietnam,
downhole seismic testing in boreholes has been
recently applied and no finished procedure has
been researched by domestic scientists. Therefore,
the study applied downhole seismic testing into
bore holes to calculate the ground parameters for
the design of the anti-seismic resistance is very
necessary.
The results of several authors, such as Castro &
Carino, 1998, Vipulanandan & Garas, 2008, show
that there is a relationship between dynamic elastic
material and vertical velocity values (Vp) and
horizontal waves (Vs).
- Dynamic elastic modulus E:
Vs2 (3Vp2  4Vs2 )
E (1)
Vp2  Vs2
- Shear modulus G:
G = ρVS2 (2)
- Bulk modulus Kd :
Kd = ρ(VP2 – 4/3VS2) (3)
- Poisson ratio υ:
υ=1/2[(1-(2(VS/Vp)2)/(1-(VS/Vp)2)] (4)
Thus, if we have equipment that determines the the
horizontal velocity (Vs) and longitudinal (Vp)
waves by measuring downhole seismic along
boreholes at the construction sites, then the elastic
parameters of the ground can be determined.
2. Testing
When testing, there is only a given borehold,
the cost is not as high as crosshole seismic. Basing
on the geological features of the study area, the
drilling methods, selection of the downhole
seismic testing to determine the longitudinal wave
velocity P and the transverse wave S for the
calculation of parameters seismic resistance for the
study area is most reasonable.
The basic data acquisition system consists of
the following:

287
 - Energy sources: These energy sources are
chosen according to the needs of the survey, the
primary consideration being whether P-wave or S-
wave velocities are to be determined. To produce
an identifiable S-wave, the source should transmit
energy to the ground with a particle motion
perpendicular or transverse to the axis of the
survey.
- Receivers (geophone - GP) consisting of two
groups of three-dimensional geophone reception
Fig. 1. Diagram of downhole seismic testing
- The preparation of boreholes and completion
of boreholes prior to measurements is critical to
the success or failure of the test. The poor
connection between the casing tube and wall will
result in delayed arrival time and signal
degradation, especially for high-frequency P-
wave. If the raw material environments (eg sand,
cobble, etc.) occur when the drilling loss is too
high, the amount of mortar that is too thick can
affect the S wave transmission time and velocity
properties.
The process of recording is done by arranging
the sources at the appropriate distance, the first
signal recorder at the mouth of the drilling hole,
the second recorder lying on the ground.
Arrangement of the combination parallel to the
axis of the transverse direction if possible. Keep
the recorder in the hole. Survey the equipment
inspection and determine the recording time
288
wave sequentially on the wall of the casing tubes
under the hole. The spacing between the two sets
of GPs is not too far apart to accommodate the
actual survey in the soil layers. CThe position of
the wave receivers is sequentially from top to
bottom and spaced by a certain distance depending
on the survey requirements or stratigraphic
conditions of the survey area.
The calculation of the longitudinal and
transverse waves in the longitudinal wave
measurement method into boreholes is as follows:
- Enter the information on the petrographical
composition by drilling results, coordinates,
position (if any).
- Enter the parameters of the borehole elevation
EG, the height of the anvil ES, the depth of each
geophone in the hole DG, the distance from the
center to the center of the bore hole X. Calculate
the distance between the source and the anvil LR
as the following:
0,5
LR   ES  EG  DG   X 2 
2
(5)
 
- Select the P and S wave time on the tape,
calculate the P and S wave velocity directly
according to the following formula:
V = (LR2 - LR1)/ΔT(R2 - R1) (6)
In which: LR2, LR1 - Straight-line slant distances
from source to geophone at the depth di+1 và di;
ΔT(R2 - R1) - The difference in time between the
source and the receiver at two positions di+1 và di;
V- The velocity of propagation of the soil layer
between the two locations is di + 1 and is located in
the hole.
Fig. 2. Diagram calculating in the downhole
seismic testing method
3. Results applied in Vung Ro Industrial Zone,
Phu Yen
3.1. Overview of geological characteristics of
Vung Ro industrial zone
The Vung Ro oil refinery project is located in
the geographical coordinates of 12052’-12056’
North latitude and 109022’-109026’East longitude;
the total area of land used is 538ha, of which
404ha of land for the factory construction, 134ha
for the construction of Bai Goc port and in addition
500 to 1.300ha of marine area is in use.
The project is located in Hoa Tam commune,
Dong Hoa district, Phu Yen province. Vung Ro Oil
Refinery project belongs to Nam Phu Yen coastal
economic zone. The project is located near the Bai
Goc seaport, 10km from the North of Vung Ro
Bay, 15km south of Tuy Hoa Airport and 35km
south of Tuy Hoa City.
Based on the geological survey results of the
site, the geological map of the Geological Division
of Vietnam, 1996, the geological map of the Ban
Nham, the sheet group of Tuy Hoa, with the scale
of 1: 50.000, the Department of Management
Vietnam, 2007; Geological map of coastal sand in
Phu Yen province, scale 1: 50.000. The geological
structure of the research area is divided into three
structural layers: the upper structure, the middle
structure and the lower structure.
The top layer is a collection of sedimentary
deposits of river sediments, river-sea sediments
sediments, sediments, marine-marsh sediments,
wind sediments and Dong Thanh formation, Hoa
Tri formation, Hon Chong Formation, Thach Ban
Formation. With the age from late Pleistocene to
Late Holocene.The topsoil includes sand, sand
mixed with gravel, quartz sand with silt, silty-
sandy clay ... some also contain shells, and
humus… due to the effect of formation
conditioning.
3.2. Study results
In the survey area, downhole seismic testing
was applied at 3 boreholes BH04, BH20, BH41,
BH55 (Figure 3).
The tables 1,2,3, 4 and 4 (a, b, c, d) shows the
results of longitudinal and transverse wave velocity
measurements in the boreholes, the elastic
parameters of the ground are calculated according
to formulas 1,2,3 and 4.

Tab. 1. Results of BH04 hole elasticity parameters

Depth, m Velocity, m/s  G E Kd

3 2 2

From To Vp Vs (g/cm ) (kG/cm ) (kG/cm ) (kG/cm2)
0 2 788 234.5 2.65 145.72 423.013 1451.2 0.45
2 12 810.82 286.86 2.66 218.89 625.346 1456.91 0.43
12 30 1511.45 611.64 2.65 991.37 2779.98 4732.04 0.40
30 38 2138.2 756.92 2.64 1512.53 4320.89 10053.1 0.43
38 42 2550.54 835.3 2.69 1876.88 5405.16 14996.6 0.44
42 50 2177.57 744.7 2.65 1469.63 4214.25 10606.3 0.43
50 60 2223.87 405.32 2.7 443.57 1315.46 12761.7 0.48

289
 Fig. 3. Layout of the borehole positions
implemented by downhole seismic testing method

Comment: In the depth range 0-2m, the average
velocities Vp = 788 m/s, Vs = 234.5 m/s
corresponding to the filling gravel layer level
above the hydrostatic level shows the rate of wave
propagation in the filling layer is usually very
small.
At a depth of 2-10m, the average value Vs =
810.82 m/s, Vs = 286 m/s corresponds to poorly
graded sand, grayish blue, grayish gray,
moderately firm.
From a depth of less than 10 meters, the mean
vertical waves Vp and horizontal waves Vs are
gradually increased with respect to the density of
the soil layers. We see that the longitudinal VP
velocity values and VS transverse velocity
variations are not much in the same class, and the
boundaries between those values change
dramatically.
The results of the downhole seismic testing of
borehole are the same stratigraphy as those of the
borehole logging.

Tab. 2. Results of BH20 hole elasticity parameters

Depth, m Velocity, m/s γ G E Kd


From To Vp TB Vs TB (g/cm3) (kG/cm2) (kG/cm2) (kG/cm2)
0 2 647.26 215.08 2.66 123.05 353.88 950.33 0.44
2 10 1778.89 654.4 2.64 1130.55 3214.72 6846.74 0.42
10 32 1387.68 392.99 2.67 412.36 1201.12 4591.69 0.46
32 50 2397.48 645.96 2.72 1134.96 3316.04 14121.04 0.46
50 54 2218.6 713.28 2.64 1343.15 3874.61 11203.71 0.44
54 60 2533.68 809.07 2.7 1767.40 5101.53 14976.20 0.44

290
 Comment: In the depth range 0-2m, Vp =
647m/s, Vs = 215.08 m/s, from 2-6m Vp =
1778.89 m/s, Vs = 654.40 m/s the vertical velocity
varies with the increase in depth, in which the most
obvious boundary between the layers is the
hydrostatic level, where there is a sudden change
in the velocity of the ventilation zone. It has a
velocity of several hundred m/s (usually <650 m/s)
and a saturation zone> 1900 m/s. From a depth of
less than 3m, there is wave velocity change clearly.
Based on the vertical velocity graph (Vp) and the
horizontal wave (Vs), we see that the geological
drilling results are consistent with the results.
Vertical velocity VP values and VS transverse
velocity values are high in sandy layers with dense
to very dense.

Tab. 3. Results of BH41 hole elasticity parameters

Depth, m Velocity, m/s 𝛾 G E Kd 𝜈
From To Vp TB Vs TB g/cm3 (kG/cm2) (kG/cm2) (kG/cm2)
0 2 685.24 267.9 2.66 190.91 538.28 994.47 0.41
2 12 1647.7 380.7 2.66 385.52 1134.82 6707.65 0.47
12 30 2249.2 381.73 2.67 389.07 1155.66 12988.51 0.49
30 43 2587.19 439.82 2.66 514.55 1528.35 17118.78 0.49
43 46 3093.91 513.83 2.69 710.22 2110.51 24802.47 0.49
46 48 2190.3 460.86 2.68 569.21 1681.26 12098.12 0.48
48 60 2466.72 506.81 2.67 685.81 2027.19 15331.76 0.48

Comment: In the depth range 0-2m, the average
wave velocity Vp = 685.24 m/s, Vs = 267.90 m/s
corresponding to the filling layer. From 2-8m, Vp
= 1647.70 m/s, Vs = 380.70 m/s corresponding to
the coarse sand layer. From 14 to 30m Vp =
2249.20 m/s, Vs = 381.73 m/s corresponding to
fine sand layer, medium dense, we see that the
longitudinal wave has greater variation than the
horizontal wave in the same degree. In depth,
variable poisson coefficients are often small at
different depths. At the boundaries of the sand
layers, the value of the elastic parameters changes
sharply.

Tab. 4. Results of BH55 hole elasticity parameters

Depth, m Velocity, m/s 𝛾 G E Kd 𝜈
3 2 2 2
From To Vp Vs (g/cm ) (kG/cm ) (kG/cm ) (kG/cm )
0 2 242.21 120.01 2.67 38.45 102.85 105.36 0.34
2 7 1606.88 667.5 2.67 1189.64 3320.81 5307.93 0.40
7 43 1836.98 559.51 2.67 835.85 2422.07 7895.44 0.45
43 44 1745.03 372.97 2.68 372.81 1100.57 7663.87 0.48
44 60 1797.25 428.61 2.66 488.66 1436.51 7940.54 0.47

In the depth range 0-2m, the average wave
velocity Vp = 242.21m/s, Vs = 120.41m/s
corresponding to the fill layer. From 4-8m, Vp =
1666.88 m/s, Vs = 667.50 m/s corresponding to the
coarse sand layer. From 10 to 42m Vp = 1836.98
m/s, Vs = 559.51 m/s, the wave velocity in this
position increases with the depth. Based on the
vertical velocity graph (Vp) and the horizontal
wave (Vs), we see that the geological drilling
results are consistent with the results. At a depth of
0-2m, the value of the elastic parameters at this
location is very small. At a depth of 10-26 m, the
longitudinal wave value is the largest, proportional
to the state of the soil here.

291
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 4. Vp and Vs variation in depth

a. Borehole BH04; b. Borehole BH20; c. Borehole BH41; d. Borehole BH55

292
4. Conclusion
From the results of the study, author analysis has
some conclusions as follows:
- The downhole seismic testing has proved to be
advantageous in determining the longitudinal and
transverse wave velocities compared to crosshole
seismic testing. The longitudinal and transverse wave
velocity values in each soil layer corresponding to the
stratigraphy of the hole. From the longitudinal and
transverse wave velocity values, the authors calculated
the elastic parameters of the soil, including elastic
modulus, poisson coefficients, shearing modulus and
bulk modulus.
- The results of research and crosshole seismic
testing to the hole confirmed the importance of the
application of the method of seismic hole in the design
of the anti- seismic for buildings
References
[1] ASTM: D4428 / D 4428M, Standard Test
Methods for Crosshole Seismic Testing.
[2] ASTM: 7400-08, Standart Test Methods for
Downhole Seismic Testing.
[3] Drilling rig surveying the geology of Vung Ro
Industrial Park, Phu Yen.
[4] Geological Division of Vietnam (1996),
Geological map of Nhan Van, Tuy Hoa paper
group, 1: 50,000 scale.
[5] Mai Thanh Tan (2011), Seismic Exploration,
Transportation Publishing House, Hanoi.
293
[5] Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment (2011), Circular No. 04/2011 /
TT - BTNMT: Regulation on Seismic
Techniques in Basic Geological Survey of
Minerals and Geology of Works, Hanoi.
[7] Nguyen Quang Dung, Vu Dinh Loi (2013),
Ground vibration forecasts for Ho Chi Minh
city metro traffic, Journal of Transportation,
04/2013
[8] Nguyen Quang Dung (2013), Rescuing
vibration and reducing vibration in the
background due to the exploitation of the
subway system, PhD thesis in Science,
Military Academy.
[9] Nguyen Thanh Trung (2016), Resistance
Design, Pier Publishing, Publishing House,
Hanoi.
[10] Trinh Viet Bac et al. (2011), "Ground
condition influenced by the earthquake effect
west of Hanoi", Institute of Geology-
Vietnam Academy of Science and
Technology, Hanoi.
[11] Vietnam National Standard 9386-2012,
Design of earthquake resistant works,
Ministry of Science and Technology.
[12] Vietnam Water Management Department
(2007), hydrogeological map of coastal sand
in Phu Yen province, scale 1: 50,000.
 EVALUTION OF SAND-CEMENT COLUMN SOLUTION FOR SOFT SOIL
IMPROVEMENT IN THE NORTH COASTAL HIGHWAY, VIETNAM

Nguyen Thi Diu1, Ta Duc Thinh2, Nguyen Duc Manh3

1
Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
3
University of Transport and Communications, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: ntdiu@moet.gov.vn

Abstract: The paper presented the research results on soft soil properties, classification of the soft
ground structure along the North Coastal Highway and proposed the method of sand-cement column for
soft soil improvement. The research results showed that there are many types of soft soils in the research
area with different origins, low bearing capacity, and high deformation ability. These soils belong to
Quaternary sediments in Thai Binh, Hai Hung formation, including clay, sandy clay, clayey mud, clayey
sand mud, loose sand, sandy clay, and sandy clay mud. Based on the two types and three sub-types of
ground structure in this area, the authors have proposed the sand-cement column method for soft soil
treatment. The theoretical principles of this method are based on three processes: mechanical
compression, consolidation, and strength reinforcement of column body and its soil around.

Keywords: soft soil; soft ground structure; sand-cement column; mechanical compaction;
consolidation; the strength of column, the strength of soil around the column; bearing capacity;
settlement.

1. Introduction country”. On 18th January 2010, Vietnamese Prime

The coastline of Vietnam is 3260 kilometers,
and Vietnam is one of the ten countries in the
world having the longest coastline in all three
directions: Eastern, Southern, and Southwestern.
To utilize all advantages of the sea for economic
development and ensure national security, on
February 2nd, 2007, the 4th Plenum of the 10th Party
Central Committee has issued the resolution No
09-NQ/TW on “Vietnamese sea strategy
orientation till 2020”. The main contents of this
resolution are: “Establishing the coastal transport
system, port, and infrastructure along the coast are
major, priority duty, and play an important role in
connecting and enhancing economic development
not only in coastal areas but also in the whole
Minister has issued a Decision No 129/2010/QD-
TTg on approving the detailed plan of the coastal
road system. In which, the coastal road of Vietnam
will start from Nui Do port, Binh Ngoc commune,
Mong Cai city, Quang Ninh province to Ha Tien
border gate, Kien Giang province with the total
length of about 304 kilometers, go through 28
provinces and cities along the coastline.
Hai Phong-Ninh Binh Highway (CT.09) is one
of the main routes along the coastline, which
connects Quang Ninh, Hai Phong, Thai Binh, Nam
Dinh, and Ninh Binh to the main North-South
Highway (No 1). The route CT.09 has six lanes,
with the limit speed from 100 km/h to 120 km/h,
and the total length of 115 km (Fig.1).

294
 definition is based on the view of construction
ability and engineering geology. According to the
view of construction ability, the soft soil is
considered in the relation to the construction load,
depending on the magnitude of load transfer to the
ground. If the load is higher than the bearing
capacity of the ground, the ground will be
considered as soft ground. Therefore, it is common
to base on the bearing capacity and the magnitude
of the load to classify and define the soft ground.
In the term of engineering geology view, the soft
soil is a soil which has the composition, state and
special properties with a low bearing capacity, a
large deformation ability. To construct on these
soils, they need to be first treated to improve their
Fig. 1. Location of Hai Phong-Ninh Binh
properties or using deep foundation. Soft soil is
Highway-CT09 (the red line)
very sensitive to dynamic loading, the change of
geological environment as well.
The Hai Phong-Ninh Binh Highway plays an
According to classification standard of Vietnam
important role in enhancing the socio-economic
and other countries (the USA, British, Russia), soft
development of the North coastal provinces. After
soil has no specific classification system, but it has
completion, this route will alter the role of
some common features:
National Road No 10, create opportunities to easily
-In the term of age and origin: the soft soil is a
connect to the North-South route.
young sediment (Quaternary) with low density; the
However, this route is built on the area where
common origins are swampy, marine, and fluvial.
distributes many kinds of soft soils. These soils
-In the terms of grain composition and organic
include clay, sandy clay, clay mud, sandy clay
matter: soft soil is often clay, sandy clay, clayey
mud, sand, clayey sand, clayey sand mud in Thai
sand, with organic content ranging from 2 to 60%;
Binh, Hai Hung formation under Quaternary. In
salt content from 0.3 to 5 %.
which, the soft soil layers such as clay, sandy clay
-In the terms of soil properties: soft soil has a
with the soft state, clayey mud, sandy clay mud,
low convention bearing capacity (R0<1 kG/cm2), a
clayey sand mud distribute at a shallow depth or on
low deformation modulus (E0< 50 kG/cm2), a high
the surface. These soft layers affect significantly
void ratio (e>1), a high liquidity index (Is>0.75), a
the stability, deformation of ground during design,
low shearing resistance (Cu<0.15 kG/cm2), an unit
construction, and operation.
cone penetration resistance, qc<10 kG/cm2, a
In fact, building road, especially highway road
standard penetration resistance, N <15 (blows).
on soft soil areas has never been easy due to the
There are some notices should be paid attention
complexity, variety, and sensitivity to the external
when researching on the soft soils which are as
load of soft soil layers. A good understanding of
follows:
nature, distribution of soft soils as well as the soft
-The distribution and the rule of distribution of
ground structure will be an important scientific
soft soil layers: including thickness and depth of
basis to choose the suitable treatment methods [6].
distribution.
2. Properties of the soft ground structure along
-Component properties: including grains,
the coastal Highway
mineralogical compositions, chemical and organic
2.1. General information on soft soils and soft
composition, salt content.
ground structure
-Physico-mechanical properties: including
Up to now, the definition of soft soils is still a
natural water content, bulk density, specific
controversial issue, but the most common
density, consistency limits, void ratio, and some

295
mechanical properties such as shearing resistance,
deformation modulus and some properties showing
the behavior of soil to water.
-The change of soil properties with space and
time subjected to the external load and
environment.
The classification of the soft ground structure
into different types and sub-types plays an
important role in order to provide and design the
suitable method for soft soil treatment and increase
the soil properties. The classification of the soft
ground structure has been investigated for many
years with different methods. However, there is a
common method which is based on the spatial
relationship of different soil layers (including soft
layers) in the compression zone caused by the
external load. This includes the number of soil
layers, origin, age, the depth of distribution,
thickness, and soil properties (grain compositions,
physic-mechanical properties) 3 .
2.2. Soft soil properties in the research area
The research area is home to many types of soft
soils with different origins, including fluvial
(aQ23tb3, aQ23tb2), marine (mQ23tb3, mQ23tb2,
mQ23tb1, mQ21-2hh2), fluvio-marine (amQ23tb3,
amQ23tb2, amQ23tb1, amQ21-2hh1), fluvio-marine-
swampy (ambQ23tb3, ambQ23tb2), fluvio-swampy
(abQ23tb2), marine-swampy (mbQ21-2hh1), and
marine-eolian (mvQ23tb3, mvQ23tb2) in Thai Binh,
Hai Hung formation 2.
The soft soils with the fluvial origin (aQ23tb3,
aQ23tb2) distribute on the surface, along the large
river such as the Red river, Thai Binh river. The
thickness is not so big, ranges from 1 m to 5 m.
The main compositions are sandy clay, clay,
clayey sand, silty sand with grey brownish, light
grey-yellowish.
The soft soils with the marine origin (mQ23tb3)
also distribute on the surface, along the coastline
from Thai Binh to Ninh Binh. The thickness ranges
from 2 m to 10 m, or above. The main
compositions are loose silty sand, soft to very soft
sandy clay mix with shell; brown, brown-greenish.
The soft soils with the marine origin (mQ23tb2)
distribute largely on the surface of the coastline of
Hai Phong, Diem Dien-Thai Binh, Hai Thinh-Nam
Dinh, and Kim Son-Ninh Binh. The thickness
296
varies from 2 m to 10 m. The main compositions
are soft to very soft sandy clay and clayey sand;
brown greyish, brown-pinkish.
The soft soils with the marine origin (mQ23tb1)
are mainly sandy clay mud, clay, sandy clay mixed
with organic matter and shell, brown blackish.
These soils distribute dispersedly in the coastline
of Hai Phong, Hai Thinh-Nam Dinh, with a small
depth of distribution, the thickness varying from a
few meters to 10 m.
The soft soils with the marine origin (mQ21-
2
hh2) distribute largely in the coastline from Hai
Phong to Kim Son-Ninh Binh. The thickness varies
from a few meters to 10 m, even above 20 m. The
main compositions are clay, sandy clay mix with
organic matter, shell; brown greyish, brown-
greenish.
The soft soils with the fluvio-marine origin
(amQ23tb3) largely distribute on the surface from
Hai Phong to Kim Son-Ninh Binh. The thickness
ranges from a few meters to 20 m. The main
compositions are very soft sandy clay, clay, clayey
sand, and sand; grey, grey-brownish.
The soft soils with fluvio-marine origin
(amQ23tb2) distribute largely on the surface of the
coastline of Hai Phong, Diem Dien-Thai Binh, Hai
Thinh-Nam Dinh, Kim Son-Ninh Binh. The
thickness varies from 2 m to 10 m. The main
compositions are soft-very soft sandy clay
sandwich with clayey sand, sand; brown pinkish,
brown-greyish.
The soft soils with fluvio-marine origins
(amQ23tb1) only distribute in Southwestern of Hai
Phong coastline. The thickness varies from a few
meters to 10 m. The main compositions are sandy
clayey mud, clay, sandy clay mix with organic
matter, shell; brown-blacknish.
The soft soils with fluvio-marine origins
(amQ21-2hh1) distribute largely from Hai Phong to
Kim Son-Ninh Binh, under amQ21-2hh1 sediment at
a depth from 7 m to 25 m. The thickness ranges
from a few meters to over 20 m. The main
compositions are clay, sandy clay, mud, sandwich
with fine sand; grey, grey-brownish.
The soft soils with fluvio-marine-swampy
origins (ambQ23tb3) distribute on the surface in the
some small areas of the estuary in Kim Son-Ninh
Binh, Nam Dinh, and Thai Binh provinces. The
thickness varies from 5 m to over 20 m. The main
compositions are sandy clay mud, clayey mud,
sandy clay mix with organic matter, shell; black,
brown-greyish.
The soft soils with fluvio-marine-swampy
origins (ambQ23tb2) distrubute dispersedly in the
estuary areas in Diem Dien-Thai Binh, Hai Phong.
The thickness varies from a few meters to 10 m, or
even above 20 m. The main compositions are
sandy clay mud, clayey mud, sandy clay mix with
organic matter, shell; black, brown-greyish.
The soft soils with fluvio-marine-swampy
origins (ambQ23tb1) only distribute in some small
areas to the Western of Hai Phong coastline, with
the thickness less than 5 m. The compositions are
mainly sandy clay mud, clay, sandy clay mix with
organic matter, shell; black, brown-greyish.
The soft soils with marine-swampy origins
(mbQ21-2hh1) only distribute in some areas in the
coastline of Hai Phong, Hai Thinh-Nam Dinh, at a
depth from 11 m to 30 m. The thickness changes
significantly from a few meters to over 20 m. The
main compositions are clayey mud, sandy clay
mud, soft to very soft sandy clay mix with organic
matter, fine sand; brown, brown-blackish.
The soft soil with marine-eolian origins
(mvQ23tb3, mvQ23tb2) distribute in the form of
small long sand dune along the coastline from Hai
Phong to Kim Son-Ninh Binh province. The
thickness changes from 2 m to 5 m, or from 5 m to
10 m in some areas. The main compositions are
loose to very loose fine sand, silty sand; yellow,
brown yellowish, grey-brownish.
On the physico-mechanical properties, the soft
soils relating to the swampy origin (mb, amb, ab)
often are clayey mud, sandy clay mud with high
liquidity index (Is=1.08 – 2.66), very high water
content (W=40 %-60 %), bulk density from 1.63 to
1.74 g/cm3, very low convention bearing capacity
(R0< 0.5 kG/cm2), very high deformation ability
(E0 < 30 kG/cm2). The soft soils with fluvial (a),
marine (m), and fluvio-marine origins (am) often
have the liquidity index (Is = 1.08 – 2.66); high
water content (W = 32 – 50 %); low convention
bearing capacity (Ro < 0,5-1 kG/cm2), high
deformation ability (deformation modulus, Eo = 30
– 50 kG/cm2).
297
2.3. Classification of soft ground structure in
the study area
The soft ground structure reflects the
relationship of different soil layers, the interaction
between the external load, ground structure and
geological environment. Each soil layer plays an
important role in soft ground structure and is
characterized by compositions, texture, state and
specific properties. On the space, the ground
structure is limited by the compression zone
caused by the external load, mainly based on the
research depth. The research depth is determined
based on the characteristics of the research area,
purpose, research duty, and the depth of
compression zone. Accordingly, the research
depth, the number of soil layers in the research
area play an important role in the classification of
the soft ground structure.
The principles of ground structure classification
is based on research purpose, distribution depth of
soft soil, geologcial-geology engineering
characteristics of the reseach area. In this study, the
classification of ground structure is used to choose
the suitable ground improvement method for
building road. Therefore, the research depth is the
distribution depth of soft soils. The distribution
depth of soft soils in the research area is about 30m
[2].
In the research area belong to Hai Phong-Ninh
Binh Highway, the soft ground structure is divided
into different types and sub-types [2]. Type is
divided based on the order of soft soils in the
sapce; sub-type is divided based on the thickness
of soft soil layers. Accordingly, the ground
structure in the research area includes 2 types and
3 sub-types.
Type I: the soft soil distributes on the surface,
and cover the stiff-hard cohesive soils;
Type II: the soft soil layers are covered by the
hard soil layer;
Sub-type 1: the thickness of soft soils is above
20 m;
Sub-type 2: the thickness of soft soils is from
10 m to 20 m;
Sub-type 3: the thickness of soft soils is small,
from 5 m to 10 m.
The soft ground structure sub-type I.1 has soft
soils distribute on the shear surface, and cover the
stiff-hard cohesive soils; the thickness of soft soils
is above 20 m. This sub-type is most popular in the
research area.
The sub-type I.2 is almost similar to the sub-
type I.1. However, the thickness of soft soils is less
than 20 m, but above 10 m.
The sub-type I.3 also has soft soils distribute on
the shear surface, and cover the stiff-hard cohesive
soils; the thickness of soft soils is small, from 5 m
to 10 m. This type distributes dispersedly in some
small areas in Vinh Bao-Hai Phong province; Kien
Xuong, Dong Hung, Thai Thuy-Thai Binh
province.
The sub-type II.1 has soft soils which are
covered by the hard soi layer; the thickness of soft
soils in this sub-type is over 20 m. This sub-type is
formed as the small long band and distributes in
Yen Mo, Yen Khanh, Kim Son in Ninh Binh
province; along the Day river, Ninh Cow river in
Nghia Hung, Truc Ninh, Hai Thinh in Nam Dinh
province.
The sub-type II.2 is almost similar to the sub-
type II.1, but the thickness of soft soils is lower,
from 10 m to 20 m. This type distributes in some
small areas in Thai Hong, Thai Phu, Thai Thanh,
Thai Tho, Thai Tan, My Loc, Thai Do communes
near Diem Ho river in Thai Thuy district, Thai
Binh province.
3. Propose the suitable soil improvement
methods
3.1. Some common soil improvement methods
In fact, the soft soil improvement is very
complicated, depending on the soft ground
structure, the properties of soft soils (compositions,
state, and physico-mechanical properties).
Presently, there are many methods which can
be used to improve soft soil properties. These
methods can be divided into different groups as
follows:
- Replacing of soft soils with sand, gravel or
highly-graded cohesive soils;
-Vertical drainage methods: sand well,
surcharging with prefabricated vertical drain-PVD
or vacuum;
-Instantaneous compaction method: bamboo
column, sand column, compacted sand column;
- Chemical methods: cement, lime
- Physical methods: electric, thermal, freezing,
polymer.
Some common methods in Vietnam are shown
in Table 1.

Tab. 1. Some common soil improvement methods in Vietnam

No Method Scope Efficiency Note
Suitable for soft soil
-Medium and Increase stability, distributes near or on the
Replacing of soft soil
1 small works; reduce surface and replacing
with sand and gravel
- Roads. settlement. materials exist near the
construction site
Vertical drainage
method (sand drain PVD has used for many
- Roads; Increase the
method; surcharging years in Vietnam. The
2 -Industrial works; consolidation
with prefabricated vacuum method needs to
rate.
vertical drains-PVD deeply research in Vietnam.
or vacuum).
Instantaneous Reduce void ratio
compaction method: and settlement.
- Small buildings Using sand Suitable for shallow
- Bamboo column
3 and roads. column can also groundwater
enhance the Unsuitable when
- Sand column - Roads. consolidation groundwater level strongly
rate. fluctuates.

298
 - Medium and
small buildings,
roads;
Soil-cement column; - Reinforcement
4 soil-lime column; the wall and
sand-cement column. bottom of the
excavation,
increase the slope
stability.
The efficiency of soil improvement methods
depends on many factors such as the soil
compositions (especially organic and salt content),
physic-mechanical properties, distribution scope,
the thickness of soft soils as well as the technique
and capability in design and construction. The
practice in Vietnam shows that each method has its
own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, the
suitable methods play an important role in ensuring
the stability of works during construction and
operation.
3.2. Application of sand-cement column
method for soil improvement in the North Coastal
Highway
3.2.1. The reason for choosing the sand-cement
column method
The research results show that the North coastal
Hai Phong-Ninh Binh Highway mainly lies on the
sub-type I.1, I.2, and I.3 where the soft soils
distribute on the surface with their thickness of
above 20 m, 10-20 m, and 5-10 m, respectively.
With the characteristics of the soft ground structure
as mentioned above, the suitable soil improvement
methods can be the sand column, surcharging with
prefabricated vertical drain-PVD, and soil-cement
column. These methods have been widely used in
Vietnam and brought some good results. However,
the practice in some projects in Vietnam shows
that these methods have some disadvantages.
The sand-column method can increase soil
strength immediately due to mechanical
compression and will be a vertical drainage to
increase the consolidation rate. However, during
construction, the body of column can be damaged
due to lateral enlarge or shear sliding. In particular,
the fine sand in column body can be moved into
the ground due to the flow of water in some areas
299
Increase strength,
reduce settlement
and time of
consolidation.
where have the highly fluctuated groundwater.
This phenomenon leads to increase the void in the
column, gradually results in damage of column,
and then the strength of stabilized ground will be
significantly decreased.
The surcharging with prefabricated vertical
drain is a useful way of increasing the
consolidation rate. However, this method often
takes a long time, leads to decrease the economic
efficiency of construction works.
The soil-cement column method can be solved
some disadvantages of the sand column. In this
method, the strength of body column can be
increased with time due to cementation. Similarly
to sand column method, the construction works can
be also implemented immediately. However, this
method also has some disadvantages. The small
cement content inputs into the ground may not
increase the strength due to simultaneous
compression. This will result in a small increase in
the strength of column and its soil around. In
addition, the calculation of bearing capacity and
deformation of reinforced ground still has some
debates, especially in the cases of soft soils
distribute at the bottom of column [2].
In order to utilize the advantages and minimize
the disadvantages of the sand column,
prefabricated vertical drain, soil-cement methods,
the new method of sand-cement-lime has been
proposed [4]. This method has been efficiently
used to improve the strength of soils for building
small-medium size constructions in Quang Ninh,
Thai Binh, Thanh Hoa province. However,
recently the use and production of lime are limited
due to the environmental problems. In addition, the
medium and coarse sand are now scarce, lead to
increase the transportation fee and then decrease
the efficiency.
From above analysis, the sand-cement method
is proposed for soil improvement in the research
area. In which, the fine sand along local rivers will
be used. This method will mitigate the
disadvantages of these methods as mentioned
above.
3.2.2 Theoretical principles of sand-cement
column method
The principle of this method is the combination
of sand column and soil-cement column method.
Accordingly, the specialized equipment will be
used to input a dry mixture of sand and cement into
the ground to increase the strength of composite
ground and decrease the settlement. The increase
of strength and decrease of the settlement are due
to an occurrence of some phycio-chemical
processes in the ground.
*Mechanical compression process
This process is similar to the compression
process when reinforces the ground by the sand
column method. The only difference here is
materials used. In sand-cement column method, a
mixture of sand and cement is injected into the
ground. This mixture will occupy the void volume
in soil, then the void ratio will reduce, the ground
will become denser, and the soil strength
increases. This process can be described as
follows:
For one specific volume of soil, at first (before
reinforcement), it has the total volume is V0, the
volume of grains is Vh0 and the volume of the void
is Vr0.
V0=Vh0+Vr0 (1)
After reinforcement, the total volume of soil is
V, the volume of grains is Vh and the volume of
void is Vr
V=Vh+Vr (2)
The change in total volume of soil
V=V0-V= (Vh0+Vr0) – (Vh+Vr)= Vho + Vro – Vh – Vr.
(3)
The volume of grains can be considered
constant before and after reinforcement, Vro = Vh
Thus,
V= Vho – Vr or V=Vr (4)
300
The formula 4 shows that the change in total
volume of soil after reinforcement is equal to the
change in volume of void.
*Consolidation process
For sand-cement column method, a mixture of
sand and cement was mixed in a dry form and then
inputs into the ground. This mixture will absorb
water to become the grout, and then form concrete.
There are two processes in the formation of
concrete. At first, the cement grout gradually
losses the plasticity to become denser, but there is
almost no strength. The second process is
hydration. In the hydration process, there are some
chemical reactions between cement components
and water molecules. These reactions can be
described as follows :
3CaO.SiO2 + nH2O = Ca(OH)2 + 2CaO.SiO2(n-
1)H2O
2CaO.SiO2 + mH2O = 2CaO.SiO2mH2O
3CaO.Al2O3 + 6H2O = 3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 + nH2O =
3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O + CaO.Fe2O3.mH2O
The products of the hydration process
(Ca(OH)2, 3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O) will absorb a large
amount of water. This results in decrease the water
in the ground, decrease the water content, increase
the strength, and decrease the settlement of the
ground.
* The intensification in strength of column and
reinforced soil
On the basis, the sand-cement column is also
similar to the soil-cement column. The only
difference here is materials used. After hardening
(crystallization), the strength of sand-cement and
soil-cement column increase significantly due to
formation of cementation bonding. For sand-
cement column, the increase of strength can be
interpreted as follows:
At first, without cement, the shear strength of
dry sand is   tg , with  is friction angle of
sand. However, after cement hardening, the shear
strength of sand-cement mixture will increase by
cohesion force cxm due to the formation of
cementation bonding,   tg  c xm . The shear
strength of column will include two parameters (,
cxm). These parameters can be determined by
testing on remolded samples in the laboratory.
 In addition, the ion exchange and puzzolan
reactions will occur at the contact surface between
column body and soil. The cation Ca2+ will replace
Na+ and H+ in the electrical double layer of clay
particles. This leads to decrease the thickness of
the double layer, increase the cohesion force
between clay particles. On the other hand, Si and
Al in clay minerals will react with calcium silicate
(Ca2SiO4) and hydrate aluminum calcium in
puzzolan reactions to form a high strength
compound in the water environment. These
processes will increase the frictional force and
cohesion of soils around the column and results in
an increase in strength of stabilized ground.
*The calculation of bearing capacity and
settlement of the stabilized ground
The calculation of bearing capacity and
settlement of stabilized ground is one the most
important works to evaluate the efficiency of sand-
cement column method. On the basis, the
calculation for soil-cement stabilized ground can
be used for the sand-cement method. However,
some calculation methods [5] still have some
limitations, especially when the soft soils distribute
at the bottom of column [1]. In this research, a new
method for calculation of sand-cement column
stabilized ground is proposed.
In the terms of engineering geology, all the soil
improvement methods have the same purposes
which increase the construction ability of ground,
increase the bearing capacity, decrease the
settlement. Thus, the sand-cement stabilized
ground can be considered as the new ground with
the new state, new compositions, and new physico-
mechanical properties. Therefore, the calculation
of bearing capacity and settlement can be
conducted based on the current methods according
to elastic theory and linear deformation. The most
important here is how to determine the suitable
cement content to ensure that the strength of
column is almost identical to that of soil around the
column. In that case, the stabilized ground can be
considered as linear deformation, homogeneity,
and isotropy. There still has one question is that in
the stabilized ground, the addition of sand and
cement to the ground may increase the external
load subject to the ground or not? In this case, two
301
types of construction (fast and slow) should be
distinguished.
In the case of fast construction, it means that
the construction works will be implemented
immediately after construction of sand-cement
column. In this case, the strength of stabilized
ground is just increased by the mechanical
compression process; the consolidation process has
not completely been occurred yet. Therefore, only
one part of sand and cement can be considered as
external load-induced the settlement. The other
will increase the consolidation rate, increase the
strength of column and stabilized ground.
However, the determination of how many
percentages of sand and cement causing the
settlement of stabilized ground is very
complicated. This problem needs to further
examination in both laboratoy and practice. We
just propose that 50 % of sand and cement will be
used together with the external load to calculate the
bearing capacity and settlement of stabilized
ground.
In the case of slow construction, it means that
the construction works will be implemented after a
long time of construction of sand-cement column.
In this case, all the processes (mechanical
compression process, consolidation process, and
intensification in strength of column and its soil
around) has been completely finished. The
stabilized ground has become a new ground with
new state, new compositions, and new physico-
mechanical properties. The calculation of bearing
capacity and settlement of stabilized ground here is
similar to that of natural ground. Therefore, the
volume of sand and cement is not the external load
causing settlement.
3.2.3. Experimental basis of sand-cement
column method
In order to fulfill the theoretical principles of
this method, the laboratory and field testing should
be carried out to clarify the mechanical
compression process, the consolidation process,
and the intensification in strength of column body
and its soil vicinity as well as the calculation
method of bearing capacity and settlement of
reinforced ground. These questions will be further
examined in the future.
4. Conclusions and recommendations
From the research results, some main
conclusions are withdrawn as follows :
4.1. The soft soils in the research area are
diversified with different origins, including aQ23tb3,
aQ23tb2; mQ23tb3, mQ23tb2, mQ23tb1, mQ21-2hh2;
amQ23tb3, amQ23tb2, amQ23tb1, amQ21-2hh1;
ambQ23tb3, ambQ23tb2; abQ23tb2; mbQ21-2hh1 and
mvQ23tb3, mvQ23tb2 in Thai Binh, Hai Hung
formation. These soils have a low bearing capacity,
high deformation ability and need to be reinforced
first before construction works are implemented.
4.2. Based on the research purposes, the depth
and distribution scope as well as the physico-
mechanical properties of soft soils, the ground
structure in this area can be divided into two types
and three sub-types, as follows:
Type I: the soft soil distributes on the surface,
and cover the stiff-hard cohesive soils;
Type II: the soft soil layers is covered by the
hard soil layer;
Sub-type 1: the thickness of soft soils is above
20 m;
Sub-type 2: the thickness of soft soils is from
10 m to 20 m;
Sub-type 3: the thickness of soft soils is small,
from 5 m to 10 m.
4.3. The sand-cement column reinforced
ground can utilize the advantages and minimize the
disadvantages of sand column, PVD and soil-
cement methods. The materials used in this method
are medium-coarse sand along the river in the
research area.
4.4. The theoretical principles of this method
are mechanical and phycio-mechnical processes,
including mechanical compression process,
consolidation, and intensification in strength of
column body and its soil vicinity.
302
4.5. The further examination in laboratory and
field should be conducted to fulfill the theoretical
basis as well as the standard.
4.6. The investigation on the volume, the
distribution, the origin, and the properties of fine
sand in the research area needs to be further
examined to use for sand-cement stabilized
ground. This will bring benefits for building the
small-medium size construction works in the North
coastal area.
Reference
[1] Thinh, T. D. (2017). On the calculation of
bearing capacity and settlement of soil-
cement reinforced ground. Journal of
Mining and Earth Science. No 58, Volume
5 (in Vietnamese).
[2] Phong, N. V. (2016). Completion report of
Ministerial project. Research on properties
of soft soils and characteristics of ground
structure in the North coastal area to
propose the suitable soil improvement
method for building construction works in
response to climate change and sea level
rise (in Vietnamese).
[3] Thinh, T. D, Phuong, N. H, Hong. N,
Phong, N. V. (2009). Soils and
foundations. Construction Publishing
House, Ha Noi (in Vietnamese).
[4] Bergado D.T, Chai J.C, Alfaro M.C,
Balasubramaniam A.S (1994).
Improvement techniques of soft ground in
subsiding and lowland environment.
A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam.
[5] Chieu, N.Q. (2004). To desgng and build of
road on soft soil. Construction Publishing
House, Ha Noi (in Vietnamese).
 STUDY, ANALYSIS AND ASSESS EFFECTIVENESS OF SOFT SOIL
IMPROVEMENT USING PVD COMBINE VACUUM PRELOADING AT
HYOSUNG VINA CHEMICALS PROJECT AT BA RIA VUNG TAU PROVINCE,
VIET NAM

Phan Thanh Tien1, Nguyen Tan Son2

1
GeoSmart Consultants JSC, Vietnam
2
Nam Mien Trung Co, Ltd, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: geosmartco@yahoo.com

Abstract: This paper reports on geotechnical monitoring results of pore- pressure and study
engineering geology inspection by in-situ: Field Vane Shear Test, and in lab test results. Study and
analysis collected data could be assess Degree of Consolidation after treatment and also effect of ground
improvement, comment and analysis causes of different achieved results rate of consolidation to build
basic science for deciding constructing plan.

Keywords: settlement; soft clay; soil improvement; PVD; surcharge; vacuum; monitoring.

1. Introduction Thus, soft ground improvement method using

Harmony in the trend of economic development
of the sea in Southern Vietnam, Hyosung Vina
Chemicals port in Cai Mep, Ba Ria, Vung Tau is
under constructions stage.
Soft ground improvement method using
Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD) combined
preloading surcharge is used commonly in more
than a recent in Vietnam especially in southern
Vietnam. However the challenges for soft soil
treatment for Hyosung Vina Chemicals Project are
overlaid on very soft marine clay with thickness
about 12m very low shear strength and very high
water content over 100% with organic
approximately 10%; filling height: + 4.5m from
ground level; Insufficiency of fine sand source and
requirement of short time consolidation;
complicated in controlling stability protection of
inside project area may cause as a side of project
face to a long with very deep Thi Vai Cai Mep
riverbank.
Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD) combined
preloading surcharge is not used and PVD
combined vacuum is adapted and adopted for
Hyosung Vina Chemicals Project. Three main
aspects of tests will be presented, and namely,
instrumentation and field investigation
geotechnical program (FVST, SPT), calculation of
consolidation settlement and evaluation of soil
properties to see the difference between before and
after ground improvement.
2. Site natural conditions
2.1. Location
Hyosung Port Vina Chemicals is located in Cai
Mep Industrial Zone, Tan Phuoc Commune, Tan
Thanh District, Ba Ria - Vung Tau Province.
2.2. Topographic features
The surface site before construction is the
flooded area and was influent by both tidal area
and regional navigation system (Figure 2).

303
 sand, clayey sand, yellowish grey, whitish grey,
dark grey, reddish brown, loose to medium dense,
very loose at somewhere.
Layer 3: (CH) Clay, yellowish grey, bluish
grey, stiff, the depth of about 45m, thickness about
2m
Layer R1: Weathered Granite, bluish grey,
whitish grey, dark grey (RQD<75%).
Layer R2: Fresh Granite, bluish grey, whitish
grey, dark grey (RQD>75%).
Soil profile and soil properties obtained from
soil investigation in this stage (Portcoast Geo, 2016
& 2017) are displayed in Figure 4

Fig .2. Location Hyosung Port Vina Chemicals

Fig. 4. Plan of investigation

Fig. 3. Topographic project site Distribution of soft soil thickness on site is

shown in Figure 5
2.3. Climate conditions
Monsoon tropical climate, divided into two
distinct seasons: rainy season, hot, humid, from
May to October; dry season, cold from November
to April.
3. Ground improvement works
3.1. Geology condition at Project site
Soil profile at project site as details:
Layer 1: (CH, MH) Clay with organic, dark
grey, bluish grey, very soft, the depth of about
10m; thickness about 5-18m and vary on project
site area: Container ground yard Area near
Hyosung Factory varies from 10 to18m soft clay
thickness, offshore area near jetty varies from 5 to
8m soft clay thickness
Layer 2: Underlying layer 1 to the depth of
about 43m, thickness about 38m (SM,SC) Silty Fig. 5. Engineering cross section

304
 3.2. Detail ground improvement works 3.3. Geotechnical monitoring works

Fig. 6. Site ground area of project

Site plan was surcharged 1.5m for convenience

of PVD and CDM construction. Yard area was
improved by PVD with 1x1m into bed of layer 1.
Fig. 7. Plan of monitoring system

Tab. 1. Geotechnical monitoring works started from April 2018 to September 2018 with detail quantities

No Name of works Purpose of monitoring works Quantities

1 Surface Settlement plate
monitoring
2 Extensometer monitoring
3 Piezometer monitoring
4 Water level underground
monitoring
5 Inclinometer monitoring
Settlement monitoring on surface of improved 22
soil layers
Settlement monitoring at each varies depths 6
Pore pressure in improved soil layers 6
Underground water level monitoring during 6
ground improvement stage
Inclination monitoring a long with thickness of 12
improved soft soil layer

3.4. Responsive field soil investigation

Perform with works as: Drilling, sampling,
Vane shear test and in- lab test: physical&
mechanical properties index, Incremental Loading
Consolidation Test, Constant Rate of Strain
Consolidation Test, UU Triaxial Shear Strength
Test, CIU Triaxial Shear Strength Test with Pore
Pressure Measurements.

Fig. 8. Field soil investigation after treatment

305
4. Assess degree of consolidation after ground
improvement
Assess Degree of Consolidation after ground
improvement using some methods as below as:
4.1. Assess Degree of Consolidation on
ground surface settlement data
4.1.1. Asaoka Method
Based on the monitoring data, the final
settlement estimate was calculated using the
Asaoka method. The nature of this method is as
follows:
Asaoka demonstrated that if monitoring curve
was divided into many Si points with equal time
intervals, when the axis of the graph with the
horizontal axis is Si-1 and the vertical axis is Si,
the points are straight lines. This is only true when
the working load is constant, which can be as Settlement at t-1, Si-1
follows: Fig. 9. Modeling diagrams by Asaoka method

Tab. 2. Result of the final settlement

Asaoka method/
No./ S. plate/ Tính toán bằng pp Asaoka
STT Tên bàn lún S Sf Sr U Uave
(m) (m) (m) (%) %
1 S18 0.369 0.394 0.025 93.73%

2 S10A 0.435 0.468 0.033 92.96% 92.75%

3 S13 0.387 0.423 0.036 91.56%

4.1.2. Hyperbolic Method Hence the ultimate settlement was defined

Tan et al. (1991) proposed a hyperbolic as
relationship between monitored settlement (s) and
(3)
consolidation time (t), which includes two linear
segments
where α and β are the intercept and the slope of
or (2) the inttial linear line.

Tab. 3. Result of the average degree of consolidation

Average
2. Ultimate (Final) SF
1. Parameter degree of
settlement SF (mm)
Settlement consolidation
no S10A α: intercept of a straight 3. Settlements at time Sti
0.1857
line in t/sversust plot; ti (mm) 89.2%
β: slope of a straight 0.0049 4. Degree of U

306
 line int/sversust plot consolidation (%)
2. Ultimate (Final) SF
1. Parameter
settlement SF (mm)
Settlement α: intercept of a straight 3. Settlements at time Sti
0.1039
no S13 line in t/sversust plot; ti (mm)
β: slope of a straight 4. Degree of U
0.0037
line int/sversust plot consolidation (%)
2. Ultimate SF
1. Parameter
(Final) settlement SF (mm)
Settlement α: intercept of a straight 3. Settlements at time Sti
0.0579
no S18 line in t/sversust plot; ti (mm)
β: slope of a straight 4. Degree of
0.0023 U
line int/sversust plot consolidation

Fig. 10. Install piezometer and Chart of pore pressure (illustration)

4.2. Evaluation of cohesion rate based on the - Cohesion rate as pore pressure
results of monitoring of pore water pressure and UWP% = (CSmax - EPWP)/ CSmax*100%
groundwater level Where: CSmax: Max cohesion pressure
Surplused pore water pressure is increased by EPWP: Surplus pore pressure
the Remaining load process and gradually EPWP = PWP – SWP.
dissipating in the value of "0" when the PWP: Pore pressure
consolidation reaches 100%. SWP: static pressure

307
 - e0: natural pore pressure
- et: Natural pore pressure after ground
improvement
- ec: Estimated pore pressure bear completed
surcharge load and live load

Fig. 11. Analysis on degree of consolidation based

on electrical piezometer monitoring result Fig. 12. Chart of natural pore pressure of soil
before ground improvement and attach surcharge
4.3. Assess Degree of Consolidation on load & live load (Pmax)
ground surface settlement data using in lab test
e0  et
Q
e0  ec
2.073  1.784
Q = 93.39%.
2.073  1.72

Fig. 13. Chart of natural pore pressure of soil after ground improvement

308
 Tab. 4. Comparison degree of consolidation by different methods
By field measurements
Combine In situ Field
Pore Soil investigation& In
Settlement data pressure lab test before & after
data treatment
Average degree of
consolidation Asaoka’s Hyperbolic’s Barron’s e0  et
Q
Method Method Method e0  ec
92.75% 89.2 91.4% 93.39%

5. Conclusions and recommendations Combine in situ Field Soil investigation& In lab

Comparison of degree of consolidation from
settlement, pore pressure data and Vane shear test
from soil investigation after treatment
The average Degree of consolidation (DOC)
was assessed based on both settlement (ground
surface settlement plate) and pore pressure data
which indicated that DOC estimated from
settlement data was higher than that estimated
from pore water pressure data due to maintenance
at higher levels of the excess pore pressures during
the progress of consolidation. The average Degree
of consolidation (DOC) predicted using Asaoka’s
Method (Asaoka, 1978) higher than Hyperbolic’s
Method (Tan, 1996).
There is good match results in Assessment of
DOC between Field measurements and Combine
In situ Field Soil investigation& In lab test before
& after treatment method for are good match
assessment at Hyosung Vina Chemicals Project.
However The average Degree of consolidation
(DOC) figured out from combining In situ Field
Soil investigation& In lab test before & after
treatment higher than by field measurements
(Included Asaoka, Hyperbolic, Pore pressure and
test before & after ground treatment method).
There was a good agreement among all
assessment methods, proving that design
calculation and quality of treatment are good.The
difference between the results of assessment is not
significant, showing that all inspection is accurate
and reliable.
References
[1] Asaoka, A., (1978), Observational
Procedure of Settlement Prediction, Soil
and Foundations, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 87–
101. Tan, T. S., Inoue, T., and Lee, S.L.
(1991), “Hyperbolic Method for Conso-
lidation Analysis”, Journal of Geotechnical
Eng’g.Vol.117, No.11, pp.1723-1737.
[2] Study, analysis and assess effectiveness of
soft soil improvement based on monitoring
results and soil investigation after
treatment- P.V. Long D. Eng, General
Director of Vina Mekong Engineering
Consultants JS Company (VMEC)
[3] Practical Application of Menard Vacuum
PreloadingTM at Gemalink Container
Terminal Project, Vietnam-T.C.T.Vinh

309
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 4th INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE VIETGEO 2018

QUANG BINH, VIETNAM

21&22 September 2018

SESSION 3

GEOTECHNICAL MONITORING
AND MATERIALS
 ASSESSEMENT OF CAPABILITY OF USING NATURAL POZZOLAN
IN DAK NONG, VIET NAM FOR SOIL STABILIZATION

Vu Ba Thao1, Nguyen Huu Nam2, Pham Van Minh1, Tran Van Quan1,
Nguyen Huy Vuong1, Dinh Van Thuc1
1
Hydraulic Construction Institute, Vietnam Academy for Water Resources, Vietnam
2
Hydropower and renewable energy Institute, Vietnam Academy for Water Resources, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: vubathao@gmail.com

Abstract: Natural and artificial pozzolan are plentiful in Vietnam. It is used in the manufacture of
portland cement pozzolan or replace a part of cement in the construction of roller compacted, etc…
However, the use of natural pozzolan as a binder, partial replacement of cement to strengthen the soil in
place has not been much research. This paper analyzes the chemical composition of minerals, the lime
absorption capacity of natural pozzolan extracted in K'rong Nô district of Dak Nong province to evaluate
their applicability in soil reinforcement. Comparison of the test results of the sample analysis at two
locations in the study area with the requirements in current standards shows that the ability to use the
natural pozzolan in the soil improvement is relatively high.

Keywords: natural pozzolan; in-situ soils; chemical composition; lime absorption capacity.

1. Introduction diatomite, trepel, opoka and some products of

In transportation and irrigation, the required
utilization of local raw materials for stabilized soils
is enormous. The applications of stabilized soil are
abundant such as sub base, road surface, or even as
waterproofing material to replace clay in irrigation.
Adhesives are currently used to stabilize soil in
places such as lime, cement, pozzolan, Rovo,
HRB, etc. [1], [2], [3]. Their nature is the process
of physical, chemical, and physical contact that
occurs simultaneously between the soil and a
group of binders. The article focused on the
chemical composition of minerals, the lime
sorption of natural pozzolan extracted in K'rong
No district of Dak Nong province to evaluate their
applicability in soil reinforcement. Pozzolans are
abundant. They usually exist in two forms: (1)
Artificial pozzolan is not active in the natural state,
but after being treated properly, it will have
enough characteristics of pozzolan such as: fly ash,
silica, coal slag, fire bricks; (2) Natural pozzolan is
a product of endogenous and exogenous geological
processes such as volcanic ash, tuff, volcanic ash,
metamorphic origin. or other weather. They
contain SiO2 or contain SiO2 and Al2O3, which
themselves have little or no cohesion, but when
finely ground and humid they will react chemically
with Ca(OH)2 at room temperature to form
adhesive compounds [4], [5], [6], [7]. One of the
important elements of pozzolan that needs to be
studied is the chemical composition, requiring a
total content of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 to be greater
than 70% [3].
The utilization of natural pozzolan will limit
harmful components in cement as well as in the
local soil such as (1) Pozzolan has amorphous SiO2
(SiO2 crystalline active ingredients low), Al2O3 and
Fe2O3 activity; These substances react with the
harmful Ca(OH)2 component of the hydrolysis of
the cement to form high strength minerals,
increasing the strength, strength and waterproofing
of the reinforcing material 9]. (2) Pozzolan is
limited by a number of characteristics of the local
soil disadvantage as: Composition of soil particles,
increasing the coarse grain content when the soil

312
has large clay content; Organic content (high
humic acid), increased hydration of the pozzolanic
reaction; Reducing the effect of salt content on the
hydration of cement; The chemical compositions
are related to the origin of the soil, the composition
of the soil, the soil in the study area contains the
SiO2 (primary oxide and secondary oxide), they
have positive effects in strengthening degrees; The
mineral composition of the soil influences
relatively high quality of reinforcement. For
montmorillonite minerals, the amount of water in
the mineral will change drastically with the
ambient humidity, and water can be separated from
the mineral to enter the air if the humidity is low.
Conversely, they can absorb water of moist air,
they are almost formed in exogenous, dry and
semi-dry conditions. Comparisons of sample
analysis results at two sites in the study area
according to current standards show that the ability
to apply natural pozzolan is relatively high can be
used to strengthen the soil in place.
2. Materials and Laboratory Tests
2.1. Pozzolan material
Fig. 1. Sampling location in Quang Phu Commune, Krong No District, Dak Nong Province
2.2. Technical requirements of pozzolan
materials and methods of analysis
The raw natural pozzolan from the above rocks
are abundant, but in order to evaluate the quality
and ability to stabilize soil, the natural pozzolan
must be tested the following technical criteria: (1)
Quantity Lime (chemical active) from the saturated
lime solution after 30 days of a gram of pozzolan is
greater than 30 mg CaO/g.pg. According to the
technical requirements of pozzolan used in the
cement industry is specified in TCVN 3735-1982,
[10]. Finishing time of samples made from lime +
pozzolan (ratio 20:80) not later than 96 hours from
manufacture; Ensure water resistance of samples
313
The Central Highlands in general and Dak
Nong province in particular is a large plateau area
with relatively simple geological formations,
mainly sedimentary formations, sediment
eruptions, basaltic eruptions, intrusive rocks and
sedimentary rocks are from the Mesozoic to the
modern. Dak Nong currently has a very large
natural pozzolan mineral deposits. According to
the initial assessment, there are five concentrated
mines in Quang Phu and Buon Choah communes,
Krong No district with a total area of 18 km2.
about 83 million tons. The article selected basalt
rocks from natural pozzolan mine located in Quang
Phu Commune, Krong No District, Dak Nong
province to study, samples taken in different
positions of mine. Verification of the ability to
apply natural pozzolan as a material for stabilizing
soils, in addition to sending samples to the
prestigious units in Vietnam, also sent samples to
the lab for analysis and testing of materials
Plausiger Dorfstrase 12 German MPA Ltd. for
analysis.
made from lime + pozzolan no later than 3 days
and nights since the end of setting; (2) Total
content of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3> 70%; SO3
content in pozzolan should not be greater than 1%;
lost when burning <10%; Na2O content <1.5%;
The performance index of the pozzolan used in
roller compacted concrete is in accordance with
American Standard ASTM C618 [28]. Vietnam
standard TCXDVN 395: 2007 is the standard
"mineral additives for roller compacted", in
addition to standard industry 14TCN 105: 1999 is
the standard "active additives for fine grinding of
calf mortar and mortar "and standard additives for
cement TCVN 6882: 2001 [11], [13], [14]. Some
clay minerals such as kaolinite, montmorillonite, quantities will adversely affect the pozzolan
hydromica, etc., which are present in large application in the stabilized soil process.

Fig. 2. Natural pozzolan samples in the mine

Derived from the above requirements, the
analytical methods used include:
• X-ray fluorescence (XRF) method is used to
determine the silicate composition of the sample.
Calcium absorption is determined by analytical
chemistry method at the Institute of Geology -
Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology.
• The composition and content of minerals are
determined by DTA and XRD at the Institute of
Geology, Vietnam Academy of Science and
Technology. The technical analysis was performed
at the Plausiger Dorfstrase Analysis and Testing
Laboratory 12 The German MPA Co Ltd consists
of: (1) Observation of pozzolan samples by SEM
scanning electron microscopy; (2) Analysis of
chemical elements by EDX scattering spectra. (3)
Crystal composition of the material was
determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) method.
(4) Assay the pozzolan reaction of the crushed
stone samples and mix with the alkaline solution to
form a paste. The Na and Ca solvents were used in
the process.
• Technological parameters such as intensity
index, lime-pudding mortar time, water resistance
of lime mortar + pozzolan, the concentration of
waste is determined by the method Regulations of
TCVN 6882: 2001, TCVN 3735: 1982 at Institute
of Building Materials Technology - Ministry of
Construction.
3. Results
3.2. Mineral composition
Initial evaluation showed that natural pozzolan
is relatively solid, with color change from dark
gray to light gray, dolerite background. The
mineral composition was analyzed by X-ray
diffraction (XRD), Table 1.

Tab. 1. Mineral composition of natural pozzolan analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD)

Depth Augit Forsterit Quartz Hematit Cristobalite Lepidocrocite Albite
Sign
(m) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
M1-2.5 28 22 5 11 2 6 26
QP1 M2-5.0 27 23 6 12 1 5 26
M3-10.0 29 23 4 11 1 5 27
M4-2.0 25 24 5 13 3 3 27
QP2
M5-4.5 27 23 6 12 1 5 26

314
 Mineral composition of Quang Phu, Krong epidote, chlorite, serpentine, iddingsite. All types
basalt has the from 35% to 44%: plagioclase, of minerals are quite good, most of them have the
olivine, sometimes augite; The remain mineral technical requirements of the active material, half
composition is 56% - 61%, including: Plagioclase, active in cement production and in particular can
Pyroxene, common minerals ilmenite ore, be used as a binder to stabilize soils in place.
magnetite, less apatite. Secondary minerals:
Tab. 2. Mineral composition of Quang Phu, Krong basalt
Semi Pyroxene
Depth Pyroxen Olivine Ground Plagioclase Ore
Sign crystals oblique
(m) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
(%) (%)
M1-2.5 40 22-24 16-18 60 29-31 22-24 7-8
QP1 M2-5.0 39 24-26 19.21 61 24-26 21-23 7-9
M3-10.0 44 23-25 18-20 56 27-29 22-24 6-7
M4-2.0 42 20-22 19-21 58 28-30 21-23 8-9
QP2
M5-4.5 40 21-23 19-21 60 29-31 21-24 8-10

3.2. Chemical composition of pozzolan that a large amount of amorphous phase (glass)
Chemical composition of pozzolan in Dak appears in the diagram, which is the decisive phase
Nong province is shown in table 3. The total of the pozzolan activity. For pozzolans of basaltic
content of Si2O + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 of samples M11, tuff origin, the amorphous phase is usually very
M12, M13 = 82.55%, 72.97%, 70.91% greater than large (sometimes up to 60%), crystalline phases
the required value according to ASTM C618-89 is (quartz, plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine etc.)
70%. Organic content has not found in the account for about 20% - 30% and It is very strong
samples. SO3 content is less than 1%. The content deformed tuff basalt has high activity pozzolan.
of glass components is quite high so it can be The principal crystalline component in pozzolan is
assumed that the samples of basalt tested are of the free SiO2 in the form quartz (α - S1O2), with
pozzolan nature. Pozzolan powder for alkali characteristic diffraction pulses at 2 = 26.7°. In
treatment as well as lime, the results of the addition, a small amount of caldecahydrite
experiment showed that the ability to harden is (CaO.Al2O3.10H2O) with characteristic diffraction
very clear. Thus, the results of the initial analysis peaks at 2 = 12.5° was also detected. Some
showed that the quality of natural pozzolan quality images analyze the chemical composition of
to stabilize soil. natural pozzolan, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5
Figure 3 shows the pulsed X-ray diffraction
pattern of the pozzolan sample. The results show
Tab. 3. Quantitative analysis by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy.
TT Oxides M11 M12 M13 TT Oxides M11 M12 M13
1 SiO2 54.86 43.04 41.87 8 Na2O 0.20 3.05 4.26
2 TiO2 1.05 2.46 2.43 9 K2O 3.17 1.89 2.49
3 Al2O3 19.06 14.58 13.93 10 P2O5 0.17 0.64 0.79
4 T-Fe2O3 8.63 15.82 15.11 11 Cr2O3 0.02 - -
5 MnO 0.12 - - 12 NiO 0.01 - -
6 MgO 2.35 8.36 9.08 13 SO3 0.08 0 0
7 CaO 0.96 10.07 9.93 14 LOI 9.08 - -
Note: Sample M11 was analysed at the Institute of Geology - Vietnam Academy of Science and
Technology; Sample M12, M13 were analysed at the company Waste Management and Environment
Germany.

315
 Fig. 3. X-ray Diffraction diagram of the natural pozzolan sample.

Fig. 4. Diagram of metal composition of puzolan sample

a, Optical image b, BSE image c, SEM image

Fig. 5. Mineral composition of natural pozzolan analyzed by different techniques

3.3. Lime absorption capacity sorption experiment showed that the lime sorption
The activity of natural pozzolan and heat- rate of natural pozzolan was not uniform, with only
activated formulations was evaluated through lime an average lime sorption of 38.78 mg CaO/g > 30
absorption experiment. The results of the lime mg CaO/ g (TCVN 3735: 1982).

316
 Tab. 4. Reults of lime absorption experiment
Samples M21 M22 M23
Lime absorption
22.96 38.54 51.64
(mg CaO/g)
4. Analytical ability of soil stabilization using
Dak Nong natural pozzolan
Countries have used the natural pozzolan
combination with some adhesives mixed with the
soil material in place to build roads, embankments.
Some authors have successfully researched the use
of natural pozzolan combined with lime to
consolidate weak clay, clay soils such as Khelifa
and Mohamed (2009); Khelifa et al. (2010);
Khelifa et al. (2011); Asson and Eugene (2014);
Aref et al. (2016). Mfinanga and Kamuhabwa
(2008) conducted experiments to find the ratio of
natural pozzolan, lime and soil; Natural pozzolan,
lime and gypsum with soil for stabilizing soil to
reach the required strength for road construction in
Tanzania. The results of literature show that
suitable mix is soil mixed with 10 to 30% pozzolan
(by volume) and 2% lime. If gypsum is added, the
compressive strength. will be significantly
increased. Gaty et al. (1994) reported on the use of
natural pozzolan for the construction of low-
intensity pavement and foundation. Eriksen et al.
(2011), Olekambainei and Visser (2004) conducted
experiments in the determination of compressive
strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of
elasticity, CBR at 28, 90 and 180 days with the
mixture: natural pozzolan, lime and soil. The
results show that natural pozzolan mixed with soil
can be used to build roads. Timothy et al (2007)
also reported pozzolan use as a roadway. Mateos
(1977) tested the compressive strength at the age of
28 and 90 days of mixed sand and natural pozzolan
mix asphalt. The results showed that the density
and intensity of soil mix increased significantly
reinforced. Natural lime - pozzolan mixtures can
be used to build road surfaces, highway pavements
and parking lots. Vakili et al (2013) used natural
pozzolan mixed with cement to stabilize the clay
soil. The literatures show that natural pozzolan can
be combined with lime and cement to improve the
mechanical properties of the soil to build the
foundation and structure of roads and structures.
317
M24 M25 Average
25.13 55.65 38.78
embankment, if pozzolan quality reaches the
requirements of ASTM C618-89.
As analyzed above, samples of pozzolan
collected at the pozzolan mine in Quang Phu
Commune, Dak Nong province are of satisfactory
quality as defined in TCVN 6882: 2001, TCVN
3735: 1982 and ASTM C618-89. Thus, the initial
analysis showed that the quality of natural
pozzolan was good enough to stabilize soil. The
next steps of this research are: (1) Analysis of
physical and mineralogical norms of local soil
materials  (2) The experiment found the rational
level of distribution: "soil - pozzolan - cement -
RoadCem "based on the criteria of compression
resistance, elastic modulus, elasticity modulus 
(3) Design and construction of the experimental
rural roads (4) Compiling basic standards and
norms for construction of rural roads by local soil
mixed natural pozzolan and adhesives.
5.Conclusions
This article shows the results of experiments in
chemical composition, mineral composition, lime
absorption capacity of pozzolan natural in Dak
Nong Province, and review the results of the
literatures which use pozzolan natural to stabilize
soil. The results showed that the quality of Dak
Nong natural reachs the requirements specified in
TCVN 6882: 2001, TCVN 3735: 1982 and ASTM
C618-89 for supplementary cementitious materials
and soil stabilization.
Further research will focus on investigation
analysis mixing ratio between the pozzolan natural,
local soil and cement to meet requirements
stabilized soil in place to build roads and irrigation
works.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the independent
national project “Study of used natural pozzolan in
construction and maintenance works of rural
transport, irrigation in the province of Dak Nong,
project code: DTDL.CN-55/16. “The Ministry of
Science and Technology of Vietnam” assigned the
project for the Hydraulic Construction Institute to
host and implement.
References
[1] Power Cem Technologies. Manual for
working with Road Cem, 2009.
[2] ASTM C618-89. Standard Specification
for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Canceled
Natural Pozzolan for use as a Mineral
Admixture in Concrete.
[3] Mielenz, R.C.,. Mineral admixtures -
history & background. Concrete
International, V 5, No 8, Aug, pp 34-42,
1983.
[4] A.M. Neville. Properties of concrete, 2001.
[5] ACI CT-13. ACI Concrete Terminology -
An ACI Standard, 2013.
[6] Mehta, P. K., Natural Pozzolans:
Supplementary Cementing Materials for
Concrete. CANMET-SP-86-8E, Canadian
Government Publishing Center, Supply
and Services, Ottawa, Canada, K1A0S9,
1987.
[7] Ruben Snellings, Gilles Mertens and Jan
Elsen. Supplementary Cementitious
Materials. Reviews in Mineralogy &
Geochemistry, Vol. 74 pp, 2012.
[8] ASTM C618-89. Standard Specification
for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Canceled
Natural Pozzolan for use as a Mineral
Admixture in Concrete.
[9] A.H.Vakili, M.R.Selamat, H.Moayedi
(2013). Effects of using Puzzolan and
Porland cement in the treatment of
dispersive clay. The Scientific World
Journal. Volume 2013, Article ID 547615,
Hindawi Publishing Corporation.
[10] Aref al-Swaidania, Ibrahim Hammoudb,
Ayman Meziabb (2016). Effect of adding
natural pozzolana on geotechnical
properties of lime-stabilized clayey soil.
Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering. Vol. 8, Issue 5,
October 2016, Pages 714–725.
[11] Asson Sifueli Malisa, Eugene Park (2014).
Effect of Lime on Physical Properties of
Natural Pozzolana from Same, Tanzania.
International Journal of Engineering
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ReseaRoadCemh & Technology (IJERT),
Vol. 3 Issue 11, November-2014.
[12] Dr. Nathaniel (Nat) Fox (2010). Hydrated
Lime and Lime-Cement Stabilization of
the Soft, Wet, Plastic, Clayey Soils in
Vietnam’s Mekong Delta Area Advantages
and Lessons Learned. Geotechnical
Workshop: Vietnam Geotechnical Day,
18th June, 2010.
[13] Gaty W.Sharpe, Rohert C. Deen Herbert F.
Southgate and Mark Anderson (1994).
ReseaRoadCemh Report UKTRP-R4-23:
Pavement Thickness Designs utilizing
Low – Strength (Pozzolanic) Base and
Subbase Materials. Transportation
Research Road Cemh Program University
of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky.
[14] K. Eriksen, W. Zhang, F. Thogersen and
R. A. Macdonald (2011). Feasibility of
pozzolan – stabilized pavements in
developing countries. Technology Transfer
in Road Transportation in Africa: Arusha
international Conference Centre, Tanzania,
May 23-25, 2011, pp.370-377.
[15] Khelifa Harichane, Mohamed Ghrici
(2009). Effect of combination of lime and
natural pozzolana on the plasticity of soft
clayey soils. 2nd International Conference
on New Developments in Soil Mechanics
and Geotechnical Engineering, 28-30 May
2009, Near East University, Nicosia, North
Cyprus.
[16] Khelifa Harichane, Mohamed Ghrici,
Wiem Khebizi, Hanifi Missoum (2010).
Effect of the Combination of Lime and
Natural Pozzolana on the Durability of
Clayey Soils. Electronic Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol.15,
pp.1194-1210.
[17] Khelifa Harichane, Mohamed Ghrici, Said
Kenai, Khaled Grine (2011). Use of
natural puzzolana and lime for stabilizaion
of Cohesive Soils, Geotech Geol Eng, 29:
759-769.
[18] Mateos, M., (1977). Strength of natural
pozzolan, lime and sand bituminous
mixtures. Transport and Road
 ReseaRoadCemh Laboratory, 3141, p. 36- [20] Olekambainei, A.K.E. and Visser, A.T.
42 (2004). Pilot study results of the strength
[19] Mfinanga, D.L., and Kamuhabwa, M.L., behavior of aggregate – lime – natural
(2008). Use of Natural Pozzolan in Pozzolana mixes. Proceedings of the 23rd
Stabilising Lightweight Volcanic Southern African Transport Conference
Aggregates for Road base Construction. (SATC 2004), 12 – 15 July 2004.
International Journal of Pavement [21] PowerCem Technologies (2010).
Engineering, Volume 9, Issue 3, pp: 189- Technical report design. Page 12.
201.

319
 COMPARISON OF NUMERICAL MODELING AND FIELD MONITORING
OF DEEP FOUNDATION OF HIGH-RISE BUILDING

Bui Truong Son1, Duong Van Binh1, Nguyen Thi Trang2

1
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
2
ADCOM Civil engineering Consultancy & Investment JSC, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: buitruongson@humg.edu.vn

Abtract: In the trend of urban development in Vietnam, the construction of high-rise buildings is
indispensable. Due to the limited construction area, these works often have to develop underground space,
also known as basement (deep foundation). In fact, the construction of deep foundations have occurred
many incidents. There are many causes leading to incidents, including causes of errors in the geotechnical
investigation, resulting in not enough data on the physical-mechanical properties of rock and soil.
Therefore, the simulation of the actual working condition of the ground around the foundation is not
accurate. This paper analyzes the effect of geotechnical survey results on the calculation of the deep
foundation in a particular project and compares it with the actual observation results.

Keywords: deep foundation; Mohr-Coulomb model; inclinometer.

1. Introduction not accurate. Therefore, it is necessary to improve

In the trend of urban development in Vietnam,
the construction of high-rise buildings is
indispensable. Due to the limited construction area,
these works often have to develop underground
space, also known as basement (deep foundation).
There are some typical projects in Ha Noi such as:
Pacific Place, 83 Ly Thuong Kiet, Royal City
Building, Mo Shopping Center, Lotte Center Hanoi
with 5 basements, Tan Hoang Minh D’.Palais de
Louis with 4 basements ... In fact, the construction
of deep foundations have occurred many incidents,
such as: The construction of the basement of
Pacific Building, Nguyen Thi Minh Khai Street in
2007 has collapsed the building of the Southern
Institute of Social Sciences; Construction of the
basement of Saigon Residences building in 2007
has tilt Cosaco apartment building, 5 Nguyen Sieu,
... There are many causes leading to incidents,
including causes of errors in the geotechnical
investigation, resulting in not enough data on the
physical-mechanical properties of rock and soil.
Therefore, the simulation of the actual working
condition of the ground around the foundation is
the quality of geotechnical investigation to reduce
the difference in the results of design calculations
and actual construction.
2. Geotechnical conditions of construction site
2.1. Location
Summit Building is located at 216 Tran Duy
Hung, Trung Hoa, Cau Giay, Hanoi. The project is
is easily connected with the roads such as Nguyen
Chanh, Ring Road 3, Lang Road ... and easily
move to neighboring districts such as Dong Da
District, Thanh Xuan District, Tu Liem District,
Fig 1.
- Opposite the Grand Plaza;
- Located 100 meters from Big C
supermarket;
- Located 120 meters from the D'Capitale
Project;
- Located 200 meters from Thang Long
Boulevard;
- Located 300 meters from Amsterdam High
School;
- Located 3 kilometers from Royal City.

320
 Fig. 1. Location of Summit Building

1.2. Geotechnical conditions of construction

site
Based on the results of geotechnical
investigation, stratigraphy of the construction site.
It is classified into 06 layers and 01 sub-layers,
shown on the engineering geological section of the
project, Fig 2. Describe layers from top to bottom
as follows:
Layer 1: Filled soil: Sand, clay mix
Layer 2: Clay, sandy clay, brownish gray, firm;
Layer 3: Very fine sand, brownish gray,
medium dense;
Layer 4: Sandy clay, brownish gray, content
organic, stiff; Fig. 2. Engineering geological section of
Layer 5: Very fine sand, brownish gray, dense; construction site
Sub-Layer 5a: Sandy clay, brownish gray, stiff;
Layer 6: Gravel, content coarse sand, very
dense.
1.3. Retaining structure
The building uses barretle walls made of
reinforced concrete, 28m long. Retaining wall are
assembled with prefabricated panels, 80 cm thick,
average width of 5 meters, using reinforced ∅25.
The wall is also used to make basement wall of
high-rise building, Fig 3.
2. Evaluating the horizontal displacement of the
retaining wall of Summit building by
Inclinometer.

Fig. 3. Cross section of retaining wall

321
 The building needs to observe the horizontal
displacement of the retaining wall during the
excavation and construction of the underground
part of the building.
Measure the horizontal displacement of the
retaining wall with Inclinometer: 04 points and
observation from top to bottom of observation
tube, the distance between measurement points is
0.5m.
Installation depth: Inclinometer is installed at
29.0 meters depth at 04 positions and 35 meters at
01 position, Fig 4. The actual depth after
installation is as follows, Table 1.
Tab. 1. Installation depth and peak height of the
monitoring tube
IN- IN- IN- IN- IN-
Position
01 02 03 04 05 Fig. 4. Location of horizontal displacement
Installation monitoring points
29 29.5 35 29 29
depth, (meter)

Fig. 5. Movement chart at position IN-01, IN-02

322
 Fig. 6. Movement chart at position IN-03, IN-04
Fig. 7. Movement chart at position IN-05
After 24 observation cycles of nearly 6 months
(from 15/8/2017 to 01/02/2018), the horizontal
displacement of the retaining wall (Fig 5,6,7) is as
follows:
- Position IN-01, the largest displacement in A
direction is 21.40mm at depth 19.0m.
- Position IN-02, the largest displacement in A
direction is 18.20mm at depth 19.0m.
- Position IN-03, the largest displacement in A
direction is 25.17mm at depth 18.0m.
- Position IN-04, the largest displacement in A
direction is 9.30mm at depth 18.0m.
323
- Position IN-05, the largest displacement in A
direction is 15.30mm at depth 19.0m.
The results of the observation reflected the
movement of the retaining walls in both space and
time:
- By space: the most displacement at depths
from 14.0 meter to 24.0 meter (9.93mm). The
smallest displacement is from the top of the wall to
6.0 meter (0mm).
- By the time: The displacement of the wall
increases and stabilizes, the displacement is small.
- The observation results clearly reflect the
changing law of the retaining wall.
- The level of variation is within the allowable
limit (horizontal displacement allowed is H/500,
with H is the depth of the retaining wall (TCVN
9381: 2012, item 5.2.5.4).
- The retaining wall system of deep foundation
is completely stable, ensuring the durability of the
building and safety during construction.
3. Evaluating the horizontal displacement of the
retaining wall of the Summit building using the
Plaxis 2D
3.1. Construction sequence, Fig 8
Construction method: Top - Down method
Construction phases (ground level is 0m):
- Phase 1: Construction of retaining wall.
 - Phase 2: Lowering the groundwater level to -
5.4m, excavate to the elevation -4.4m, then
executing the floor B0 at 0.0m
- Phase 3: Lowering the groundwater level to -
7.9m, excavate to the elevation -6.9m, then
executing the floor B1 at -4.9m.
- Phase 4: Lowering the groundwater level to -
10m, excavate to elevation -9.5m, then executing
floor B2 at -7.5m
- Phase 5: Lowering the groundwater level to -
13m, excavation to elevation -12.7m. Then
executing B3 floor at -10.7m
- Phase 6: Lowering the groundwater level to -
17m, excavate to elevation -16.7m, then executing
B4 at -12.7m and B5 at -14.7m.
Fig. 8. Retaining wall and excavation phases.
3.2. Input parameters of the model, Table 2,3,4
Due to inadequate geotechnical survey data, we
used the Mohr - Coulomb model to calculate the
deep excavation for this case. This model has the
advantage of being simple, just the basic physical-
mechanical characteristics of the land to calculate.
However, this model does not accurately simulate
the work of soil and structures.
In the deep foundation, the soils works in σ3
reduction condition. So, in order to simulate the
ground conditions, the parameters must be
obtained from the trixial compression test (σ3
reduction). However, for this work, only the results
from the uniaxial compression test, so the
parameters used to run the model will reduce the
accuracy of the results.
Based on previous studies, we propose
modifying the elastic modulus values in the model
to verify the results of the calculation with the
actual observation results.
According to Nguyen Truong Huy, (2015). Eref
was obtained according to the results of the 3-axis
compression test (σ3 reduction); or Eref = (3÷5) Eoed.
So, the problem is realized with two modulus
values of the ground plane:
- Case 1: Eref = Eoed
- Case 2: Eref = 5Eoed

Tab. 2. Input parameters of soil layer (Eref = Eoed)

Layer 1 2 3 4 5
MC MC MC MC MC
drained undrained drained undrained drained
Thickness (m) 2.85 5.3 5.4 18.4 10.5
γunsat (kN/m3) 18 18.37 13.25 18.55 13.18
γsat (kN/m3) 18.5 18.63 15.24 18.90 15.29
C (kN/m2) 10 12 0 11 0
φ (o) 30 11.17 19.35 14.28 29.18
ψ (o) 0 0 0 0 0
Eref (kN/m2) 42500 6270 27500 7770 5700
𝜐 0.3 0.31 0.3 0.32 0.3
Rinter 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.9

324
 Tab. 3. Input parameters of soil layer (Eref = 5.Eoed)
Layer 1 2 3 4 5
MC MC MC MC MC
drained undrained drained undrained drained
Thickness (m) 2.85 5.3 5.4 18.4 10.5
γunsat (kN/m3) 18 18.37 13.25 18.55 13.18
γsat (kN/m3) 18.5 18.63 15.24 18.90 15.29
C (kN/m2) 10 12 0 11 0
φ (o) 30 11.17 19.35 14.28 29.18
ψ (o) 0 0 0 0 0
Eref (kN/m2) 42500 31350 27500 38850 5700
𝜐 0.3 0.31 0.3 0.32 0.3
Rinter 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.9

Tab. 4. Input parameters of retaining wall

Element Properties Symbol Index Unit
Retaining wall Normal stiffness 80%EA 2.3 x kN
d =800mm 5
Flexural rigidity 80%EI 1.23x10 kN/m
M500 Poisson index 0.15

Tab. 5. Input parameters of reinforced concrete floor

Element Properties Symbol Index Unit
Reinforced Compression rigidity 80%EA 8.64 x 105 kN
concrete floor
d=0.3m Flexural rigidity 80%EI 6.48 x 103 kN/m
M500

The results obtained in each phase are as

follows, Fig 9-13.

Fig. 9. The displacement of the wall and the Fig. 10. The displacement of the wall and the
soil after phase 2 soil after phase 3

325
 Tab. 7. Comparison of the largest horizontal
displacements from MC model and observation
(Eref = 5Eoed)
Mohr-
Inclinometer Difference
Phase Coulomb
(mm) (%)
(mm)

2 12.80 16.00 -25

Fig. 11. The displacement of the wall and the
soil after phase 4 3 18.15 17.86 1.6
4 23.74 17.80 25
5 29.56 18.50 37.4
6 40.85 25.17 38.38

Fig. 12. The displacement of the wall and the

soil after phase 5

Fig. 13. The displacement of the wall and the

soil after phase 6 Fig. 14. Horizontal displacements in Phase 2
(Case 1)
Tab. 6. Comparison of the largest horizontal
displacements from MC model and observation
(Eref = Eoed)
Mohr-
Inclinometer Difference
Phase Coulomb
(mm) (%)
(mm)

2 42.48 16.00 62.33

3 64.24 17.86 74.51

Soil body
4 17.80
collapses
Soil body
5 18.50
collapses
Soil body
6 25.17 Fig. 15. Horizontal displacements in Phase 2
collapses
(Case 2)

326
 Fig. 16. Horizontal displacements in Phase 3
(Case 1)
Fig. 17. Horizontal displacements in Phase 3
(Case 2)
Fig. 18. Horizontal displacements in Phase 4
(Case 2)
327
Fig. 19. Horizontal displacements in Phase 5
(Case 2)
Fig. 20. Horizontal displacements in Phase 6
(Case 2)
Analytical results (Table 6,7; Fig 14-20) show
that when changing the Eref value will change the
behavior of the soils in the foundation.
The Eref = Eoed value incorrectly simulates the
displacement of the soil in the foundation pit,
leading to the ground being damaged in Phase 4.
This is not consistent with the observation results,
foundation and retaining walls are stable.
The shape of the deformation graph is also
significantly different from the deformation graph
of the Inclinometer. When using the Eref = 5.Eoed,
the displacement of the soil in the foundation is
more consistent with the actual observation.
However, the difference in deformation increased
with the depth of the foundation, the shape of the
graph is not really consistent with the results of the
observation.
.
 The analysis has demonstrated the influence of
the results of the survey to the results of design
calculations
4. Conclusion
The analysis results show that the horizontal
displacement in the Mohr-Coulomb model is much
larger than the Inclinometer observation (average
20 ÷ 40%) and the difference increases with depth.
There are differences in horizontal displacement
graphs in the two methods. This difference is due
to:
- The retaining wall of Plaxis was retained,
while the Inclinometer was installed deeper than
the wall and fixed, so that the foot of the retaining
wall was not displaced as the Mohr-Coulomb
model.
- The parameters of the MC model are taken
from simple laboratory experiments that do not
accurately reflect the actual behavior of the
ground.
- MC model is the model of elastic behavior,
not showing the process of unloading - reloading
of soil during construction.
- The most important parameter for the deep
foundation calculation is the Eref obtained from a
uniaxial compression test with a constant value of
effective stress during the loading process.
Nomenclature
The following symbols are used in this paper
c = cohesion, kN/m2
Eref = Young’s modulus, kN/m2
328
MC = Mohr-Coulomb
sat = saturated unit weight of material, kN/m3
unsat = unsaturated unit weight of material, kN/m3
 = friction angle, o
 = angle of dilation, o
 = Poison’s ratio
References
[1] Displacement observation report of the
retaining wall of Summit building, 216
Tran Duy Hung Street, Cau Giay District,
Hanoi (2017).
[2] Tran Ngoc Dong (2014). Research on
geodetic observation, analysis of
foundation deformation and basement of
high-rise buildings in the construction
phase, PhD thesis. Hanoi.
[3] Nguyen Minh Tam (2014). Studying the
method of calculating suitable soil
pressure for retaining wall of foundation.
Journal of Construction Science. Hanoi.
[4] Duong Van Binh (2014). Study to select
soil model and material parameters to
design solutions for stabilization of deep
foundation with Plaxis software".
Fundamental research project, Hanoi
University of Mining and Geology. Hanoi.
[5] Nguyen Truong Huy (2015). Study of
geotechnical conditions for design and
construction of deep foundations, PhD
thesis. Hanoi.
 SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR SETTING UP A MONITORING SYSTEM FOR GEO-
ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER PREVENTION AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE RED RIVER DYNAMIC ZONE IN HANOI

Nguyen Cong Kien

Institute for Building Science and Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author ’Email: nguyencongkien231@gmail.com

Abstract. Red River dynamic zone is limited by two dykes and the corresponding safety corridor,
where economic is concentrated to develop, but there are many potential disaster and geological hazards
such as river bank erosion, deformation of dike foundation, dyke breaks, subsidence dyke, etc.,
(especially during flood time). The construction of the geotechnical environment monitoring system is
based on the analysis of the characteristics of interactions between elements of the geological
environment and elements of the Dynamic zone technical system, elements of the surrounding
environment (which is mainly the hydrosphere - Red River flow) and corresponding hazards, which is the
basis for assessing and forecasting the status of geo-technical Dynamic zone for the design of disaster
prevention solutions and planning, sustainable development of the Red River Dynamic zone. This article
establishes the scientific basis for the construction of a geotechnical environment monitoring system,
including parameters to be monitored, monitoring network, monitoring period, forecasting models for the
geo-technical system of the Dynamic zone, using observation data and applying specifically to the Red
River Dynamic zone in Hanoi.

Keywords: red river; dynamic zone; geotechnical environment; monitoring system.

1. Introduction technical hazards for the purpose of exploitation

The area between the two dykes along the Red
River in Hanoi (fig 1) is called the Red River
dynamic zone. The area of Hanoi is rich in
economic potential but there are many geohazards
that have not been fully evaluated and cannot be
tamed. Recently, due to land shortage and land
prices soaring, this area is beginning to be
interested. There are a number of ideas to exploit
such as the idea of the Vietnam Water Resources
Association and the idea of Korean architects
"River City" with the purpose of planning to
exploit thoroughly the fund land. These ideas have
a weakness in the absence of an assessment of the
geo-technical basis related to the exploitation and
use of the territory.
The geotechnical environment monitoring
system allows the collection of input data for the
assessment of geotechnical environment conditions
and the management and mitigation of geo-
and use rational and sustainable territory. This
article presents the scientific basis for establishing
a geotechnical environment monitoring system in
the Red River Dynamic zone delta area of Hanoi
for the purpose of sustainable exploitation of the
Red River Dynamic zone.
2. Characteristics of geotechnical environment
conditions in the Red River dynamic zone in
Hanoi
2.1. The concept of geotechnical environment
system and geotechnical environment monitoring
system for the Red River dynamic zone in Hanoi
From the point of view of the system, the Red
River Dynamic zone in Hanoi can be considered as
a geotechnical environment system with 3 main
components: Geological Environment, Engineering
Works and Environment Surrounding (mainly
hydrosphere, river).

329
 Because of the ambient characteristics of this
system is the river water environment, so to
distinguish them, this Environmental
Geosynthetical System is called the riverine
geotechnical system. A geotechnical environment
system with stable parameters of its main
components is called an equilibrium geotechnical
environment and is the result of balanced
interactions between the constituent elements and
of the constituents in the components themselves.
The set of parameters specific to the
geoengineering system is called the geotechnical
environment conditions of the system and also
represents a steady state of system. When one or
more parameters of the geotechnical environment
conditions of a system are altered due to
endogenous or exogenous effects, the System will
move from one stable state to another stable or
destructive, geo-technical hazards. The problem is
that it is necessary to adjust the impact of how to
Fig. 1. Map of the Red River dynamic zone
2.2. Characteristics of geotechnical
environment conditions of the Hanoi riverside
zone.
- Factors (parameters) of the geotechnical
environment conditions of the Hanoi riverside
zone:
The geotechnical environment conditions of the
Red River dynamic zone in Hanoi are complex,
varied, always changing and include:
330
move from stable to balanced state without any
geo-technical hazards.
Geotechnical environment monitoring is the
measurement and monitoring of time parameters
specific to geotechnical environment conditions
and geotechnical environment Monitoring System
is a logical combination of monitoring methods
Differentiated, spatially distributed (area and
depth) in the study area for the purpose of
collecting and monitoring the variability of various
geotechnical environment parameters to assess the
emergence and Development of geotechnical
environment hazards. In the riverside of Hanoi,
these observations will create reliable data bases
that will allow estimation of the stability of the
land bank that can be utilized.
Engineering geological condition of the
geological environment (topography,
geomorphology, tectonics and neo-tectonic,
stratigraphic and mechanical properties of rocks
forming stratigraphic zones of the dynamic zone);
- Conditions for the impact of technical systems
(cultivation, construction, exploitation of
resources, waterway transport, ministries, river
crossings, regulating river, etc.);
 - The impact conditions of the surrounding
environment on the dynamic zone, where the
hydrodynamic conditions of the river are
prominent.
The interaction between these conditions has
led to the development and development of
geohazards in the Red River Dynamic zone of
Hanoi, including: Flooding, Bucking shoreline,
Bucking dike, Water pollution in river water.
- Characteristics of geotechnical environment
conditions of the Hanoi riverside zone
Topography, geomorphology: Speciable in
the transformable feature, in the area can be
separated to a number of the relief, geomorphology
specific after: mud flat, river flood plain, lowland
relief, marsh. In the study area, some region with
the persistence strength are following: Son Tay -
Vinh Thinh, Van Coc - Chu Phan, Dan Phuong
with many lowland, old river impression and fault
ledge, marsh, new river flat near dam. Lien Mac,
Bat Trang, Dong My, An Canh, Quang Lang with
steep cliffs, mainstream close to the foot of the
dyke
Tectonics and neo-tectonic: Analyze the
impact of tectonic activity, neo-tectonic activity on
the riverbank, the river bed and the process of
forming and changing into the Red River basin in
the Hanoi area. In modern times, tectonic
movement is highly discriminating not only in the
horizontal direction but also in the vertical
direction, creating a complex network of faults
characterized by three major systems: North West -
South East, North East - South West and sub-
meridian, as well as a series of lower elevation
structures were also formed and developed and
directly affected the flow dynamics and change the
conductor. Neo-tectonic is the decisive factor in
the direction of development of the river in general
and the Red River Dynamic zone in particular
Stratigraphy and physicochemical
properties: Stratigraphy and physico-mechanical
properties are two quantitative elements of the
geological environment that clearly demonstrate
the variability of this environment. Based on the
origin and composition of lithologies, the
geological environment in the Red River Dynamic
zone of Hanoi has been divided into seven types of
331
petrography for hard rocks, five origin geological
complexes and 25 types of petrography with soft
soil of the fourth generation sediments.
For hard rock, the limestone of the Dong Giao
is considered the most vulnerable stone. The
sudden drop in the area of Son Tay, Dan Phuong,
Quoc Oai in recent times is the manifestation of
this phenomenon. However, hard rock is not
considered to be relevant to the development of
geohazard hazards because they are often deep and
have a negligible effect on river activity and
geotechnical environment conditions of the Hanoi
area in general.
Soft soils of the fourth eneration sediments play
an extremely important role in the geotechnical
environment conditions of the Hanoi riverside. The
variability of the soils in the fourth sediment is not
the same, and therefore their role in altering the
geotechnical environment conditions of the
dynamic zone varies. In terms of variability, it is
possible to rank in the following order in
decreasing order of changeability (also the risk of
causing hazards to the geological environment
under the influence of other components of the
system geotechnical environment): land containing
plant residues of special soil - clay sand - sandy
clay and finally clay. Predictions of subsidence of
the dyke have shown that the final settlement value
of the dyke is quite large at the sites where the
vegetation cover of Hai Hung is located. The
shoreline sections are made of clay, sandy clay that
are usually more stable. The observations of the
shoreline at the Duong-Hong junction made from
clay in Vinh Phuc showed that they are almost
stable through periods of fluctuations in flow.
It can be concluded that the stratigraphy of the
fourth-generation sediments and their
accompanying physical properties are the main
factors directly affecting the risk of geosynthetical
occurrence and development geotechnical
environment hazards of the study area. The
weakest soil, the most susceptible to change, the
most sensitive is the soil contains special plant
residues, among them worth noting is the soil layer
of the Hai Hung. The distribution of these areas
allows forecasting the risk of arising and
developing geotechnical environment hazards in
the area.
Hydrologic geology: The most important and
most influential geotechnical environment
conditions are the aquifer in Thai Binh Holocene
(qh) because of the direct effects of hydrological
conditions - climate and technical impacts. The
Holocene floor is closely related to the aquifers
beneath it and to the Red River. In addition, the
movement of the qh layer is influenced by the
dynamics of river water. Therefore, the issue of
monitoring groundwater synthesis is very
necessary in investigating, evaluating and
forecasting factors that may or may have caused
geohazards.
Dike line: Stabilization through the dyke is the
most important issue. The basic parameters used to
assess the steep embankment imbalance are the
values of the steeply-tuned gradients and their
correlation with the critical pressure gradients of
the downstream areas. Factors affecting these two
values include: River level; The structure of the
base layer and its physicochemical properties
(particle size, breaking strength and permeability);
Hydraulic relationship between river and
groundwater of the area being considered at the
time of interest; The thickness and distribution of
the covering layer are separated by water on both
the upper and lower sides of the dyke.
When these factors are investigated and
established on the upstream and downstream of the
dyke, it is possible to determine the river water
level at the warning level that overcomes it, the
risk of instability of the dykes Damage can occur.
River level values for this warning can be defined
and specified for each section along the dyke and
the final task is to measure and monitor river water
levels during floods. Stabilization and sliding of
the dyke roof can also occur locally in some areas
but do not impact on the occurrence of potential
hazards and development of geotechnical
environment hazards in the study area.
Territorial Exploitation Activities: Two
territorial exploitation activities significantly affect
the geotechnical environment conditions of the Ha
Noi River Zone, which are exploited for
construction materials, construction of houses and
332
works on the river. It is necessary to make statistics
on the locations of harvesting and the
characteristics of the harvesting process which can
also be detected through the monitoring of the
characteristics of the material transport of the
stream such as the turbidity of the water, the
amount of sediment, v.v. Annual statistics on the
fluctuations in home construction activity are
needed.
Construction and operation of river channel
training work: Constructing and putting into
operation river channel training work for the
purpose of either protecting the shoreline that may
be damaged by the flow of water or by adjusting
the direction of the mainstream flow as desired for
navigation. Thus, monitoring of time series
measurements aims to check the predictions of the
design of river channel training work and also to
consider their long-term behavior during
exploitation in the river section within the range
the impact of these adjustment works.
Waterway traffic activities: The impact of
waterway traffic is attributed to the monitoring of
the flow regime over time and in the busiest stages
of their operation, incorporating the characteristics
of the regime Natural flow of time.
River operating mode: River operating mode
is evaluated through parameters: water level
fluctuation, flow rate, flow velocity and sediment
flow rate.
The law of the river's operating regime: The
Red River in Hanoi can be considered as a river
with the mode of operation of a river in the delta:
the meandering river diverges continuous and the
accretion effect horizontal erosion is fundamental,
formed and governed by tectonic features, neo-
tectonic regions with local lifting blocks. The
impact of human beings today, although
increasingly large, cannot change their
morphology, but can only change the intensity of
their stream activities to bring about the intended
benefits of human. The Red River is dominated by
other rivers in the network, so its hydrological
regime differs in different sections. Specifically
distinguish three river sections with different
hydrological parameters as follows: (Fig 2, Fig 3,
Fig 4).
 Fig. 2. Dike foundations subsidence

Fig. 3. The section of Trung Ha - Co Do - Tan Hong - Chau Son

Fig. 4. The section of Tan Hong - Son Tay - Cam Dinh - Nhat Tan (Tu Lien)

333
3. Geotechnical environment monitoring system
in the Red River dynamic zone of Hanoi
3.1. The objectives and requirements of the
geotechnical environment monitoring system
The objective is to set up geotechnical
environment monitoring system: Collectively,
systematically and synchronously the parameters
specific to the geotechnical environment
conditions and their variability over time under the
influence of external and internal agents serving
effective and sustainable use of the dynamic zone.
The requirements set for a geotechnical
environment monitoring system:
- The monitoring system must include all
measurements of the most important parameters of
the geotechnical environment conditions of the
area, on all three components of the geotechnical
environment system of the dynamic zone such as
Environment geological, technical systems,
hydrodynamics.
- The monitoring system must be built so as to
be able to observe the entire area, allowing for the
tracking and detection of spatially distinct
characteristics of the whole system.
- The monitoring system should be able to
perform measurements at predetermined intervals,
obtain reliable data, and be accurate at long
intervals and at the same time be able to measure
many parameters (copper sets) at different
measurement points in the dynamic zone.
- Measurement parameters must be adequate,
compatible and suitable for computational
modeling and with software for forecasting
calculations.
- The setup monitoring system must be
inherited, must combine the exploitation of
existing individual measurements and reasonable
addition to become a uniform system, effective
operation.
- The monitoring devices in the monitoring
system must be up-to-date, automated at the
highest level possible to increase accuracy and
save time.
- The monitoring system must be operated and
managed in a concentrated manner.
3.2. The basic components of geotechnical
environment monitoring systems
Basic components of the geotechnical
environment monitoring system in the study area
include:
334
- A set of geodetic instruments and instruments
capable of measuring the geotechnical
environment parameters necessary for the
assessment of geotechnical environment conditions
of the area.
+ Equipment for monitoring some parameters
of the geological environment;
+ Equipment for monitoring the parameters of
the technical system;
+ Equipment for monitoring parameters of the
hydrosphere;
These devices are installed or measured at
stationary stations, mobile stations and seasonal
measurement stations.
- A set of software that controls the measuring,
storing, analyzing, documenting of measurements
and processing of measured data according to
available directions. The software is installed on a
computer system at the central station selected
from the fixed station.
The geotechnical environment monitoring
system in the area along the Red River dynamic
zone in Hanoi is summarized in Table 1.
3.3 Measurement stations of the geotechnical
environment monitoring system
Based on the purpose of observation on the
section, can be divided into fixed monitoring
stations, mobile observation stations and seasonal
monitoring stations.
Fixed monitoring stations: Fixed monitoring
stations are fixed and operate permanently at the
location, can observe the geotechnical environment
parameters typical of a river section with a certain
hydrological mode. Fixed stations are equipped
with modern and automatic monitoring equipment.
These devices are used to manage, store and
process information on geo-technical conditions at
the site by the station and other related stations.
The geotechnical environment parameters
monitored at fixed stations include: River water
level; Velocity and velocity distribution on cross
section; Direction of flow and line vector on cross
section; Discharge of trunk; The amount of
suspended sediment and bottom sediment; Some
parameters evaluate water quality; The
morphology and transformation of the river
channel;
Along with the interpretation of satellite
imagery obtained in this section, it is possible to
fully evaluate the geotechnical environment
conditions of the river section in the management
station area. The above parameters will be
monitored periodically according to the effective
regulations of the management agency and
according to the approved schedule.
There are four proposed stationary stations
within the study area for the purpose of monitoring
data on three typical river sections as follows:
- Co Do Station (Km3 + 000) will be
established about 3 km downstream from Trung
Ha station and can be combined with existing
facilities of Trung Ha Hydrological Station. Flood
prevention and control under the Hanoi
Department of Agriculture and Rural
Development. This station is monitoring and
managing the geo-technical parameters of the
geotechnical environment of the Hanoi dynamic
zone.
- Son Tay Station (Km31 + 600 Huu Hong,
Km16 Ta Hong) was built on the basis of the Son
Tay Hydrological Station, which has been
operating since 1902. This station observes and
manages the geotechnical environment parameters
of the Tan Hong River - Son Tay - Cam Dinh -
Nhat Tan where the hydrological regime is
governed by the activities of the Lo River.
- Ha Noi station (Km67 + 980, Huu Hong,
Km66 + 400 Ta Hong) was built on the basis of the
Hanoi Hydrological Station, which has been
operating since 1902. This station observes and
manages the geotechnical environment parameters
of the river section after the distribution of the
Duong River.
- An Canh Station (Km96 + 500 Roong Hong)
will be established on the existing basis of the
Hydrological Station managed by the Department
of Dyke Management and Flood and Storm
Control under the Hanoi Department of
Agriculture and Rural Development. This station
observes and manages the geotechnical
environment parameters of the river section after
the Duong River.
Mobile monitoring stations
Mobile observation stations perform monitoring
only during the flood season and at river sections
instead of in the direction of curvature of the flow.
In this case, the flow regime parameters change
much during the flood season. The station is also
arranged for long-term operation. The mobile
335
station is divided into a transformer station and a
monitoring station.
The geotechnical environment parameters
observed at mobile stations include: For mobile
station monitoring flow parameters: River water
level; Velocity and velocity distribution on cross
section; Direction of flow and line vector on cross
section; For mobile station monitoring river bed
parameters; The morphology and transformation of
the river channel
Location of mobile observation stations:
- For mobile station monitoring river bed
parameters: Using existing transformer stations,
managed by the Department of Dyke Management
and Flood Control under the Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development. In the Red
River section of Hanoi, about 60 cross sections are
fixed by a durable construction system on the two
Red River dyke and have been linked to the
National Coordinates and Elevation to ensure the
stability. most system-wide.
- For mobile station monitoring flow
parameters: Mobile observation stations are
arranged according to the pre-designated river
section. Each mobile observation station measures
from 3 to 4 cross sections in the area monitored by
the monitoring station. Each section is about 300m
apart, 500m to 1000m, depending on the task.
These stations are arranged in the same way as the
monitoring stations in the river section.
The mobile station monitoring flow is arranged
in 4 areas: Chu Minh - Van Tap area; Ba Giang
area; Area from Long Bien Bridge to Thanh Tri
Bridge; Duyen Ha area.
Observation mode at mobile observation
stations:
- For mobile station monitoring river bed
parameters: 1 time/ year, usually in the dry season
- For mobile station monitoring flow
parameters: 2-3 times during flood season
Seasonal monitoring stations: Seasonal
monitoring is only provided for dealing with
sudden occurrences occurring in the dynamic zone
such as the area of unstable detection of dike
foundation and the area of destabilization of the
shoreline. The location, time and observations are
monitored by the monitoring authorities. These
data supplement and enrich the database in the
study area.
 Tab. 1. The geotechnical environment monitoring system
Monitoring Parameters to Cycle
Observation method Note
features be monitored monitoring
Capture and interpret aerial
photographs, satellite images These parameters are
incorporating GIS technology used to evaluate and
Topography, overlapping images at determine the stability of
geomorphology different shooting times. GPS the dyke (shoreline) and
technology is also used to shoreline (landslide)
Geological determine the coordinates and and, most importantly,
1 time / year
environment altitudes of objects. to monitor the instability
Drilling survey and testing of the land bank within
Stratigraphy,
soil samples. Data collection the dynamic zone
mechanical
through the works in the study activities of internal and
properties
area external agents and
Tectonics, Document collection and human beings.
neo-tectonic analysis
Through satellite
Capture and decode satellite
Intensity of imagery and remote
imagery incorporating GIS
Technical land sensing, it is possible to
technology overlapping 1 time / year
systems exploitation determine the types of
images at different shooting
and use land use (construction,
times
cultivation) used.
2 times a day (7h and 19h), during the
Special measuring equipment,
River water flood season 4-8-12-24 times / day or
eg Valdai machine, SGEAS
level faster depending on the requirements of
machine, ULM20 machine
special data
Direction of
flow and line Dedicated equipment such as 1 time / 2-3 weeks
vector on APCP and ADCP and follow the flood up, down.
cross section
Velocity and
velocity
Dedicated equipment such as 1 time/ 2-3 weeks
distribution
APCP and ADCP and follow the flood up, down.
on cross
section
Discharge of Dedicated equipment such as 1 time/ 2-3 weeks
trunk APCP and ADCP and follow the flood up, down.
Featured The amount
hydrosphere of suspended The LISST-25X suspended
1 time/ 2-3 weeks
sediment sediment meter from Sequoia
and follow the flood up, down.
and bottom (USA)
sediment
Some
Water sampling at locations in
parameters
the study area brings in 1 time / year
evaluate
laboratory experiments
water quality

The
morphology
and Reusable GPS receiver with
2 time / year
transformatio GPS LMS 525CDF
n of the river
channel

336
4. Conclusions
1. It is necessary to establish a geo-
environmental monitoring system to collect data on
geotechnical environment conditions for efficient
and sustainable exploitation of the Red River
dynamic zone.
2. The geotechnical environment parameters of
the environment to be monitored include:
a) Involve the geological environment with the
method of capturing and analyzing aerial
photographs, satellite images incorporating GIS
technology overlapping images at different
shooting times and GPS technology.
b) The parameters belong to the technical
system with observation method: capture and
interpretation of satellite images combining GIS
technology overlapping images at different
shooting times.
c) Hydrological parameters with monitoring
method: measurement, monitoring with
appropriate equipment and measurement.
3. Based on the purpose of monitoring on the
section, can be divided into fixed monitoring
stations, mobile monitoring stations and seasonal
monitoring stations. There are 4 fixed stations, 4
mobile stations and 60 measuring stations.
4. The system must be managed and worked in
a unified manner by equipping the wireless control
equipment and software from the Central Station -
Long Bien Station.
References
[1] Tuong Doan The, 1999. Prediction of soil
surface subsidence due to lowering of ground
water level. Final Report RD 9505, Hanoi
1999.
[2] Phuong Nguyen Huy. Collected verification
of existing documents, additional study on
weak land mapping in Hanoi. Summary report
TC-DT/06-02-03, Hanoi 2004.
337
[3] Trinh Phan Trong, Vinh Hoang Quang.
Young tectonic activity of Red River fault and
neighboring. Journal of Earth Sciences, 22
(4), 325-337, 2000.
[4] Lieu Tran Manh, Hung Le Chi. Evaluation of
ground subsidence due to underground water
exploitation in south-west of Hanoi according
to observation documents at measurement
stations, TCS, ISSN-0868-279X, No 2-2005,
8-14.
[5] Tu Tran Van. To study the scientific basis of
the formation and development of the types of
dyke from Huu Hong K0-K48, Ha Tay
province and propose effective preventive
measures. Provincial level in 2001-2003, Ha
Tay 2003.
[6] Uyen Vu Do 1990. Study on dike protection
and the process of riverbed change and river
control measures in Hoa Binh hydropower
project. Research Institute for Water
Resources Research, Hanoi 1990.
[7] Tuong Doan The, Lieu Tran Manh. Study on
the assessment of geotechnical environment
conditions and propose appropriate directions
for land use planning for the Red River area in
Hanoi. Department of Science and
Technology, 2006, Hanoi.
[8] Tuong Doan The, Kien Nguyen Cong. To
study the scientific basis and establish a
geotechnical environment monitoring system
for the area along the Red River in Hanoi to
serve the planning of sustainable development
of new riverside urban areas, 2009, Hanoi.
[9] Tu Tran Van. Evaluation of surface and
structure deformation due to natural and
economic activities in Ha Dong and
neighboring areas, Department of Science and
Technology, Hanoi 2009.
 USING COAL BOTTOM ASH OF AN KHANH THERMAL POWER
PLANT AS AGGREGATE REPLACEMENT OF CONCRETE

Nguyen Thi Nu, Bui Truong Son

Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: nguyenthinu@humg.edu.vn

Abtract: This paper represents the characteristic of concrete incorporated with bottom ash of An
Khanh thermal power plant as replacement for all fine aggregate and partial coarse aggregate in
concrete for rural roads. The research is on the mechanical properties such as compressive strength,
tensile strength and workability of concrete of M30. Workability of concrete is from 3 to 5 cm, the
compressive strength of 28 days is over 30 MPa; the abrasion of concrete is smaller than 6 g/cm2. This
mixture concrete can be used for rural roads. This is the basis for the reuse of bottom ash of thermal
power plants as an aggregate in concrete for sustainable development and environmental protection.

Keywords: bottom ash; concrete; compression strength; workability; abrasion; tensile strength.

1. Introduction showed that the optimum percentage of CBA as a

In Vietnam, there are 19 thermal power plants
with a total capacity of 14,480 MW for electricity
generation, discharging ash content of 15 million
tons per year. It may be expected to 2025, there
are 47 thermal power plants with a total capacity
of 26000 MW, the total amount of ash exceeded
30 million tons per year [1]. Coal ash extracted
from the boiler flue gases is called fly ash and the
coarse part collected at the bottom of the furnace
is coal bottom ash. Fly ash can be used as cement
supplementary material in concrete. Bottom ash
is similar to sand and gravel [2, 3, 4].
Bottom ash was studied in using as aggregate
by some authors in the world. Vikas R Nadig at
al. (2015) [3] reviewed the characteristics of
concrete incorporated with bottom ash as partial
replacement for fine aggregates, with a main
focus on the mechanical properties such as
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength,
flexural strength. Ahmad Maliki et al. (2017) [2]
researched on the compressive and tensile
strength for concrete containing coal bottom ash
(CBA) of Tanjung Bin power plant. CBA were
used to practically replace fine aggregates in
varying percentages of %, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%,
60%, 70%, 80%, 90% and 100 %. The results
fine aggregate replacement was range of 40% -
70%. Saurabh Kajal et al (2017) [4] concluded
that at fixed water cement ratio, workability
decreased with the use of coal bottom ash as a
replacement 10, 15, 20 and 25% of fine aggregate
in concrete. Compressive strength of bottom ash
concrete at the curing age of 28 days increased
compared to control concrete.
All the study concluded that CBA can used in
concrete and it shown a great contribution to use
the waste minimization as well as resources
conservation.
Thus, this paper presents utilization of coal
bottom ash in concrete.
2. Materials and method
In this study, the materials included bottom
ash, cement of PCB 40, water, coarse aggregate
with size of (5-20mm). The bottom ash was
collected at the An Khanh thermal power plant,
Thai Nguyen province. The coal bottom ash will
be used as replacement of fine aggregate and a
partial replacement of coarse aggregate to
produce concrete.

338
 2.1. Coal bottom ash size (figure 2) and specific gravity is 2.66. Unit
The chemical composition of bottom ash of weight of coarse aggregate is 1300 kg/m3 and
An Khanh thermal power plant (table 1) is porosity of coarse aggregate is 51.1%.
mainly composed of silicon dioxide (60.12%),
iron oxide (24.93%), aluminum oxide (2.3%),
magnesium oxide (3.74%) with small calcium
oxide (1.3%), sulphate (0.77%), sodium oxide
(0.3%) and potassium oxide (0.34%). Loss on
ignition of coal bottom ash was 3.99% and less
than 6% specified of silicon dioxide, iron oxide
and aluminum oxide was 87%. An Khanh bottom
ash contains low – calcium oxide content (1.3%)
and conforms to ASTM C618 type F ash. The
properties of bottom ash is shown in table 2. Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curve of coal
bottom ash
Tab. 1. Chemical composition of An Khanh
bottom ash Tab. 3a. The chemical composition of cement
Chemical Chemical composition Content,%
Content, %
composition
Fe2O3 3,3
SiO2 60.12 Al2O3 5,0
Fe2O3 24.93 SO3 1,15
Al2O3 2.3 CaO 62,5
SO3 0.77 MgO 0,13
CaO 1.3 K2O 0.75
MgO 3.71 Na2O 0.26
K2O 0.34 CaO free 0,17
Na2O 0.3
Loss of ignition 3.99 Tab. 3b. The properties of cement

Tab. 2. The properties of bottom ash Physical Properties Value

Specific gravity 3.1
Physical Properties Value Unit weight, kg/m3 1300
Secific gravity 2.48 Compress strength, MPa 40
Unit weight, kg/m3 2340
Fineness Modulus 2.62
Content of dust, mud
10.4
in aggregate, %
Water content 2.13

Particle sizes of coal bottom ash was

determined by TCVN5772:2006-2 and the
particle size distribution curves are illustrated in
Figure 1.
2.2. Cement, coarse aggregate and water.
The cement in this study is PCB 40 from
VICEM company. Its properties are shown in
Fig. 2. Particle size distribution curve of coarse
Table 3a, 3b. Specific gravity of cement was 3.1.
aggregate
Coarse aggregate was used with 20mm nominal

339
 2.3. Concrete mix proportion
The cement content, aggregate content and
water content for concrete were determined by
Bolomey – Scramtaev method and testing in the
laboratory. The mix proportion of ingredients
per cum of M30 grade concrete shown in table 4.

Tab. 4. Mix proportions of ingredients per cum

(kg/m3) of M30 grade concrete.

Cement, Fine Coarse Coarse Water

kg coal coal aggregate, (little) Fig. 3a. The compression test
bottom bottom kg(>5mm)
ash, kg ash, kg
(<5mm) (>5mm)
524 535 240 820 270

2.4. Specimens and test

Firstly, the concrete mixes was done by hand
mixing due to TCVN 3105-1993. The test of
workability was determined according to an
Vietnamese standard TCVN 3016:1993.
Concrete cubes of 150x150x150 mm (27
samples) were used for compressive strength test.
Concrete cubes of 150x150x600mm (3 samples)
were used for tensile strength test. Concrete
cubes of 150x150x150 mm (3 samples) were Fig. 3b. The tensile strength test.
used for abrasion test.
The concrete cubes were cast and after that, 3. Results and discussion
the test specimens were finished with a steel The laboratory tests include workability,
trowel. All the test specimens were stored at compressive, the abrasion, tensile strength of
temperature of about 2720C in the casting room. concrete. Test results shown in table 4.
They were demolded after 24 hours, and were put
Tab. 4. Properties of concrete composed of An
in to a water – curing tank. Khanh bottom ash
Testing of compressive strength based on
TCVN 3118:1993. Three cubes were test for each No Properties Value
age at 3, 7, 14, 28 days. Testing of tensile 1 Workability (cm) 3,5
strength of 28 ages based on TCVN 3119:1993. 2 Compressive strength of 32.16
Testing of abrasion of concrete based on TCVN concrete at 28 days, MPa
3114:1993 . 3 The abrasion of concrete, 0,30
All testing were conducted in The labrotary g/cm3
LAS -XD 928, Engineering Geology Department, 4 Tensile strength of 4,233
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology. concrete, MPa
Testing of compressive strength showns in figure
3a. Testing of tensile strength showns in figure Compared with the requirements of concrete
3b. used for rural roads with a compressive strength
of 30MPa, workability of 3-5 cm, abrasion <
0.6g/cm3 and tensile strength of concrete >
4MPa; the concrete composed of An Khanh

340
bottom ash can be used for constructing rural
roads.
Figure 4 summaried the values of
compressive strengths for concrete at 3 ,7, 14 and
28 days of curing. From the figure 3, it can be
observed that the value of compressive strengths
develops rapidly at 3 to 7 days, and develops
slow from 14 day to 28 days. The resason for
increasing compressive strength is due to the
cement hydration in the samples.
Fig. 4. The compression strength of mixing
concrete
From the figure 4, the compressive strengths
of concrete at 3, 7, 14 days equals 60%, 80% and
341
90% compressive strengths of concrete at 28 days
respectively.
4. Conclusion
From this study, it can be shown that bottom
ash from An Khanh thermal power plant belong
to type F ash. It includes fine bottom ash and
coarse bottom ash. It can be used for concrete
mix proportion as replacement for all fine
aggregate and partial coarse aggregate in
concrete. This mixture concrete can be used for
rural roads.
References
[1] Decision No. 428/QĐ-TTg revisions national
power development plan 2011 2020 2030
2016
[2] F Ahmad Maliki et al (2017), Compressive
and tensile strength for concrete containing
coal bottom ash, IOP Conference Series:
Materials Science and Engineering.
[3] Vikas R Nadig et al (2015), Bottom Ash as
Partial Sand Replacement in Concrete- A
Review, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and
Civil Engineering, Volume 12, Issue 2 Ver.
VI (Mar - Apr. 2015), PP 148-151.
[4] Saurabh Kaja et al (2017), Strength
performance of concrete using bottom ash as
fine aggregate, International Journal of Latest
Research in Science and Technology,
Volume 6, Issue 5: Page No. 17-20,
September-October 2017.
 PROPOSE NEW APPROACH METHOD TO DETERMINE SCALE MODULE
FOR GRANULAR SOILS IN SERVE OF NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS
(APPLICATION FOR GRANULAR SOILS IN QUANG TRI -THUA THIEN HUE
COASTAL PLAIN)

Do Quang Thien1, Dang Quoc Tien1, Ho Trung Thanh1,

Le Thi Cat Tuong2,Tran Thi Ngoc Quynh2
1
University of Sciences - Hue University, Vietnam
2
Mien Trung University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: doquangthien1969@gmail.com

Abstract. The main aim of paper to propose new approach method for scale module determination of
granular soil (sand) for using as natural building materials, which base on soil particle composition in
Huong River follow Vietnam engineering standard TCVN 7570:2006. Simultaneously, apply the
proposed method to determine fineness module of sand in soil particle composition report of 1.474
samples collected from engineering geological investigation in Quang Tri - Thua Thien Hue coastal plain.
The results present fineness module (Ms) is calculated by 2 methods without significant differences
(Error of 8.71 %) and value of Ms which follows TCVN standard 4198:2014 has more reliable. The
granular soil in research area has grain composition, impurities and fineness module (Ms= 0,99-2,56)
meet technical requirements of fine aggregates (fine sand and coarse sand) for concrete and mortal.

Keywords: fineness module; granular soils; coastal plain; natural engineering materials.

1. Introduction distribution determination is completely different

Our research illustrates that there are many
documents on geological investigation for
construction in Quang Tri - Thua Thien Hue
territory, especially the results of granular soil
analysis (sand, gravel) with diversity, abundance
,these soils are experimented with grain size
distribution follows sieve analysis from Vietnam
engineering standard (TCVN) 4198: 2014
[11,8].These are valuable data but they are not
exploited and utilized for researching, exploring
engineering material mines which distribute inside
Quaternary sediments. Meanwhile, the
determination of grain size distribution for gravel
and sand in the serve of calculating the design and
production of concrete and mortar in our country
comply follow TCVN 7570: 2006 and TCXD 127:
1985. [5, 9, 10, 12]. However, almost databases are
so localized and limited, that lead to the difficulties
in research and determination the fineness modulus
of sand and gravel for concrete and mortar. As for
several countries around the world, the grain size
from Vietnam. Mostly, the standard for soil
classification in every countries are not similar
even some of them that cannot classified soil,
gravel and rubbles then they combine those coarse
grain soils into a group called sandy soil with
gradation from small to coarse (Table 1) [13-16] in
contrast with Vietnam engineering standard
(TCVN) 7570:2006, it is able to classify clearly the
gradation of sand, gravel - rubble. Nowadays, there
are still no any research projects concern to this
topic in Vietnam and all the world.
Therefore, in order to apply completely the
most of the results of granular soil particle analysis
in the geological investigation for constructions
[8], we strongly recommend a new approachable
method in the classification of grain soil gradation
to calculate fineness module of granular soil in
propose for engineering material in coastal plain of
Quang Tri - Thua Thien Hue provinces with the
desire to contribute to the improvement of the
theoretical foundation in the study of grading for

342
engineering materials such as sand, gravel in
nature.
2. Research method
The current situation of sand and gravel
classifications in the fineness module present that in
several countries the classified standard cannot
distinguish between sand and gravel – rubble that
only group them in a group called sand - soil with
gradation from fine to coarse [5] (Table 1). But for
Vietnam standard 7570:2006, it classifies
specifically the composition of sand, gravel - rubble
[9].

Tab. 1. The grain size of sand, gravel, rubble follow authors and several standards

Conceptual Vietnam
TCVN ASTM
engineering standard BS (UK) JIS (Japan)
(Vietnam) (USA)
(TCVN4198:2014)
0,075
0,10 0,14 0,15 0,15 0,15
0,25 0,315 0,30 0,212 0,30
Sand Sand
0,5 0,63 0,60 0,30 0,60
1 1,25 1,18 0,425 1,18
2 2,50 2,36 0,60 2,36
5 5 4,75 0,85 4,75
10 10 9,50 1,18 9,50
Gravel Gravel
20 Rubble 20 Rubble 12,5 1,70 16
40 40 19 2,36 19
70 70 25,5 3,35 26,5
100 100 37,5 5 31,5
50 6,30 37,5
63 10 53
75 14 63
100 20 75
28 106
37
50
63
75

From Tab 1, it is obvious to see that the selected (1)

grain size for fineness module of granular soil in
Where: mi - The passing particle weight of
each national standard is totally different from grain
grain size on a sieve with a diameter (i);m - The
size diameter applied in geological engineering
total weight of the sample (1000gram).
investigation. Therefore, we will not utilize analysis
Determine the percentage of accumulated granular
data of soil grain size composition of sand, gravel
soil on sieve Ai follows (2):
and rubble in the geological investigation. The
As for sand: Ai=a2 + a1 + ……..+ ai (2a)
authors propose to choose the grain size according
As for gravel and rubble:
to the experimental result of grain size analysis of
Ai=a100 + a70 + a40……..+ ai (2b)
granular soil in the geological investigation to
Accumulated percentage Ai is the total
calculate the fineness module of sand, gravel and
percentage of retention granular soil on the sieve
rubble as below steps [8].
size i and the other larger sieves than it.
Determine the percentage of residual particle size
Determine Fineness module (Ms) of granular soil
per sieve (sieve analysis) according to formula (1):
follow the formula (3):

343
 As for sand:
(3a)
As for gravel and rubble:
(3b)
Where: A2, A1, … A0,10-The percentage of
retained sand on each sieve 2, 1, 0.5, 0.25 and 0.1
in respectively; A100, A70, A40..... A5-the
accumulated percentage ofgravel and rubble on
sieves with size 100, 70, 40, 20, 10, 5 mm
respectively [1].
3. Research results and discussion
3.1. Compare fineness module of sand follow
Vietnam engineering standard (TCVN) 7570:2006
and new proposed method of authors (descend from
TCVN 4798:2014)
As given in Tab 1 shows that due to non-different
grain size limit between 2 methods, the authors only
conduct comparing fineness module of sand follows 2
mentioned methods. To determine and compare the
fineness module of sand by calculating by 2
conceptual methods, we sample and analyses the grain
composition of Huong river (aQ23) (Tab 2).
Continuously, the data for grain size analysis are
quantified follow 2 different kinds of sieve, first
step we ignore the percent of grain size ≥ 5 mm.
Then the fineness module of sand is identified
follow each method as below:
The standard TCVN 7570:2006
Author’s method (TCVN 4198:2014)
determined follow 2 methods:
Given as calculated results, it illustrates that Ms
determined under standard TCVN 7570:2006 is
lower than Ms of standard TCVN 4198:2014
(0.21%) with 8.71% difference. This is because
TCVN 7570:2006 applied too large sieve size that
leads to the unreasonable method in determining
retention percentage of sand in each sieve get a
lower value. Meanwhile, TCVN 4198:2014 by
through using a smaller size of sieve that brings
more favorable than the percentage of remaining
sand in each sieve as higher as more accurate for
Ms value.
3.2. Determine the fineness modulus of granular
soil Quang Tri - Thua Thien Hue follow proposed
method
The granular soil formations used for natural
engineering material in Quang Tri – Thua Thien Hue
coastal province includes sand, gravel, rubbles, rock
mass and silt or clay. That all key compositions of
Quaternary sediment with Holocene - Pleistocene
period; Alluvial (a),alluvial -pluvial (ap), marine (m)
and marine-eolian (mv) origins: a,apQ23, mvQ23,
mQ22, a,apQ21, a,apQ13(2), mQ13(2), a,apQ13(1), a,apQ12.
The distributed area of these formations is presented
in cross-section on the map and Quaternary
geological cross section through routes in figure 1
and figure 2. To be specific:

Difference of fineness module of sand ∆Ms (%)

Tab. 2. Results of grain size analysis of sand in Huong river (aQ23 )

Proposed sieve Grain per (%) Size of Sieve Grain percentage (%)
Order
(TCVN4198:2014) (TCVN4198:2014) TCVN7570:2006 TCVN7570:2006
1 <0,10 8,89 <0,14 11,02
2 0,10 6,62 0,14 8,03
3 0,25 23,64 0,32 25,16
4 0,50 38 0,63 39,06
5 1 9,34 1,25 7,22
6 2 11,36 2,50 7,25
7 5 2,15 5 2,26
8 10 - 10 -
9 20 - 20 -
10 40 - 40 -
11 70 - 70 -
12 - - 100 -

344
 Marine - eolian (mv Q23): located on sandbars
with sand dunes get from 5 to 10 meters to 30 – 33
meters high along study area coastline (from Vinh
Thai to Lang Co sub-district and usually being
covered upon mentioned marine sand sediment
(mQ22). Joined with this formation popularly is
grey-yellow medium-fine sand. In addition, from
grain size analysis of more than 100 grey-yellow
sand samples with different sandy grain size as
follow: Gravel = 1%, sand = 90%, silt = 8%, clay =
1%. Grain density: Md= 0.22 mm, So = 1.49, Sk =
1.02.
Aluvia - plluvia sediments (a, apQ23): located
on mainly at the river bottom, streams in Truong
Son mountain especially rivers as Sa Lung, Ben
Hai, Hieu, Thach Han, Nhung, O Lau. The key
lithological composition is like boulders, cobbles,
sand, rare silt, clay which structure the river delta,
underwater sandbar, floating bar. Boulders and
sand in the river are usually quartz, silica rock, less
quartzit, granites, silty sand. From grain size
analysis of nearly 30 samples of coarse grain soil
shows that the percentage of particle size as
coubles = 9%, gravel = 22%, sand = 62%, silty =
5%, clay = 2%. Grain density: Md = 1.15 mm, So =
2.41, Sk = 1.34.
Holocene marine sediment (mQ22): lithological
composition proves quite uniform as well gradated
sand with a range from coarse sand (rarely) to
typical gray-white silty sand. The gray-white sand
distributed widely in coastal plain of the central
part of Vietnam especially in Quang Binh, Quang
Tri, Thua Thien Hue, Da Nang, Quang Nam and
from the grain size analysed results of more than
600 samples determined by sieve analysis as
following: Gravel ~ 2%, sand = 87%, silt = 9%,
clay = 2%. Grain density: Md = 0.23 mm, So =
1.64, Sk = 1.06.
Aluvia - pluvia sediments of the later Holocene
period (a, apQ21): this formation seems covered on
by sediments with having age Q22 and Q23 at 38.5
meters deep (at borehole LK306) to 10,2 meters (at
borehole CCT1-3) from the surface. Sand, coubles,
boulders in the Holocene period are created from
quartz, silica, granite, sandy quartzite, basalt
(igneous rock). Percentage of grain size
distribution includes: coubles – boulders = 10%,
345
gravel = 19%, sand = 67%, silt = 3%, clay = 1%.
Grain density: Md = 1.89 mm, So = 3.07, Sk = 1.28.
Marine sediment mQ13(2): conceptual sediment
exposes various locations and this sediment are
also conducted study on the mapping of the
geological map with average scale and large scale;
with sediment entitle is Da Nang formation [2,7] or
Phu Xuan formation [3,4,6]. Where, Author
Nguyen Xuan Duong classified conceptual
formations into marine - alluvia multiple origins
and belong to Da Nang formation (amQ13(2) đn). As
for after 180 yellow sandy soil sample analysis, we
have percanetage particle size composition as
gravel = 2%, sand = 76%, silty = 19%, clay = 3%.
Grain density: Md = 0.02 mm, So = 1.75, Sk = 1.08.
Aluvia - pluvia sediments(a, apQ13(2)) is covered
from 50 meters deep (LK432) to 6 meters (CSH1)
from the surface and only expose under the shapes
of narrow limbs at the depth 10 – 12 meters of the
western site of the coastal plain. The grain size
analyzed results of more than 150 samples indicate
that boulder = 17%, gravel = 20%, sand = 60%, silt
- clay = 3%. Grain density: Md = 2.46 mm, So =
2.73, Sk = 1.72.
Upper Pleistocene alluvial - pluvial sediment at
the down section (a, apQ13(1)) distributes at 71
meters deep at borehole (LK1-K74) to 30.5 meters
at borehole (CCT5) from the surface. This
sediment has lithological composition include
sand, clay, boulders, gravels (at boreholes CCT5,
CSH1, LK309, LKHU8, LK314…). Through 140
samples of grain size analysis as boulders = 30%,
gravel - sand = 68%, silt - clay = 2%. Grain
density: Md = 2.29 mm, So = 2.75, Sk = 1.61.
The sediments which have origin from middle
Pleistocene alluvia - pluvial (a, apQ12) distribute at
several deep boreholes at the depth 100.8 (LK309),
80.1 (LK3QT) to 42 meters deep (LK429) from the
surface. The main lithological composition
includes boulders, gravels = 32%, sand = 65%, silt
- clay = 3%. Grain density: Md = 1.18 mm, So =
2.13, Sk = 1.89.
Fig. 1a. Geological map of the Quaternary coastal plain (Section 1)

Fig. 1b. Geological map of the Quaternary coastal plain (Section 2)

Fig. 1c. Geological map of the Quaternary coastal plain (Section 3)

346
 Fig. 2a. Quaternary geological cross-section of study route I - I’ at Cua Tung estuary
(Quang Tri province)

Fig. 2b. Quaternary geological cross-section of study route II - II’ at Cua Tung estuary
(Quang Tri province)

Fig. 2c. Quaternary geological cross-section of study route IV - VI’ at Phong Dien district
(Thua Thien Hue province)

347
 Fig. 2d. Quaternary geological cross-section of study route V - V’ in Hue city
(Thua Thien Hue province)

Tab. 3. Fineness modulus of granular soil follow grain size analysis results of engineering geological
investigation in Quang Tri - Thua Thien Hue coastal plain
Percentage of grain size passing on sieve, %
Geological age
Origin and

Fineness
Samples

40-20mm

20-10mm

1-0,5mm

<0,1mm
10-5mm

0,5-0,25

0,25-0,1
>40mm

5-2mm

2-1mm

Modulus,
mm

mm
MS

a,apQ23 57 7,15 4,71 2,32 3,03 8,14 15,08 17,69 23,23 11,43 7,22 2.12

22 - - - - 1,19 4,63 19,31 34,5 22,57 17,8 1.74

mvQ23
91 - - - - 0,48 2,64 11,86 26,79 36,31 21,92 1.38
13 - - 0,79 4,54 8,23 11,94 34,01 22,10 10,59 7,80 2,46
252 - - - - 2,99 7,29 19,16 34,73 22,69 13,14 1,94
mQ22
355 - - - - 0,50 4,23 12,27 26,75 37,68 18,57 1,47
41 - - - - 0,41 2,98 6,86 25,97 34,75 29,03 1,21
9 1,52 38,42 18,24 6,38 7,51 9,15 6,74 5,51 3,97 2,56 1,09
a,apQ21 75 - 0,41 1,14 2,61 8,35 11,04 28,07 26,37 14,87 7,14 2,38
3 - - - - 0,62 2,15 4,57 26,29 50,16 16,21 1,28
15 17,32 26,47 19,9 13,31 9,87 10,63 2,50 - - - 0,99
a,apQ13(2)
157 0,05 1,79 5,56 8,74 14,26 18,01 20,93 15,73 10,15 4,78 2,48
116 - - - - 2,10 8,24 16,49 31,01 25,63 16,53 1,81
mQ13(2) 57 - - - - 0,65 4,63 11,92 32,85 28,83 21,13 1,52
30 - - - - 0,22 2,61 10,27 26,46 30,65 2,79 2,56
14 2,19 30,33 19,73 9,75 9,12 10,39 8,66 3,5 3,66 2,67 1,24
a,apQ13(1) 83 - 1,89 4,25 7,84 11,33 16,26 23,89 20,21 10,53 3,8 2,44
41 - 1,73 3,17 4,88 4,96 9,61 18,86 34,32 19,79 2,68 2,08
7 - 5,39 10,12 11,92 15,64 21,46 15,43 10,35 7,68 2,01 2,39
a,apQ12
36 - - 3,57 4,4 8,76 16,37 26,32 18,39 15,97 6,22 2,41

348
 Based on the experiment data of 1.633 samples,
we eliminated inaccuracy data from 159 samples
(by 9.74%) and determine total values of grain
composition follow laboratory data of 1.474
samples (by 90.26%) [8]. From calculated results
on Table 3 show that the fineness modulus varies
from 1.21 to 2.56 which meet the engineering
requirements of fine aggregates for concrete and
mortal material conducting follow Vietnam
engineering standard [5,9,10].
4. Conclusion and recommendation
As for above scientific contents, we emphasis
various conclusions as below:
- The fineness modulus of granular soil is not
only identified follow current Vietnam engineering
standard TCVN 7570:2006, also calculated follow
our proposal method (TCVN 4198:2014) with
errors less than 10%. Due to using large size of
sieve, the Ms value determined to follow TCVN
7570:2006 gets inaccuracy and lower than one
follow TCVN 4198:2014.
- Granular sediments are suitable for utilising as
natural engineering material in research area
include several multi-origins as: a,apQ23, mvQ23,
mQ22, a,apQ21, a,apQ13(2), mQ13(2), a,apQ13(1),
a,apQ12. Mostly, sand have particle and impurities
content and fineness modulus(Ms = 0,99-2,56)
meet the technical demands of fine aggregate for
engineering concrete and mortal material.
- It is so necessary to continue research, testing
of this method on determining fineness module of
granular soil in comparison to US standard
(ASTM), British standard (BS), Japanese standard
(JS).
References
[1]. Nguyen Xuan Duong and et al (1996),
Geology and mineral report in Le Thuy,
Quang Tri province with scale 1:200000,
Storage at Geological and Mineral
Department of Vietnam, Hanoi.
[2]. Cat Nguyen Hung and et al (1996), Report of
geological mapping and mining exploration
with scale 1:50000 in Da Nang-Hoi An city,
Storage at Geological and Mineral
Department of Vietnam, Hanoi.
[3]. Do Van Long and et at (2000), “The
characteristics of Quaternary sediments in
Binh Tri Thien plain”, Geological map(98),
349
pages.53-66.
[4]. Do Van Long and et al (2000), Geological and
Mineral report in Quang Tri map with scale
1:50000, Storage at Geological and Mineral
Department of Vietnam, Hanoi.
[5]. Phung Van Lu, Pham Duy Huu, Phan Khac
Tri (2002), Construction material,
Construction publishing house.
[6]. Pham Huy Thong and et al (1997), Geological
and Mineral report in Hue city with scale
1:50000, Storage at Geological and Mineral
Department of Vietnam, Hanoi.
[7]. Nguyen Van Trang and et al (1996), Geology
and Mineral in Huong Hoa - Hue - Da Nang,
scale 1:200000, Geological and Mineral
Department of Vietnam, Hanoi.
[8]. Engineering geological documents in Quang
Tri - Thua Thien Hue: The project of Hue
urban and Dong Ha city for engineering
geological mapping of Hue - Dong Ha city,
scale 1:1200000; Engineering geological
report of Ca cut bridge, head office of Chan
May - Lang Co bay management, Kenh
bridge, Long bridge, Cua Viet bridge, Cho
Dinh bridge, Pho Trach bridge...and other
constructions.
[9]. TCVN 7570:2006 - Aggregates for concrete
and mortar - Technical requirements.
[10]. TCXD 127:1985 - Concrete small sand and
mortal - Instruction.
[11]. TCVN 4198:2014 for engineering soil - The
methods of particle content determination in the
laboratory.
[12]. TCVN 7572:2-2006 - Aggregates for
concrete and mortar - Grain size
determination
[13]. ASTM C33 Standard Specification for
Concrete Aggregates.
[14]. ASTM C136 Test Method for Sieve Analysis
of Fine and Coarse Aggregates.
[15]. H. Zhang (2011), Building Materials in Civil
Engineering, A volume in Woodhead
Publishing Series in Civil and Structural
Engineering, ISBN: 978-1-84569-955-0.
[16]. S. K. Duggal (2015), Building Materials, PHI
Learning Private Limited, Delhi, ISBN: 978-
81-203-5091-5
 EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF LIEM SON, KIM BANG,
HA NAM LIMESTONE GRADING AS INERT ADDITIVE ON BUT SON
CEMENT MOTAR
Ta Thi Toan1, Nguyen Thi Nu1, Vu Thi Ngoc Minh2
1
Ha Noi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: toantaslc@gmail.com

Abstract: The purpose of this work is to describe the effect of nanoparticle size of limestone as an
inert additive on cement on important physic and mechanical properties of cement paste. The present
examinations indicate that Liem Son, Kim Bang, Ha Nam limestone with potential reserve and good
quality can use as an inert additive on cement. Research effect of particle size distribution of this
limestone as inert additive on mechanical properties of cement mortar indicates that increasing nano and
micro particle size content of need limestone in original cement can increase early strength but it does not
influence late strength.

Keywords: limestone; cemen; additive;particle size; properties.

1.Introduction Rapid setting cement with superior workability

Limestone is known as a main raw material
naturally occurring calcareous deposits, limestone
provides calcium carbonate (CaCO3) for cement to
combine with very small amounts of "corrective"
materials such as iron ore, bauxite, shale, clay or
sand may be needed to provide extra iron oxide
(Fe2O3), alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2) to adapt
the chemical composition of the raw mix to the
process and product requirements.
Today, Ordinary Portland Cement
manufactured by modern technology exceeds the
quality requirements of PC50 cement specified in
TCVN 2682:2009. It is also in conformity with
ASTM C150 Type1. Following outstanding
properties:
Stable physicochemical properties;
Suitable for high-quality construction projects;
Rapid strength development cement with
consistent high strength performance;
Excellent durability that resists aggressive
environmental attacks due to very low permeability
coefficient;
for easier handling, placing and finishing;
Relatively low water demand thus reduced
concrete surface cracking;
Enhanced concrete cohesion, sustained
uniform concrete performance.
So, PCB cement is a Portland Blended Cement
which is very common in market of Vietnam,
suitable for civil construction from application for
foundations-columns-floor-roof of house to
building-other finishing works.
Depending on the type and amounts of added
additives, the hydration process varies from the
hydration of the original cement, but they all affect
the hydration of the clinker mineral which
contributes to the development of the contributing
substances. and finish the cement stone structure.
Cr2O3, SiO2, Al2O3, CaCO3, TiO2 for cement in
fine grinding with appropriate content also increase
the strength of the concrete and reduce the water
void.
Limestone is used as an additive, according to
current scientific research, limestone nanoparticles

350
and microcells are nearly inert [1] in cement
hydration but it has the effect of enhancing the
early age of cement stone, Reduce the Water
/Cement ratio, increase the Water /Cement ratio.
This is explained by the fact that limestone
nanoparticles act as crystalline gums that speed up
the cement hydration process to increase the early
age of cement stone, furthermore the combination
of nano and limestone micro- covers and filling the
porous holes between the hydration products is the
main effect that enhances the cement stone.

Fig. 1. Micro/nano CaCO3

a. Cover and fill the porous hole between the hydrated products and b. Fills the space around the silica
fume [1]

351
2.Material Tab. 4. Chemical composition of But Son clinker
2.1. Limestone
K2O
Limestone originates from chemical-type Oxide CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO + SO3 LOI
deposition of over saturated saline solutions and Na2O

accumulation of (carbonate) minerals from dead Quality

64.6 21.1 5.25 3.18 2.25 0.94 0.29 0.33
[%]
marine organisms. This sedimentary phase is
followed by digenesis during which the original
content fragments disappear and are replaced by Mineral are calculated from chemical base on
recrystallized calcite. Calcareous deposits often Bogue [2] and showed in table 5.
include impurities (clay, sand) that sediment %C3S = 4.07 C – 7.6 S – 6.72 A – 1.42 F
together with the chemical precipitation and the %C2S = 8.6 S + 5.07 A + 1.07 F – 3.07 C
organnogenic accumulation. %C3A = 2.65 (A – 0.64 F)
Limestone sample is collected from Liem Son, %C4AF = 3.04 F
Kim Bang, Ha Nam. Mineralogical, chemical and Tab. 5. Mineral composition of But Son Clinker
mechanical characterization of limestone are Mineralogical of CLK %
showed in table 1, 2 and 3. C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Tab. 1. Mineralogical characterization of limestone 62.42 13.94 8.53 9.68
(Mineralogical analysis by XRD) (Main phases)
Calcite Dolomite Quartz 2.3. Gypsum
Used gypsum is Lao gypsum with formula
Mineral CaCO3 Ca(Mg,Fe)(CO3)2 SiO2
CaSO4.2H2O included impurities 1 – 5%. The
[%] [%] [%]
chemical properties have been indicated in table 6.
Quality 70-80 15-25 Little
Tab. 6. Chemical composition of Lao gypsum
Tab. 2. Chemical characterization of limestone Indication Lao gypsum
Oxide CaO[%] MgO[%] LOI[%] SO3 (%) 39.62
Quality 53.01 1.98 0.89 Humidity (%) 2
Residue insolate (%) 3.5
Tab. 3. Mechanical characterization of limestone
Mass Compressive 3. Research Methods
Hardness
Mechanical volume strength 3.1. Composition of researching sample
[Mohs]
[g/cm3] [kG/cm2] Limestone sample have been collected in Liem
2.67- 1,300 and- Son, Kim Bang, Ha Nam. They have been tested
Quality 4-4.5 by different production process as Diagram1.
2.70 1,445

According to mineralogical, chemical and Tab. 7. Sample sign

mechanical characterization of limestone, it can be Additive/
used as a main raw material for clinker cement and Grinding (cement
as an inert additive for cement according to TCVN Sample Additive time clinke+3%
6072:2013 duration gypsum)
2.2. Portland cement Clinker (Mass)
Cement Clinker are collected from But Son, M1 Limestone 2h
Vicem, Ha Nam. Its composition have been M2 Limestone 4h 20/80
indicated in Tab4. M3 Limestone 6h

352
 3.2. Sieving method
Sieving is a simple method for the classification
of powders. It can be performed either in a dry or a
wet way, with manual or mechanical vibration, and
for fixed duration or until a sufficiently low
powder flow rate is observed through the sieves. It
is however limited by physical dimensions of the
sieve, i.e. usually 45µm. According to TCVN
4030:2003
Diag. 1. Process of testing
3.3. Blaine Permeability
Fineness tester is used for the measurement of
the specific surface area of particles on the base of
air permeability method: the time t necessary for a
volume of air to flow through a packed bed of
particles is recorded TCVN 4030-2003 gives the
evaluation of specific surface area.
3.4. Dimension distribution
Laser diffraction is based on a complex theory
of interaction between monochromatic light and
individual particles. It has been tested in industry
ceramic and glass institute: the water for standard
consistence test and Determination of Setting Time
This test method is a modification of
the method set out in Vietnamese Standard
4030:2003 and ISO 9597 – 1989.
353
3.4. Compressive strength test
This test bases on TCVN 6016:2011 and ISO
679 – 1989.
3.5. SEM method
The SEM samples were measured at the
Institute of Technical Physics - Hanoi University
of Science and Technology.
4.Results and Analysis
4.1. Limestone Blaine
Result of limestone Blaine of Thanh Liem, Kim
Bang, Ha Nam has been showed in table 8.
Tab. 8. Blaine of Thanh Liem, Kim Bang, Ha Nam
limestone with difference grinding time
Sample Blaine, (cm2/g)
M1 5203.477
M2 6456.313
M3 6631.944
Fig. 2. Blaine fineness of Thanh Liem, Kim Bang,
Ha Nam limestone with different grinding time.
Fineness of limestone corresponds to its Blaine
fineness.
The fineness and Blaine specific surface area of
limestone increased with an increase in grinding
time, but there is limited, it means when grinding
time increase, the Blaine fineness is not increased.
4.2. Dimension distribution
Dimension of limestone with different grinding
time have been described by figure 3.
4.3. Effect of inert limestone fineness on
mechanical of cement concrete
Water for standard consistence and initial and
final setting time of cement concrete have been
indicated in table 9, 10.
 Tab. 9. Water for standard consistence

Grinding time Water for standard Temperature

Sample
(min) consistence, (ml) (0C)
M1 150 33
M2 147 29
20
M3 147 34

Fig. 3. Residue of Thanh Liem, Kim Bang, Ha Nam limestone with different grinding time

This is explained by the fact that limestone and the shape of particle becoming sphere so the
samples have a larger percentage of fine particles limestone particles are very flexible,

Tab. 10. Initial and final setting time of cement concrete

Grinding Initial Final

Temperature
Sample time setting setting time
(0C)
(min) time (min) (min)
M1 108 153 33
M2 20 97 168 29
M3 110 146 34

If the fineness increases, Initial and final setting

time trends to increase. This can be explained by
the fact that limestone nanoparticles create a
crystalline nucleus that accelerates the hydrolysis
of cement to help cement cure rapidly.
4.4. Effect of inert limestone fineness on
compressive strength of cement concrete
Result of compressive strength has been
indicated in figure 4.
Fig. 4. Compressive strength of sample

354
 At the first day, when the dimension decreases,
impressive strength increases. But at the third day
and the seventh day strength does not increase
when fineness increases.
It means the fineness of limestone affects the
intensity of early age of the cement stone. Because
nanoparticles of limestone create a crystalline
nucleus that accelerates the hydration of cement to
increase the early age of the cement stone.
In addition, the combination of nano and
microparticle limestone that cover and fill the
porous holes among the hydration products is a
major contributor to cement strength.
However, the amount of nano and microsize
limestone should be sufficient because of the
increase in cement content, due to insufficient
cement to bond these particles, thus it reduces the
strength of the cement stone.

a, SEM M0 +500 b, SEM M1 + 500

c, SEM M2 + 500

Fig. 5. SEM picture

4.5. Impact on the porosity of the cement stone
The image 1 showed that porosity of M1 less
than M2 and M3. This is probably explained by the
combination of Nano and micro limestone. They
cover and fill the porous holes among the hydrated
products. And it also explains that the main effect
enhances the strength of the cement stone.
5. Conclusion
Investigations confirmed that nanoparticle
limestone can be used as an inert additive to

355
increase early compressive strength of cement
motar.
However, flexible Blaine fineness is about 6000
2
cm /g. To increase nanoparticle limestone not only
consumes grinding energy but also improves
properties of cement paste.
References
[1] De Schutter, G. Effect of limestone filler as
mineral addition in self-compacting
356
concrete. in 36th Conference on Our
World in Concrete & Structures: ‘Recent
Advances in the Technology of Fesh
Concrete'(OWIC'S 2011). 2011. Ghent
University, Department of Structural
engineering.
[2] Bui Van Chen, Cement Technology, Hanoi
University of Science and technology,
1996.
 THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICABILITY OF GRANULATED
BLAST FURNACE SLAG (GBFS) AS BUILDING MATERIAL IN VIETNAM

Nguyen Ngoc Truc1, Nguyen Van Vu2, Nguyen Thi Oanh1

1
Vietnam National University, Vietnam
2
Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: trucnn@vnu.edu.vn

Abstract: Granulated Blast Furnace Slag has been used for concrete admixtures for a long time in
Vietnam, but it has not noticed for many other purposes of construction. Many factories of iron and steel
productions in Vietnam are not interested in GBFS. The quality of GBFS is often unstable, its component
and properties are often changed. This is one of the barriers to the widespread adoption of GBFS. This
paper focuses on the engineering properties of GBFS as a basis for applicability assessment to building
materials. The obtained results indicate that GBFS in Vietnam have grained grade in range of medium to
course size, bulk specific gravity is approximate 1.0 g/cm3, specific gravity is less than 2.3 g/cm3 and
content of CaO and SiO2 is around 35-37%. It is suitable for civil engineering works and ground
improvement materials. However, it should be noted that direct use of GBFS for concrete and mortar will
meet difficult and not suitable, so this possibility of application should be further studied.

Keywords: granulated blast furnace slag; concrete mixture; slump; flexural strength; compressive
strength.

1. Introduction resource-conservation and energy-saving

Granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) is effects. Table 1 gives a general view of primary
material created by rapid cooling of a slag melt of characteristics and applications of iron slag in the
suitable composition, obtained by smelting iron ore word.
in a blast furnace, consisting of at least two thirds
by mass of glassy slag and possessing hydraulic
properties when suitably activated [1, 2]. GBFS
mentioned in this study has a coarse-grain sand
shape-liked, which is smaller than 5mm and
contains less fine-grain component. GBFS is
mainly in form of glass and its grains are
extremely angular. The composition of GBFS is a
combination of silica and other non-ferrous
components of iron ore, ash from coke used as a
reducing material, and limestone auxiliary material
[5]. Fig. 1 shows the process of generating iron and
steel slag, and Fig. 2 is a photo of the blast furnace
slag of Tuyen Quang iron steel factory.
Nowadays as a result of improving
environmental awareness, iron and steel slag is Fig. 1. Process of generating iron slag [5]
highly regarded as a recycled material that can
reduce impacts on the environment due to its

357
 Does not contain
chlorides.
Fine aggregate for concrete
No alkali-aggregate
reaction
Fertilizer component Calcium silicate fertilizer
(CaO, SiO2) Soil improvement

2. Methods of study
To determine and assess the properties of
GBFS, this study conducted a series of
experiments directly on GBFS and indirectly on
GBFS-contained solid concrete. GBFS was
compared with NS through indirect experiments.
Fig. 2. Granulated blast furnace slag of Tuyen In other words, GBFS was considered as fine
Quang iron steel factory aggregate in concrete.
2.1. Sample preparation
GBFS has been applied to concrete admixtures
Materials used in this study include coarse-
in Vietnam for a long time, but applying as
grain sand shape-liked of GBFS, coarse-medium
material for civil engineering works, ground
size of nature sand, Portland cement, and water.
improvement material, etc., has not almost
Natural sand (NS) used in this research has
unnoticed. Many steel and iron factories in
moderate gradation with specific gravity of
Vietnam have not cared about quality of GBFS.
2.64g/cm3, and dry specific gravity of 1.480g/cm3.
GBFS has often unstable quality. Its composition
The analysis results of GBFS and NS are compared
and properties are often changed. This is one of the
to Vietnamese building code TCVN 7570:2006
obstacle of application of GBFS to the abundant
[6]. Portland cement used for this study is PC40
purpose of construction. Therefore, studying the
with a density of 3.12 g/cm3, a specific gravity of
applicability of GBFS for building material
1.865g/cm3, and surficial area of 340 m2/kg.
production in Vietnamese conditions is an urgent
Beside the preparation of granulated slag
requirement in terms of economic, technical and
samples, the slag was also mixed with NS as
environmental aspects. This study will outline
partial replacement of fine aggregate in concrete.
some of the key features of GBFS and their
Four specimen sets were prepared, in which the
applicability as building materials.
control mix contains 100% NS and the remaining 3
Tab. 1. Characteristics and applications
specimen sets were prepared with different
of iron slag [5]
alternative GBFS/NS ratio of 40/ 60, 50/50, and
Characteristics Applications
60/40, respectively. Crushed rock is an important
Raw material for Portland blast
composition of concrete, which it has diameter of
Strong latent furnace slag cement
hydraulic property Blending material for Portland 20mm in maximum. The ratio of water/cement
when finely ground cement (w/c ratio) was equal to 0.56 and 0.66 in order to
Concrete admixtures keep the initial slump of the mixture around 9.0
Raw material for cement clinker and the slump after 30 minutes around 6.0-6.5
Low Na2O and K2O
(replacement for clay) among the GBFS/NS ratios. The amount of each
Latent hydraulic Material for civil engineering material need for 1.0 m3 concrete is given in Table
property works, ground improvement 2. Those materials were mixed together in order to
material (Backfill material, earth carry out the experiments and to cast into blocks
Lightweight, large cover material, embankment
with the dimension of 150x150x150mm for
angle of internal material, road subgrade
compressive test and 150x150x300mm for flexural
friction, large water improvement material, sand
permeability compaction material, ground test.
drainage layers, etc.)

358
 Tab. 2. Component of 1.0 m3 of concrete mixture [4]

Cement Crushed Fine aggregate (kg)

Sample set Water (l)
PC40 (kg) rock (kg) Total NS GBFS
M0 35.2 110.4 72.2 72.2 0 19.8
M1 35.2 110.4 72.2 43.3 28.9 21.6
M2 35.2 110.4 72.2 36.1 36.1 22.6
M3 35.2 110.4 72.2 28.9 43.3 23.1

2.2. Bulk specific gravity of concrete mixture

Fig. 3 shows an image of determination of bulk
specific gravity of concrete mixture. The testing
procedure is as follows: pour and compact the
concrete mixture to a 5-letter volume mold, use a
flat ruler to remove the excessing mixture from
mold surface, remove the adhesive from the
outside and determine the volume of all mold to
0.2% accuracy. This experiment agrees well with
construction standard of TCVN 3108:1993.

Fig. 3. Determination of bulk specific gravity of

concrete mixture

2.3. Slump test

Fig. 4 expresses the images of slump test of the
concrete mixture. This is the method of
determining the flexibility of the concrete mixture.
The experiment is determined by pouring the
concrete mixture through a hopper into 3 layers,
each layer makes up about one-third the height of
the mold. After the concrete mixture is stable, take
the hopper out for 5-10 seconds. Measuring the
height difference before and after hopper released,
and the slump of concrete is then be determined.
This experiment is in accordance with construction
standard of TCVN 3016:1993 [9].
Fig. 4. Determination of slump of concrete
mixture
2.4. Compressive strength
Determining the compressive strength by
sample set. Each sample set consist of three pieces.
The standard piece for determination of
compressive strength has the dimension of 150 ×
150 × 150mm. Compressive strength is checked
for each sample set with curing time of 3, 7, and 28
days. Defining the force-bearing area of the

359
specimen with measuring precision of parallel edge
pairs of two compressed sides up to 1mm.
Determining the compressed area of the top and
bottom sides is in accordance with the average
values. Thence, the failure load is defined. The
maximum force obtained is the load need to
destroy the sample.
Compressive strength is calculated by the
following equation: R = , where P is the
failure load (daN), F is force-bearing area of the
sample (cm2), is the conversion coefficient.
2.5. Flexural strength
Fig. 5 shows the sampling and testing of
flexural strength of the GBFS concrete. It is
determined by gradually apply load onto three Fig. 5. Sampling and testing of flexural strength
concrete blocks under standard condition until the
specimen failed. Specimens were cast into the 3. Results
cylindrical metal mold. The cylindrical specimen 3.1. Grained size distribution of GBFS
is, then, inserted into the flexural system and The curves of grain size distribution of some
conducted the experiment by increasing the Vietnamese GBFS are given in Fig. 6. In general,
velocity of applying load from 10N/s – 50N/s until the curves of the slag mentioned here are in range
the specimen failed. Recording the maximum load of upper and lower limit of the standard TCVN
need to the specimen failed. The flexural strength 7570 [6].
of trial specimen Ru (N/mm2) is then calculated by
the equation:
Ru = 1.5 x , where Pu is the flexural force
(N), l is the distance between two points of
applying force (mm), b and h is the width and the
height of the trial specimen, respectively (mm).

Fig. 6. Grained size of the GBFS of several

sources in Vietnam [3]

3.2. Fundamental characteristics of typical

GBFSs in Vietnam
The physical and chemical properties of some
GBFSs in Vietnam are given in Table 3 and 4. The
chemical component of general Japanese GBFS in
is also given for comparison purpose. It can be
seen that some GBFSs in Vietnam have basic
properties different from that of Japan, even its

360
component and characteristics are different from different NS and GBFS ratio, the initial slump and
batches. the slump after 30 minutes varied significantly. In
particular, the significant difference is identified
Tab. 3. Typical component of some GBFS in between the specimens of constant water/concrete
Vietnam [3] ratio (w/c = 0.56) and inconstant water/concrete
ratios (w/c = 0.56 - 0.66). For the specimen set
Chemical GBFS GBFS Thai Japanese
with w/c = 0.56, the experiments are performed for
component Hoa Phat Nguyen GBFS
three sets, i.e., M0 (0% GBFS), M1' (40% GBFS),
MKN 0.99 - -
SiO2 35.54 36.12 33.80 and M2' (50% GBFS). For the specimen set with
CaO 40.95 37.65 41.70 the inconstant ratios of w/c = 0.56-0.66, the
Al2O3 10.95 12.74 13.40 experiments are performed for four sets, namely,
Fe2O3 0.72 2.36 T-Fe=0.40 M0 (0/100), M1 (40/60), M2 (50/50), M3 (60/40).
MgO 9.20 8.19 7.40 As the amount of water keeps constant, the
SO3 0.14 0.26 - slump of the concrete mixture significantly reduces
K2O 0.67 0.91 - if the GBFS increases. The initial slump was 9.0cm
Na2O 0.43 0.16 - with 0% GBFS and sharply dropped to 2.5cm and
TiO2 0.32 0.30 -
2.0cm when the GBFS amount reaches to 40% and
MnO - - 0.30
50%. The results indicate that the replacement of
P2O5 - - <0.10
Cl- <0.001 <0.001 - GBFS will significantly reduce the flowability of
S2- 0.62 0.72 0.80 the concrete.

Tab. 4. Typical physical properties of some GBFS

in Vietnam (tested results and adapted to [3])

GBFS GBFS
GBFS
Parameter Thai Tuyen
Hoa Phat
Nguyen Quang
Specific gravity,
2.297 2.558 2.473
g/cm3
Water
2.98 2.52 2.22
absorption
Bulk specific
0.821 1.096 1.027
gravity, g/cm3
Larger
Grain size (by than Course Course
TCVN course grained grained
7570:2006) grained sand sand
sand Fig. 7. Relationship between GBFS and slump
Grain > 5 mm,
11.8 1.7 2.1 of concrete.
%
Module of grain
3.12 3.36 3.07 3.4. Effect of GBFS on setting time of
(grain<5 mm)
concrete
The initial setting time and completed setting
3.3. Effect of GBFS on slump of concrete
time for four sets of specimen are taken into
The higher slump gets, the more cement, water,
account. The obtained results express the
and additives are used; so the concrete is
relationship between the setting time and the
dehydrated and separated between rock fragments
weight ratio of GBFS used in the concrete mixture.
and cement. The obtained result of changing of
Fig. 8 shows that if the weight ratio of GBFS
slump is shown in Fig. 7. For each sample with

361
increases from 0 to 60%, the setting time will
increase. In another word, the setting time will be
longer with the increasing of percentage of GBFS.

3.5. Effect of GBFS on compressive strength

of concrete
The compressive strength of the specimens in
two cases, i.e. constant and inconstant w/c ratio,
was determined to evaluate the strength and the
effect of water ratio in the concrete mixture with
different percentage of GBFS. Fig. 9 shows the
results of compressive strength for different Fig. 9. Compressive strength of concrete with
percentage of GBFS in case of ratio of w/c = 0.56- w/c ratio = 0.56-0.66, slump ≈ 9cm
0.66 and initial slump be around 9. From this
figure, one can recognize that the compressive
strength increases as the curing time get longer. It
is observed for all the specimens. In this case,
compressive strength at all mixture ratio and all
curing time e of replacement GBFS specimens is
significantly lower than those of control mix. It
also should notice that the percentage of GBFS is
lower, the compressive strength is higher.

Fig. 10. Compressive strength of concrete with

w/c ratio = 0.56, slump changed

When the water ratio is constant, i.e., w/c ratio

= 0.56, the initial slump decreases from 9.0cm with
replacement GBFS = 0% to 2.0cm with
replacement GBFS = 50% (Fig. 10). In this case,
Fig. 8. Content of GBFS and setting time of the
values of compressive strength of the specimen
concrete mixture
M1’, M2’ is approximate that of control mix of
M0. The compressive strength values increase
gradually over curing times of 3, 7, and 28 days for
all specimens with different replacement GBFS.
The compression strength is inverse ratio to
percentage of GBFS.
3.6. Effect of GBFS on flexural strength of
concrete
The flexural strength of concrete is determined
to evaluate the bending resistance ability of

362
concrete specimens. This experiment is just
performed in case of w/c ratio changed, i.e. slump
of all specimens is around 9cm. Fig. 11 expresses
the obtained results in case of w/c ratio = 0.56-0.66
and slump ≈ 9cm. It shows that flexural strength of
concrete decreases as the percentage of GBFS
replaced increases. The difference of flexural
strength is remarkable comparing between
specimens of replacement GBFS with the control
mix specimens. Flexural strength of concrete also
increases over time. However, the impressive
increase is just obtained from the date of 3rd to 7th.
After 7 days the increase gets gradually slow until
the date of 28th.
Fig. 11. Compressive strength of concrete in case
w/c ratio = 0.56-0.66, slump  9cm.
4. Discussion
In the recent years, under pressure on natural
resources, environmental protection, and economic
development, GBFS has been widely used for a
variety of purposes. In Vietnam, although a huge
amount of GBFS has been produced annually, they
are still not cared about utilizing function yet.
GBFS herein is just used a part as cement
admixture and the remaining is for export purpose.
Besides, the quality of domestic GBFS is not
controlled, the composition and properties are
unstable.
There have been studies about the use of
activated GBFS as an additive for cement
production, additive for concrete and mortar,
backfill material, earth cover material,
embankment material, road subgrade improvement
material, sand compaction material, ground
drainage layers, etc. However, those studies have
been in small scale. The authorities association of
Vietnam government, i.e. Ministry of
363
Construction, has been issued the guideline on iron
and steel slag for use as building materials after
decision No.430/QD-BXD [3], and the related
building codes such as TCVN 4315 [7].
A considerable scientific projects aiming at
“study granulated blast furnace slag for cement
production in Vietnam” have been executed. This
study gave the crucial assessments about the use of
GBFS as an additive for cement and concrete
production as well as their influence on
environment and human health. Ministry of
Construction of Vietnam has issued the technical
guidelines related to use of GBFS. This mentioned
about the classification and identification of the
properties, the impact on environment of iron and
steel slag, and the use as building materials. The
guideline also addresses on the applications of
GBFS as the mineral additive for cement, concrete
production, as fine aggregates for concrete,
material for embankment, road construction, as
well as guide for use of iron and steel slag.
However, the guidelines is still quite basic, no
specific and detail instructions for each types of
slag at different stages of designation, construction,
and maintenance, etc. Hence, there could be many
difficulties during using each type of slag due to
the unclear and less detailed instructions. In fact,
most of the GBFS in Vietnam has only been used
as an additive in cement production. Research and
application of GBFS for abundant purposes of
building materials has been almost neglected.
This study contributes to supply several
technical properties and characteristics of typical
GBFS in Vietnam as a basis for their application
for building materials purposes. The obtained
results indicate that GBFS is in range of medium to
coarse grained size, bulk specific gravity is
approximate 1.0 g/cm3, specific gravity is just 2.2
g/cm3, and content of CaO and SiO2 is around 35-
37%. This basic properties of Vietnamese GBFS is
different from that of Japan as well as other
developed countries. Mechanical properties of
GBFS is also indirectly evaluated by concrete
mixture used a part of this slag. The study
experimented two cases of water/cement ratio for
the concrete mixture, i.e. w/c ratio is constant and
inconstant. As w/c ratio is constant, the difference
of compressive strength of the specimens is almost
negligible. Although there is also a small gap of
compressive strength between control mix of M0
and the replacement BGFS specimens of M1’ and
M2’. However, the slump of concrete mixture is
totally different. The initial slump of M1’ and M2’
gets 2.5cm and 2.0cm. Concrete mixture with such
slump will cause difficulties for the actual
construction. For w/c ratio is inconstant, which
slump is kept at 9.0cm the difference of
compressive and flexural strength between control
mix of M0 and the rest ones is significant.
Compressive and flexural strength of the
specimens decrease as the amount of GBFS
increase in the concrete mixture.
5. Conclusions
The quality of GBFS in Vietnam is normally
not controlled, its composition and properties are
unstable. This may lead to difficulties in
applicability of GBFS as building material
purposes. This paper focuses on the technical
properties of some GBFSs for building material
purposes. The findings are given below:
- GBFS in Vietnam is commonly in range of
medium to coarsed grained size, content of CaO
and SiO2 is around 35-37%. This basic properties
of Viernamese GBFS is different from that of
Japan, where the slag is almost controlled in high
and stable quality.
- The mechanical properties of GBFS is
indirectly evaluated. In case of the w/c ratio = 0.56,
slump of the concrete mixture decreases as the
GBFS increases. The compressive strength of the
partial GBFS specimens reaches value of the
control mix. In case of the w/c ratio = 0.56-0.66,
slump is kept almost constant. The compressive
strength values at all mixed ratio and all curing
time of replacement GBFS specimens is lower than
those of control mix. The amount of GBFS is
lower, the compressive strength is higher. Flexural
strength of the specimens decreases as the amount
of GBFS increases. Flexural strength values of the
partial GBFS specimens are lower than those of
control mix.
- GBFS in Vietnam are suitable for making
civil engineering works and ground improvement
364
materials. However, it should take much more
studies to make it clearer.
Acknowledgements
The paper is completed with the support of the
project “Applicable ability the Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag as fine aggregate in concrete for
sustainable resource development”, VNU-School
of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vietnam National
University, Hanoi.
References
1 European Standard EN 15167-1: 2006.
Ground granulated blast furnace slag for
use in concrete, mortar and grout - Part 1:
Definitions, specifications and conformity
criteria.
2 European Standard EN 15167-2: 2006.
Ground granulated blast furnace slag for
use in concrete, mortar and grout - Part 2:
Conformity evaluation.
3 Ministry of Construction, 2017. Decision
No.430/QD-BXD: Guideline on iron and
steel slag for use as building materials.
4 Nguyen Ngoc Truc & Nguyen Van Vu,
2018. Partial replacement of natural sand
by granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) in
fine aggregate for concrete: practical
application in Vietnam. Proc. of the 18th
International Multidisciplinary Scientific
GeoConference SGEM2018. Albena,
Bulgaria.
5 Nippon Slag Association and Coastal
Development Institute of Technology,
2000. Guidebook for the Use of Iron and
Steel Slag in Port and Harbor
Construction.
6 TCVN 7570: 2006. Aggregates for concrete
and mortar – Specifications.
7 TCVN 4315: 2007. Granulated blast furnace
slag for cement production.
8 TCVN 9338:2012. Heavyweight concrete
mixtures - Determination of time of
setting.
9 TCVN 3016: 1993. Heavyweight concrete
compounds - Slump test.
 REUSABILITY THE BOTTOM ASH FROM THERMAL POWER PLANT
(CTPP) FOR GRADED MATERIALS AND CONCRETE AGGREGATE BASED
ON PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Nguyen Thi Nu1, Nguyen Ngoc Dung1, Nhu Viet Ha1,

Duong Van Binh1, Phan Tu Huong2, Ta Thi Toan1
1
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Architectural, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: nguyenthinu@humg.edu.vn

Abstract: This paper presents the results in particle size analysis of the ash (fly and bottom ashes)
from coal thermal power plant and suggests direction of use them to form natural gradated material for
pavement, cement concrete aggregate and building mortar. The objects of this study are the ashes from
An Khanh and Cao Ngan CTPP, Thai Nguyen province. The particle size of the ashes are analysised then
compared to national standards (TCVNs). The results indicated that the ash from An Khanh CTPP
belongs to C or D grade, which can be used directly to form natural materials. In contrast, the particle size
of the ash from Cao Ngan CTPP needs to be improved for the standard grade. For forming cement
concrete aggregate and construction mortar, both ashes from two CTPPs need to be improved particle size
for standard grade.

Keywords: ash; particle size; coal thermal power plant; aggregate.

1. Introduction sources of environmental and ecological pollution

The ash from CTPPs has been studied to use in
various fields by researchers around the world. The
results that applying in transport field such as
American Coal Ash Association (2003), Behera
(2010), Revathi (2009). In 2010, Cetin, Aydilek et
al also studied CBR parameters and elastic
modulus of mix of ash with recycled materials to
form pavement as well as recommended fly ash
content. In soil treatment field, Ismaiel (2006),
Edil, Acosta et al. (2006) studied the usage fly ash
from CTPPs for fine grained soils. Those results
showed a prospect using the waste ash from coal
thermal power plants on the world.
In Vietnam, CTPP is now evaluated as an
useful solution with low cost, short constructive
time, low investment, and high capacity as a timely
adapt in rising electricity for economic
development. Many CTPPs have been built such as
Na Duong, An Khanh, Cao Ngan, Thai Binh, Vinh
Tan, Duyen Hai, etc. in the last decades. However,
the biggest problem of CTPPs is the ash (fly and
bottom ash), which is light in weight, easily
dispersible with metal components. They will be
when accumulated. Currently, there were some
studies about ash to use for roads by Bui Anh Tuan
(2016), Chu Thi Hong Nhan, Tran Ngoc Huy et al.
(2014), Do Van Nu (2010), Nguyen Manh Thuy
and Do Duc Tuan (2005). However, the ashes have
different characteristics that wasting from different
CTPP thus studies to apply for different fields are
very important and still a topical question.
2. Materials and procedure
The object of the study is the ashes from CTPPs
of An Khanh and Cao Ngan, Thai Nguyen
province. The samples of ashes were taken in
waste disposal sites of these CTPPs. The principle
of sampling according to two steps: (1) preliminary
dividing areas that have uniform particle size on
the basis of the survey all of the dumping sites; and
(2) taking representative samples for areas that
have the difference of identical particle size in the
step 1.
To determine the particle size of ash to evaluate
the reuse them as natural materials for pavement
structure according to TCVN 8857: 2011 (2011),
we conducted particle size test according to TCVN

365
7572-2: 2006 (2006) using sieve size 50; 25; 9; 5;
4,75; 2; 0.425; 0.075 mm. To determine the
particle size of ash to evaluate the reuse them as
concrete aggregate and construction mortar
according to TCVN 7572-2: 2006 (2006). With
raw coarse aggregate on 5mm sieve, using screen
sieve of 100; 70; 40; 20; 10; 5 mm. With fine
aggregate using sieve size 2.5; 1,25; 0.63; 0.315
and 0.14mm.
The ash samples were processed by: (1) drying
in windy condition, (2) divided into 4 parts, then
extracting the standard weight and using the sieve
method to analyze the particle size. The samples
were sieved through the sieves and weighed the
residue on the sieve, calculating the percentage
content of the granules. For the purpose of
evaluating the reuse them as a natural material for
pavement structure, the screening (%) is calculated
and compared with the particle size of the natural
materials within the standard grade boundary
(TCVN 8857: 2011). For the purpose of evaluating
the reuse of them as concrete aggregate and
construction mortar, we need to determine the
individual residue, cumulative residue, modulus,
Dmax and Dmin of aggregates to compare with the
allowable limits of particle size in the standard
(TCVN 7572-2: 2006).
Testing were conducted at Geotechnical
Laboratory LAS -XD 928, Engineering Geology
Department, Hanoi University of Mining and
Geology.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Evaluation of reusing ash as natural
materials for pavement structure
The results of particle size analysis from
samples taken at An Khanh and Cao Ngan plants
are shown in Table 1 - 2 and Figure 1 - 2. The
results showed that the coal ash from An Khanh
plant (Table 1, Fig. 1) has coarse particle size and
non-uniform are much more than coal ash from
Cao Ngan plant (Table 2, Figure 2).

Tab. 1. Particle size of ash samples from An Khanh plant

Particle size, Screening (square sieve), % mass
mm AK1 AK2 AK3 AK4 AK5 AK6
50 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0
25 100,0 99,0 98,2 98,2 100,0 98,3
9,5 94,4 83,9 77,7 89,2 90,6 77,0
4,75 84,0 63,7 57,5 70,8 65,1 54,8
4,75 71,4 45,0 40,6 52,8 43,9 42,5
0,425 44,5 23,0 21,5 29,6 17,3 25,4
0,075 4,4 3,5 1,2 3,2 1,3 2,7
< 0,075 0,1 0,1 0,1 1,5 0,0 0,1

Tab. 1. Particle size of ash samples from Cao Ngan plant

Particle size, Screening (square sieve), % mass
mm CN1 CN2 CN3 CN4 CN5 CN6
50 100 100 100 100 100 100
25 100 100 100 100 100 100
9,5 99.6 99.7 99.7 99.5 99.8 99.4
4,75 96.0 96.1 96.5 95.6 96.6 95.2
4,75 87.8 86.5 87.0 85.9 87.9 84.0
0,425 39.2 39.0 38.7 35.8 36.4 30.0
0,075 3.5 5.0 3.6 3.0 4.5 2.1
< 0,075 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

366
 Fig. 1. Particle size of ash samples from An Khanh plant and standard grade range

Tab. 3. Particle size of natural grade according to TCVN 8857:2011 (2011)

Screening (square sieve), % mass
Grade
50 mm 25 mm 9,5 mm 4,75 mm 2,0 mm 0,425mm 0,075mm
A 100 - 30 - 65 25 - 55 15 - 40 8 - 20 2-8
B 100 75 - 95 40 - 75 30 - 60 20 - 45 15 - 30 5 - 20
C - 100 50 - 85 35 - 65 25 - 50 15 - 30 5 - 15
D - 100 60 - 100 50 - 85 40 - 70 25 - 45 5 - 20

Fig. 2. Particle size of ash samples from Cao Ngan plant and standard grade range

According to Table 3, the coal ash from Cao
Ngan plant (Figure 2) is not classified as standard
grade, while the coal ash from An Khanh plant
(Figure 1) is classified as type C (4/6 samples) and
as type D (2/6 samples).
According to the standard of particle size, the
coal ash from An Khanh plant is capable of direct
reuse as a natural materials for the road pavement
structure. Cao Ngan coal ash can not be re-used
directly. It is also necessary to add coarse grains
and reduce fine grains according to the method of
grade change. The particle size of ash was
calculated for CN1 in accordance with natural
grade of types C and D as shown in Tables 4 and 5.
Other samples may use the same method to adjust
the grade in accordance with standards.

367
Tab. 4. Calculation sheet for ash particle size in accordance with grade C (TCVN 8857: 2011) for CN1 -
Cao Ngan plant
Grade CN1
Particle
Standard Screening, Content, Add/reduce New content Adjusted screening,
size, mm
, type C % % % % %
50 - 100 0,0 0,0 100
25 100,0 100,0 0,0 +0 0,0 100
9,5 50 - 85 99,6 0,4 +15 15,4 84,6
4,75 35 - 65 96,0 3,5 +20 23,5 61,0
2 25 - 50 87,8 8,2 +3 11,2 49,8
0,425 15 - 30 39,2 48,6 -28,0 20,6 29,2
0,075 5 - 15 3,5 35,6 -20,0 15,6 13,5

Tab. 5. Calculation sheet for ash particle size in accordance with grade D (TCVN 8857: 2011) for CN1 -
Cao Ngan plant
Grade CN1
Particle
standard Screening Add/reduce New Adjusted screening,
size, mm Content %
type C % % content, % %
50 - 100 0 0,0 100
25 100 100,0 0,0 +0 0,0 100
9,5 60 - 100 99,6 0,4 +0 0,4 99,6
4,75 50 - 85 96,0 3,5 +0 3,5 96,0
2 40 - 70 87,8 8,2 +0 8,2 87,8
0,425 25 - 45 39,2 48,6 0,0 48,6 39,2
0,075 5 - 20 3,5 35,6 -16,0 19,6 19,5
< 0,075 0,2 3,4

From the calculation tables, it is necessary to
change the particle size (Table 4) to conform to the
grade C. To be consistent with the grade D (Table
5), we need to reduce the particle size 0.075 -
0.425.
3.2. Evaluation of reusing ash as concrete
aggregate and construction mortar
Results of particle analysis to evaluate the reuse
of ash for concrete aggregate and construction
mortar from samples taken at An Khanh and Cao
Ngan plants are shown in Table 6-11. The
cumulative residues of the An Khanh ash samples
are shown in Table 6 and the Cao Ngan plant in
Table 7. According to the data, ash content of both
plants has both coarse aggregate (rubble) and fine
aggregate (sand).

368
 Tab. 2. The cumulative residues of the An Khanh ash samples
Particle size, The cumulative residues Ai, %
mm AK1 AK2 AK3 AK4 AK5 AK6
> 40 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0
20 0,5 0,8 1,9 1,7 0,0 1,9
10 5,8 15,4 19,9 9,8 4,8 22,6
5 16,8 38,5 43,5 31,7 28,8 50,7
2,5 30,1 57,6 61,0 51,8 53,3 63,1
1,25 36,4 64,0 66,7 58,3 62,0 67,0
0,63 45,1 70,9 73,3 66,1 72,2 72,6
0,314 63,9 81,6 83,6 78,4 86,3 82,1
0,14 74,5 86,7 88,5 84,5 91,1 87,1
Content %
< 0,14 25.27 13.11 11.29 14.95 8.40 12.79

Tab. 3. The cumulative residues of the Cao Ngan ash samples

Particle size, The cumulative residues Ai, %
mm CN1 CN2 CN3 CN4 CN5 CN6
> 40 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0
20 0,1 0,2 0,4 0,2 0,4 0,4
10 4,8 4,2 3,6 4,5 3,0 5,5
5 14,6 14,3 13,0 14,2 11,5 16,5
2,5 22,7 23,0 21,4 22,8 19,0 25,0
1,25 36,2 37,2 36,2 37,8 33,7 40,4
0,63 73,1 72,5 72,0 73,6 70,4 74,1
0,314 82,9 83,6 82,9 84,1 82,3 85,2
0,14 99,2 99,9 96,9 99,6 99,4 99,8
Content, %
< 0,14 16.28 16.30 13.98 15.48 17.05 14.51

The results of the coarse grained (rubble)
analysis show that the ash from An Khanh plant
(Table 8) has a coarse grained content of 16.8 to
50.6%, and Cao Ngan ash (Table 9) has a coarse
grained content of 2.98 to 4.85%. Accordingly, ash
from An Khanh plant has 3 samples that meet the
standards of grading, 3 samples do not reach grade.
For the use of coarse aggregate, we only need to
add individual residue ai (AK1: a10 = + 5%, AK4:
a10 = + 9%, AK5: a10 = + 23%) after remove fine
grain to achieve cumulative residue at 10-20mm
particle size. As for Cao Ngan ash, the grading is
not within the permitted range. In order to use
them, we need to adjust the particle size to
conform to the standard of grading method as
shown in Table 4-5.

369
 Tab. 4. Content of coarse grained grade (rubble) according to standards
and ash samples from An Khanh plant
Properties AK1 AK2 AK3 AK4 AK5 AK6 VN Standard
70 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cumulative 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
percent Particle
20 3 2 4 5 0 4 0-10
retained, size, mm
Ai,% 10 35 40 46 31 17 45 40-70
5 100 100 100 100 100 100 90-100
Dmax 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Dmin 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Remark Fail Pass Pass Fail Fail Pass Pass

Tab. 5. Content of coarse grained grade (rubble) according to standards

and ash samples from Cao Ngan plant
Properties CN1 CN2 CN3 CN4 CN5 CN6 VN Standard
70 0 1 2 3 4 5
Cumulativ 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Particle
e percent
size, 20 1 1 2 1 3 2 0-10
retained,
mm
Ai,% 10 25 23 23 25 23 26 40-70
5 100 100 100 100 100 100 90-100
Dmax 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Dmin 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Remark Fail Fail Fail Fail Fail Fail Pass

The results of the fine grained grade (sand)
analysis showed that the An Khanh ash (Table 10)
had a fine grained content of 11.9 to 30.5%. Cao
Ngan ash had the fine grained content of 15.4 to
17.7%. Accordingly, the ashes from both plant did
not meet the particle size requirements for
construction concrete. When used for construction
concrete, it is possible to adjust the particle size to
conform to the standard according to the grading
method, as shown in Table 4-5.

Tab. 6. Content of fine grained grade (sand) according to standards and ash samples from An Khanh plant
Properties AK1 AK2 AK3 AK4 AK5 AK6 VN Standard
2,5 16,0 31,2 31,0 29,6 34,7 25.2 0-20
Cumulativ
1,25 23,6 41,5 41,1 39,2 47,0 33.2 15-45
e percent
Particle
retained, 0,63 34,1 52,9 52,9 50,8 61,5 44.7 35-70
size,
Ai,% 0,314 56,8 70,3 71,2 68,9 81,3 63.8 65-90
mm
0,14 69,5 78,6 80,0 77,9 88,1 74.0 90-100
<
Content, % 30,5 21,4 20,0 22,1 11,9 26.0 < 10
0,14
Fineness Modulus, Mk 2,0 2,7 2,8 2,7 3,1 2,4 2,0-3,3
Sand classification Coarse sand
Remark Fail Pass

370
Tab. 7. Content of fine grained grade (sand) according to standards and ash samples from Cao Ngan plant
Vietnam
Properties CN1 CN2 CN3 CN4 CN5 CN6
Standard
2,5 10,3 10,7 10,1 10,2 8,9 11,7 0-20
Cumulative
1,25 18,9 19,6 19,1 19,3 16,6 20,7 15-45
percent Particle
retained, size, 0,63 33,3 34,6 35,0 35,0 31,8 37,0 35-70
Ai,% mm 0,314 72,3 71,4 73,3 72,6 70,0 72,8 65-90
0,14 82,7 83,0 85,0 83,7 82,3 84,6 90-100
Content, % < 0,14 17,3 17,0 15,0 16,3 17,7 15,4 < 10
Fineness Modulus, Mk 2,18 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,1 2,3 2,0-3,3
Sand classification Coarse sand
Remark Fail Pass

4. Conclusion and recommendations [2] Behera, R. K. (2010). Characterization of

The particle size of the coal ashes are varied,
depending on the technology and input materials of
the plants. At each plant, there is also a certain
nonuniformity due to the difference between the
batches.
According to the standards for particle size
grade, the An Khanh coal ashes are suitable for
natural materials of grades C or D, so they can be
recycled directly as natural materials for pavement
structure. Cao Ngan coal ashes are not able to
directly reuse, to re-use them as natural materials,
we need to change their grade according to natural
grade type C or D.
With the ability to reuse ash for concrete
aggregate and construction mortar, the coarse
aggregates from An Khanh ashes can be used
directly in concrete or add a content from 5 to 23%
to particle size 20mm-10mm. Meanwhile, the fine
aggregate of the ashes at both plants are not up to
standard, we need to change the particle size to
meet the requirements.
In order to completely evaluate the reuse of
coal ash as natural materials, concrete aggregate
and construction mortar; We need to study more
characteristics according to the specialized
standards.
References
[1] American Coal Ash Association (2003).
Fly ash facts for highway engineers, US
Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration.
Fly ash for their effective management and
utilization.
[3] Bui Anh Tuan (2016). To study the proper
use of waste ash from coal power plants in
road construction. PhD thesis, University
of Transport, Hanoi.
[4] Chu Thi Hong Nhan, Tran Ngoc Huy and
Nguyen Huu Tri (2014). Gravel aggregate
in fly ash cement coated with asphalt
mortar for rural roads. Annual Scientific
and Technological Conference, Institute of
Transport Science and Technology.
[5] Do Van Nu (2010). The application of new
technologies and materials in the
construction of rural roads. Department of
Science and Technology of Hung Yen
Province.
[6] Edil, T. B., H. A. Acosta and C. H. Benson
(2006). "Stabilizing soft fine-grained soils
with fly ash." Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering 18(2): 283-294.
[7] Ismaiel, H. A. H. (2006). Treatment and
improvement of the geotechnical
properties of different soft fine-grained
soils using chemical stabilization, Shaker.
[8] Nguyen Manh Thuy and Do Duc Tuan
(2005). Some results of researching
reinforced soil material by fly ash cement
in the pavement structure in Tay Ninh
province. The 9th Science and Technology

371
 Conference, Ho Chi Minh City University
of Technology.
[9] Revathi, V. (2009). "Studies on the
properties of High volume fly ash gypsum
slurry With quarry waste and its use in
Pavement base course."
[10] TCVN 8857:2011 (2011). Natural
Aggregate for Road Pavement Layers
Specification for Material, Construction
and Acceptance. Ha Noi.

372
 EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL OF HIGH-ACCURACY LANDSLIDE
DETECTION AND MONITORING BASED ON NEW REMOTE SENSING DATA
AND TECHNIQUES

Nhu Viet Ha 1
1
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: vietha.nhu@gmail.com

Abstract: Landslides are types of natural hazards and landsliding processes affect most countries in
the world and represent a global problem. They continuous growth of the world population, with
urbanization of areas susceptible to failure, combined with the increasing climate variability, imply
greater vulnerability and risk. Remote sensing data and technology can be considered a powerful and
well-established instrument for landslide detection and monitoring. The use of remote sensing for
landslide detection and monitoring has diversified in recent years owing to an increase in data availability
and technological advances in their interpretation. This paper explores the potential of high-accuracy
landslide detection and monitoring based on new remote sensing data and techniques. The results
illustrate that is not possible to recommend a single data type or processing solution that will work under
all conditions. The SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) and InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture
Radar) techniques are of considerable value for monitoring but optical data offers several advantages over
SAR in detection. SAR imagery also would be most useful for multitemporal analysis with preferable and
spectral enhancement is required as storm-induced landsliding. Furthermore, researches using MTI
(multi-temporal interferometry) techniques based on the Sentinel-1 for landslide detection and monitoring
have an excellent potential in comparing with the MTI based on ENVISAT data. By offering regular
global-scale coverage, improved temporal resolution, the new radar satellite mission Sentinel-1 can now
guarantee wider and more efficient application of MTI for this field. With number of radar satellites and
improved data processing tools are strongly increasing, high-accuracy landslide detection and monitoring
can now benefit from high quality information obtainable using MTI techniques and images acquired by
SAR satellites to grow in the future.

Keywords: landslide; detection; monitoring; hazard; remote sensing.

1. Introduction occur via predicting models. However, all spatial

Landslides are types of natural hazards and
recognized in many areas throughout the world.
There are many definitions of a landslide but in
commonly accepted international usage the term
landslide refers to “the movement of a mass of
rock, debris or earth down a slope (Cruden 1991,
Cruden and Varnes 1996). These movements can
be merely inconvenient but can from time to time
become seriously damaging or even disastrous in
their proportions and effects. In regional studies,
landslide is commonly mapping to provide
recognition of areas where landslides exist or may
landslide predictions need information about
history of landslide in study area. Thus, landslide
detection and monitoring are a principle and
essential parts of landslide hazard analysis. The
results of landslide detection and monitoring can
provide historical information expressing the
knowledge of the landslides in an area as locations
and outlines of landslides as single or multiple
events. Based on this, landslide models will
analyse predict future patterns of instability
directly from the past distribution of landslide
deposits.

373
 Landslide detection and monitoring can be
carried out through field investigations and
observations of the Earth using remote sensing
techniques and aerial photography. By field
investigations, evidence of current and former
landsliding can be determined from slope
morphology, sedimentary deposits, or impact
features (e.g. deformed trees). The observation of
the Earth from space has found many uses in the
natural sciences, but it is only in the last decades
that technological advances have also extended to
landslides (Ferretti, Prati et al. 2001). It greatly
aids in the landslides detection and monitoring on
both local and regional scale. Although these
cannot replace fieldwork, for interdisciplinary
research strategies and testing of reliability of
landslide prediction models. These techniques do
offer an additional tool from which it can extract
information about landslide causes and
occurrences. These are mainly related to
morphology, vegetation, and hydrologic conditions
of a slope. The aerial photography provides a
useful resource for identifying and mapping of
landslides. The orthophoto maps at larger scales
are very useful as bases for both geomorphic and
landslide hazard maps. In addition, comparing
aerial photographs of an area taken at different
times can give an indication of the frequency and
extent of landslide events. It is important to use
photographs from different periods spanning as
much time as possible, as land development can
often conceal the presence of landslide features
(Ha 2008). Conventional methods of landslide
detection and monitoring using the remote sensing
is benefit when it allows rapid and easily updatable
acquisitions of landslide detection and monitoring
over wide areas, reducing field work and costs.
Therefore, exploring the potential of high-accuracy
landslide detection and monitoring based on new
remote sensing data and techniques to use of
complementary, cost-effective or economically
sustainable approaches to landslide detection and
assessment is an important issue.
2. Remote sensing commonly used in landslide
detection and monitoring
374
Landslide has become increasingly common,
due in part to increased awareness of
environmental issues such as climate change, but
also to the increase in geospatial technologies and
the ability to provide up-to-date imagery to the
public through the media and internet (Ferretti,
Fumagalli et al. 2011). Many satellites and sensors
have developed for natural sciences, the details of
a number of satellites and sensors that are
commonly used or have the potential for landslide
detection and monitoring are shown in Table 1.
Applications are originating from nearly all types
of sensors available today. The remotely sensed
data types and techniques for landslide detection
and monitoring extraction are also summarized in
Table 2. For instance, rapid developments in this
field are fostered by the very high spatial
resolution obtained by optical systems (currently in
the order of tens of centimeters) and by the
launching of SAR sensors. SAR is built for
interferometric applications with revisit times of a
few days, such as Terra SAR-X and Cosmo-
Skymed. In fact, both optical and SAR imagery are
used in landslide detection and monitoring. It
indicates that, the results of landslide detection and
monitoring from optical imagery are suffer from
misclassification with bare ground areas than SAR
one. In commonly conditions, they will provide for
better results due to spatial resolution and sensor
look angle. For storm-induced landsliding that
multitemporal analysis is preferable and spectral
enhancement is required, SAR imagery would be
most useful where cloud cover impeded optical
acquisition. However, it is difficulties can arise
with SAR imagery in areas of high slopes due to
layover and shadowing effects (Joyce, Belliss et al.
2009).
Recently, a new optical imagery generation of
high-resolution satellites (such as World-View,
Geo-eye, Pleiades, etc.) has resolutions ranging
from 0.5 m to 2 m, allows quick reproduction of
spatial landslide detection with inventory maps up
to a scale of 1:2000. Visual interpretation, with
without onscreen digitizing of both two- and three-
dimensional data, has been commonly used in the
past and is still an effective method of landslide
mapping. The analysis of optical imagery for this
can be commonly performed via steps as: (i) visual
interpretation of single and stereoscopic images (Soeters and van Westen 1996);

Tab. 1. Some commonly used satellites and sensors for landslide detection and monitoring (modified after
Joyce, Belliss et al. (2009))
Nadir spatial resolution
Satellite Sensor Swath (km) Revisit capability
(m)
variable variable > 0.1
Airborne
CASI variable 1–2 Mobilized to order
sensors
Hymap 100–225 2–10
Panchromatic 16.4 0.46
Worldview 1.1 days
Multispectral 16.4 1.85
Panchromatic 16.5 0.6
Quickbird 1.5–3 days
Multispectral 16.5 2.4
Panchromatic 11 1
Ikonos 1.5–3 days
Multispectral 11 4
RapidEye^ Multispectral 77 x 1500 6.5 1 day
ALI 60 30
EO-1 Every 16 days
Hyperion 7.5 30
Terra ASTER 60 153,090 4–16 days
Terra / At least twice daily for each
MODIS 2300 250, 500, 1000
Aqua satellite
PRISM
35 4
AVNIR Several times per year
70 10
ALOS PALSAR (Fine) as per JAXA acquisition
40–70 10
PALSAR plan
250–350 100
(ScanSAR)
SPOT-4 Panchromatic 60–80 10 11 times every 26 days
Panchromatic 60–80 5
SPOT-5 11 times every 26 days
Multispectral 60–80 10
Panchromatic 15 1
Kompsat 2–3 days
Multispectral 15 1
TM Multispectral 185 30
Landsat-5 Every 16 days
TM Thermal 185 120
ETM+
Panchromatic 185 15
Landsat-7* ETM+ 185 30 Every 16 days
Multispectral 185 60
ETM+ Thermal
NOAA AVHRR 2399 1100 Several times per day
Envisat MERIS 575 300 2–3 days
Radarsat-2 Ultra-fine 20 3 Every few days
Radarsat-
Fine 50 8
1/-2
Radarsat-2 Quad-pol fine 25 8
Radarsat-
Standard 100 25
1/-2
Radarsat-2 Quad-pol standard 25 25
Radarsat-1 Wide 150 30
Radarsat-
ScanSAR narrow 300 50
1/-2
Radarsat-
ScanSAR wide 500 100
1/-2
Radarsat-
Extended high 75 25
1/-2
Radarsat-1 Extended low 170 35
ERS-2 100 30 35-day repeat cycle

375
 ASAR standard 100 30
Envisat 36-day repeat cycle
ASAR ScanSAR 405 1000
Spotlight 10 1
TerraSAR- 11-day repeat cycle;
Stripmap 30 3
X 2.5-day revisit capability
ScanSAR 100 18
Cosmo- Spotlight 10 <1
~37 hours
Skymed^ Stripmap 40 3–15
ScanSAR 100-200 30–100

(ii) image classification with semi-automated
pixel-based methods (Borghuis, Chang et al. 2007,
Marcelino, Formaggio et al. 2009); (iii) image
classification with semi-automated object-oriented
methods (Martha, Kerle et al. 2010, Lu, Stumpf et
al. 2011, Stumpf and Kerle 2011); (iv) change
detection techniques (Nichol and Wong 2005,
Weirich and Blesius 2007, Tsai, Hwang et al.
2010); and (v) correlation of optical images
(Delacourt, Allemand et al. 2007, Leprince, Barbot
et al. 2007, Debella-Gilo and Kääb 2011). The
manual techniques (manual image analysis) benefit
from the analyst’s knowledge of the area, though
they cannot be automated, and are impracticably
time-consuming when detecting widespread for
numerous landslides. To overcome this, some
emerging studies are attempting to use more
automated extraction techniques as: (i) utilizing
band ratios (Cheng, Wei et al. 2004, Rau, Chen et
al. 2007), (ii) unsupervised (Dymond, Ausseil et al.
2006), and (iii) supervised classification (Joyce,
Dellow et al. 2008). It has been indicated that the
manual techniques had highest accuracy but was
considerably more time-consuming for a
widespread event. In case of imagery is available
both before and after a landsliding event, the
multitemporal image analysis is a valuable
technique that can be used (Jensen and Lulla 1987,
Singh 1989). One of the more frequently used
techniques for landslide detection and monitoring
using remotely sensed data is calculation of change
in a DEM surface (Nichol, Shaker et al. 2006,
Tsutsui, Rokugawa et al. 2007). This is a usefully
technique for large landslides with considerable
vertical change in the topography. The stereo
viewing capability of several contemporary sensors
(such as SPOT, Ikonos, Quickbird) make this a
viable technique for acquiring imagery for the use
of change detection and potentially for rapid
response with landslide hazards. In addition, the
very high spatial resolution of the panchromatic
stereo imagery from the Ikonos and Quickbird
satellite sensors produce very detailed elevation
models that are considerably more cost-effective
than the equivalent areal coverage of airborne
LiDAR or SAR. The technique of DEM
differencing also allows volumetric calculation of
erosion and debris. However, stereo imaging is not
automatically acquired with all sensors and may
not be available for the specific area of interest,
especially as rapid response type imagery. In
addition, DEM extraction tools do not come as
standard with image processing software, thus
require separate add-on modules or software to
create (eg, Leica photogrammetry suite, DEM
extraction tool in ENVI) (Joyce, Belliss et al.
2009).

Tab. 2. Summary of the remotely sensed data types and techniques for landslide detection and monitoring
extraction (modified after Joyce, Belliss et al. (2009))

Sensor
Data type Technique Advantages Disadvantages
examples
Benefits from
Ikonos, analyst’s knowledge
Multispect Manual interpretation
Quickbird, of the area in addition Can be subjective, time-
ral high to (For infrastructure and
SPOT, to other interpretation consuming for widespread
moderate property damage due to
ASTER, cues such as context, events, and nonrepeatable
resolution landslides)
ALOS site, association,
shape, size; immediate

376
 vector output file

Non-unique spectral response

Spectral classification values may require additional
Relatively rapid to
(For location and extent manual editing, appropriate
apply over a large area
of landslides) algorithm must be selected for
optimal result
Semivariogram analysis
and other textural May be useful when
Only returns relative damage
classifiers spatial resolution is
estimates
(For damage due to lower than desired
location of landslides)
Simple and rapid to
Image thresholding apply, band ratios
(including band ratios) reduce illumination Determination of threshold
(For location and extent variability, can be values may be subjective
of landslides) applied with
panchromatic data
Requires before and after
imagery that is accurately co-
registered and radiometrically
balanced, only takes the
Can be conducted on spectral information from a
Image differencing
panchromatic data, single band (though this may
(For location and extent
band ratios or SAR be a ratio combination), all
of landslides)
backscatter imagery changes will be identified
regardless of their relevance to
the particular landslide; still
need to determine a threshold
of change
Requires before and after
imagery that is accurately co-
Post-classification Does not require registered, all changes will be
change detection radiometric calibration identified regardless of their
(For location and extent between multiple relevance to the particular
of landslides) images landslide, requires
classification to also be
completed on ‘before’ image

Stereo imaging is not

automatically acquired so may
DEM generation (DEM Photogrammetric not be available; DEM creation
is used as a methods can provide software is not standard in
supplementary very high resolution image processing packages –
information in variety of DEMs in the absence ie, costs extra, derived
studies) of LiDAR elevation is based on
vegetation rather than ground
height, no data in cloudy areas
JERS-1, Does not work well in densely
Coherence Provides quantitative
ERS-1/2, vegetated regions, affected by
SAR (For change detection estimation of ground
ENVISAT, seasonal changes, accuracy
due to landsliding) changes
ALOS decreases with time

377
 PALSAR, Quantitative analysis is
Can be used in cloudy
TerraSAR-X, complicated and varies
Backscatter intensity conditions, side-
Radarsat-1/2, significantly for different
(For change detection looking acquisition
Cosmo- regions, may be difficult to
due to landsliding) geometry is beneficial
SkyMed interpret for non-experienced
for certain applications
end-users
Accuracy depends on
Interferometry/DEM
acquisition geometry, wave-
generation (DEM is used
Independent of length and coherence, side-
as supplementary
weather conditions looking acquisition geometry
information in variety of
creates distortion and
studies)
shadowed areas
Dependent on spatial baseline
Differential and DEM accuracy; cannot
interferometry (Surface High precision, high determine difference between
deformation due to resolution of some vertical and horizontal
velocity and extent of new sensors components, high accuracy
slow moving landslides) only available in areas without
dense vegetation
Provides quantitative Stereo imaging is not
estimation of automatically acquired so may
PALSAR,
DTM differencing volumetric depositions not be available; DEM creation
LiDAR,
(For volume of landslide and ground change software is not standard in
TerraSAR-X,
DEM related earth movement, Photogrammetric image processing packages –
Ikonos,
fault locations and methods can provide ie, costs extra, derived
Quickbird,
elevation displacement) very high resolution elevation is based on
SPOT
DEMs in the absence vegetation rather than ground
of LiDAR height, no data in cloudy areas
Very high horizontal
Airborne and vertical resolution Acquisition of LiDAR is
LIDAR can give accurate expensive and takes a
Manual interpretation
sensors, surface elevation considerable amount of time to
SEASAT (rather than tree process
heights)

One of the most promising research fields
related to the landslide detection and monitoring
derives from the development of satellite radar
interferometry. The SAR technology consist of
usually used products as SAR backscatter
intensity, InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic
Aperture Radar) coherence, DInSAR (Differential
Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar)
interferometry, A-DInSAR (multi interferograms
SAR Interferometry). DInSAR has been used since
almost three decades, then several satellite
missions have been performed that have provided
very reach archives of SAR data. As with optical
remote sensing, there is no distinct backscatter
signature that can uniquely be associated with the
mixed targets in a landslide. Instead, it is necessary
to either use expert interpreter knowledge on a
single scene or estimate the backscatter difference
from a pre- and post-landslide event, and apply
some threshold of change (Belliss, Pairman et al.
1998). A-DInSAR techniques are PSInSAR™
(Ferretti, Prati et al. 2001), StaMPS (Stanford
Method for Persistent Scatterers) (Hooper, Zebker
et al. 2004), IPTA (Interferometric Point Target
Analysis) (Strozzi, Wegmuller et al. 2006), CPT
(Coherence Pixel Technique) (Lanari, Mora
Sacristan et al. 2004), SBAS (Small Baseline
Subset) (Casu, Manzo et al. 2006), and SPN
(Stable Point Network) (Herrera, Notti et al. 2011).
Both DInSAR and A-DInSAR can be used for
landslide monitoring in slow-moving (velocity <
13 mm yr−1 according to Cruden and Varnes
(1996)). In many cases, the A-DInSAR data have
been integrated with in situ monitoring
instrumentation (Pancioli, Raetzo et al. 2008,
Tofani, Catani et al. 2010). This joint of using

378
satellite, ground-based data facilitates, and
geological landsliding interpretation which allows
a better understanding of landslide geometry and
kinematics. However, there are still some
complications involving with SAR when detecting
backscatter difference is theoretically a
straightforward task. If the images have slightly
different viewing positions or different ground
local incidence angles, then the scenes will exhibit
an apparent change in brightness due to the
difference in local incidence angle. This
topographic difference can be corrected, provided
a good DEM is available (Pairman, Belliss et al.
1997). Based on the inherent radar brightness of a
target depends to a certain extent on surface
environmental conditions on each date. A
difference-between-dates backscatter image might
still show an overall brightness difference different
from zero (i.e., false positive). This effect is
exacerbated with shorter wavelengths. Finally,
unless the pre and post-landslide images tightly
embrace the times of the landslide event, the
difference between-dates backscatter image will
tend to falsely detect landslides that are simply due
to land-cover change – a problem that is similarly
recognized with optical imagery (Joyce, Belliss et
al. 2009).
3. High-accuracy landslide detection and
monitoring based on new remote sensing data
and techniques
Based on the increasing number of radar
satellites and improved data processing tools, high-
accuracy landslide detection and monitoring can be
feasible via multi-temporal interferometry (MTI)
techniques (e.g., PSInSAR, SBAS) and images
acquired by SAR satellites. MTI is only little
affected by bad weather and can provide long-term
(years), regular (weekly-monthly), precise (mm)
measurements of ground displacements over large
areas (thousands of km2), combined with high
spatial resolution (up to 1-3 m) (e.g., COSMOSky-
Med, TerraSAR-X) and possibility of multi-scale
(regional to site-specific) detection and monitoring
using the same series of radar images. Spatially
dense measurements can be obtained from
hundreds to thousands of data per km2.
Furthermore, by offering regular global-scale
coverage, improved temporal resolution (from 12
to 6 days) and free imagery, the new radar satellite
mission Sentinel-1 of the European Space Agency
(ESA) can now guarantee wider and more efficient
application of MTI to high-accuracy landslide
detection and monitoring (Hooper, Bekaert et al.
2012, Bally 2014, Wasowski and Bovenga 2014,
Wasowski and Bovenga 2015).

Tab. 3. Selected characteristics of principal SAR sensors (* future missions) (modified after Wasowski
and Bovenga (2014))

Wavele Resolution Repeat Max.

Satellite Life Swath width Incident Angle
ngth Az./Range Cycle Vel.
mission status (km) (degree)
(cm) (m) (days) (cm/yr)
C-band
199220
ERS-1/2 5.6 ≈ 6 / 24 35 100 14.6 23
01
200320
ENVISAT 5.6 ≈ 6 / 24 35 100 14.6 1944
10
45 (fine)
RADARSAT-1 5.5 1995 ≈ 8¸30 24 100 (Strip) 20.4 2050
200 (Scan)
≈3/3 10 (Spot)
RADARSAT-2 5.5 2007 ≈8/8 24 40 (Strip) 20.4 2050
≈ 26 / 25 200 (Scan)
201420
Sentinel-1 5.6 205 6, 12 250 85 3046
24
* RADARSAT
201820
Constellation 5.5 550 3, 12 30350 1,632 2055
26
Mission (3 Sat)

379
 L-band
199219
J-ERS 23.5 18 44 75 48.7 35
98
ALOS 200620
23.6 ≈ 5 / 788 46 4070 46.8 860
PALSAR 11
25 (Spot)
1/3
ALOS 201420 5070
22.9 310/310 14 149.2 870
PALSAR-2 19 (Strip) 350
100/100
(Scan)
* SAOCOM (2 201520
23.5 1050 8, 16 20150 268 2050
Sat) 21
X-band
17.7
10 (Spot)
COSMO- 2007¸201 ≈ 2.5 / 2.5 35.4
3.1 24,816 40 (Strip) 2060
SkyMed (4 Sat) 4 1.0 / 1.0 70.7
200 (Scan)
141.4
10 (Spot)
2007¸201 ≈ 3.3 / 2.8
TerraSAR-X 3.1 11 30 (Strip) 25.7 2055
8 1.0 / 1.0
100 (Scan)
2013- 3/3 5 (Spot)
KOMPSAT-5 3.2 28 10.4 2045
2018 1/1 30 (Strip)
*COSMO-
SkyMed-2 (2 3.1 2016 1 10
Sat)
520 (Spot)
11
*TerraSAR-X- 1024 (Strip)
3.1 2015 0.2530 (constel. 2050
NG 50400
with PAZ)
(TOPS)

MTI is based on processing of long temporal
series of SAR images (typically >15) to remove
the atmospheric disturbance, and on the selection
of radar targets on the ground that provide a
backscattered phase signal coherent in time
(Hooper, Bekaert et al. 2012). The majority of
radar targets correspond to human-made objects
(e.g., buildings and other engineered structures), as
well as to rock outcrops and bare ground. To make
distance measurements between the satellite sensor
and the target, phase difference images
(interferograms) are generated using radar images
acquired for the study area during successive
satellite passes. However, an important limitation
of MTI is the displacements are measured in one
dimension along satellite slant range or Line of
Sight (LOS), with incidence angles varying
between about 20°-50° (Table 3), and it is nearly
impossible to retrieve movements in the radar
satellite flight direction (azimuth), i.e.,
approximately north-south (Fig. 1). In addition, it
is very difficult to measure high velocity
displacements e.g., exceeding few tens of cm/year
(Table 3) and strong non-linear deformations
(Wasowski and Bovenga 2014). Launched in 2014,
the European Space Agency (ESA) Sentinel-1
satellite carrying a medium resolution (20 m) C-
Band of the SAR sensor that holds much promise
for new applications of MTI in landslide prediction
and monitoring. Specifically, the regularity of
acquisitions, timeliness of data delivery, shorter
repeat cycle (currently 12 days with Sentinel-1A
sensor), and flexible incidence angle geometry, all
imply better practical utility of MTI relying on
Sentinel-1 with respect to MTI based on data from
earlier ESA’s satellite radar C-band sensors
(ERS1/2, ENVISAT). Furthermore, the upcoming
launch of Sentinel-1B will cut down the repeat
cycle to 6 days, thereby further improving
temporal coherence and quality and coverage of
MTI products. Taking advantage of the
Interferometric Wide (IW) Swath acquisition mode

380
of Sentinel-1 (images covering a 250 km swath on
the ground), in this work we test the potential of
such data for regional scale slope instability
detection through MTI.
Most of the SAR data available before the
launch of Sentinel-1 were acquired using the
standard StripMap acquisition mode. Sentinel-1
data use another, more sophisticated, data
acquisition procedure is the Terrain Observation by
Progressive Scan (TOPS) imaging mode (Yagüe-
Martínez, Prats-Iraola et al. 2016). This mode is
key to achieve the wide area Sentinel-1 coverage.
The TOPS acquisition geometry, and in particular
the variable squint angle, requires a more complex
elaboration of the SAR images. The extra
processing mainly concerns the image co-
registration step, which needs to be very accurate
(Prats-Iraola, Scheiber et al. 2012). After the
precise image co-registration, it can be used two-
stage procedure in order to process and analyse
Sentinel-1 interferometric data for landslide
detection and monitoring are DInSAR analysis and
a multi-layer GIS analysis.
Fig. 1. Two radar acquisitions during successive
satellite passes (R = sensor-target geometrical
distance, h = target elevation, dh = target
displacement, and θ = incidence angle) (modified
after Wasowski and Bovenga (2014))
The first stage is performed in the original SAR
geometry. The second one consists in the
integration of the DInSAR derived data with
geological and geomorphological data in order to
interpret and validate the detected areas of
deformation. This information can then be used to
update the pre-existing landslide inventory maps.
This procedure can be followed through steps as:
(i) interferogram generation, (ii) spatial analysis,
(iii) analysis of pairs of interferograms, (iv)
381
temporal analysis, (v) spatio-temporal analysis,
(vi) geocoding, and (vii) multi-layer GIS analysis.
Starting from the stack of complex SAR images,
the network of interferograms should be generated
to use in the analysis. Typically, only the
interferometric pairs with the minimum temporal
baseline (eg: 12 day for Sentinel-1A data) are used.
The spatial analysis consists in the visual
inspection of the single interferograms in order to
identify spatial patterns associated with potential
deformation areas. It is worth noting that this type
of analysis can only be used to detect deformation
phenomena that are fast enough to be observed in
12-day periods, i.e. fast enough to generate phase
patterns that are visible in single interferograms.
Since the patterns are detected, the pairwise logic
approach is used. It is useful for discriminating the
deformation signal from artefacts (mainly the
residual topographic errors and the atmospheric
effects). The output of this step is a set of areas
potentially affected by deformation. Next is the
temporal analysis that involves the phase
unwrapping of the interferograms. It is done only
for those pixels with a coherence value higher than
a given threshold then derive the phase temporal
series in correspondence of the image acquisition
dates. The potential deformation areas identified in
the previous steps are analysed together with the
time series, including: (i) detecting the errors
occurred during the phase unwrapping step, (ii)
assessing the temporal behaviour of each detected
deformation phenomenon, and (iii) confirming or
modifying the shape of the detected deformation
areas. The result is the final set of detected
deformation phenomena. By geocoding, this result
is finally transformed to an external reference
system, i.e. to geographic or cartographic
coordinates. The information coming from the
previous step is then combined, in a GIS
environment, with different information layers: a
digital elevation model, aspect and slope,
orthoimages geo-lithological maps, existing
landslide inventory maps, etc. These layers are
used to carry out a geological and
geomorphological interpretation (Barra, Monserrat
et al. 2017).
4. Conclusions
Remote sensing data and technology can be
considered a powerful and well-established
instrument for landslide detection and monitoring.
The use of remote sensing for landslide detection
and monitoring has diversified in recent years
owing to an increase in data availability and
technological advances in their interpretation. It is
not possible to recommend a single data type or
processing solution that will work under all
conditions. While manual interpretation of many
data types for various applications provides a
popular mapping solution, this is unlikely to be the
way forward for rapid response and emergency
events.
SAR and InSAR techniques are of considerable
value for monitoring but optical data offers several
advantages over SAR in detection. The optical data
provides for seem better results due to spatial
resolution and sensor look angle but suffer from
misclassification with bare ground areas. Whereas
the SAR data would be most useful for
multitemporal analysis with preferable and spectral
enhancement is required as storm-induced
landsliding, where cloud cover impeded optical
acquisition. However, it is difficulties can arise
with SAR data in areas of high slopes due to
layover and shadowing effects.
Sentinel-1 SAR constellation represents a
completely new approach to SAR mission design
by ESA in direct response to the operational needs
for SAR data expressed under the EU-ESA Global
Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES)
programme. Initial researches using MTI based on
the Sentinel-1 for landslide detection and
monitoring have an excellent potential in
comparing with the MTI based on ENVISAT data
(ESA satellite retired few years ago). Furthermore,
by offering regular global-scale coverage,
improved temporal resolution (from 12 to 6 days)
and free imagery, the new radar satellite mission
Sentinel-1 can now guarantee wider and more
efficient application of MTI to high-accuracy
landslide detection and monitoring.
Finally, based on the increasing number of
radar satellites and improved data processing tools,
high-accuracy landslide detection and monitoring
can now benefit from high quality information
obtainable using multi-temporal interferometry
382
techniques and images acquired by satellite
synthetic aperture radars. As the importance of
good spatial data is becoming increasingly
recognized, remote sensing in high-accuracy
landslide detection and monitoring is likely to
grow in the future.
Acknowledgement
This research is funded by Vietnam National
Foundation for Science and Technology
Development (NAFOSTED) under grant number
105.08-2017.316.
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[44] Yagüe-Martínez, N., P. Prats-Iraola, F. R.
Gonzalez, R. Brcic, R. Shau, D. Geudtner, M.
Eineder and R. Bamler (2016).
"Interferometric processing of Sentinel-1
TOPS data." IEEE Transactions on
Geoscience and Remote Sensing 54(4): 2220-
2234.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 4th INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE VIETGEO 2018

QUANG BINH, VIETNAM

21&22 September 2018

SESSION 4

GEOHAZARDS AND SLOPE STABILITY

 REMEDY OF A COLLAPSED RIVERBANK
PROTECTION STRUCTURE IN THAILAND

Suksun Horpibulsuk1, Artit Udcomchai1, Menglim Hoy1, Arul Arulrajah2

1
Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand;
2
Swinburne University of Technology, Australia
Corresponding author’ Email: suksun@g.sut.ac.th
Abstract: This paper presents the case study of the collapsed riverbank protection structure along the
Pasal river in Saraburi province, Thailand. The site investigation and finite element analysis using
PLAXIS 2D results show that the failure occurred in sliding mode due to the natural forces. During the
rainy season, water flow from the farmlands to the river by crossing the backfill of the retaining wall.
Hence, seepage force was developed in the direction of the flow and induced stability of the riverbank
protection. Furthermore, the rivers and streams continuously scour the banks and undermined the natural
slope, which caused the soil erosion in passive zone and resulted in instability. Based on these causes of
failure, a new reinforced retaining wall structure using bored pile, geocomposite, and riprap at the front of
retaining wall to protect the circular failure mechanism, seepage forces, as well as soil erosion and
sedimentation, respectively was designed. The finite element verification on the new retaining wall
structure showed that this structure hand a sufficient factor of safety against the external and internal
slope failure.
Keywords: riverbank protection structure; seepage force; erosion; finite element analysis.

1. Introduction district, Saraburi province. However,

The Pasak river is a river in a central Thailand.
It originates in Loei province and passes through
Phetchabun province and Saraburi province, until
it joins together with the Lopburi river in Lupburi
province before it flows into the Chao Phraya river
in southeast of Ayutthaya province, Thailand. The
valley of the Pasak river through the Sao Hai
district is the main part of Saraburi province.
However, as the watershed of the river is rather
narrow, the amount of water in the river varies
seasonally. As a result, the erosion and
sedimentation are natural phenomenon and
processes, which cause the destruction of
tremendous properties and land nearby the river
bank. Thus, the Department of Public Works and
Town & Country Planning (DPT) under the
Ministry of Interior has constructed the riverbank
protection (retaining wall) to protect the
devastation of the river bank.
The retaining wall construction consist of 400
m long lies along the Pasak river in Sao Hai
approximately 68 m long of the embankment (from
the Station 10+022 to 10+090) collapsed at the
curvature of the watershed area, where faced to the
direction of river flow. Hence, a new reinforced
riverbank protection structure was designed and
constructed to protect this failure section. The
retaining wall structure was constructed by using
the anchor system with reinforced concrete
structure. The construction completely ended on
March 2012.
After 7 months of the construction, on October
2012, the failure of the anchor retaining wall
structure caused by the lateral force, which
approximately 5.5 m of the retained soil mass
moved laterally toward. The river side was
observed. Therefore, the DPT has designed the
second retaining wall structure using driven piles
as a wall facing and reinforced concrete beams as
bracing, as shown in Fig. 1. Furthermore, the
additional design of riprap to protect the attack of
erosion on the river bank. After about 2 months of

387
the construction, lateral movement again occurred
along the retaining wall, though the major
settlement of the embankment was not observed.
However, large lateral movement occurred due to
heavy rainfall, which resulted in excessive
settlement of the backfill and also resulted in
failure of the retaining wall in early of November
2014.
Therefore, the improvement and rehabilitation
of the retaining wall structure are very much
important. Regarding to these issues, the DPT
cooperated with the Department of Groundwater
Resource has an attempt to explore the
geotechnical engineering experts to solve and
design the durable and sustainable retaining wall.

3.00
Existing ground Footpath Fench
Gutter
100.00 Footpath level 99.00 m
99.00 High water level 98.000 m
Compacted sand Riprap level 98.50 m
98.00 2.5
97.00 Geotextile 1
96.00
Water level during survey 95.000 m
95.00
94.00 Driven pile Dia.
93.00 0.30x0.30 m @ 2.00 m Lowest water level 93.000 m
92.00
91.00
90.00
89.00
88.00 Driven pile Dia.
87.00 0.30x0.45 m @ 1.00 m
86.00

Fig. 1. Details of the driven pile retaining wall structure: (a) Plan view, and (b) side view.

2. Causes of failure
2.1. Visual observation
Fig.2 shows the progress of lateral movement
of the all facing of the second riverbank protection
structure in March 2015 and in January 2016. The
photos indicated that the large damage occurred
after the rainy season (July 2015 to October 2015).
This can exacerbate external lateral forces, which
exceeded the passive resistance of the retaining
wall structure. Based on theory, this indicates that
the soil was at the point of incipient shear failure
due to the lateral force exerted by the lateral earth
pressure, in which the retained soil mass was
allowed to deform laterally and slide the retaining
wall outward toward the riverside. For the rigid
retaining structure, it is assumed the active failure
wedge in the backfill and the plan with an
inclination angle of (45º + ϕ/2) from the horizontal
may result in interference in the development of
the active state behind the wall [1,2]. The
longitudinal crack along the wall facing was
clearly detected as shown in Fig. 3, which indicates

388
that the retaining wall as unstable to resist the
sliding forces created by the horizontal soil
pressure.
2.2. Stability analysis program
For riverbank improvement and rehabilitation,
first and foremost the cause and the mode of
failure must be examined for the accurate design of
new riverbank protection structure. The reliable
non-linear finite element program PLAXIS 2D,
which is widely used by geotechnical engineers
and researchers to solve earth-retaining structure
problems [2,3] was used as the design tool for
analyze the stability of the retaining wall and to
diagnose the cause of failure in this study. The
investigated mechanical properties of the retaining
wall and geotechnical properties of the backfill and
foundation will be used in the finite element
analysis.

Fig. 2. The retaining walls before and after its failure.

The longitudinal crack

Fig. 3. The longitudinal crack along the wall facing of the riverbank protection structure.

Soil elements used in this study were six-node
triangular isoperimetric elements, with three Gauss
points for each element. Mohr-Coulomb model is
an elastic-perfectly plastic model. This model
required five parameters, i.e., Young’s modulus
(E’), friction angle (ϕ’), Poisson’s ratio (υ’),
cohesion (c’), and dilatancy angle (ψ’). The
dilatancy angle (ψ’) is approximately equal to ϕ’-
30º for ϕ’ > 30º [4]. Interface element between the
soils and structure element [5]. Fig. 4 shows the
soil profile of the site. The in-situ strength of the
subsoil was measured using the standard
penetration test (SPT). The soil materials
properties used for the finite element simulations
are demonstrated in Table 1.
2.3. Analysis based on available data
The entire riverbank protection structure was
400 m long the located along the Pasak river in Sao
Hai District, Saraburi province. Fig 1 shows the
geometry and structure details of the second
riverbank protection structure. The structure was
braced double driven pile system with reinforced
concrete bracing beams. The rear piles were
rectangular in shape (0.3 x 0.3 x 10m), while the
front piles were T-section (0.35 x 0.40 x 14m). The
spacing between the back and the front piles was

389
 ±0.0 m
N’=3 Loose sand ᵞsat = 18 kN/m3
- 4.0 m ϕ'= 28°
N’=23 Medium dense ᵞsat = 19 kN/m3
- 9.0 m sand ϕ'= 33°, c’=2 kPa

Dense sand ᵞsat = 22 kN/m3

ϕ'= 38°, c’=4 kPa

N’≥58

- 25.0 m

Fig. 4. General soil profile.

2.5 m and the spacing between the T-section piles
was 2 m. The rectangular reinforced concrete
beams were 0.2 m in width and 0.3 m in height,
while the thickness of the pre-cast wall facing
between T-section piles was 0.06 m. in addition,
the riprap with 0.3 m in diameter was applied in
front of the riverbank protection structure to
protect the erosion. Material properties of the
second riverbank structure was obtained from the
worksite and indicated that the soil layers were
typical loose to dense sandy materials as shown in
Fig. 4. In addition, soil samples were also brought
to the laboratory in order to carry out the triaxial
test and its results were used for a soil model in the
finite element analysis. For very hard soil layers, it
was unable to get the samples for triaxial test.
Hence, the SPT was undertaken and the ϕ values
were estimated from the SPT values conversion.

Tab. 1. Soil material properties for finite element analysis.

Parameter Symbol Loose sand Medium dense sand Dense sand Unit
-
Material model Model M-C M-C M-C
kN/m3
Saturate unit weight γsat 18 19 22
kN/m3
Total unit weight γunsat 16 17 20
kN/m2
Young’s modulus E’ 30000 35000 60000
Degree
Friction angle ϕ’ 28 33 38
kN/m2
Cohesion c’ 1 2 4
Degree
Dilatancy ψ - 3 8
-
Poisson’s ratio v’ 0.3 0.3 0.3

Tab. 2. Material properties of the driven pile retaining wall structure.

Parameter Front Pile Back Pile Reinforced Beam

(0.45x0.30 m) (0.30x0.30m) (d = 0.2m, h = 0.3m)
Material model Elastic Elastic Elastic
Young’s modulus, Eʹ (kN/m2) 25.5x106 25.5x106 2.04x108
Area, A (m2/m) 0.135 0.09 4.99x10-3
Moment of inertia, I (m4/m) 2.27x10-3 0.338x10-3 1.56x10-3
Poisson’s ratio, υʹ 0.25 0.25 0.25
Density, γ (kN/m3) 23.5 23.5 23.5

Finite element (FE) modeling using PLAXIS stability of the riverbank protection structure. The
2D program was carried out to evaluate the material parameters of soil and riverbank

390
protection structure are summarized in Table 1 and
2, respectively. The lowest water level of 7 m at
the front of the riverbank protection structure,
measured from the surface of the backfill (at water
label = 93 m in Fig.1) was used in the FE analysis.
Fig. 5 shows the factor of safety (FS) of 1.613,
which is greater than the required design FS = 1.5,
commonly used by the geotechnical engineers and
Fig. 5. The simulation of FE analysis with the lowest water level at the front of the retaining wall.
2.4. Analysis based on primary data
The primary data was collected by interviewing
residents living close to the riverbank, and whom
were affected by the collapse of the earlier
riverbank protection structure. It was founded that
there were farm lands behind the failed riverbank
protection structure, inducing water seepage
through the backfill, particularly during the rainy
season.
Furthermore, the aerial photograph map as
shown in Fig. 6 indicated that the riverbank
protection structure was located on the curvature of
the watershed, which faced to the strong force
direction of river flow. It was thus assumed that the
current continuously scoured the riverbank,
undermining the natural slope (loss of soil mass) in
front of the riverbank protection structure.
Evaluation surveying along the existing slope in
front of the collapsed riverbank protection
structure was carried out, which revealed that the
existing slope was much steeper than that obtained
from the drawing previous design by the DWR
(available data). This supports the assumption of
soil erosion due to the attack of strong current at
the curvature of watershed.
391
researchers [6]. This demonstrates that the
riverbank protection structure had a high stability.
In other words, there might be other natural
hazards causing the failure of riverbank protection
structure, which were not taken into account in this
analysis; hence, further site investigation to obtain
primary data was required.
Based on the primary data, the FE analyses
were carried out using the water level measured by
piezometers and the measured existing slope in the
passive zone. The water level behind the riverbank
protection structure was 0.5 m below the backfill
surface while the water level in the river was 7 m
below the backfill surface (Fig. 7). The results
showed soil collapse at the end of computation,
indicating that FS was lower than 1.0 and erosion
and seepage force significantly induced the
instability of the riverbank protection structure.
Similar failure of the retaining walls caused by the
insufficient base friction and passive resistance in
front of the wall also found [6,7].
Fig. 6. The location of the collapsed retaining wall
 Fig. 7. FE analysis of riverbank protection structure with water seepage and eroded slope.

3. Remedial approach foundation, the bored piles with diameter of 60 cm

3.1. Concept of design
The mitigation and rehabilitation of the
collapsed riverbank protection structure were
design to minimize the effect of water seepage and
steep slope. The new riverbank protection structure
was designed based on the three main approaches
as follows:
For the first approach, the riverbank protection
structure must have an adequate factor of safety
against excessive translation, rotation, bearing
capacity failure, deep-seated failure, and seepage-
induced instability. Hence, the pile-bracing system
was proposed. Due to the very dense sandy soil
were selected to have long embedded length (to
have high passive lateral resistance) and installed
behind the existed driven piles as shown in Fig. 8.
The long piles also increased the stability against
deep-seated failure. The new designed length of
piles was approximately 18 m, while the spacing
between the front and back of bored piles
(longitudinal direction) and (cross section
direction) was 5.5 m and 1.2 m, respectively. The
reinforced concrete pile caps were constructed on
the front and the back bored pile heads, while the
steel H-beam were used bracing between the
caps…

Steel beam WF 350 x 350 x 12 x 19 mm

Existing ground Steel beam Fench
99.00 Gutter Footpath Footpath level 99.00 m High water level 98.000 m
98.40 B1
98.00 Beam
97.00 Geocomposite Facing reinforce wall
Beam Compacted sand Riprap level 96.45 m Water level during survey 95.000 m
95.55 Geocomposite
95.00 4" HDPE@ 4 m
Crushered rock Lowest water level 93.000 m
Dia. 1/2" - 3/4" Thick 20 cm.
covered by geotextile Existed driving piles 1) Slope not greater than 30 degree
Bored pile Dia. 2) Install Geotextile O95 > 3D15 of existed soil particles,
0.60x0.60 m @ 1.20 m (Weight of geotextile140 g/m2)
3) Install riprap 0.9 m of thickness
and 0.60 m in diameter with filler material
4) Overlap of geotextile at toe not less than 2.5 m
Slope<30
86.00 >17.00m overlap 3.00
Bored pile Dia. > 2.50m Geotextile
0.60x0.60 m SAND FILL CONFORM TO THE FOLLOWING GRADING REQUIREMENTS
@ 1.20 m SIEVE DESIGNATION PERCENT BY WEIGHT PASSING
82.00 3/8" 100
5.50 Varies NO. 4 95 -100
NO. 16 45 - 80
NO. 50 10 - 30
NO. 100 2 - 10

Fig. 8. Structural detailing of retaining wall.

392
 The geocomposite as a drainage medium to
minimize the water level behind the riverbank
protection structure was applied for the second
approach. Previous researchers have extensively
studied on the geocomposite drainage under
seepage condition in earth-retaining structure and
reported that the geocomposite drainage reduce the
water pressure in the reinforced zone, thus
increasing the stability of retaining walls [8,9].
For the third approach, the existing slope was
adjusted to be not steeper than 30º. The riprap was
designed and installed on the crest and the toe of
the adjusted slope in front of the riverbank
protection structure in order to protect the erosion
and the riprap. The design procedure for the riprap
was carried out according to the previous technical
paper [10,11], which is based on the local average
channel velocity and local depth of the river. The
riprap design procedure according to the DPT’s
regulation can be expressed as follows:
Required design diameter of riprap
CV 2
d
g ( s  1)
Where V = velocity of the river flow, C =
coefficient of the river flow, C = 0.3 for low
turbulent flow, and C = 0.7 for high turbulent flow;
g = gravity acceleration, (g = 9.81), s = specific
gravity of riprap, and Ω = side slope correction
factor.
Velocity of the river flow (V) can be calculated
as:
Discharge 1500m3 / s
V=   4.3m / s
Area 350m2
Side slope correction factor (Ω) can be
calculated by:
1/2
 sin 2  
  1    0.628
 sin  
2
Tab. 2. Material properties of the bored pile retaining wall structure.
Parameter
Material model
Young’s modulus, Eʹ (kN/m2)
Area, A (m2/m)
Moment of inertia, I (m4/m)
Poisson’s ratio, υʹ
Density, γ (kN/m3)
Where Friction angle of soil slope ϕ ≥ 40º,
angle of slope at the front of retaining wall α ≤ 30º.
Hence, the required design diameter of riprap
was
( 4)
The required 60 cm diameter of riprap was
installed with thickness of 90 cm and 180 cm at the
crest and the toe of the slope at the front of the
riverbank protection structure, respectively as
shown in Fig. 8.
3.2. Finite element verification
The stability of the new riverbank protection
structure was verified by FE analysis method using
the PLAXIS 2D program. The model parameters
used for the backfill soil and for the new riverbank
protection structure are summarized in Table 1 and
3, respectively.
The effect of water flow in the riverbank
protection structure was considered in the
stimulation by FE analysis. Two cases of water
flow condition were considered for FE analysis:
the lowest water level in the river at – 7m obtained
(1)
from the groundwater station (see Fig. 1, water
label = 93m) and rapid drawdown (water level at
the bed of the river, water label = 87 m). Due to the
variation of water levels in the river seasonally, the
reservoir nearby the riverbank protection structure
can be subjected to rapid drawdown phenomenon
[6]. In this case the lateral water force is removed
and the excess pore water pressure does not have
enough time to dissipate. According to AASHTO,
FS must be > 1.5 and 1.3 for the lowest water level
in the river and the rapid drawdown conditions,
(2)
respectively.
(3)
Bored Pile (ϕ = 0.6m) Strut
Elastic Elastic
25.5x106 2.04x108
0.235 4.99x10-3
5.30x10-3 85x10-6
0.25 0.3
23.5 78.5
393
 Fig 9a-b presents the simulation results of FE
analyses for both case studies. The FE analysis
results based on the c-ϕ reduction method, showed
that the FS = 1.98 and 1.79 for case 1 (with lowest
water level) and case 2 (rapid drawdown
phenomenon), respectively. FS values for both
case studies were greater than the required factor
of safety, which demonstrated that the designed
riverbank protection structure was stable. The
stable new riverbank protection has been
constructed in May 2017 and completed in October
2017. Since then, the riverbank protection structure
has been serviced without any track of failure.
Fig. 9. FE analysis of new riverbank protection
structure: (a) lowest water level, and (b) rapid
drawdown.
4. Conclusion
This paper presents a case study of the
collapsed riverbank protection structure and the
remedial approach used. This riverbank protection
structure has been constructed to protect the
riverbank along the Pasak river in Saraburi
province, Thailand. However, a part of the
riverbank protection structure collapsed during the
rainy season. The first and second collapsed
riverbank protection structures were anchor
394
retaining wall structure and pile driven retaining
wall structure, respectively.
Based on the site investigation and the FE
analysis on the collapsed retaining wall, the failure
of the riverbank protection structure was caused by
the water flow entering into the permeable backfill
soil layers and directing to the river. The other
reason is that the strong streams continuously
scour the riverbank and undermine the natural
slope in front of the riverbank protection structure.
Erosion changes the geometry of the slope in
passive zone, which reduces the resistance of
passive earth pressure and ultimately resulting in
slope failure.
Therefore, three fundamental approaches have
been proposed for the new riverbank protection
structure. The bored pile-bracing system was
constructed as a new riverbank protection
structure. The long and stiff bored piles improve
the external stability of the riverbank protection
structure. The geocomposite was installed behind
riverbank protection structure as a drainage to
minimize the water level during rainy season. The
riprap was applied on the crest and the toe of the
slope in front of the riverbank protection structure
to protect the erosion.
The finite element analysis results confirmed
that the new riverbank protection structure was
stable for both lowest water level in the river and
rapid drawdown conditions. The cause of failure
and its remedial approaches for the riverbank
protection structure presented in this paper is
helpful for geotechnical engineers, designers, and
practitioners alike in terms of assessing suitable
site exploration methods and critical analysis
methods particularly in tropical regions, where the
weather changes seasonally and the serious
conditions (flood and drought) may occurred
unexpectedly.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the
Thailand Research Fund under the TRF Senior
Research Scholar program Grant No.
RTA5980005, Suranaree University of
Technology, and the Office of Higher Education
Commission under NRU project of Thailand.
References
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[2] W.M. Rankine, On the stability of loose
earth, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 147
(1857) 9–27.
[3] Y. Yu, I.P. Damians, R.J. Bathurst,
Influence of choice of FLAC and PLAXIS
interface models on reinforced soil–
structure interactions, Comput. Geotech.
65 (2015) 164–174.
[4] M. Bolton, The strength and dilatancy of
sands, Géotechnique 36 (1) (1986) 65–78.
[5] R. Brinkgreve, W. Broere, PLAXIS 2D
Reference Manual 2015. Delft,
Netherlands 2010, (2015).
[6] M. Budh, Soil Mechanics and Foundations,
(With CD), John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
[7] M.A.M.Abdullahi, Evaluation of causes of
Retaining Wall failure, Leonardo 14
(2009) 11–18.
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[8] A. Chinulkijniwat, S. Horpibulsuk, D.B.
Van, A. Udomchai, R. Goodary, A.
Arulrajah, Influential factors affecting
drainage design considerations for
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geocomposites, Geosynth. Int. 24 (3)
(2017) 224–241.
[9] A. Udomchai, A. Chinkulkijniwat, S.
Horpibulsuk, Physical model tests on
Mechanically stabilized earth walls with
geocomposite drainage under seepage
condition, Geosynthetics Asia (2012)
Proceeding of the 5th Asian Regional
Conference on Geosynthetics, Bangkok,
Thailand, 2012, pp. 613–616.
[10] V. Galay, E. Yaremko, M. Quazi, River
bed scour and construction of stone riprap
protection, Sediment Transfer in Gravel-
Bed Rivers, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1987.
[11] S.T. Maynord, J.F. Ruff, S.R. Abt, Riprap
design, J. Hydraul. Eng. 115 (7) (1989)
937–949.
 ANALYSIS THE CAUSES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE IN CA MAU CITY

Dao Hong Hai1, Nguyen Viet Ky1, Tra Thanh Sang2

1
Ho Chi Minh city University of Technology, Vietnam
2
Solar system Foundation and Geotechnics J.S.C, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: dhhai@hcmut.edu.vn

Abstract: Ca Mau city is one of the key economic centre of the Ca Mau province, it cover 250.3 km2.
In this area, there is the urbanization and over groundwater exploitation are seen as the main causes of
surface subsidence, more than 4cm / year. This study showed that under the effect of the small
construction works (1.5tons / m2), which will make current land surface is settlement about 2.85cm after
nearly one year; also in this area which has the groundwater level drawdown average 2.0m (period 2006 -
2010), the results showed that the rate of subsidence by groundwater extraction is more than 1.17cm/
year. At the same time, based on the results of the collected monitoring data and the results of
classification Landsat image analysis, since 1997 the number and area of house construction has increased
significantly, the rate average level is over 0.1km2 / year (period 1997 – 2013) and 0.6km2 /year (period
2013 – 2016). Therefore, the urbanization development will be one of the issues to pay attention when
evaluating the cause of land subsidence in Ca Mau city and to propose the solutions to minimize land
subsidence is most effective.

Keywords: land subsidence; Ca Mau city; groundwater; overexploitation.

1. Introduction Indonesia (Hasanuddin Z. Abidin et al, 2009) [5],

The relationship between ground surface
subsidence and groundwater exploitation activities
had considered from early of the century 20. There
are some researches on groundwater and the land
subsidence during the groundwater exploitation in
United State such as: Outline of Groundwater
Hydrology [1], Definitions of Selected
Groundwater Terms Revisions and Conceptual
Refinements [2], Glossary of Selected Terms
Useful in Studies of the Mechanics of Aquifer
systems and Land Subsidence due to Fluid
Withdrawal [3]. In addition, there are other studies
such as Principles of soil mechanics: Settlement
and consolidation of clay, 1925; Theoretical Soil
Mechanics, 1943; Soil mechanics in engineering
practice, 1967; …
Land subsidence due to groundwater extraction
has been encountered over the world in the United
States (Devin Galloway et al., 1999) [4]; Jakarta,
Bangkok, Thailand and Kolkata, India (Amartya
Kumar Bhattacharya, 2013) [6] or Yunlin, Taiwan
(Po-Lung Lin et al, 2015) [7], Hanoi, Vietnam (T
Q. Nguyen, 1995) [8], Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
(Le. V. T et al, 2008) [9].
Land subsidence in Ca Mau city as well as Ca
Mau province have been identified due to
Groundwater extraction activities (NGI, 2013)
[10], average rate nearly 4.0 cm/year (Laura E
Erban et al, 2014) [11]; and the natural
consolidation of the upper organic clay of the delta
(P. H. Giao, 2014) [12].
2. The urbanization and groundwater
exploitation in Ca Mau
Ca Mau city is the central of Ca Mau Province,
with an area of over 250.3 km2, accounting for
4.7% of the total area. In particular, the population
concentrated mainly in the wards 1, 2, 4 and 5 [13]

396
 Fig. 1. Administrative map of the Ca Mau province

As the statistic in 2013, the total population of of the housing of Ca Mau city in 2013 are shown
Ca Mau is 221, 239 people; accounting for 18.1% in the table below [13] (Table 1, Figure 2)
of the province's population. The quantity and area

Tab. 1. The classification and quantity and area of the housing of Ca Mau in 2013
Permanent housing Rate (%)
Total area (m2) Total Quantity 2
Area (m ) Quantity Area (m2) Quantity
3,897,315 47,843 1,865,047 26,312 52.15% 45.00%

Fig. 2. The classification and rate of quantity and area of the housing of Ca Mau in 2013

Ca Mau city has 12,533 pumping wells with
total exploitation capacity is 67,608m3/day and is
concentrated in tree main aquifers: Upper middle
Pleistocene aquifer (qp2-3), Lower Pleistocene
aquifer (qp1), and Upper Pliocene aquifer (n22)
[14].
And the results of monitoring groundwater
level at the period 1995 - 2010 in Ca Mau city are
shown in the below (Table 2 and Figure 4) [15].

397
 .

Fig. 3. A cross-section of Soil profile in Ca Mau

Tab. 2. Statistical results of monitoring groundwater level in aquifers

Monitoring Confined Aquifers
well qp3 qp2-3 qp1 n22 n21
Q17701Z 0.22 x x x x
Q177020 x 0.42 x x x
Q188030 x x 0.89 x
Q17704T x x x 0.89 x
Q17704Z x x x x 0.81
Unit: m/yr

Fig. 4. Graph of monitoring groundwater level in confined aquifers period 1995 – 2010

3. Methodology solid particles are neither compressive nor lost, but

3.1. Land subsidence due to the load on the
ground
Load on the ground surface commonly is the
building. Under the effect of the building load, the
the subsidence by the decrease in pore volume or
decrease of the void ratio.
Stable settlement values can be determined by
the formula below (Terzaghi & Peck, 1967) [16]:

398
 is the hydraulic conductivity in the vertical
(1) direction (cm/s);
Or is the coefficient of consolidation (cm2/s).
The boundary conditions for a uniform
(2) distribution of initial excess pore water pressure in
In which: which double drainage occurs are:
S : Settlement (m);
hi : Thickness of the original soil layer (m);
: Initial void ratio correspondence with
(5)
;
: Ultimate void ratio correspondence with
;
: Vertical effective stress in the ground at The average degree of consolidation for the
the depth z (kPa); entire depth of the clay layer at any time t, which
satisfies these boundary conditions, is obtained
: Bulk unit weight (kg/m3); using the Fourier series:
: submerged unit weight (kg/m3); 2n  1   2n  1  2 
u z, t  
4 1
p sin πz. exp   π .Tv 
: Depth of water level (m); π 2n  1 2   2  (6)
: Applied vertical stress (kPa)
:Influence factor depended on the type of Where: n is a positive integer with values from
load foundation; 0 to
: A load of works transmissibility to the
(7)
foundation (kPa);
: Coefficient of compressibility, Tv is known as the time factor
3.2. Land subsidence due to the groundwater
exploitation
: Coefficient of volume compressibility The rate of land subsidence has been calculated
-1
(kPa ); using Lohman’s equation (1961) [18]:
: Change of vertical effective
stress under the loaded foundation (kPa). (8)
Due to the poor permeability of the clay, the In which:
pore water cannot discharge quickly, the : Reduction in artesian pressure
deformation of the soil does not occur (kPa);
immediately, but it takes on the time. When the S is coefficient of storage;
pore water pressures are in excess of equilibrium ;
boundary conditions, a consolidation process is
: Reciprocal of the bulk
initiated. As a first level of estimation, the change
in pore-water pressure can be computed using modulus of elasticity of water,
Terzaghi’s one-dimensional consolidation theory ;
[17]: : Units weight of water (kg/m3);
(3) : Specific storage of the skeleton,

(4) : Specific storage of the water,

In which:

399
 : The compressibility of the aquifer
matrix (kPa-1);
n : Porosity of aquifer;
b : Saturated thickness of aquifer (m).
4.Results
4.1.Result of calculate subsidence due to
housing development
Assume a housing foundation of width 1.0m
and length 1.0m transmit a load of P = 1.5tons/m2
to a deep of D = 1.0m in the saturation clay layer;
with ; ; hi = 20cm; mv
= 0.224x10-2 (kPa-1) and Cv = 0.801x10-3 (cm2/s)
[19].

Tab. 3. The result of calculate the vertical settlement due to a load of work
Depth z Applied vertical stress Current vertical Settlement S
2z/B K0
(m) increase (kPa) effective (kPa) (cm)
0 0 1.0 15.0 13.54
0.2 0.4 0.96 14.4 14.68 0.97
0.4 0.8 0.8 12.0 15.82 0.54
0.6 1.2 0.606 9.09 16.96 0.41
0.8 1.6 0.449 6.74 18.10 0.30
1.0 2.0 0.336 5.04 19.24 0.23
1.2 2.4 0.257 3.86 20.38 0.17
1.4 2.8 0.201 3.02 21.52 0.14
1.6 3.2 0.16 2.40 22.66 0.11
Total settlement 2.85
is determined under the uniformly loaded rectangular area (Braja M. Das, 2006) [20]
And the results of the settlement by the time are
shown as in Table 4 and Figure 6.

Tab. 4. The result of calculate the vertical settlement by the time

Ut 0.2 0.45 0.8 0.9 0.95
0.02 0.18 1.08 1.77 2.54
t 0.008 0.075 0.450 0.738 1.059
S 0.57 1.28 2.28 2.57 2.71

Fig. 6. The result of calculate settlement by the time

4.2. Result of calculate subsidence due to groundwater exploitation

The results of subsidence due to groundwater
exploitation are shown in Table below:

400
 Tab. 5. The result of calculate the subsidence due to groundwater exploitation period 2006 - 2010
Coordinate Δh Δp γw Δb
Aquifer Ss S n b (m)
X Y (m) (kPa) (kPa) (cm)
qp3 0.80 7.848 0.00003 0.0002 5.0 0.01
qp2-3 1.45 14.225 0.00038 0.0014 3.7 0.20
qp1 2.8 27.468 0.00006 0.0038 63.6 1.04
516373.78 1016292.41 9.81 0.37
n21 2.67 26.193 0.00030 0.0120 39.9 3.18
n22 2.57 25.212 0.00001 0.0003 26.8 0.06
3
n1 1.63 15.990 0.00005 0.0012 23.8 0.19
Total 4.67

5. Conclusions increased about 0.1 km2/year (1997 – 2013); and

Thus in Ca Mau city, with the housing load
about 1.5 tons/m2, the settlement is 2.85cm after
nearly one year and the rate of land subsidence due
to groundwater exploitation about 1.17cm/year.
Therefore, under the impact of urbanization and
the groundwater exploitation, the rate of land
subsidence in Ca Mau is about 4.02 cm/year, in
which, urbanization accounts for 70.90 %, the rest
29.10% due to the groundwater exploitation.
In particular, Ca Mau city is a rapidly urbanized
area. Based on the collected data and results of
Landsat images classification, the urban area
0.6 km2/year in the period 2013 – 2016 (Figure 6),
and the housing area in Ca Mau city according to
population rate at the moment then expected to
increase about 8.29 km2 in 2020 (Figure 7) (Tat,
H., 2014) [13]. And with the organic clay thickness
of nearly 30m in a top of the soil profile, the
urbanization development will be one of the issues
to pay attention when evaluating the cause of land
subsidence in Ca Mau city.

06 – 01 – 1997 (2.3 km2) 11 – 10 – 2008 (3.42 km2) 26 – 12 – 2015 (5.72 km2)

Fig. 6. The results of Landsat images classification (period 1997 – 2015)

Fig. 7. The urbanization development in Ca Mau

401
References
[1] Meinzer, Outline of Groundwater
Hydrology. Washington, United states:
Geological survey water – supply, 1923.
[2] Lohman et al., Definitions of Selected
Groundwater Terms Revisions and
Conceptual Refinements. Washington,
United states: Geological survey water –
supply, 1972.
[3] Poland et al., Glossary of Selected Terms
Useful in Studies of the Mechanics of
Aquifer systems and Land Subsidence due
to Fluid Withdrawal. Washington, United
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1972.
[4] Devin Galloway et al., Land subsidence in
the United States. United States:
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Governance and the Environment –
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Subsidence in Bangkok and Kolkata due to
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in Hanoi, Vietnam,” IAHS, 1995.
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in Ho Chi Minh City by means of Radar
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Infrastructure Development in Earth and
Allied Sciences, 2008.
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doanh/ca-mau-se-bien-mat-25387.html
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[11] Laura E Erban & Steven. M. Gorelick et
al., “Groundwater extraction, land
subsudence, and sea-level rise in the
Mekong Delta, Vietnam,” Environmental
Research Letters, 2014.
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“Geotechnical characterization of the
subsoil profile underlying the land
subsidence monitoring points southern
Vietnam delta,” Interational Symposium
on Lowland Technology International,
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[13] T H Ho, “Housing development program
in Ca Mau province until 2020 and
orientation to 2030,” Department building
Ca Mau Province, Ca Mau, 2014.
[14] D. V. Thang, “Situation and results of
implementation of the national target
program on rural clean water and
environmental sanitation in Ca Mau
province in the 2006 – 2012 period.,” Ca
Mau, 2013.
[15] V. T. Bui et al., “Project Impact
assessment of climate change to resource
Groundwater Mekong Delta, propose
measures to respond, Report No. 12: The
status of utilization of Groundwater,”
Department of Water Resources Planing
and Investigation for the South of Vietnam
(DWRPIS), HCMC, 2013.
[16] Terzaghi, K. & Peck, R.B, Soil Mechanics
in engineering practice. 3rd ed, Wiley,
New York, 1996.
[17] M. Budhu, Soil Mechanic and
Foundations, 2nd ed, Wiley & Sons, New
York, 2007.
[18] Malay Ganguli, “Groundwater withdrawal
and land subsidence: A study of Singur
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[19] L T Vo, “Soil Investigation: Department of
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2006.
 USING LOGISTIC REGRESSION AND NEURAL NETWORKS FOR
LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESSMENT ALONG THE TRANSPORT
ARTERIES IN THE MOUNTAINOUS AREAS OF QUANG NAM PROVINCE

Do Minh Duc1, Nguyen Khac Hoang Giang1,2, Dao Minh Duc3, Do Minh Ngoc1,4, Dinh Thi Quynh4,
Dang Thi Thuy1,4, Nguyen Huu Ha1,5, Nguyen Van Binh2, Hoang Hai Yen3, Do Van Vung6
1
VNU - Vietnam National University, Vietnam
2
Hanoi University of Natural Resources and Environment, Vietnam
3
Institute of Geological Sciences, Vietnam
4
Institute of Geotechnology and Environment, Vietnam
5
Binh Dinh Department of Science and Technology, Vietnam
6
Vietnam Academy of Water Sciences
Corresponding author’ Email: ducdm@vnu.edu.vn

Abstract: Landslides have caused serious damages to the infrastructure in Quang Nam province in
recent years. In 2017, from 3 to 6 November a catastrophic heavy rain triggered many large landslides at
the transport arteries in the mountainous areas. Among the total of 480 road segments of potential
instability, 192 landslides were recorded. In order to assess the landslide susceptibility, detail
investigation was carried out to get information on topography, geology, landuse, slope geometry, and
reinforcement measures along the national highways and provincial roads in Quang Nam province. Two
methods of logistic regression and neural networks were used. The results show that logistic regression
had an accuracy of 76.0%, meanwhile the accuracy of neural networks was 63.8%. The spatial landslide
susceptibility is generalized into four categories: low (slide probability 0–0.15), moderate (0.15–0.30),
high (0.30–0.50), and very high (>0.50).

Keywords: landslide susceptibility; logistic regresion; neural networks; Quang Nam province.

1. Introduction national highways together with other national

Quang Nam is a coastal province in the central
part of Vietnam. The province has 16 districts and
2 cities, of which 9 mountainous districts are Tay
Giang, Dong Giang, Nam Giang, Phuoc Son, Bac
Tra My, Nam Tra My, Hiep Duc, Tien Phuoc and
Nong Son; 9 plain districts are Tam Ky city, Hoi
An city, Dien Ban, Duy Xuyen, Dai Loc, Thang
Binh, Que Son, Nui Thanh and Phu Ninh. The
province's natural area is 10,406 km2. The road
traffic system is well developed. In particular,
there are two major national highways running
from north to south: national highway 1A in the
east and Ho Chi Minh Road in the west. These two
highways: QL14B, QL14D, QL14E, QL14G,
QL40B, QL24C and provincial roads form a
convenient transport network (Fig. 1).
Due to the effects of climate change, in recent
decades, the weather has been abnormal and
complex. Typhoons and tropical depressions
frequently move into our country, causing serious
consequences especially to the middle provinces in
general and
Quang Nam in particular. Quang Nam Province
is subjected to regular and strong impacts of large-
scale atmospheric disturbances such as storms,
tropical depression, cold fronts, and tropical

403
convergence. The highest annual average rainfall is
distributed in Nam Tra My district, reaching from
3600 mm/y to more than 4000 mm/y. On the east
side of the Truong Son mountain range from Tay
Giang, Dong Giang, and Nam Giang districts to
Phuoc Son, the average annual rainfall is from
3,200 to 3,600 mm/y. During the rainy season in
Fig. 1. Transport arteries in Quang Nam province
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Field investigation
Landslide research requires consistent and
widespread data (Kreuzer et al., 2017). Therefore,
field investigations were conducted in March 2016,
April, August and December 2017, and July 2018.
The areas of interest were along the national and
provincial routes in the mountainous areas in Tay
Giang, Dong Giang, Nam Giang, Tien Phuoc,
Phuoc Son, Bac Tra My, and Nam Tra My
districts. The following data were obtained at each
investigation point.
a. The geographical location of investigation
points was identified by GPS with an accuracy of
5-10 m.
404
2017, heavy rains from 3 to 7 November caused
serious damage to transport infrastructure with an
estimated cost of about 38 billion VND.
From this fact, the paper analyzes the spatial
landslide susceptibility along the national
highways and provincial roads in Quang Nam by
using logistic regressions and neural networks.
b. Slope angle and height. The description of a
shallow landslide includes further information,
such as slope angles of adjacent areas, the upper
and lower lengths of the shallow landslide, the
thickness of the sliding mass, and characteristics of
the slip surface. The data are used to estimate the
volume of the shallow landslide. The date of
occurrence was identified by conversations with
transportation managers and local residents.
c. Geological description: Lithological
composition, colour and initial classification of
rocks, bedding surface, dip angle, measurement of
fractures, and identification of rock strength grades
according to the International Society of Rock
Mechanics (1981).
 d. Residual soil description: Thickness,
distribution and description (composition, colour,
moisture, and consistency) of residual soil layers.
e. Surface and groundwater: Gullies, streams at
the slope, existence and discharge of groundwater
at the slope (if any). The groundwater level was
measured in the adjacent wells of local residents.
Local land owners also provided information on
seasonal discharge and water level changes.
f. Vegetable coverage: Types of trees and
brush, density of coverage, and comparisons to
adjacent areas.
g. Available structures: Description of
structures on and/or nearby the slope (if any).
The number of occurrences of shallow
landslides and damage were recorded (via
conversations with local authority and residents).
All of these parameters were collected for 297
landslides, which distribute at 192 road segments.
Geology settings were defined basing on
geological map of the scale 1: 50,000 and site
investigation. The following formations were
recognized in the relationship to landslides:
Kham Duc formation (NPkđ) consists mainly of
metamorphic rocks, widely distributed in Quang
Nam, the composition mostly is: Feldspar-
hornblende schist; b) two-mica garnet schist,
quartz-biotite schist, biotite-disthene schist; c)
amphibolite, amphibole schist; d) biotite schist,
sillimanite-muscovite quartzite, quartz-biotite-
disthene-garnet schist; e) amphibolite, quartz-
muscovite schist; f) dolomitic marble.
Tac Po formation being a formation of the
Ngọc Linh Group. The lithological composition
includes: a) biotite gneissic schist, biotite-
silimanite-garnet schist, lenses of amphibolite; b)
biotite schist, quartz-feldspar-biotite schist,
quarzite; c) biotite-hornblende, biotite gneiss,
biotite-garnet migmatite.
A Vuong formation (2-O1av) They are
distributed in parallel latitudinal ranges from Tay
Giang to Dong Giang and from Tay Giang to
Phuoc Son. The lithological composition includes:
sericite - quartz schist, micaceous schist, sericite -
chlorite schist, interbeds of shale, greenstone
lenses, quartzitic sandstone.
Long Dai formation (O1-Slđ) distributed mainly
in Tay Giang district. The lithological composition
405
includes sandstone alternating with siltstone, shale,
thin layers or metamorphic acid eruptions, shale,
siltstone.
Tan Lam formation (D1-2tl) located in BHa Le
and A Tep (Tay Giang district). The lithological
composition includes less mineral sandstone,
quartzite sandstone, siltstone sandstone, shale
claystone, conglomerate crystal and conglomerate.
Bung formation (T1sb) located in the
confluence of Bung river and A Vuong river, in
Tay Giang district, west of Nong Son district and
along the border between Vietnam and Laos in
Nam Giang district. The lithological composition
includes: sandstone, tuf sandstone, ryolit porphyr,
sandstone interbedded with siltstone, siltstone
mixed with ryolite.
Nong Son formation (T3n-rns) located in Nong
Son and Nam Giang districts. The lithological
composition includes sandstone conglomerate,
siltstone, shale and layers of coal.
Ban Co formation (J1bc) located in Nong Son.
The lithological composition includes a) Gritstone,
conglomerate, 150 m; b) conglomerate, pebble-
bearing gritstone, 70 m; c) gritstone, quartz
sandstone, 130 m; d) sandstone, a little siltstone,
90 m; e) cherty quartz conglomerate, 150 m; f)
gritstone, sandstone, interbeds of pebble-bearing
sandstone, 150 m.
Ta Vi complex (NPtv) located in the south of
Phuoc Son, with the shape of a reservoir, lens
through the integration of the formation of the
Kham Duc Formation. The petrographical
composition includes: gabbro, gabbroamphibolite
lenses.
Tra Bong complex (NPtb) located in Bac Tra
My and Nam Tra My districts. The petrographical
composition includes: granodiorite, diorite.
Chu Lai complex (NPcl) located in Nui Thanh
and Phuoc Son districts. The petrographical
composition includes: plagiogranite, migmatite,
migmatite granite and granitogneis.
Hiep Duc complex (PZ1hđ) located in Hiep
Duc district and Tam Ky city. The petrographical
composition includes: olivine, boiled, harzburgite,
pyroxene.
Dai Loc complex (D1đl) located in Dai Loc
and Dong Giang districts. The petrographical
composition includes: dark biotite granite,
muscovite granite, granite 2 mica bright, small
particles, aplit circuit, pegmatite muscovite, quartz,
turmalin.
Ben Giang - Que Son complex (PZ1bg-qs)
located in Dong Giang and Nam Giang districts.
The petrographical composition includes: horblend
gabrodiorite, horblend diorite - biotite, diorite
quartz..
Slope values are classified into four categories
such as lower than 300, 30-420, 42-570, 57-680 and
steeper than 680. Heights of slopes include 5
categories: < 7 m, 7.1 – 14 m, 14.1 – 21 m, 21.1 –
28 m and > 28 m. Cross-section of slopes are
characterized by 3 categories of flat, rough and
mixture.
Landuse in the upper part of the slope are
categorized into 5 types such as rain forest,
planting forest, agricultural land, bare land and
construction site.
Slope grading has 4 types which are
characterized by 1 to 3 slope grades, respectively.
Engineering measures supporting slope stability
include 6 types: rock surface, groins, full-slope
height earth wall, partly earth wall, vegetation
cover, and bare slope surface.
2.2. Logistic regression
Logistic regression, which is one of the
multivariate analysis models, is useful for
predicting the presence. The advantage of logistic
regression is that, through the addition of an
appropriate link function to the usual linear
regression model, the variables may be either
continuous or discrete, or any combination of both
types and they do not necessarily have normal
distributions. In the case of multi-regression
analysis, the factors must be numerical, and in the
case of a similar statistical model, discriminant
analysis, the variables must have a normal
distribution. In the present situation, the dependent
variable is a binary variable representing presence
or absence of landslide. Where the dependent
variable is binary, the logistic link function is
applicable (Atkinson and Massari 1998). For this
study, the dependent variable must be input as
either 0 or 1, so the model applies well to landslide
possibility analysis. Logistic regression
406
coefficients can be used to estimate ratios for each
of the independent variables in the model.
Quantitatively, the relationship between the
occurrence and its dependency on several variables
can be expressed as:
p = 1/(1 + e-z) (1)
where p is the probability of an event occurring.
In the present situation, the value p is the estimated
probability of landslide occurrence. The
probability varies from 0 to 1 on an S-shaped curve
and z is the linear combination. It follows that
logistic regression involves fitting an equation of
the following form to the data:
z = b0 + b1x1 + b2x2 +….+ bnxn (2)
where b0 is the intercept of the model, the bi (i =
1. n) are the slope coefficients of the logistic
regression model, and the xi (i = 1.. n) are the
independent variables. The linear model formed is
then a logistic regression of presence or absence of
landslides (present conditions) on the independent
variables (pre-failure conditions).
Using the logistic regression model, the spatial
relationship between landslide-occurrence and
factors influencing landslides was assessed
(Ohlmacher and Davis, 2003; Lee, 2007). All
factors were categorized. The spatial databases of
each factor were converted to CSV format files for
use in the R statistical package, and the
correlations between landslide and each factor
were calculated. There are two cases. In the first
case, only one factor was used. In this case, logistic
regression formulae were created for each case.
The coefficient is shown in table 2. Finally, the
probability that predicts the possibility of landslide
occurrence was calculated using the spatial
database, data from table 2, equations (1) and (2).
In the second case, all factors were used. In this
case, logistic regression formula were created as
shown in equations (1) and (3) for each case.
z = GEOLOGY + THICKNESS + LAND +
SLOPE + HEIGHT + CROSS + GRADING +
MEASUR (3)
where GEOLOGY is lithology of the
investigation segment. GEOLOGY is an indicator
variable equal to 1 if the geologic unit k is present
in a cell and 0 otherwise. Note that the classes are
mutually exclusive; that is, only one geologic unit
can be present in a segment; THICKNESS –
thickness of residual soils; LAND – landuse after
the slope height; SLOPE – slope value; HEIGHT
– methods, neural networks need less training data
for accurate analysis (Paola and Schowengerdt,
1995).
The architecture of this ANN is based on a
structure known as the Multi-Layer Perceptron
(MLP). The MLP consists of a set of layers, each
of which is composed of a set of nodes
(alternatively referred to as “units” or “neurons”).
The MLP with the backpropagation algorithm is
trained using a set of examples of associated input
and output values (Turban and Aronson, 2001).
The purpose of an artificial neural network is to
build a model of the data-generating process, so
that the network can generalize and predict outputs
from inputs that it has not previously seen. A
network has two use modes: learning and recall.
Upon receiving sufficiently intense stimulus
(input) from the preceding units, the unit is
activated and sends signal to the connecting units.
The above mentioned neurons thus elaborate the
stimulation they receive. The transformation is
completed in two phases: firstly, each input signal
is multiplied by the weight of the connection and
the results of the single products are added to
obtain an amount called total input; secondly, the
unit applies a transfer function which transforms
the sum of the input signals into output signals.
2.4. Validation
The most important phase is the validation of
the prediction results. The best way to do is to
imitate the comparison by using a part of the past
landslides as if it represents the target pattern. The
overall accuracy was calculated by the equation:
Accuracy = (TP + TN)/(TP + TN + FP + FN) (4)
Here: TP- true positive, TN – true negative, FP
– false positive, and FN – false negative.
An alternative to the above statistics that
depend on the threshold (cut-off value) for their
calculations is the receiver operating characteristic
(ROC) curve and the area under the ROC curve
(AUC) (Zweig and Campbell, 1993). ROC curves
are a popular way to visualize the tradeoffs
between sensitivity and specificity in a binary
classifier. This method is already widely used as a
measure of performance of a predictive rule. ROC
407
plots the different accuracy values obtained against
the whole range of possible threshold values of the
functions, and the AUC serves as a global accuracy
statistic for the model, regardless of a specific
discriminant threshold. This curve is obtained by
plotting all combinations of sensitivities and
proportions of false negatives (1-specificity) which
may be obtained by varying the decision threshold.
The range of values of the ROC curve area is 0.5–1
for a good-fit, while values below 0.5 represent a
random fit (Zweig and Campbell, 1993).
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of landslides
Along the transport arteries in mountainous
areas, 192 segments with landslides were recorded.
In the early November 2017, during a catastrophic
rain period, the amount of rock and landslide was
very significant all along five national highways
such as QL14B, QL14D, QL14E, QL40B, and
QL24C.
Along the QL14B highway, there were 7
positions of very large landslides. Along the
national highway QL14D, a landslide of about
36,595 m3 in volume at km71 + 200 had caused
traffic jam a few days (Fig. 2).
The national highway QL14E (Fig. 3) had
seriously damaged at the segment through Hiep
Duc and Phuoc Son, the total amount of debris
sliding materials were estimated to 86,270m3. At
km84+500 (Phuoc Hoa commune, Phuoc Son), a
landslide (about 30,000m3 in volume) buried 4
people while they were circulating on the road.
Hundreds of landslides occurred at the national
highway QL40B, especially from Tien Phuoc to
Nam Tra My. Along the national highway 40B
from Bac Tra My to Nam Tra My, 45 landslides
with hundreds of thousands of cubic meters of
rocks and soils were recorded. There are 10 serious
landslides at Km 65, 67, 74 (Bac Tra My district),
Km 84, 85, 94, 96, 97 (Tra Don commune, Nam
Tra My district), especially at Km67 of national
highway 40B, passing through Tra Bui commune
(Bac Tra My district) (Fig. 4). Many households in
Bac Tra My town have been displaced, some have
died. Some communes in Nam Tra My were also
severely affected. Many residential areas had to be
relocated urgently
 Fig. 2. Landslide at km71+200, QL14D
Fig. 4. Landslide at QL40B route
On national highway QL24C, from km80-km89
+ 600 had traffic jammed due to 460,220 m3 of
rock poured down the road. Present at km89 + 500
QL24C (village 2, Tra Giang commune, Bac Tra
My), we witnessed the amount of rock and soil
slide down such as a mountain poured down to the
road (150,000 m3) (Fig. 5).
3.2. Results of logistic regression
The study area contains 480 road segments with
possibility of sliding, each with a variable
indicating the presence or absence of a landslide, a
value for the slope in the cell, and a code for the
geologic unit. The significance of the fitted logistic
regression was tested by comparing the negative
log-likelihood function for the complete regression
to that for an alternative model consisting of a
constant value only.
The data of affecting factors for each segment
were input into the logistic equation. The final
408
Fig. 3. Landslide at km84+500, QL14E
Fig. 5. Landslide at km89+500, QL24C
landslide susceptibility contains the probability
that each segment. Using equations (1) and (2), the
possibility of landslide occurrence was calculated
and using the possibility, the landslide
susceptibility map was made (Fig. 6). The
landslide susceptibility was classified into several
relative descriptive categories, such as very high,
high, moderate, and low. This is also convenient
for the presentation of landslide susceptibility
maps. In this analysis, spatial landslide
susceptibility is generalized into four categories: (i)
low (0–0.15) (10 cases of slides, 109 no slides), (ii)
moderate (0.15–0.30) (24 cases of slides, 81 no
slides), (iii) high (0.30–0.50) (25 cases of slides, 42
cases no slides), and (iv) very high (>0.50) (133
cases of slides, 56 no slides). The AUC (Fig. 7) is
0.823 which shows a good-fit. The accuracy is
76.0%.
 Tab. 1. Coefficient values for logistic regression in the case of all factors*
Factor Category Coeff. Factor Category Coeff.
Intercept - -2.740 < 0.5 0.768
Thickness of
Ben Giang-Que Son (1) 0.358 0.5 – 2.0 0.460
residual
Ben Giang-Que Son (2) 0.399 soils (m) 2.0 – 5.0 1.397
Ben Giang-Que Son (3) 1.922 5.0 – 10 2.027
Tra Bong 2.810 Forest 0.973
Song Re -0.522 Land after Brush 1.422
Hai Van (1) 1.338 the slope Planting forest 1.031
Chu Lai 2.538 Bareland 0.921
Kham Duc -0.199 <7 -1.920
Geology Kham Duc (3) 2.661 Height of 7.1 – 14 -1.936
Tac Po 2.282 slope (m) 14.1 -21 -1.658
A Vương (2) 0.392 21.1 – 28 -1.636
A Vuong (3) 0.581 < 30 1.542
Song Bung (1) 1.115 Slope angle 30 – 42 0.601
Dai Loc (1) 1.998 (degree) 42 – 57 0.710
Nong Son (1) 0.691 57 – 68 0.392
Nong Son (2) -0.590 One grade 0.789
Ban Co 0.857 Grading Two grades 0.144
Smooth -0.840 Three grades -0.908
Horizontal
section Convex -0.761 * Some categories were removed due to low
Concave -0.949 impact to overall probability

Fig. 6. Classification of landslide susceptibility along transport arteries in Quang Nam

409

Fig. 7. AUC of logistic regression
Tab. 2. AUC values in each validation
1 2 3 4 5 6
AUC 0.632 0.703 0.711 0.693 0.769
4. Conclusions
Landslides are common and the most
dangerous disasters along the main roads in the
mountainous areas of Quang Nam province.
Among the total of 480 road segments of potential
instability, 192 landslides were recorded.
The result of validation of logistic regression
had an accuracy of 76.0%, meanwhile the accuracy
of neural networks was 63.8%. The result of
validation of logistic regression showed the better
prediction accuracy of about 12%.
Landslide susceptibility map is of great help
to local authority and engineers for choosing
segments for reinforcement.
Acknowledgment
The paper was supported by the national
project of Ministry of Science and Technology,
coded ĐTĐLCN.23/17.
References
[1] Atkinson PM and Massari R (1998)
Generalized linear modeling of susceptibility
to landsliding in the central Apennines, Italy.
Computer and Geosciences, 24, pp. 373–385.
[2] International Society of Rock Mechanics
(ISRM) (1981) Rock Characterization,
Testing and Monitoring; ISRM Suggested
Method. Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK.
[3] Kreuzer MT, Wilde M, Terhorst B, Damm B
(2017) A landslide inventory system as a base
410
3.3. Results of neural networks
The model of artificial neural networks using
the evergreen 10 folds cross validation with the
following train and test split: 95% of the dataset
will be used as training set while the remaining 5%
as test set. The results (table 2) show that the AUC
varies from 0.521 to 0.769 with an average of
0.665 which also show a good-fit. The overall
accuracy is 63.8%.
7 8 9 10 Average
0.593 0.521 0.713 0.613 0.707 0.665
for automated process and risk analyses. Earth
Science Information (2017) 10:507–515.
[4] Lee S, Ryu JH, Won JS, Park HJ (2004)
Determination and application of the weights
for landslide susceptibility mapping using an
artificial neural network. Engineering
Geology 71 (2004) 289-302.
[5] Lee S (2005) Application of logistic
regression model and its validation for
landslide susceptibility mapping using GIS
and remote sensing data. International Journal
of Remote Sensing, 26:7, 1477-1491.
[6] Ohlmacher GC, Davis JC (2003) Using
multiple logistic regression and GIS
technology to predict landslide hazard in
northeast Kansas, USA. Engineering Geology
69 (2003) 331 – 343.
[7] Paola JD, Schowengerdt RA (1995) A review
and analysis of backpropagation neural
networks for classification of remotely sensed
multi-spectral imagery. International Journal
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[8] Pascale S, Parisi S, Mancini A, Schiattarella
M, Conforti M, Sole A, Murgante B, Sdao F
(2013) Landslide Susceptibility Mapping
Using Artificial Neural Network in the Urban
Area of Senise and San Costantino Albanese
(Basilicata, Southern Italy). In: B. Murgante
et al. (Eds.): ICCSA 2013, Part IV, LNCS
7974, pp. 473–488, 2013.
[9] Turban E, Aronson JE (2001) Decision backpropagation neural networks for image
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(2001). [11] Zweig MH, Campbell G (1993) Receiver-
[10] Zhou W (1999) Verification of the operating characteristics (ROC) plots. Clinical
nonparametric characteristics of Chemistry 39, 561–577

411
 PROBABILISTIC MONTE CARLO SIMULATION
FOR ASSESSMENT THE SLOPE INSTABILITY DUE TO RAINFALL
ON THE NHA TRANG - DA LAT ROUTE

Nguyen Thanh Danh1, Dau Van Ngo2, Ta Quoc Dung2, Nguyen Huu Son2
1
MienTrung University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
2
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: nguyenthanhdanh@muce.edu.vn

Abstract: In this paper, Monte Carlo simulation used to analyze probabilistic the instability slope due
to rainfall on route Nha Trang - Da Lat. The results including: probabilistic slope failure and reliability
index with respect to factor of safety under the effects of rainfall intensity and uncertainties in the
parameters of soil properties. Base on this informations, geotechnical engineers how to get optimal
designs to prevent slope failure. These results provide a good indication for management landslide
hazards under the effects of rainfall. In addition, the purpose of this paper is to show that standard
deviation of soil properties can be applied in simple ways, without more data, time, or effort than are
commonly available in geotechnical engineering practice.
Keywords: Monte Carlo simulation; slope stability; factor of safety; reliability index; rainfall.

1. Introduction The studying of prevention and mitigation of

To promote economic-social development
between Khanh Hoa and Lam Dong provinces,
cooperate to develop tourism between the Nha
Trang and Da Lat cities, the government of two
these provinces agreed to open new route from
Nha Trang to Da Lat 131.5 km in length. The route
was started to construct on April 20th, 2014 and put
to service on April 27th, 2007. The route includes
two DT723 and DT652 provincial roads
connecting together, DT723 provincial highway is
from Highway 20 through the Lac Duong district
and Da Lat city (Lam Dong), DT652 provincial
highway passes through Khanh Vinh (Figure 1)
districts and connect to the national Highway 1A.
Due to high terrain, steep slopes and complexly
geological structures the severe landslides are
regular occurring along this route, destroy roads,
cause traffic jams and threaten to the safety of
persons and vehicles when in traffic, especially
during the rainy season every year (Figure 2).
Currently, under climate change, landslide hazard
occurs on this route increasing both the frequence
and scale
damage caused by the landslide hazard on this
route has been interested by local government in
recent years. The Department of Science and
Technology of Khanh Hoa in collaboration with
the Division For Water Resources Planning And
Investigation For The Central Region of Vietnam
to implement the project "Studying geological
conditions, hydrology in mountainous Khanh Son
and Khanh Vinh districts. Proposing solutions to
construct works of sustainable transportation and
irrigation" from 2009 to 2011. The project was
initially given the basic causes and solutions to
prevent landslides on the route of Nha Trang - Da
Lat.
Many natural and artificial slopes remain
stability for a long time but then destroyed during
rainstorms. Changes in pore-water pressures and
soil permeability caused by rainfall are two factors
that significantly influence in the instability of
slopes. The process of rainwater infiltration into
the slope that appear wetting front (local
saturation), disappear negative pore-water pressure
and decrease matric suction in unsaturated soil.

412
Thus, the shear strength of soil reduced to a
smaller mobilised shear strength along the
potential slip surface.
Fig. 1. Location of study area
Fig. 2. Landslide positions on traffic routes of
Khanh Vinh district
According to the classical approach (limiting
equilibrium methods), the slope stability analysis is
based on the determining factors of safety
corresponding to the physical-mechanical
parameters of soil at a specific time and space. As
a result, the slope is considered safe only if the
calculated the factor of safety clearly exceeds
unity, whereas, it is unstable. Do not consider
temporal and spatial variability of soil properties,
such as bulk density, angle of internal friction,
cohesion and pore water pressure as well as
geological details missing in the exploration
program, testing errors, model uncertainty
reflecting the inability of the simulation model,
design technique or empirical formula to represent
the true physical behavior of the system, such as
413
the calculation of the safety factor of slopes using
limit equilibrium methods and many other relevant
factors, therefore affecting the accuracy of the
safety of factor [1].
The safety of factor determined by the classical
method is relative, not quantify the degree of slope
stability and not be economical. To overcome these
limitations, using the Monte Carlo simulation to
analyze the probability of slope stability is a
reasonable choice, the calculated results conform
to reality and optimize in the design of the
retaining works [1, 2].
2. Shear strength of unsaturated soil
The shear strength equation of Fredlund và
Rahardjo (1978) utilized in the slope stability
analysis was the unsaturated shear strength
equation to incorporate the contribution from the
negative pore-water pressure. The equation for
unsaturated shear strength is as follow (1):
 ff  c,   f  ua  f tg ,   ua  uw  f tg b (1)
Where, ff: shear strength of unsaturated soil; c':
effective cohesion; (f - ua)f: net normal stress; f:
total normal stress; ua: pore-air pressure; ':
effective angle of internal friction; (ua - uw)f: matric
suction; uw: pore-water pressure; b: angle
indicating the rate of increase in shear strength
relative to the matric suction.
The shear strength of unsaturated soil was
calculated with the value of b which obtain from
SWCC (Soil-water characteristic curve). The
results of the soil permeability and SWCC analysis
in the study area were detailed in the study
“Effects of rainfall on stability of soil slopes in
Khanh Vinh district, Khanh Hoa province” [3].
The factor of safety of slope decreases as the pore-
water pressure increases during rain. The change in
pore-water pressure throughout the time rain
derived from seepage analysis (SEEP/W module)
was integrated in SLOPE/W module of GeoStudio
2007 to analyze slope stability [4, 5].
Theoretically, slope is considered instability as the
smallest factor of safety is less than one.
3. Monte carlo method
The probabilistic approach applied to slope
stability analysis allows to consider the impact of
the variation of the input parameters as well as its
affects to the probability of failure of the slope.
Monte Carlo simulation consists of the following by the formula (2). Whereas, the standard
steps (Figure 3) [1, 6]. deviation can be determined by the formula (3) or
Determine the slope geometry and determine
the probability distribution function for physical- Specify the slope geometry
mechanical parameters of soil.
Search for the critical slip surface and factor of
safety using limit equilibrium methods, such as Specify the probability distribution for
modeling Ordinary, Bishop, Janpu, Spencer, soil properties
Morgenstern-Price or finite element stress method
based on average values of the input parameters.
Once the critical slip surface and the uncertainties Search for the critical slip surface and its
of soil properties are known (or assumed), the associated factor of safety using limiting
probability and reliability analysis can be equilibrium methods
performed.
Determine randomly the next set new values for
the parameters basis on theirs the assigned
Generate sets of soil properties using
probability distribution and determine multiple Mote Carlo simulation
times safety of factor.
Then the factor of safety for each set can be
calculated using any limiting equilibrium method
Calculate the safety factor for each set of
or finite element stress method. Accordingly, the
the generated soil prameters
mean, the standard deviation and the associated
probability distribution of the factor of safety are
determined. Finally, the reliability index and the
Determine the probability distribution of
probability of failure with respect to the factor of
the calculated safaty factors and its
safety lower than one can be calculated.
parameters
3.1. Uncertain soil parameters
Many researches are assumed a normal distribution
for the parameters of soil properties (Lumb, 1966; Calculate the probability of failure and the
Matsuo and Kuroda, 1974; Tobutt, 1982; Tan, reliability index
Donald and Melchers,1993). Choice of parameters
based on level degrees of the variability of Fig. 3. Schematic representation of
parameters and level degrees theirs affects to methodology used
safety factor. According to Christian (1994) and
Lumb (1996), significant parameters uncertainties (4) [7].
of soil properties in slope stability analysis
 xi  x 
2
including unit weight (), angle of internal friction  (2)
n 1
() and cohesion (c). Therefore, in this study the
parameter ,  and c were selected for analysis.
  cov( x)  (3)
Each parameter is required statistics to determine
the mean value (μ), standard deviation () as well xmax - xmin
 (4)
as correlation coefficient (r) between  and c. Most 6
current statistical software utilities are available for Where: xi is the i th value of the parameter x; x
calculating the statistics. is the average value of the parameter x; n is the
3.2. Standard deviation sum of statistical samples; cov(x) is the coefficient
If the number of statistical samples are large of variation on experience (Table 1); xmax, xmin are
the largest and smallest values of the parameter x.
enough, the standard deviation () is determined

Tab. 1. Values cov on experience of the various authors

414
 cov
Authors
c  
Harr (1984), Kulhawy (1992) 0.02 - 0.13 0.03 - 0.07
Schultze (1971) 0,053
Phoon (1995)
Sand 0.05 - 0.11
Clay 0.15 - 0.5
Mud 0.04 - 0.23
Lumn (1996) 0.16 - 0.32
NEN (1997) 0.2 0.1
Geodelf (1998) 0.2 0.1
JCSS (2002) 0.1 - 0.5
ae er và ristian ( )
Sand 0.05 - 0.15
Clay 0.2 - 0.5 0.12 - 0.56
Babu (2004) 0.125 - 0.4
Bakker (2004) 0.275

3.3. Correlation coefficient Reliability analysis is used to assess

The correlation coefficient (r) represents close
relationship between  and c defined by the
formula (5). The correlation coefficient is always
ranges from -1 to 1. However, laboratory tests on
range of soil types showed that the shear strength
parameters  and c are often negatively correlated
with correlation coefficient ranges from -0.72 to
0.35 (Lumb, 1970; Grivas, 1981 and Wolff, 1985).
When the positive correlation coefficient,  and c
are positively correlated implying that lager values
of c are more likely to occur with lager values of .
Similarly, when the negative correlation
coefficient,  and c are negatively correlated and
reflects tendency of a lager value of c to occur with
a smaller value of . A zero correlation coefficient
implies that  and c are independent parameters (or
uncorrelated). Correlation between strength
parameters may affect the probability failure of a
slope.
r
  xi  x  yi  y  (5)
 i   i
 
2 2
x  x y  y
Where: xi, yi are the i th values of the
parameters x and y; x , y are the average values of
the parameters x and y.
3.4. Reliability index
uncertainties in engineering variables such as the
factor of safety of slope stability. The reliability
index () is often used to express the degree of
uncertainty in the calculated mean factor of safety
(FSmean).
FSmean  1
 (6)

Reliability index depends on the standard
deviation and directly proportional with the
probability failure. The smaller the probability
failure is the higher reliability index is and vice
versa. Reliability index can also be expressed by
the following formula [8]:
FSmean  1
 (7)
FS mean cov( FS )
From (7), it is easy to select design values of
FSmean that have the same reliability index. For
example, to achieve  of 2, when cov(FS) is 0.2,
the computed FSmean must be 1.67, but, when
cov(FS) is 0.1, the computed FSmean need be only
1.25. Thus, the reliability index expressed in terms
of the coefficient of variation of the factor of safety
provides an internally consistent criterion for
design.
4. Application
Using the Monte Carlo method was integrated
in SLOPE/W of the software Geostudio 2007 to

415
analyze probability failure of two slopes VS352 saturated coefficient of permeability of each soil
and VS87 along the route, each slope is made up of type is 1.55x10-6 m/s and 2.03x10-5 m/s. At
one of two soil types following: sandy clay mixed position of slopes, the groundwater table is very
with gravel and clayey sand mixed with gravel deep or no groundwater [9]. The soil properties in
which is original from eluvial, deluvial and the calculation include uncertain parameters as , c
proluvial overlay the slightly weathered granite or and . Values of  and r are determined according
the slightly weathered rhyolite (Table 2). The to the survey data (Table 3).
Tab. 2. Location, soil type and geometry of slope analysis
Coordinate
High slope Slope angle
No Slope (VN2000) Soil type
(m) (Degree)
X Y
Clayey sand mixed with
1 VS352 567001 1365256 6 43
gravel
Sandy clay mixed with
2 VS87 569414 1355284 6 60
gravel

Tab. 3. The statistical parameters of soil obtain from survey results

 (kN/m3)  (Degree) c (kPa)
Soil type r
µ  µ  µ 
Sandy clay mixed with gravel
17.98 1.2 18.25 1.0 17.25 2.7 0.13
(epdQ)
Clayey sand mixed with gravel
17.29 1.4 17.38 2.9 15.25 2.9 0.12
(epdQ)

The study area, heavy rainfall usually occurs and Environment - Institute of Hydrometeorology
between the September and November annually. In and Environmental, 2011). Due to high terrain and
this research, uniform rainfall pattern with constant strong cleavage, the weathered soils do not contain
rainfall intensity and the average precipitation of water and groundwater table was supposed no
the months in 2010-2011 is used in the calculation. existing.
Rainfall intensity value is selected based on the 5. Results
average rainfall intensity (0,5 mm/hr) and highest The slope stability analysis according to the
rainfall intensity (14 mm/hr) [9]. The number of probability failure under the influence of rain on
continuous rainy day is 10 days (QCXDVN 02: two slopes VS352 and VS87 are as follows (Table
2008/BXD, 2008; Ministry of Natural Resources 4, 5):
Tab. 4. Results of slope VS352 (Figure 4-7)
Rainfall intensity, q (mm/hr)
Statistical parameters
q1 = 0.5 q2 = 3 q3 = 7 q4 = 14
The mean factor of safety, FSmean 2.13 1.76 1.41 1.38
Reliability index,  4.03 3.13 1.99 1.93
Probability failure, P(%) 0.00 0.05 1.75 2.25
Standard deviation,  0.28 0.25 0.21 0.20
The minimum factor of safety,
1.02 0.72 0.51 0.50
FSmin
The maximum factor of safety,
3.02 2.56 2.08 2.02
FSmax
Number of Mote Carlo trials 2000 2000 2000 2000

416
 Probability Distribution Function
Probability Distribution Function
100
100

80
80

Probability (%)
Probability (%)

P (F of S < x)
P (F of S < x) 60
60

40
40

P (Failure) P (Failure)
20 20

0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Factor of Safety Factor of Safety

Fig. 4. The probability distribution curve Fig. 5. The probability distribution curve
(VS352, q3) (VS352, q4)
24 24

22 Probability - Mote Carlo - VS352 22 Probability - Mote Carlo - VS352

20 20
1.39
18 1.37
18

Elevation (m)
Elevation (m)

16 16

14 14

12 12

10 10

8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36

Distance (m) Distance (m)

Fig. 6. Slip surface (VS352, q3) Fig. 7. Slip surface (VS352, q4)

Tab. 5. Results of slope VS87 (Figure 8-11)

Rainfall intensity, q (mm/hr)

Statistical parameters
q1 = 0.5 q2 = 3 q3 = 7 q4 = 14
The mean factor of safety, FSmean 1.75 1.57 1.16 1.04
Reliability index,  5.35 4.27 1.37 0.39
Probability failure, P(%) 0.00 0.05 9.3 34.8
Standard deviation,  0.14 0.13 0.11 0.11
The minimum factor of safety, FSmin 1.16 0.99 0.65 0.57
The maximum factor of safety, FSmax 2.24 2.00 1.53 1.40
Number of Mote Carlo trials 2000 2000 2000 2000

Probability Distribution Function Probability Distribution Function

100 100

80 80
Probability (%)

Probability (%)

P (F of S < x) P (F of S < x)
60 60

40 40

P (Failure) P (Failure)
20 20

0 0
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Factor of Safety Factor of Safety

Fig. 8. The probability distribution curve Fig. 9. The probability distribution curve
(VS87, q3) (VS87, q4)

417
 26 26
24
Probability - Mote Carlo - VS87 Probability - Mote Carlo - VS87
24
22 22
20 20
1.15
Elevation (m)

18

Elevation (m)
18 1.03
16 16
14 14
12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
Distance (m) Distance (m)
Fig. 10. Slip surface (VS87, q3) Fig. 11. Slip surface (VS87, q4)

The rainwater infiltration into the slope Comparison of the calculated results for the
reducing matric suction and rising initial slopes VS87 and VS352 can conclude that the
groundwater table affecting the stability of the slope VS87 has probability of failure much higher
slope. Analysis results show that the factor of slope VS352 at q3 and q4 because the soil of VS87
safety and the probability failure changes under has a higher permeability coefficient than the soil
different rainfall intensities. The factor of safety of VS352.
decreases and increases in the probability failure
more as the greater rainfall intensity.

Probability of Failure vs. Time

Probability of Failure vs. Time
3
1.8
1.6
1.4
P (Failure) (%)
P (Failure) (%)

1.2 2

1
Slip Slip
0.8 Surface 79 Surface 55
0.6 1
0.4
0.2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
T ime (hr)
Time (hr)

Fig. 12. VS352 (q3 = 7 mm/hr) Fig. 13. VS352 (q4 = 14 mm/hr)
Probability of Failure vs. Time Probability of Failure vs. Time
10 35

30
8
P (Failure) (%)

25
P (Failure) (%)

6 20
Slip Sli p
Surface 73 Surface 28
15
4
10
2
5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
T im e (hr)
T ime (hr)

Fig. 14. VS87 (q3 = 7 mm/hr) Fig. 15. VS87 (q4 = 14 mm/hr)

The probability of failure changes over time greater rainfall time. However, at the heavy rainfall
under different rainfall intensities (Figure 12-15). intensities over 7 mm/h, the rate of increase the
The probability of failure increases more as the probability of failure will increase very fast with

418
time. This reason has proved the stability of slopes
under rainy conditions depend on the saturated
coefficient of permeability. The soil permeability
of slope is smaller, the slope stability was affected
virtually very little by the rain because large
rainwater drain off surface or drain off rapidly
downward, pore-water pressure do not increase
significantly. The slopes having greater the
saturated coefficient of permeability is likely to be
affected by rain, pore-water pressure increases
dramatically and the probability of failure
increases significantly.
6. Conclusions
The stability of the slope under rainy conditions
often influenced by two factors as mounding of
groundwater table and the wetting due to rainwater
reducing the matric suction of the soil in the upper
part of the slope. However, in this study, the most
cases, the slopes reduced the stability due to
decrease in matric suction.
The higher standard deviation of the input
parameters is the greater the probability of failure
is, although the safety factor does not change.
Thus, there is no direct relationship between safety
factor and probability of failure. A slope with a
high safety factor is not necessarily stable if the
probability of failure is large.
Due to the uncertainty of the input parameters
(, c and  will change a lot with moisture,
especially during the rainy season), slope stability
analysis must include the variation of them (i.e.,
the standard deviation).
The more parameters are entered the more trial
runs of Mote Carlo will be used. However, many
research shows that the number of trials is usually
in the order of thousand times to ensure accuracy.
In the probabilistic analysis, to obtain the
standard deviation with high accuracy only if set of
samples is large enough. However, when the
sample size is not large enough the formula (2), (3)
can be used.
According to the limiting equilibrium methods,
the same value of the safety factor often is applied
for various slope although probability of stability is
different, this issue is no suitable and wasteful.
Therefore, the selection of design options,
construction works to prevent optimally landslides
419
should consider the factor of safety in relation to
the probability failure and reliability index.
Probability theory and reliability analysis is an
effective tool in assessing slope stability under the
effect of many random factors.
The stability of the slopes vary in space and
time under the influence of environmental factors
such as the permeability of the soil, rainfall,
evaporation, transpiration and vegetation. Thus, the
analysis results from the numerical model should
be adjusted and verified by measurement and
observation in the field.
Acknowledgements
This research is funded by University of
Technology, VNU-HCM in topic "Database for
study of the effects of rainfall on the landslide in
Khanh Vinh district, Khanh Hoa province", under
grant number TNCS-Đ DK-2015-22. The authors
would like to thank for allowing use of the material
in this topic.
References
[1] M. Abbaszadeh, K. Shahriar, M.
Sharifzadeh, and M. Heydari, "Uncertainty
and Reliability Analysis Applied to Slope
Stability: A Case Study From Sungun
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pp. 581-596, 2011.
[2] J. M. Duncan, "Factors of safety and
reliability in geotechnical engineering,"
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Engineering, vol. 126, 2000.
[3] N. T. Danh, D. V. Ngo, and T. Q. Dung,
"Effects of rainfall on stability of soil
slopes in Khanh Vinh district, Khanh Hoa
province," Proceedings of International
Conference on Engineering geology in
respond to climate change and sustainable
development of infrastructure, Ha Noi,
Viet Nam, ISBN 978 604 913 418 0, pp.
219-228, 2015.
[4] G. S. I. Ltd, Seepage Modeling with
SEEP/W 2007, An Engineering
Methodology, Third Edition, User’s guide.
Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 2008a.
[5] G. S. I. Ltd, Stability Modeling with
SLOPE/W 2007, An Engineering
Methodology, Third Edition, User’s guide.
Calgary, Alta., Canada, 2008b.
[6] D. C. Tobutt, "Monte Carlo simulation
methods for slope stability," Computers
& Geosciences, vol. 8, pp. 199-208, 1982.
[7] A. M. Hassan and T. F. Wolff, "Search
algorithm for minimum reliability index of
earth slopes," J. Geotech. Geoenviron.
Eng, vol. 125, pp. 301-308, 1999.
[8] J. T. Christian, C. C. Ladd, and G. B.
Baecher, "Reliability applied to slope
420
stability analysis," Geotechnical
Engineering, vol. 20, 1994.
[9] The Department of Science and
Technology of Khanh Hoa, "Studying
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moutainous Khanh Son and Khanh Vinh
districts. Proposing solutions to construct
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 FACTORS TRIGGERING LANDSLIDES IN TIMOR-LESTE

Benjamim Hopffer Martins, Motoyuki Suzuki, Eguchi Tsuyoshi,

Nopphawan Tamkuan, Masahiko Nagai
Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation,
Yamaguchi University, Japan
Corresponding author’ Email: hopffer2008@yucivil.onmicrosoft.com

Abstract: The main factor triggering landslide in Timor-Leste is rainfall. Therefore, landslide often
occur during the rainy season. However, there is no information on earthquake-induced landslides or
combined rainfall, although the tectonic activity cannot be ignored because Timor-Leste is located in a
collision region with high seismic intensity. This paper aims to expose the ground instability and slope
failure that are commonly triggered by torrential rainstorms and the influence of earthquakes due to
topographical changes of the ground level. This is the preliminary study about topography change of the
ground due to earthquake with minimum magnitude in Timor-Leste that occurred more than 10 years ago.
The LOS (Line-of-sight) displacement obtained from InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar)
analysis shows that the occurrence times of ground deformation and earthquakes are related. Recent
landslides triggered by rainfall that occurred on 17 January 2018 clearly show that high precipitation
events do not trigger the landslides. On the other hand, the landslide occurred during four consecutive
days after it rained, with a gradual increase from 4.2 mm/hour, 10.2 mm/hour, 13.6 mm/hour and 17.8
mm/hour, respectively

Keywords: Timor-Leste; landslide; alos palsar; insar; earthquake; rainfall.

1. Introduction zone of high seismic risk. Timor-Leste is facing an

Following the approval of the Timor-Leste
Strategic Plan, in 2011, many infrastructure
projects started, including the construction of large
parts of roads and bridges all over the country.
Unfortunately, the results are not meeting the
expectations. The geomorphology,
geoenvironment, and climate of the country led to
frequent landslides and flood occurrences. These
phenomena caused damage with direct and indirect
negative impacts on the population, housing,
gardens, equipment, infrastructure, and safety of
the people. The main factor triggering landslides in
Timor-Leste is rainfall. Thus, landslides often
occur during the rainy season. However, there is
no information on earthquake-induced landslide or
combined rainfall, although Timor-Leste is in the
extreme lack of capacities to adapt to natural and
man-made disasters. Timor-Leste has been facing
serious problems due to natural disasters,
specifically landslides. Nevertheless, there are no
formal records and assessment techniques of the
amplitude and frequency of landslide occurrences.
In addition, scientific studies and research have not
been carried out or have not been published. Thus,
it is difficult to establish a system to monitor and
mitigate landslides and associated damage.
This paper aims to expose the ground instability
and slope failure that are commonly triggered by
torrential rainstorms and the influence of
earthquakes due to topography changes of the
ground level. Because there are no formal records
and evaluation techniques of the amplitude and

421
frequency of landslide occurrences, current records
and observations covering the last ten years are
presented. Even without records of landslides
caused by earthquakes, tectonic activity cannot be
ignored because Timor-Leste is located in a
collisional region with high seismic intensity.
2. Study Area
The study area is in the Bobonaro region, which
belongs to the Bobonaro Administrative Post in
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Zone 51
South (E746304.000-765517.000, N9009266.000-
89899147.000) at approximately 950 meters above
mean sea level. The area covers 216 km2 and is
subdivided into 18 sucos/villages. Six sucos, of the
Bobonaro Administrative Post were chosen as
study area, that is, Ai-assa, Bobonaro, Lourba,
Malilait, Oe-leu, and Tapo, which covers an area
of approximately 68 km2 (31%) and includes a
population of 8,494 people (Census, 2015). The
capital of the Administrative Post of Bobonaro is
located in the Bobonaro Suco. This delimitation of
the area was made considering the spatial
distribution of landslides and ground subsidence,
geological and geomorphological features of the
terrain, main or national roads, electrical
distribution network, public and social
infrastructures, population concentrations, and
public services.
Geomorphologically, Timor has been classified
as an island of rapid and relatively recent
formation, where erosion agents have not yet had
time to shape and grade the relief. Thus, the island
presents an extremely rugged relief and is cut by
deep valleys (Gonçalves, 1966; Leme, 1968;
Garcia and Cardoso, 1978). A succession of
mountains in the Bobonaro region constitutes the
central dorsal of the island; the highest peak
(Tatamailau Mountain) has an altitude of 2960 m.
In the west it includes the Abendudatoi (1775 m)
and Loelaku (1920 m) mountains; in the east, it
includes the Ramelau Mountain. There are several
other peaks in the region, which are characterized
by rocks with greater erosion resistance such as
Mapeop (1239 m), Lour (812 m), Lepo (853 m),
Malilait (992 m), Grotu (898 m), Uduai (915 m),
Mazop (665 m), Uatloun (873 m), and Usiloun
(1043 m). The relief is very rugged and forms a
ridge that separates the runoff water between the
422
north and south coasts, causing landslides and
debris flow during high-intensity rainfall.
Geologically, Timor-Leste has a large diversity
of lithologies. The lack of comprehensive
geological mapping makes it very difficult to
obtain information on rocky materials covering the
region and geological phenomena affecting these
materials. The recent geological map of Timor-
Leste has been digitalized by Haig et al. (2008),
Haig and McCartain (2010), and Benincasa (2015)
and was combined with geological mapping data
for Timor of Audley-Charles (1968). The
nomenclature was updated based on
tectonostratigraphic studies and lithotectonic units.
Timor is located at the collisional margin
between the oceanic Banda volcanic arc and
Australian continental margin, consequently
causing the deformation and uplift of the island
(Harris et al., 2000; Hall and Wilson, 2000;
Audley-Charles, 2004). Plate reconstructions and
Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements
indicate that Australia is moving ~7cm/yr NNE
relative to the Sunda and South Banda arcs
(Nugroho et al., 2009; Spakman and Hall, 2010;
Seton et al., 2012).
The tectonics of Timor-Leste are complex.
They have been under investigation since the last
century, particularly because of oilfields. Several
theories about the tectonic evolution of Timor have
been proposed. Because of the structural
complexity, several models were proposed to try to
explain the tectonic evolution of Timor. Three
main models can be distinguished: overthrust
model, imbricate model, and rebound model
(Audley-Charles, 1968; Chamalaun and Grady,
1978; Barber, 1981; Hamilton, 1979; Harris, 1991;
Charlton, 2000). Based on the geological
conditions, this region has high seismic activity
and earthquakes occur at shallow depths between
0–70 km, intermediate depths between 70–300 km,
and at depths above 500 km (USGS, 2018).
Four geologic formations were identified in the
study area: 1) Maubisse Formation, outcrops of
limestone, clayey shale, basalt, and volcanic rocks;
2) Aituto Formation, outcrops of shale, marl,
limestone, sandstone, and mica; 3) Wailuli
Formation, outcrops of marlstone, mica schist,
shale, sandstone, and quartz; and 4) Clayey
Complex of Bobonaro or Bobonaro Scaly Clay,
that is, predominantly clay. These geological
formations belong to the Gondwana sequence
(Tate et al., 2015).
The rain distribution is affected by mountainous
terrain and the position of the island of Timor
relative to Australia mainland and Indonesia
archipelago. In which, the annual seasons are
determined by the Australian monsoon (SE) and
Asian monsoon (NW). The geography generates
two distinct rainfall patterns: 1) the Northern
Monomodal Rainfall Pattern, where the rainy
season starts in December and has a duration of 4
to 6 months, which affects most parts of the north
of the country and some eastern regions; and 2) the
Southern Bimodal Rainfall Pattern, where the rainy
season starts in December and has a duration of 7
to 9 months, with two rainfall peaks starting in
December and May, which affects the southern
side of the country (Thornwaite, 1948; Silva, 1956;
Soares, 1957; Garcia and Cardoso, 1978; Keefer,
2000). The rainfall is extremely intense with an
annual average of more than 1500 mm in mountain
areas and less than 1500 mm in the lowland
(Thornwaite, 1948; Silva, 1956; Soares, 1957;
Garcia and Cardoso, 1978).
3. Data source and methods
The ALOS/PALSAR (Advanced Land
Observing Satellite/Phased Array type L-band
Synthetic Aperture Radar) Imagery data from
JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency),
covering the period from January 2007 – February
2011, and a digital elevation model with 30 m
resolution were employed to investigate the
deformation of the ground.
Earthquake data from the USGS (United State
Geological Survey), covering the period from
January 2007 – February 2011 were employed to
423
investigate the relationship between earthquakes
and ground subsidence in Oleo suco.
Rainfall data from 1953–1974 were used to
analyse the intensity and distribution of past
rainfall. Recent rainfall data (March 2017– March
2018) were used to investigate the relationship
between rainfall and the landslide occurrence on
17 January 2018.
4. Results and discussions
The instability of the terrain and mass
movements are widespread phenomena that
illustrate the landscape of the study area and vary
in type, intensity, and magnitude. First, we
analysed a specific case related to the
topographical change of the ground near the Oeleo
suco using images from Alos palsar and the
Earthquake Catalogue. A few months after the
construction of the road in 2007, the road section
subsided. This phenomenon continues until today.
To study the subsidence, the Interferogram
Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) technique was
applied by using a common approach including
two SAR images and a digital elevation model
generated from SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography
Mission) with 30 m resolution (Sandwell et al,
2011). The InSAR is an important and precise tool
to measure the displacement and stress changes
caused by large crustal earthquakes (Lindsey et al.,
2015). The Line-of-sight (LOS) displacement from
ALOS interferometry was used to analyse the
topographical ground changes from 22 January
2007 to 2 February 2011. Based on the available
data, an approximate 6-month baseline was chosen.
The last imagery was taken before the end of the
ALOS satellite mission (Table 1).
 Tab. 1. Alos palsar data provided by JAXA
Acquisition Pairing Baseline
Type Direction Orbit Frame Path
Date M->S ID  t
05302 7000 404 2007.01.22 Master
A 979 184
07986 7000 404 2007.07.25 Slave
07986 7000 404 2007.07.25 Master
B 424 183
10670 7000 404 2008.01.25 Slave
10670 7000 404 2008.01.25 Master
C 297 183
13354 7000 404 2008.07.27 Slave
ASCENDING

13354 7000 404 2008.07.27 Master

D 630 184
L 1.1

16038 7000 404 2009.01.27 Slave

16038 7000 404 2009.01.27 Master
E -659 184
18722 7000 404 2009.07.30 Slave
18722 7000 404 2009.07.30 Master
F 215 184
21406 7000 404 2010.01.30 Slave
21406 7000 404 2010.01.30 Master
G -324 184
24761 7000 404 2010.10.17 Slave
24761 7000 404 2010.10.17 Master
H -169 260
26774 7000 404 2011.02.02 Slave

The image was processed based on eight pairs
using batch processing in a Generic Mapping
Tools environment, known as GMTSAR. The
deformation measurement based on each pair is
presented as LOS displacement images in
los_ll.grd and los.ps raster files. The pixel values
vary from period to period. The values range from
-250 to +180 mm. A negative value means that the
ground moves down (downlift) and a positive
value means that the ground moves up (uplift). The
results are shown in Fig 1 and Fig 2.

Fig. 1. Example of LOS displacement results from InSAR, 2007.01.22 – 2007.07.25

Fig. 2. LOS displacement result from each pair of Alos palsar

424
 The seismic catalogue with more than one
century of records was downloaded for free from
the USGS website. Based on the data, the Seismic
Map for the period from 1990 – to 2018 could be
generate in Quantum Geographical Information
System (QGIS) see Fig 3. The map shows that the
seismic activity in the Timor region is very high.
The eastern part of the region is dominated by deep
earthquakes and the northern part of Timor is
dominated by shallow earthquakes. The epicentres
of the shallow and deep earthquakes are on the
Timor island and in the Timor Sea, respectively.
Ten earthquakes that occurred within the study
period with epicentres within and around the study
area were analysed in this study. The magnitude
and depth of the earthquakes varied from 4.2–5.0
and 10–51.4 km, respectively (Fig 4).
Fig. 3. Seismic map for period 1990 – 2018
Fig. 4. Ten earthquakes events around the study
area
Seven control points were arbitrarily chosen
within the study area to analyse the ground
425
deformation. Three points are within the
subsidence area and four points are located outside
of the subsidence area. Among the seven points,
six are in the highland (about 900 m above sea
level) and one is in the lowland (about 200 m
above sea level (Fig 5). The pixel values from
different periods are extracted from each control
point in the LOS displacement images. The vertical
oscillation of the ground for each control point is
presented in Fig 6.
The seismic map (Fig 4) shows the ten
epicentre locations and the sequences of the
earthquake events from 1–10. The sequences seem
to have formed in three parallel lines, that is, first
line (1, 2, 3), second line (4, 5, 6), and third line in
the middle (7, 8, 9, 10), and have the same
direction (NEE). The first line shows the
earthquake depth movement from depth to
shallow. The second line shows the movement
from shallow to depth and the third line shows the
movement back from depth to shallow. Five of the
ten earthquakes occurred in 2008, with a maximum
three-month time interval. The seismic wave is a
body wave, which moves through the interior of
the Earth as P and S waves, which shake the
ground in different ways (USGS, 2018). The three
other earthquake events were concentrated in 2010.
The earthquake with maximum magnitude
occurred in 2009 and the deep earthquake occurred
in 2007 (Fig 7).
Fig. 5. The position of the seven control points in
the study area
Fig. 6. LOS displacement (mm) oscillation From
2007.01.22 – 2011.02.02
Fig. 7. Earthquake depth and magnitude from 2007
- 2010
The LOS displacement measurement shows that
the maximum oscillation occurred from 25 January
2008 to 27 January 2009. This means that the times
of occurrence of the ground deformation and
earthquake event sequence are related. It can be
observed that land-forming processes, such as
topographical change of the ground, continued
after 2011. An aerial photogrammetry of the
affected area was taken in August 2017 (Fig 8) and
the longitudinal profile of the road was measured
(Fig 9).
Fig. 8. Aerial photogrammetry of Oleo ground
subsidence area, August 2017
426
Fig. 9. Longitudinal section of the road surface
elevation measured using Total Station in August
2017
It is known that rainfall is the major cause of
landslides in Timor-Leste, causing great damage to
farmland, road infrastructures, and houses. As
aforementioned, rainfall data have not been
recorded well since 1974. However, meteorology
data were recorded monthly at 37 stations from
1953 until 1974, covering the whole territory. The
study area includes two meteorology stations. One
is located in Bobonaro highland with an elevation
of 900 m and the other one is in Maliana in
lowland with an elevation of 200 m. Fig 10 and Fig
11 show the monthly rainfall variation during the
rainy months from October until April.
Unfortunately, the landslides triggered by rainfall
have not yet been documented properly. Thus, it is
difficult to establish the relationship between the
rainfall intensity and duration and landslide
occurrences. To define the rainfall threshold using
an empirical model, it is necessary to analyse past
rainfall events that caused landslides. The rainfall
conditions that resulted in landslides are plotted in
a graph and the threshold is visually determined
(Guzzetti et al., 2007). Nevertheless, past rainfall
data provide valuable information about the
rainfall intensity, duration, and distribution, even at
monthly temporal resolution. A new Rain Gauge
Station (RGS) was installed for this study in the
Bobonaro Administrative Post, with event records
with sub hourly temporal resolution. Rain event
data were collected from 2 October 2017 to 12
March 2018, covering the rainy months of the
region. The precipitation of that year is very high
compared with the five years before (Fig 15)
 Fig. 10. Rainfall data obtained at the Bobonaro meteorology station from 1957 - 1974

Fig. 11. Rainfall data obtained at the Maliana meteorology station from 1953 - 1973

Secondly, we analysed recent landslides
triggered by rainfall in and outside of the study
area. These landslides occurred on the same date,
that is, in the early morning of 17 January 2018.
The first landslide occurred in the village
Lekiatchi, approximately 8 km from the RGS (Fig
12). The second landslide occurred in the village
Builico, approximately 20 km from the RGS (Fig
13). The third landslide occurred in the village
Batuboru, approximately 46 km from the RGS (Fig
14).

Fig. 12. Lekiatchi landslide Fig. 13. Builico landslide Fig. 14. Batuboru landslide
17 January 2018 (Aerial Photo) 17 January 2018 (by Biky) 17 January 2017 (by Babo)

day of the rainy season (Fig 15 and Fig 16). Parts

The recent rainfall data were plotted based on of the antecedent rainfall will infiltrate the soil and
cumulative and antecedent rainfall. The numbers play an important role in the initiation of landslides
of days chosen for this case are 3, 7, 15, 30, and by reducing the soil suction and increasing the
107 days. The last number includes the first rainy porewater pressure (Bogaard and Greco, 2016).

427
 Fig. 15. 107 days antecedent rainfall, starting from the first day rain (2 October 2017), with total
accumulation 1106.3 mm

Fig. 16. (a) 30-day antecedent rainfall, with a total accumulation 403.0 mm; (b) 15-day antecedent
rainfall, with a total accumulation 277.0 mm; (c) 7-day antecedent rainfall, with a total accumulation
112.6 mm; (d) 3-day antecedent rainfall, with a total accumulation 97.8 mm

The following information can be extracted No landslide occurred on 20 November 2017

from the figures above in reference to the
maximum antecedent rainfall and days before the
initiation of the landslide. After 107 days, the
maximum precipitation reached 67 mm/hour on 20
November 2017, 58 days before the event. After 30
days, the maximum precipitation reached 30.6
mm/hour on 4 January 2017, 13 days before the
event, the same as for the period of 15 days. The
periods of 7 and 3 days reached the maximum
precipitation on the day of the landslide
occurrence. It rained during four consecutive days
with a gradual increase, that is, 4.2 mm/hour, 10.2
mm/hour, 13.6 mm/hour, and 17.8 mm/hour, on
the day of the landslide.
with the maximum rainfall of 67 mm/hour.
Approximately 50% of the first precipitation
amount, that is, 30.6 mm/hour, was recorded on 1
January 2018. A landslide did not occur. In fact,
landslides occurred when a precipitation of 17.8
mm/hour was recorded for three-day antecedent
rainfall, as previously mentioned. This clearly
shows that high precipitation events do not trigger
the landslides. However, extraordinary
precipitation events trigger most of the landslides.
It can also be verified that even low precipitation
with a duration of several consecutive days can
trigger landslides.

428
5. Conclusion
This is a preliminary study about topography
change of the ground level affected by earthquake
with minimum magnitude in Timor-Leste that
occurred more than 10 years ago, that is, from
2007 - 2011. The LOS displacement results from
InSAR analysis show that the times of occurrence
of ground deformation and earthquake sequence
are related.
Recent landslides triggered by rainfall occurred
on 17 January 2018 clearly show that high
precipitation events do not trigger landslides. On
the other hand, the landslide occurred after it
rained for four consecutive days with a gradual
increase from 4.2 mm/hour, to 10.2 mm/hour, to
13.6 mm/hour and to 17.8 mm/hour on the day of
the landslide occurrence.
It is thus considered to be extremely important
to continue to study on factors triggering landslides
in Timor-Leste. Such factors include the
precipitation, which is very common, and the
seismic activity (although it is of low magnitude),
which is responsible for the topographical change
of the ground level. However, these two landslide
triggering factors might possible act together or
simultaneously.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our deepest gratitude
to JAXA for providing Alos palsar data as well as
to everyone else who provided valuable
information, including PhD students Nyoman Sudi
Parwata, Made Pertiwi, and Nguyen Thanh Duong
from Yamaguchi University. We would also like to
thank all other individuals and institutions who
contributed indirectly to this conference paper.
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of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences, 6(3-4), Stark, C. P., 2007. Rainfall thresholds for
373-386. the initiation of landslides in central and
[18] Charlton, T. R., 2000. Tertiary evolution southern Europe. Meteorology and
of the eastern Indonesia collision atmospheric physics, 98(3-4), 239-267.
complex. Journal of Asian Earth [27] Bogaard, T. A., Greco, R., 2016. Landslide
Sciences, 18(5), 603-631. hydrology: from hydrology to pore
[19] Tate, G. W., McQuarrie, N., van pressure. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews:
Hinsbergen, D. J., Bakker, R. R., Harris, Water, 3(3), 439-459.
R., Jiang, H. (2015) Australia going down [28] Timor-Leste Strategic Plan, 2011.
under: Quantifying continental subduction http://timor-leste.gov.tl/wp-
during arc-continent accretion in Timor- content/uploads/2011/07/Timor-Leste-
Leste. Geosphere, 11(6), 1860-1883. Strategic-Plan-2011-20301.pdf
[20] Thornthwaite, C. W., 1948. An approach [29] Census, 2015.
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[21] Silva, H.J.L., 1956. Timor e a cultura do
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[22] Soares, F. A., 1957. O Clima e o Solo de
Timor – Suas Relações com a Agricultura

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 LANDSLIDE HAZARD AND PREVENTION IN THE WARD 2,
DALAT CITY, VIETNAM

Nguyen Viet Ky 1, Bui Trong Vinh 1, Kanno Takami 2

1
HCMC University of Technology, Vietnam
2
Kawasaki Geological Engineering Co. Ltd, Japan
Corresponding author’ Email: nvky@hcmut.edu.vn

Abstract: In recent years, geohazards have been occurred in many places of Lam dong Province.
Dalat City belongs to Lam Dong Province which has abundant and favourable natural conditions for
developing industrial crops, high-tech agricultures as well as tourism activities. However, because of the
pressure of the socio-economic development, Da Lat city has suffered many negative environmental
impacts. In Ward 2, Da Lat city, many cracks appeared on land surface and houses in April 2017.
Geologists from Faculty of Geology and Petroleum Engineering and experts from Kawasaki Geological
Engineering Corporation (Japan) have investigated the causes of cracking phenomenon such as installing
two extensometers and analyzing data from the geological and geotechnical survey, topography,
construction of some topographic features. Based on the results of survey data, the research team
conducted a steady-state analysis of the slope, assessed the role of groundwater and slope stablity. It is
shown that the main cause of the above phenomenon is due to geological features (artificial ground) of
the area, the terrain has a large slope (25 - 300), heavy rain (114 mm/5days) caused groundwater level
increasing at the toe and weakened the foundation. In addition, high buildings (hotels) and moving heavy
vehicles on the top of the slope have made the hill slope unstable. Preventive solutions have also been
proposed to minimize the landslide hazard in this site.

Keywords: Dalat city; geohazards; landslide; rainfall; groundwater; soil cracks.

1. Introduction with many hotels, restaurants and crowded

In recent years, many geohazards have occurred residential houses. Therefore, the impact of this
in Lam Dong Province especially landslides, soil phenomenon on the socio-economic activities of
cracks, flash floods, mud floods, mining problems. the city is huge. Finding causes were important
Landslide is a very strong and strong catastrophe in tasks and some countermeasures must be done
areas because of highland terrain with steep hill urgently.
slope. Landslides occurred on a number of national
highways, provincial roads, and at the same time
appeared in many areas of coffee, rubber,
eucalyptus, ... and hillsides. According to some
preliminary results, geological hazards in the
Central Highlands showed that the phenomenon of
soil cracking was recorded in Duc Trong and Di
Linh districts (Figures 1 and 2). In Da Lat, in April
2017, many cracks appeared suddenly in the area
of 50m long, 2-3m wide, causing at least 17 houses
to be damaged. The affected area has over 5000m2 Fig. 1. Cracks on basalt weathering Tan Thuong,
(Figure 3). This site locates near Da Lat market Di Linh, Lam Dong

431
 Fig. 2. Cracks in Block V, Quarter 1, Di Linh Town

2. Methods electrodes, 5m each, and the estimated depth of

In order to determine the cause of the hazard,
field investigations and data analysis have been
carried out as the following:
- A comprehensive survey of the area with
faults, cracks, houses.
- Installing two extensometers with two alarm
warning systems Geophysical measurements of the
three-electrode photoelectric section, each of 40
20m - 30m.
- Drilling 06 boreholes for geological survey
and evaluation of survey drilling materials.
- Measurement of terrain and cross-sections
(Figure 3).
- Collecting and analyzing rainfall data.
- Analyzing slope stability of the study area by
Fellenius calibration method.

Fig. 3. Location map of surveys

432
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Suspension setup and warning device
In order to generate loudspeaker warnings, 2
extensometers were installed at 2 locations in areas
with high risk of cracking. If the displacement in
area is greater than 4 mm continuously for one
hour, the alarm systems will start. The first
installation site was marked S-1 and the second
installation site was designated S-2 (Figure 4).
From the results of S-1 and S-2 systems (from
April 28, 2017 to May 2018), there has no further
expansion cracks so that the warning signal has not
informed.
3.2. Geophysical investigation
The results of geophysical measurements are
shown in figures 4, 5 and 6 corresponding to the
lines 1 (slope), 2 (Nguyen Van Troi) and 3 (Phan
Dinh Phung ).
Six soil layers have been identified in the study
area: layers 1 - 3 are artificial soil (leveling,
organic), layer 4 of clay, clay saturated water, layer
5 - reddish brown soil, layer 6 - weathered rocks.
On the surface of the electrical image, blue lenses
are visible - where rocky soils are rocky, the
mechanical properties of rock are reduced and a
cause for sliding phenomenon.

Fig. 4. The line 1 along Song Lo slope

Fig. 5. The line 2 – Nguyen Van Troi Street

Fig. 6. The line 3 – Phan Dinh Phung Street

433
 3.3. Results from borehole data
Six geological boreholes drills have been
conducted; taking samples for analysis of physical
and chemical properties of boreholes, monitoring
ground water levels in boreholes. The results
showed that: The study area has soil mainly soft
soils, partly artificial soil. Results of monitoring
and analysis of 02 boreholes (HK01 and HK02)
showed that there existed organic humus layer in
soil layer of human origin: in HK01 from 0,0 to 4,5
m; in HK02 from 0.0 to 3.7m depth (Figure 7).
The land area where the fault occurred, cracked
land, the house is soft ground with N value of less
than 10 made from soil with soft clay. Due to the
soil deposited on the sloping roof, previously the
spontaneous and rechargeable landfill site (sloping
land), the soil was of low anti-slip strength (Table
1).

Tab. 1. Soil properties of each stratigraphy from geological survey results.

φ C
3
N value gt (kN/m )
(o ) (kg /c m 2 ) (kN/m 2 )
Layer 1 8 17.4 14.03 0.15 15
Layer 3 10 17.8 16.45 0.18 18
Layer 4 13 17.9 16.49 0.179 17.9
Layer 5 24 18.1 17.03 0.191 19.1
Layer 6 33 18.4 17.41 0.216 21.6

Fig. 7. geological section A-A '

The authors also conducted groundwater block is located on the left side of a valley with the
measurements and performed topographic highest elevation of 1497m to the northwest, at
measurements. The results show that the sliding altitudes below 1480m. Direction of underground

434
flow is also in the direction of high altitude and 3.4. Effect of rainfall
pinching toward the center of the valley. These are To assess the impact of weather conditions on
also disadvantageous factors for slope stability land slide in Ward 2 of Da Lat city, the research
here. team has collected rainfall data from April 16 to
April 26 provided by Lam Dong
Hydrometeorological Forecasting Center

Fig. 8. Rainfall in Da Lat area from April 16-26, 2017

From the graph of precipitation from April 16
to April 26, 2004 (Figure 8), the highest daily
rainfall reached 65.2 mm (April 22), cumulative
rainfall in the period from 22/4 to 26/4 (ie within 5
days) has reached 114.9mm. Because of heavy rain
with high rainfall, the groundwater at the toe of the
slope rising caused slope ustable.
3.5. Evaluate the stability of the slope
To evaluate the slope stabilization used, the
Fellenius method was used. In addition, when
calculating the stability, the mechanical parameters
of the soil layers are derived from the results of the
geological survey provided by Lam Dong Province
(c, φ, γ) (Table 1). The groundwater level used in
the calculation is the water level measured at the
survey drilling (Table 2).

Tab. 2. Underground water level measured in drilled holes

No Borehole number Depth of water table (m)
1 LK1 7,3
2 LK2 6,8
3 LK3 0,5
4 LK4 0,6
5 LK5 2,2
6 LK6 2,5

In Figure 9, the maximum safety coefficient is the slide has been stable temporarily. The authors
Fs = 1.078. This means that under this condition, also conducted a steady analysis of the slope in the

435
relationship between groundwater level and safety
factor. Results showed that when the water level
increased, the safety factor significantly decreased,
from 0.979 to 0.813; When the ground water level
decreased, the safety factor increased from 0.979
to 1.159. In order to increase the safety factor to
10%, the groundwater level should be lowered to
3.5m, and to increase the safety factor to 15%, the
groundwater level should lower the water table to
5.5 m.
Fig. 9. Calculation results for A-A’ cross sectional safety factor by Fellenius correction method
3.6. Causes of landslide hazard
There are 3 causes of landslide hazard have
been investigated in the target site. There are some
soft soil layers with low shear resistance caused
this area unstable. This residential area was formed
from a valley with artificial garbage dumping site.
The topography with a slope of 25-30 degrees
combined with heavy rains caused rising water
levels. This weakened the soil layers in the toe of
the slope. The phenomena was confirmed by
formation of cracks and rising of the house and
436
The authors also used the A-section 'to conduct
slope stability analysis under the influence of
various types of wooden structures, steel frame
structure, reinforced concrete. The results showed
that the reinforced concrete works have a great
impact on the safety factor. Safety factor decreased
from 1,091 for the first floor-house to 0.821 with 5
floor-house and only 0.691 for 10 floor-house.
roads, red muddy water leaks on the floor causing
the current sliding, cracking at many houses.
3.7. Prevention solutions
In order to prevent the hazard, the urgent
solution is to reduce groundwater level by using a
collected water well. The well is expected to have
a diameter of about 3.5m and a depth of 5m. Inside
the well, 14 horizontal pipes collecting water with
a distance of 35m each. Collected water in the well
will be drained to low terrain on Phan Dinh Phung
Street (Figure 10).
 Fig. 10. The profile of the well and water pipes in the ground block
4. Conclusions
The main causes of landslide hazard in the
study area are the nature of soft soil and
groundwater level rise. The heavy construction
works on the slopes also contributed to reducing
the slope safety factor.
In order to prevent the future landslides, a large
vertical diameter well with 14 horizontal water
pipes have been proposed. In addition, the
construction of large-scale reinforced concrete
structures on the top of the slope should be banned.
Large-capacity vehicles from sloping traffic
(Nguyen Van Troi Street).
Water surface treatment with simple water pipe
installation and green canvas at the site were
carried urgently; Sealing cracks along the road
with concrete to prevent rainwater from
437
penetrating the area were also proposed. Renew
water supply and wastewater pipelines to prevent
leakage and seepage into the soil.
Two landslide early warning system were also
installed to warn residents evacuate before
landslide occurred in this areas.
References
[1] Lomtadze. Geodynamic engineering.
Publishing house Scs and Engi 1983
[2] Dau Van Ngo, Tran Xuan Tho. Stable
engineering. NU Publishing house 2009
[3] http://www.ads-network.co.j
p/taishinsei/kozo-kagak u
[4] REGPE, Geo Kawasaki Co. Project profile:
Works to solve the problem, cracked land,
house in Ward 2, Ho Chi Minh City. Da
Lat. 2017.
 SAFETY ASSESSMENT OF A CREEPING LANDSLIDE BASED
ON FIELD MEASUREMENTS

Nguyen Tai Son1, Pham Van Ty2, Le Quang Huy1

1
Power Engineering Consulting Company 1, Vietnam
2
Vietnam Association of Engineering Geology and Environment, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: sonntpecc1@yahoo.com.vn

Abstract: The phenomenon of Creep landslide of the slope of the work appears relatively common,
however the safety assessment is still much difficult due to the lack of metrics related to creep of the
rocky soil layers. The article presents a safe assessment method for the slope of a Hydropower project in
the event of the creep-landslide phenomenon and review safety assessment works over time. This method
is based on the use of Geological Survey Documents and the actual observation of the position itself.
Landslide creep at slopes appears to be relatively common phenomenon. However, safety assessment is
still difficult due to lack of metrics related to creep of soil and rock layers. This article presents a safety
assessment method for landslide creep at a powerhouse slope at a hydropower project based on actual
geodetic measurements and geological investigation.

Keyword: separated by semicolons; landslide, creep;

1. Introduction sedimentary rock formation from Triassic period.

An underground penstock at a hydropower
project in Laos was subjected to hydraulic
fracturing in late 2012. Inspection after the incident
found out an opening of 5 to 7cm at a welded joint
near the soil rock interface. Observation cycles
have been carried out since mid 2012 for
powerhouse slope by surface monuments at 3
areas: surge shaft, sink hole and powerhouse slope.
So far nine cycles were completed. Observation
data show annual movement rates have been
relatively stable with a strong reaction with
rainfall. An average rate of movement is about
0.2072mm/day (75.6mm/year). This is a small
long-term value, representing a clear creep
movement. Combination with assessment of
geological composition it can be said that there is a
movement mass in proluvium-deluvium (pdQ)
zone with creep sliding. The objective of safety
assessment of powerhouse slope is to find out
degree of safety for the slope and evaluate
possibility to sustain it during long term period.
2. Geological conditions
2.1. Strata
According to mapping data of geological map
the penstock – powerhouse area is located in
Lithology composition consists of sandstone,
siltstone, and conglomerate. It is intercalated by
light color acid effusive rock, rhyolite tuff,
siltstone bedded lime, vein rock of trachyte –
andesite crushed and contaminated unevenly by
carbonate. At south area of the powerhouse this
formation covers unconformable to an older
Obsidian to Silurian formation, which comprises of
sandy siltstone, quartzite – rhyolite – sandstone
with lenses of compressed lime, marl.
Overlaying on bedrock is the deposit of
proluvium and deluvium (pdQ) from an ancient
landslide. Its composition includes soil of grits,
rock fragments and boulders which distributes
irregularly. There are particularly rock blocks with
maximum size of 20-30m. The origin of rock
fragments and blocks consists of sandy siltstone,
and acid to neutral vein rock. The maximum
thickness of pdQ layer is 150m. Based on micro-
seismic investigation the pdQ stratum is further
sub-divided into 3 zones.

438
 Fig. 1. Geological map of penstock and powerhouse area

Fig. 2. Engineering geological profile along the penstock

2.2. Properties of soil and rock
Data were collected from various investigations
to date (September 2017), including drilling and
test pits, geophysical profiles, lab and insitu tests to
find out physical and mechanical properties for
creep study.
Shear strengths of weathering zones from
highly to slightly weathered zones are estimated
from lab tests and insitu tests, properties of layers
see on Table 2. Geological section of study area is
show on Fig.1. Young modulus and Poisson ratio µ
are average value for full depth, see on Table 1.

439
 Tab. 1. Primary wave velocity, Shear wave velocity, Young modulus and Poisson ratio of soil and rock
P-wave velocities Shear wave velocities Young’ Modulus E
Layers Poison Ratio µ
Vp (m/s) Vs (m/s) (103MPa)
PdQ 400 - 800 100 - 300 0.34 0.42
PdQ1 500 - 1000 150 - 350 0.35 0.42
PdQ2 2200 - 2500 1000 - 1500 5.0 0.32
IA2 1700 - 2200 700 - 900 2.36 0.33
IB 2500 - 2800 1000 - 1500 7.67 0.32
IIA 3500 - 4800 1000 - 1550 9.27 0.30

Tab. 2. Properties of soil and rock layers

Proluvium Proluvium Proluvium
Completely Strongly Moderately Slightly
– – –
Properties weathered weathered weathered weathered
Deluvium Deluvium Deluvium
IA1 IA2 IB IIA
PdQ PdQ1 PdQ2
Unit
weights 2.06/2.13 1.83/2.2 2.77/2.78 1.85/2.0 2.45/2.5 2.77/2.78 2.8/2.81
γ (T/m3)
Friction
angle φ 30/29 29/22 35/34 22/20 30/29 35/34 38/37
(0)
Cohesion
0.082/0.06 0.06/0.037 0.28/0.23 0.033/0.025 0.08/0.05 0.28/0.23 0.55/0.51
C (MPa)

2.3. Data from movement observation

Movement observations started from May 2012
to July 2013 and have been continued. There are
13 monuments on powerhouse slope. Based on 5
years of observation data from Monument M17 on
the open section of penstock are selected for this
study. M17 has the longest and most completed
data set with the largest measured movement
value. Thus it adds a degree of conservatism in the
analysis.

Fig. 3. Differential horizontal movements on

powerhouse slope from 17 July 2015 to 29
November 2016

440
 Fig. 4. Surface movement along longitudinal section along penstock from Vertical Shaft to Powerhouse
from July-August 2015 to December 2015 – January 2016

Fig. 5. Observed horizontal movement at Monument M17 from May 2012 to December 2015 and
measured precipitation

3. Modeling analysis 3.2. Stability analysis

3.1. Modeling
A two dimensional Finite Element Model (2D
FEM) is established for the penstock alignment,
using a commercial numerical software.
Additionally a commercial stability analysis
software is also used to check the stability of
powerhouse slope.
The first step is to use Mohr- Coulomb Limit
equilibrium method for stability analysis. Analysis
results have shown that the slope is not
unbalanced, safety coefficient stability of the slope
K = 1.25, Results show in Fig. 4. However, the
slopes still have a moving as mentioned above.
This moving phenomenon has the expression of
creep landslide.

441
 Fig. 6. 2D FEM model for powerhouse slope

Fig. 7. Result of stability analysis under the limit equilibrium model

3.3. Shear Strength Reduction (SSR) analysis direction of movements are similar with the
To solve the stability problem due to creep, measured data. Results show in following figures.
stress-strain analysis is needed for soil and rock
masses upstream of powerhouse. Shear Strength
Reduction (SSR) analysis is implemented in FEM
software. Model setup is shown in Fig. 3.
Results shows that with shear strength
reduction factor k = 1.25 then the slope is at
critical stage. At that maximum displacement is
2.08 m. Thus the safety factor for the slope is
estimated as k = 1.25. The results also show the Fig. 8. Maximum Shear Strain

442

Fig. 9. Contours of total displacement
Fig. 10. Vectors of Displacement
3.4. Sliding stability analysis based on creep
modeling
Maxwell creep model, which includes viscous
model of movement as proposed by Hamasaki et
al, (2016) is used. This model is shown in
following figure.
m mass of sliding body;  movement
acceleration
From EQ. (1) we have
(2)
With t is time
Transforming EQ. (2) after time variation and
above velocity equation of sliding body is derived
as:
(3)
EQ. (3) is used to determined rate of movement
for slope.
Trial and error is used to determine the
"viscous" index Cd from based on observations of
the monument M17 for the period 2012 – 2017.
For simplicity of the curve equation "Movement
versus time", the use total displacement value of
each year is used in the computation process.
Figure 12 presents results of the back analysis as
well as actual measurement. The result shows that
the average viscosity value for creep landslide area
is Cd = 0.0358.

Fig. 12. Relationship between actual measured and

calculated movement after model of Hamasaki et
al (2016)
Fig. 11. Dynamic model of viscous landslide after
Value of Cd = 0.0358 is used to solve EQ. (3)
Hamasaki et al, (2016). Where:
to get movement velocity with different time in the
F Resultant force (downward); Cd Viscous factor
future. Results of prediction are shown in Table 3
D Sliding force; R Anti slide force; A Sliding area;
and Figure 13.
k Damping factor;  angle of sliding surface

Movement equation for this case is in following

form:
mα = F - kv (1)
Where:

Tab. 3. Estimated movement velocity vs. time

t (days) 0 365 730 1949 2920 5840 11680 23360 46720 93440
v
0 0.060808 0.108835 0.207243 0.245506 0.282687 0.28917 0.289322 0.289323 0.289323
(mm/day)

443
 - New penstock should be away from creep
zone, i.e. outside of PdQ layer.
- Instrumentation and observation system will
be required to measure movement in this area for
safety precaution. Frequent evaluation is essential
for movement velocity to timely decision if major
change in movement velocity is detected.
References
[1] Hamasaki, E., Marui, H., and Furuya, G.,
Fig. 13. Predicted movement velocity of the 2016. Simulation Model to Predict
landslide Landslide Speed Using Velocity-
4. Safety analysis Dependent Viscous Damping. Workshop
The slope is with a safety factor against sliding on World Landslide Forum, WLF 2017:
of K = 1.26 ≥ [K] = 1.25. Based on creep analysis Advancing Culture of Living with
the movement velocity will be stable at a rate of v Landslides pp 579-586.
= 0.3mm/day (close to 110mm per year) after 23 [2] International Union of Geological Sciences
360 days (64 years). Based on velocity Working Group on Landslides (IUGS),
classification by IUGS (1995) the predicted 1995. A suggested method for describing
velocity is classified as very slow without causing the rate of movement of a landslide.
hazard or cracks could be repaired. The only Bulletin of the International Association of
requirement is to maintain during operation. Engineering Geology, Volume 52, Issue 1,
5. Conclusions and recommendations pp 75–78.
- Powerhouse slope is under creep movement in
PdQ layer, but within allowable safety factors.
- Existing underground penstock was failed
directly due to landslide creeping.

444
 RAINFALL-INDUCED SHALLOW LANDSLIDES:
BEHAVIOR AND MITIGATION APPROACH

Avirut Chinkulkijniwat1, Somjai Yubonchit2

1
Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand
2
Rajamangala University of Technology Isan, Thailand
Corresponding author’ Email: avirut@sut.ac.th

Abstract: Assessment of rainfall-induced shallow slope failures is very important to reduce damages
of infrastructures and lives of people living close to hazardous areas. Understanding the hydrological and
physical responses of shallow slopes, subject to rainfall events is vital for the efficiency of a warning
system setup. A series of experiments were undertaken to evaluate the hydrological responses of shallow
slopes of varying steepness and when subjected to varying intensities, periods, and inter-storm periods of
rainfall. The hydrological and physical responses were characterized to infiltration and saturation phases.
During the infiltration phase, the maximum magnitude of water content was found behind the wetting
front, termed as the water content behind the wetting front (wb). For a certain soil type, the magnitude of
wb was found to be dependent on the magnitude of rainfall intensity, regardless of the slope gradient and
initial water content. This knowledge was further extended to characterize the stability of shallow
landslides. Numerical experiments were also conducted to perform parametric study on the most common
used tool for land sliding mitigation: the rainfall intensity-duration thresholds (ID threshold). It was found
that the slope angle and antecedent rainfall play role on instability of the shallow slope. They control the
initial stability of slope, which results in the different linear relationship of ID thresholds. In addition, the
slope angle might accelerate the rate of rain water infiltration, and hence it reflects the slope of the ID
thresholds.

Keywords: rainfall-induced landslides; physically-based warning system; ID thresholds; rainfall

infiltration.

1. Introduction economic damages of more than 15 million USD

Rainfall-induced shallow landslides frequently
result in natural disasters in many countries. One
of the worst natural disasters in Thailand due to
failure of slope was in 1988. Extremely rainfall in
the southern part of Thailand in 1988 resulted in
widespread slope failures and caused more than
240 deaths, as well as the destruction of 1560
bridges and 5694 km of roads (Oh et al., 2008).
Another great tragedy in Thailand was due to a
slope failure on 10 August 2001 in Phetchabun
province when a rainfall intensity of 100 mm/day
induced hundreds of slope failure and sequential
mudflows resulting in 136 deaths as well as
(Yumuang, 2006).
An early warning system represents effective
tool widely used to manage rainfall-induced
disasters, including landslides, floods, and debris
flows (Brand et al., 1984; Keefer et al., 1987;
Wilson et al., 1993; Sirangelo and Braca, 2004). In
Thailand, 1,052 early warning stations has been
established by the Department of Water Resources
since in 2004, which covers all 3,207 hazardous
villages in Thailand. Monitoring devices including
automatic thermometer, rain gauge and soil
moisture sensor have been installed at warning
stations to collect real-time temperature, rainfall

445
and soil water content. The real-time rainfall data
are typically evaluated through the risk thresholds
to interpret the disaster risk. The risk thresholds is
usually critical rainfall triggering the initiation of
rainfall-induced landslides, in which it has been
empirically recognized as the cumulative rainfall
of 100-300 mm in a day (the Department of
Mineral Resources, 2004). The real-time rainfall
data of 50-65%, 65-80%, and >80% of the critical
rainfall are considered as immunity, caution and
evacuation levels of the disaster risk, respectively.
The advantage of using critical rainfall
thresholds as a part of early warning is its ease for
fast assessment of rainfall-induced landslides.
However, the rainfall thresholds has been
empirically obtained by analyzing historical data of
the landslides. Several factors such as soil’s
hydraulic properties (Pradel and Raad, 1993;
Rahimi et al., 2010; Ma et al., 2011; Li et al.,
2013), slope geometries (Rahardjo et al., 2007;
Cho, 2009; Ali et al., 2014a) and antecedent
rainfall conditions (Rahardjo et al., 2001; Rahimi
et al., 2011; Cuomo and Della Sala, 2013) that
affect hydro-mechanical interactions and hence
landslide characteristics are neglected. Previous
literatures also reveal that other instrumentations
(i.e., moisture sensor, tensiometors and
inclinometer) can be effectively used in warning
system (e.g., Tohari et al., 2007; Gallage and
Uchimura, 2010; Greco et al. 2010), in which
warning levels can be directly interpreted via real-
time responses from those devices. Nevertheless,
prior to install those devices, a suitable location for
monitoring of rainfall-induced landslides needs to
be examined.
This paper presents recent research regarding to
both empirical and physical landslides waning
systems. Efforts had been devoted to examine the
factors influencing landslide characteristics and the
critical rainfall thresholds which will provide
comprehensive understanding of rainfall-induced
shallow landslide mechanisms and subsequently a
guideline for building up powerful warning system
based on monitoring device installations.
446
2. Physically-based warning approach
Previous studies (Tohari et al., 2007; Gallage
and Uchimura, 2010; Greco et al., 2010;
Eichenberger et al., 2013) revealed that the
physically-based prediction can be used to build up
an early warning system, interestingly. In the
method, the warning levels are evaluated via the
real-time hydraulic responses read from a set of
monitoring devices. The common monitoring
devices are moisture sensors, piezometers and
tensiometers. Location of instrumentation is vital
for early warning systems to be effective. Few
attempts have been made to date on the study of
suitable instrumentation locations for effective
early warning systems. This part of research is
systematically divided into two parts: 1) laboratory
experiments and 2) stability analysis of the slope.
A physical slope model was constructed to
evaluate the hydrological responses on various
steepness of soil slopes when subject to various
rainfall intensities and periods. Subsequently, a
series of infinite slope analysis was conducted to
develop a fundamental understanding of the
characteristics of failure planes in shallow slopes
when subjected to varying rainfall conditions.
2.1. Moisture responses during rainfall
infiltration
Physical slope model and experimental
program
To investigate moisture responses during
rainfall, a local sandy soil was used in this study to
prepare the homogeneous soil slope. The soil was
classified as poorly-graded sand (SP) according to
Unified Soil Classification System. A schematic
diagram of the physical model are shown in
Figures 1. The model consists of four components
including the rainfall simulator, the experiment
box, the box supports, and the chain pulley system.
The box supports are pin and roller type supports
such that the experiment box can be raised one side
to a prescribed inclined angle by the chain pulley.
 Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the physical slope model

Figure 2 shows details of the experiment box.
The dimensions of this box are 1550 mm long,
1000 mm high, and 200 mm wide. The sides and
bottom base of the box were made from
impervious acrylic plates of 15 mm thick. Five of 5
mm diameter holes were vertically drilled at mid of
the side boundary to insert the moisture sensor
probes (Decagon 5TE, Decagon Devices Inc.
(2007-2010)). Three of 9 mm diameter holes were
drilled at bottom of the experiment box at distances
of 375 mm (downslope), 750 mm (middle slope),
and 1125 mm (upslope). These holes were used to
insert the piezometers. To reduce entrapped air that
might be affecting to measurement of the
volumetric moisture content (  w ), three other
holes were drilled nearby the piezometer holes to
install the opening valves. At downslope,
permeable porous concrete overlaid by geotextile
was placed to allow free water outflow at nearly
saturated state, and to prevent the clogged soil in
porous concrete.

Fig. 2. Details of the experiment box (a) side view (b) top view

447
 Three set of laboratory experiments were
conducted as shown in Table 1. In total, 13 tests
were carried out. Each test, rainfall was
continuously applied until the arrival of the steady
state which is indicated by the rate of water
outflow at slope toe equals to the rainfall intensity.
The magnitudes of rainfall intensity assigned to
each test were lower than the soil’ saturated
permeability ( k s = 1.54x10-4 m/sec = 554.4
mm/hr). Monitored data were recorded during the
test until the steady state (end of each test) was
achieved.
The variation of rainfall intensity was
conducted in test series I. The rainfall intensities of
45, 70, 100, 30, 160 mm/hr were applied to the
Tab. 1. Experimental programs conducted in this study
Series Rainfall Slope angle,
intensity, i  (deg)
(mm/hr)
45
70
model at slope angle (β) of 20˚. The variation of
slope angle was conducted in the test series II. The
slope angles (β) of 5˚, 10˚, 20˚ and 30˚ were
assigned to the model subjected to rainfall intensity
of 100 mm/hr. The inter-storm rainfall period was
assigned to the model in the test series III. This test
is to study the effect of antecedent water content
from the previous rainfall, which might affect the
hydrological responses. The two rainfall events of
100 mm/hr each were applied to the model at slope
angle (β) of 20˚ with the inter-storm period of 4, 7
and 14 days.
Rainfall sequence Inter-storm
rainfall period,
t b (day)
i End of test
(Steady state)

I 100 20 -
130
t
160 tr

5 i End of test
(Steady state)
10
II 100 -
20
t
30 tr

i 4
End of first
rain storm End of test 7
(Steady state) (Steady state)
III 100 20 14
tb -
t
tr1 tr3

Testing results Figures 3, 4 and 5 present development of  w

The volumetric water contents (  w ) read from
the moisture sensors B1, B2, B3, B4, and B5,
located at a vertical distance from the impervious
surface of 100 mm, 200 mm, 300 mm, 400 mm,
and 500 mm, respectively (see Fig. 2a).
profile in the soil subjected to rainfall experiment
series I, II, and III, respectively. The developments
of  w profile of all experimental series look

448
similar to each other. The general characters of  w
profile development were determined as follows:
1) The development of  w profile begins
since the rainwater starts infiltrating into the soil.
During the rainwater infiltration process termed as
the infiltration phase, the volumetric water content
increases from its initial value (  wi ) to a
volumetric moisture content of  wb , named the
volumetric water content behind the wetting front.
The  wb presents a possible maximum magnitude
of  w taking place during the infiltration phase.
2) After reaching the impervious boundary of
the wetting front, an upward movement of water
table begins. This process is called saturation
phase. At this phase,  w increases from the  wb to
the magnitude of  w that closes to  sat .
The characters of  w development summarized
above are in accordance with those reported by
previous studies (Tohari et al., 2007; Huang et al.,
2008; Huang and Yuin, 2010; Sharma and
Nakagawa, 2010; Phi et al., 2013).
Figures 3(a) – (e) present the variation of
volumetric water content in shallow slope of the
experimental series I for rainfall intensity of 45,
70, 100, 130 and 160 mm/hr, respectively. The
results show that the  w profile development in the
infiltration phase clearly depends on the
magnitudes of rainfall intensity. The higher rainfall
intensity results in the faster move of wetting front,
and hence the deeper development of a wetting
front. In addition, the results show that the
magnitude of  wb increases with the magnitude of
rainfall intensity. This findings are similar to those
reported by Lee et al., 2011.
The rainfall intensity also affects the  w profile
development in the saturation phase. In the plots,
the rise of water table is indicated at the magnitude
where  w reaches  sat . The level of water table is
indicated by the point where the  w profile in the
saturation phase deviates from  sat . It is found that
the greater rainfall intensity causes the faster rise
of water table. In addition, the final level of water
table at the steady state also depend on the rainfall
intensity and the greater rainfall intensity yields the
higher level of water table at steady state.

Fig. 3. Volumetric water content profiles for the test series I: (a) i/ks = 0.081, (b) i/ks = 0.126,
(c) i/ks = 0.180, (d) i/ks = 0.234, and i/ks = 0.289

449
 Fig. 4. Volumetric water content profiles for the test series II: (a)  = 5˚, (b)  = 10˚,
(c)  = 20˚, and (d)  = 30˚

Fig. 5. Volumetric water content profiles for the test series III: (a) t b = 4 days, (b) t b = 7 days,
(c) t b = 14 days, and (d) continuous storm t b = 0 days

450
 Figures 4(a)-(d) present variation of volumetric
water content in shallow slope of the experimental
series II for the slope angle (  ) of 5˚, 10˚, 20˚ and
30˚, respectively. The  w development and the
magnitude of  wb in the infiltration phase are not
dependent on the slope angle. In other words,
within the  range conducted in this study, the
magnitude of slope angle  do not affect the
hydrological response. It is due to the vertical
seepage flow plays important role to the
hydrological responses in isotropic shallow slope
soil during rainwater infiltration process. This
finding is similar to that found by Lee et al., 2011
who conducted two sets of laboratory seepage flow
tests: one-dimensional soil column and 18o tilted
slope model. The slope angle, however, affects the
 w profile development in the saturation phase.
Figures 4 (a)-(d) clearly show that the rise of water
table depends on the slope angle, the faster water
table development is found at mild slope angle.
This results may naturally be attributed to a
dominant role of lateral flow along the impervious
layer at the soil saturated state. The higher slope
angle provides the higher hydraulic gradient and
the faster lateral flow, and thus the less
accumulated rain water at the impervious
boundary.
Figure 5 presents variation of volumetric water
content in shallow slope of the experimental series
III for a continuous storm, and for the different
inter-storm period ( t b ) of 4, 7, 14 days,
respectively. The  w development in the
infiltration phase depends on the magnitude of t b
as it affects the magnitude of an initial  w of the
subsequent rainfall (  wi ); the shorter t b results in
the higher magnitude of  wi . The speed of the
wetting front advancement is more rapid for the
shorter t b . Although the variation of t b
significantly affects the wetting front development,
it does not affect the magnitude of the volumetric
moisture content behind the wetting front (  wb ). In
the other word, the magnitude of  wb is
independent of the magnitude of t b .
451
2.2. Analysis of failure plane
Location where failure plane takes place is vital
for assessment of the slope failure. In this study, an
infinite slope analysis was used to assess the
failure plane based on the moisture responses
characterized by physical slope model test. For the
shallow slope failure taken place during the
saturation phase, the failure plane always takes
place at the interfacial between the soil and the
impervious layers. However, the location of failure
plane taken place during the infiltration phase
might vary from the depth to depth depending on
many factors. Figure 6 presents the relationships
between the normalized critical depth (Z wf / Z t )
and the infiltration index ( i k s ) for various
magnitudes of stability index ( tan  ' tan  ) for this
demonstrated case. The vertical distance measured
from the slope surface to the failure plane is called
the critical depth ( Z wf ), while the thickness of the
shallow slope is denoted as Z t . For a certain soil,
the critical depth decreases with an increasing
rainfall intensity. In the other words, the shallower
depth of failure plane is encountered in the slope
subjected to the greater magnitude of rainfall
intensity.
Figure 6 shows that the depth of failure plane is
very sensitive to the change of rainfall intensity for
the stability index ranged from 0.9 to 1.0. The
depth of failure plane can occur at any depth
depending on the magnitudes of the infiltration and
stability indices. However, the depth of failure
plane is inert to the change of rainfall intensity for
the stability index of lower than 0.9. In addition, in
this case the depth of failure plane might take place
at very shallow depth ( Z wf / Z t < 0.2).
Fig. 6. Critical depth chart
 2.3. Categorization of the slope failures
Once the critical depth chart is available, the
threshold value can be assigned to the slope based
on personal judgment. The threshold is the stability
number at which the critical depth is slightly
sensitive to rainfall intensity, i.e. the threshold
value used in the illustrated case is 0.9 which is the
stability index at which an infiltration index (i/k) to
a normalized critical depth( Z wf / Z t ) ratio is no
greater than 0.2.
Based on the relative depth of the failure plane,
possible modes of slope failure are: 1) along the
impervious layer mode, 2) shallow depth mode
which occurs very close to the slope surface, and
3) transitional mode which occurs at any depth
from the impervious layer to the slope surface.
These modes are governed by the stability index
( tan  ' tan  ) as depicted in Figure 7 and
summarized below:
1) For the mild slope ( tan  ' tan   1.0 ), the
failure mode is the along the impervious layer
mode which is triggered by an increment of
positive pore water pressure taking place during
the saturation phase.
2) For the steep slope ( tan  ' tan   1.0 ), the
failure is triggered by the loss of matric suction
during the infiltration phase. With the assistance of
the critical depth chart, the failure mode is
characterized according to the magnitude of
tan  ' tan  ratio.
If the slope’ stability number ( tan  ' tan  ) is
lower than the threshold (for the illustrated case,
the tan  ' tan  ratio is lower than 0.9), the failure
mode is the shallow depth mode which occurs
closed to the slope surface.
If the slope angle is within a small range
between the soil frictional angle and an angle of
slightly greater than the soil frictional angle (for
the illustrated case shown in the study, the
tan  ' tan  ratio ranges from 0.90 to 1.0), the
failure mode is the transitional model. The depth of
the failure plane can occur at any depth in the soil
layer depending on the magnitude of infiltration
index. A greater tan  ' tan  ratio results in a more
452
sensitive depth of failure plane relative to the
infiltration index.
According to the failure modes shown in Figure
7, instrumentations on a specific slope can be
characterized by its stability index. In the mild
slope ( tan  ' tan   1.0 ), slope failure will be
triggered during the saturation phase. The end of
infiltration phase, which is notified by the arrival
of  wb at near interface layer, may be set as the
first warning point. For the very steep slope
( tan  ' tan  ≤ threshold), the mode of failure is a
shallow depth slope failure. Time to reach the
failure might occur shortly after a rainfall event.
Warning systems might not be suitable for this
type of slope. The area and the vicinities should be
classified as a sensitive area, in which human
activities are prohibited. For an intermediate steep
slope (1.0 > tan  ' tan  > threshold), the failure
plane can occur at various depths depending on the
stability and infiltration indices. Intensive
instrumentation to monitor the rainfall intensity
and the development of wetting front must be
assigned to this area.
Fig. 7. Modes of failure in shallow slope classified
by the stability number
3. Rainfall intensity-Duration thresholds (ID
thresholds)
The rainfall intensity-duration thresholds for
initiation of slope failure (ID thresholds) which is a
relationship between the rainfall intensity ( I f ) and
rainfall period ( Trf ) to trigger slope failure is
widely used to simply assess the stability of
shallow slope (Caine, 1980; Calcaterra et al., 2000;
Corominas, 2000; Crosta and Frattini, 2001;
Aleotti, 2004; Cannon and Gartner, 2005; Chien et
al., 2005; Guzzetti et al., 2007). Figure 8 shows a
set of ID thresholds developed from the above
mentioned literatures. From these thresholds, a
mathematic expression for ID thresholds can be
expressed as:
I f  a  cTrfm (1)
where a, c and m are the ID thresholds
parameters which represent the curvature, intercept
and gradient of ID thresholds, respectively.
Fig. 8. ID thresholds for initiation of shallow slope
failures proposed by previous researchers
3.1. Numerical modelling
Slope geometry, boundary conditions and fixity
used in this study are shown in Figure 9. The slope
model is divided into two layers. The bedrock is
overlaid by a uniform shallow soil layer with
thickness of 3 meters(d = 3 m.), which gives the
ratio of slope length (L) to soil depth (d) of about
31, 29 and 26 for the slope angle of 20˚, 30˚ and
40˚, respectively. These L/d ratios are greater than
20 which is far enough to avoid boundary effects
in calculation of safety factor (Griffiths et al.,
2011; Tiwari et al., 2014). Standard fixities were
prescribed to allow only vertical movement along
the boundary sides, while lateral and vertical
movements were fixed at bottom boundary. 15-
node triangular finite element mesh is assigned in
the problem. The finer elements were generated at
the soil layer, and the finest mesh was generated
along the soil slope where the failure tends to
occur.
A prescribed flux, which relates to the desired
intensity of rainfall, was assigned along the slope
surface BC. Along the slope surface BC, a range of
453
pore water pressure between -0.05 m and 0.05 m
was prescribed. By this maximum pore water
pressure of 0.05 m, the ponding water due to the
excess of rainfall intensity over the infiltration
capacity at soil saturation state could be developed
up to 5 cm. over the slope surface. While the
minimum pore water pressure of -0.05 m was used
to represent a depth of negative flux due to
evaporation. The boundaries AB and CD were
assigned as no flux boundaries, while the
boundaries AHG, DEF and GF were prescribed as
impervious boundaries. The initial conditions were
prescribed by variation of initial pore water
pressure (uwi) ranges from -50 kPa to -80 kPa from
soil-bedrock interface to soil surface to represent
ground conditions prior to rainfall season. The
volumetric water content at field capacity (  fc )
and the residual water content (  res ) were used as
references to prescribe the range of  i , and hence
uwi. The  fc is known as the content of water, on a
mass or volume basis, remaining in a soil 2 or 3
days after having been wetted with water and after
free drainage is negligible (Soil Science Glossary
Terms Committee, 2008; Meyer and Gee, 1999). It
corresponds to the pore water pressure of -34 kPa
(Dingman, 2002) for any soil type. If no addition
water added into the soil for 2-3 days after rainfall,
the water content might further decrease due to
evaporation and plant root uptake. As such, a range
of  i might possibly be between  fc and  res .
According to the soil water characteristic assigned
to the model the variation of pore water pressure
range from -80 kPa to -50 kPa is presented by the
variation of volumetric water content of 20% to
22% as shown in Figure 9.
Table 2 summarizes the material properties
categorized into three categories; strength
parameters, hydraulic related parameters, and
deformation parameters. Mohr-Coulomb model
was used to explain the mechanical behavior of
soil and bedrock layers. Van Genuchten and van
Genuchten-Mualem models were used to explain
the hydraulic behavior of the soil layer, while the
bedrock layer was assumed as an impermeable
non-porous material.
 Fig. 9. Slope geometry and boundary conditions

Tab. 2. Soil parameters required for Mohr-Coulomb model

Bedrock
Parameter Symbol Soil layer Unit
layer
Material models
Mechanical model Model Mohr-Coulomb Mohr- -
Type of material behavior Type Undrained A Coulomb -
Cohesion 6.74 Non-porous kPa
Friction angle 33.62 25a* deg
Hydraulic model Van Genuchten 50a* -
Model -
Soil type A B -
- -
Saturated permeability of C m/sec
soil 1x10-6 1x10-5 -
-
1x10-4 -
kPa-1
-
1.564
0.162
Deformation parameters
a*
Effective modulus of 50000 100000 kPa
elasticity a* 0.33 0.2 -
Effective Poisson´s ratio 17.36 23a* kN/m3
Dry unit weight 17.36 23a* kN/m3
Total unit weight
a* is assumed values.

3.2. Experimental program antecedent rainfall. As shown in Table 3, the

Three series called series I, series II and series
III were conducted in this study to evaluate
stability and time to failures of the shallow slope
under various conditions of the influence factors,
including rainfall intensity; slope angle; and
numerical experiment includes 156 cases of the
simulation run. The simulations include 78 cases of
rainfall period of 24 hours and 78 cases of
continuous rainfall until the arrival of slope failure.

454
 For series I, 21 cases of continuous rainfall until
the arrival of slope failure were conducted. For
each soil type, a constant rainfall intensity was
assigned in a range from 0.36 to 360 mm/hr
depending on the saturated permeability of each
soil type. In addition, an extreme rainfall condition
(EXT) is assigned to every soil types. This
condition may occur once the rainfall intensity is
much higher than the drainage capacity of soil at
saturation ( i  k sat ) and the infiltration excess
might exist since the start of rainfall. In this study,
the extreme rainfall condition is assumed to
generate a ponding rain water height of 5 cm for a
whole period of the simulation. In PLAXIS, this
condition can be simulated by a prescribed
maximum pressure head ( max ) of 5 cm.
The effect of slope angle on the stability and
time to failure were evaluated in series II. 39 cases
of simulation run were conducted by varying the
slope angle from 20° to 40°. Three types of soil
with three or four rainfall intensities were assigned
to each slope angle in this series.
Finally, 18 cases of simulation run were
conducted in series III to evaluate the effect of
antecedent rainfall. The antecedent rainfall imitates
the periodical rainfall in real field. The previous
rainfall affects the initial conditions of the soil
subjected to the sequential rainfall, and hence the
initial stability of the slope. The simulation started
with an antecedence rainfall of certain rainfall
intensity for 24 hours. Subsequently, the rainfall
was terminated for a certain period (antecedent
condition) prior to an arrival of another rainfall
event. In series III, two antecedent conditions of
rainfall of 48 and 168 hours (2 days and 7 days)
were prescribed to the simulations. The
magnitudes of rainfall intensity, rainfall duration,
and period of the antecedent condition used in this
case series are summarized Table 3. For sake of
simplicity, the effects of evaporation is neglected
in this study. The slope instability triggered rainfall
is typically taken place during rainfall period
having high relative humidity, and hence
evaporation is negligible.

Tab. 3. Summary of case study

Rainfall intensity for soil type A, B, Slope Rainfall Between storm Number of
Numerical C angle rainfall combinations
duration
series
, (mm/hr.) , (deg) (hr) period , (day) ∞*-hr rainfall

A B C

0.36 0.5 5
0.5 1 10
I 1 5 20 30 ∞* - 7x3 = 21
3.6 10 50
5 20 100
7.2 36 360
EXT EXT EXT

0.36 1 1
20 (4x3)+(4x3)
1 10 10
II 30 ∞* - +(5x3)
3.6 36 100
40 =39
EXT EXT 360
EXT

0.36 1 1
2 (3x2)+(3x2)
III 3.6 5 5 30 ∞*
7 =18
5 10 10

SUM 78

455
 3.3. Numerical results
Figure 10 shows the ID thresholds for various
type of soils (in term of their saturated
permeability) with the slope angle of 30o. The
coordinates ( I f , Trf ) lay on a single linear line on
log-log scale regardless of the magnitude of
saturated permeability. The Trf decreases with
increasing the rainfall intensity. However, the Trf
does not decrease if rainfall intensity increases
beyond the infiltration capacity at saturated state of
the corresponding soils (shown as black star Fig. 11. ID thresholds based on slope angle 20, 30
symbols for the rainfall intensity of greater than the and 40˚ with varying rainfall intensities, Soil A, B
infiltration capacity at soil saturated state and as
and C, non-stop rainfall
vertical dashed line for the extreme rainfall
condition). According to the Green and Ampt
Figure 11 presents the effect of slope angle on
model (Green and Ampt, 1911), if rainfall intensity
the time-intensity of rainfall at the failures state.
is greater than the infiltration capacity of the soil at
The absolute value of ID thresholds parameter m
saturation, the final rate of infiltrated rainwater is
slightly increases with increasing slope angle. In
equal to the infiltration capacity at the soil
the other word, the steepness of the ID thresholds
saturation state. And the infiltration excess of
increases with increasing slope angle. Moreover,
rainwater is formed as the surface runoff. In the
the ID threshold parameter, c, which represents the
other words, the Trf decreases with increasing the rainfall intensity required to trigger the slope
rainfall intensity if the rainfall intensity is not failure at a unit time of rainfall, clearly decreases
greater than the infiltration capacity of the soil at with increasing slope angle. The drop of the ID
saturation. Therefore, the maximum rainfall threshold parameter c with increasing slope angle
intensity, which the relationship between I f and is due to the lower initial FS for the greater slope
Trf obeys the ID thresholds, is governed by soil angle. The increment of the ID threshold parameter
m with increasing slope angle implies that the time
types in term of their saturated permeability.
to failure is faster for the steeper slope.
Chinkulkijniwat et al., 2016 investigated the depth
of failure plane in cohesionless soil slope subjected
to continuous rainfall. For the soil slope of greater
than the soil frictional angle itself, they found that
the greater slope angle results in the shallower
depth of failure plane, and hence the faster the time
to failure. In total, the time to slope failure is
accelerated by the slope angle. Under a specific
rainfall intensity, the higher slope angle results in
the shorter Trf .

Fig. 10. ID thresholds based on Soil A,

Soil B and Soil C with varying rainfall
intensities, β=30°, non-stop rainfall

456

Fig. 12. ID thresholds based on 2 types of
antecedent rainfall (tb=2 and 7 days) with varying
rainfall intensities, β=30°, Soil A, B and C
Figure 12 presents the effect of antecedent
rainfall on the ID thresholds. Prior to the
continuous rainfall R3, the slope is subjected to 24
hours of the rainfall R1 followed by between-storm
period tb of 2 days or 7 days. The ID thresholds
parameter m remains almost constant regardless
the magnitude of tb, but the parameter c increases
with increasing the magnitude of tb. The drop of
the ID threshold parameter c with decreasing tb is
due to the lower of initial FS for the shorter tb. As
shown in Figure 4.9 that the shorter tb results in the
lower initial FS prior to the subsequent rainfall.
Under the same rainfall intensity, the Trf decreases
with decreasing tb from that of 7 days to that of 2
days. In the other word, the faster slope failure is
found for the slope subjected to the shorter
between-storm period tb.
4. Conclusions
This paper presents two main parts. First part is
to obtain comprehensive understanding of hydro-
mechanical responses within shallow slope leading
to primary framework for quantifying critical
locations, which is useful for early warning system
based on monitoring device installations. A series
of experiments were undertaken in this part to
evaluate the hydrological responses of shallow
slopes of varying steepness and when subjected to
varying intensities, periods, and inter-storm
periods of rainfall. A series of analysis of infinite
slopes was also undertaken to develop a
fundamental understanding of rainfall-induced
457
shallow landslide characteristics. Thereafter,
factors influencing rainfall-induced shallow
landslides and the critical rainfall thresholds (ID
thresholds) were investigated through a series of
numerical experiment. The conclusions can be
deducted as following:
4.1. Physically-based warning approach
The experimental results showed that the
hydrological and physical responses within
shallow slope subjected to rainfall were
characterized in the infiltration and saturation
phases. During the infiltration phase, the maximum
magnitude of water content was found behind the
wetting front, termed as the water content behind
the wetting front (  wb ). For a certain soil type, the
magnitude of  wb was found to be dependent on
the magnitude of rainfall intensity, regardless of
the slope gradient and initial water content. Based
on the relative depth of the failure plane, the failure
can be categorized by three prime modes: 1) along
the impervious layer mode, 2) shallow depth mode,
and 3) transitional mode. These modes can be
characterized by the magnitude of a stability index
termed as tan  ' tan  ratio. An infiltration index,
termed as i k s ratio, was found to play a role in
the depth of failure plane only for the transitional
mode.
4.2. Rainfall intensity-duration thresholds
approach
The critical rainfall thresholds (ID thresholds)
were examined via finite element method. The
numerical results showed that the rate of reduction
in safety factor (FS) increases with an increasing
the intensity of rainfall, only in a range of lower
than the infiltration capacity at soil saturated state.
As such the saturated permeability of the soil,
which is equal to the infiltration capacity at soil
saturated state, plays an important role in the
shallow slope failure. The saturated permeability
was found also to govern a range of applicability
of ID thresholds. If the rainfall intensity is not
greater than the infiltration capacity at soil
saturated state, the rainfall duration to failure ( Trf )
can be read from the ID thresholds. Slope angle
and antecedent rainfall were found to play
significant roles on instability of shallow slopes, as
they control the initial stability of slope, which
results in the different linear relationship of ID
thresholds. In addition, the slope angle might
accelerate the rate of rain water infiltration, and
hence it reflects the slope of the ID thresholds.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Thailand
Research Fund under the TRF Senior Research
Scholar program grant No. RTA5680002,
Suranaree University of Technology, and the
Office of Higher Education Commission under
NRU project of Thailand.
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 ASSESSMENT, CLASSIFICATION AND SOLUTIONS FOR LANDSLIDE
MITIGATION ALONG THE NATIONAL HIGHWAY NO. 6

Tran Manh Lieu, Duong Thi Toan, Tran Thi Luu, Nguyen Ngoc Truc
VNU-University of Sicence, Vietnam
Coressponding author’ Email: duongtoan109@gmail.com

Abstract. This paper focusing on clarify the characteristics and classifying some types of landslide
bocks along The National Highway No. 6 (NH 6) from Hoa Binh city to Son La city, and also suggesting
the effective solutions to prevent and mitigating the damage from landslide in this area. The phenomenon
of rock falls and topples is most common, accounting for 50%, occurs at the slope of limestone or clayey
sandstone. The second common phenomenon as landslide and slide complex, which occurs in the
thoroughly weathered rocks with many crack systems, continuous crushed, broken stone, loose, often
occurs sliding partly or whole block landslide. The furrow erosion is also common in places having thick
weathering from sandstone, clayey clay, sloping surfaces were ditched. Specially, there is a site recorded
in type of Slides - subsidence due to permeability deformation in Chieng He, Moc Chau, Son La.
This paper also suggested suitable and effective solutions for preventing landslide and mitigate the
damage causing when landslide happens: Appling of a combination of solutions as using high-strength
steel wire mesh with anchors for rock falls and topples and rock slide; Apply a combination of solutions
as reducing the height, reduce the slope angle, embankment, drainage system for surface water and
ground water by many steps on the slope; grouting cement, gable wall; planting Vertices grass for
complex landslide; For flow sliding in a site, apply solution of stone gabion; For furrow erosion, using
mainly solutions of planting surface grass against erosion and using stone gabion. For case of slides -
subsidence due to permeability deformation need more investigation.

Keywords: soil properties; water content; fine content; shear strength and riverbank stability.

1. Introduction the neighboring works, but also killing peoples

The National Highway No. 6 (NH 6) from Hoa
Binh city to Son La city is an important national
road connecting Hanoi with the North West
mountainous provinces. This road mostly runs
through the mountains, encompassing the valleys
where usually dangerous topography area, the
positive steep talus belongs to high mountains,
while the negative talus belongs the valley’s
slopes. The slopes along two sides of road have
complex geological structures, which are the
products of intense tectonic activity, many of
which lie in the crushing zone and thorough
crumbling weathered rocks. Thus, the landslide
hazard along NH 6 has occurred with high
frequency and dense. The landslide hazard affects
not only to the traffic jam congestion, destroying
traveling in the road.
In the context of current extreme climate
change, and the climate of hot and humid in
Vietnam, the landslide along the National Highway
No. 6 stretching through Hoa Binh and Son La
provinces has become more and more complex. In
order to mitigate the damage caused by sliding
accidents, there were many research projects and
implement projects to prevent landslide in this
area. However, with a long and complex research
road, there are always high potential risks of
landslides that even have not been detected and
reported in previous studies. Especially, with large
workloads, many road sections having high risk of
sliding on steep slopes are untreated, or under-
treated, slides are still going on. Therefore, it is
necessary to continue the study to find potential

461
places for sliding risk and other geological hazards
such as furrow erosion, subsidence, etc., which
affect the slope stability along the important
transportation road NH6, and to propose solutions
for effective preventing.
The objective of this study is to clarify the
current landslide situation, the risk of sliding, and
to propose effective solutions for each type of
sliding on NH 6 from Hoa Binh to Son La. With
the study contents as following: Overviewing of
solutions for treating landslide from international
and national researches; Assessing of current
status, risk; classifying landslide types, and
defining of sites to be handled in the study area;
Evaluating the effectiveness of protected solutions
applied in the study are; Proposing solutions for
each type of classified landslides.
Fig. 1. The study area
2. Methods
Methods used in this research include: Field
investigation, Analysis and assessment
characteristic and classification landslide blocks.
Calculating and suggesting the solution for
preventing landslide.
The survey route along National Highway No.6
extends from Doc Cun, Hoa Binh (Km 78) to the
Son La City (Km 306 + 100). The total length of
the survey line is about 226 km with 65 sites
described at slides and is at risk of landslides, the
risk of landslides. The classification processing
type of landslide blocks was carried out base on c
- Measuring the parameters of the sliding
blocks or slopes (the height, length, slope angle,
and determine volume, direction of slope surface
and slide block surface)
462
- Measuring the parameters of rock (type of
rock, rock formation, rock component, direction of
rock layer, number of cracks, thickness of rock
layers, distance between crack, the relationship
between rock layers and cracks)
- Determine the rock strength by Schmidt
hammer
- Determine hydrogeological condition (surface
and ground water)
- Description the covering of vegetation,
protection and human activity
- Using field data to assessing the slope stability
according to rock mass rating (RMR)
- Indicating and grouping the landslide block
which have same characteristic
- Classification the landslide for the study area
with reference from the landslide classification
after Cruden and Varnes (1996)
Calculating the volume of landslide block in
the field is determined approximately by following
equation (Eq. 1). Where Dr the vertical
deformation; Wr is the maximum width of slope;
Lr is the minimum distance from toe to top of
landside block
(1)
The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) System is a geo-
mechanical classification system for rocks,
developed by Z. T. Bieniawski between 1972 and
1973. It combines the most significant geologic
parameters of influence and represents them with
one overall comprehensive index of rock mass
quality, which is used for the design and
construction of excavations in rock, such as
tunnels, mines, slopes and foundations.
3. Results and discussion
The information presented here are results
obtained from field surveys, field measurements,
geographic coordinates sites by using GPS
Garmin, using Nikon Laser 550A S rangefinder for
measuring height and length of landslide blocks,
and references from previous literature [10] [11]
[12] [13] [14]. The survey line began when the first
slip was discovered at Km78 + 800, at Doc Cun
intersection, Hoa Binh province and ended at SL
06, Km 306 + 100, at the new-old roads
intersection, Chieng An precinct, Son La City. On
the survey line, 19 slide site groups (37 sites) were
recorded in Hoa Binh area, and 23 slide site groups
(28 sites) were recorded in Son La area. These are
sites that have been or are being at risk of
landslides, or points have been treated with various
measures of sliding prevention, with 46 sites are at
risk of sliding, and 19 sites involved in treatment.
From the survey results, preliminary
measurements and assessments in the field show
that the types of slides occurring on the slope along
NH 6 from Hoa Binh to Son La are dependent on a
number of basic factors, following by important
levels: composition, rock structure, systems and
substrates of intermittent cracking systems,
weathering, cracks filling, groundwater and rain
conditions, talus degree and building talus
methods. In the study area, there are 6 slides and
slope instability, including: (1) Rock falls and
topples; (2) Rock falls and slide following the
weak layers surface; (3) Landslide and Slide
complex; Flow; Furrow erosion; Slides -
subsidence due to permeability deformation. The
characteristics of each type of slides and instability
of the slopes along NH6 from Hoa Binh to Son La
city as follows:
3.1. Rock falls and Topples
The rock falls and topples slides in the slopes
Fig. 4. Rock sliding rock following weak crack surface and rock layer surface at HB11
(Km 124 + 100 m) and SL5 (from Km 200 + 900 – Km 201 + 30 m)
3.2. Complex landslide
Complex of landslide is the phenomenon where
the slope is slide in both the large slide block and
the slope surface sliding. This phenomenon occurs
in rock slopes with thorough weathering rocks. For
limestone and sandstone slopes, there are many
cracks, intermittently intermittent. The rocks were
463
along the NH 6 are the falling of rock blocks that
are discontinued by disrupted faces and cracks.
These rock blocks are fell to the slope’s foot or
rolled away from the foot of the slope, causing
dangerous for traffics on the NH 6 transportation
or residents near slopes. This slide type occurs
quite popular in slopes along the NH 6, and
characterized by steep slopes composed of
limestone or sandstone, which are quite solid,
medium weathering. Limestone is mainly
composed of Dong Giao and Vien Nam formation,
distributed mainly from Km101, Hoa Binh City to
Km199 + 950, Moc Chau, Son La. There were 21
landslide block classified in type of Rock falls and
Topples: HB04-1 at Km 98+200; HB04-3 at Km
101; HB07 at Km 118+300; HB08 at Km
118+650; HB09 at Km 119+600; HB09-01 at Km
120+80; HB09-03 at Km 120+200; HB10 at Km
123+800; HB12 at Km 124+700; HB13-1; HB15
at Km 128+100; HB15-1 at Km 128+700; HB18 at
Km 146+200; SL01 at Km 186+74; SL02 at Km
198+900; SL04 at Km 199+950; SL13; SL16;
SL20; SL21 at Km 205.
crumbed, loosed and easily proned by hammers,
and have negative RMR. In the area of sand-silt-
claystone, the composition of silt - claystone are
predominate, easily weathered and weathered to
thoroughly soil.
There were 11 landslide blocks classified in
type of complex landslide: HB01 at Km 78+800;
HB13; HB14 at Km 126+900; HB16 at Km SL15 at Km 212+200 to 221+600; SL19 at Km
129+200; HB17 at Km 129+200; SL09-2 at Km 206+850; SL22 at Km 203+800; SL22 at Km
258 + 100 to Km 258+180; SL09-2 at Km 258 + 203+800; SL23 at Km 203+500;
100 to Km 258+180; SL11-1 at Km 254+100;

Landslide block
low down

Fig. 5. Complex block landslide at HB1,Km78+800, Cun road three intersection, Hoa Binh

Fig. 6. Complex block landslide at SL20, Km 205 +500 and at SL22, Km 203 + 800.

Fig. 7. Complex block landslide at HB 13, Km 125 +600 and at Surface slide at SL11-1, Km 254 + 100.

464
3.3. Flow Sliding
Fig. 8. Flow sliding at HB02, Km 79+300
The flow sliding phenomenon was recorded at
HB02, Km 79 + 300, Hoa Binh city (Fig. 8), it is a
material flow of strong weathering rock, which
flow from the top of slope to the slope’s foot. The
component is debris sandstone. On the right side of
the slope, it is exposed hard rock with the direction
of layer surface as 15045, a crack system is in
18520. Due to the long slope, slope is less steep,
Fig. 9. Furrow erosion at HB19-2, Km 151 + 700.
Fig. 11. Furrow erosion in foot
of slope at SL07, Km 305.
465
the risk of further sliding is not high, but the
material on the slope can continue flow down to
the road in the rain. For this area recommend
building retaining wall.
3.4. Furrow erosion
The furrow erosion phenomenon occurs in
areas having thick weathering covers (Figure 3.19
to Figure 3.22). Main components are weathering
products of sandstone, clay-siltstone which were
thoroughly weathered to soils. Due to the impact of
the flow, the slope surfaces were eroded and
ditched forming furrows, the material flows to the
bottom of the slope and to the road. On the survey
line, recorded 6 sites in type of surface erosion and
ditches. There were 6 landslide block classified in
furrow erosion: HB19-2 at Km 168+600-800;
SL03 at Km 199+400; SL08 at Km 304+100;
SL12 at Km 247+900; SL14 at Km 222+900.
Fig. 10. Furrow erosion in the foot of slope
at SL03, Km 199 + 400.
Fig. 12. Furrow erosion in slope’s surface
at SL12, Km 247 +900
 3.5. Slides - subsidence due to permeability
deformation
This phenomenon is not common along the
slope survey of National Highway 6, from Hoa
Binh to Son La city. The most typical site on this
phenomenon is in SL17- (Km211 + 350) in Chieng
He, Moc Chau, Son La (Fig.12)
Slope was strongly slide, rock and soil material
moved to the slope’s foot. In the slope’s foot, there
is a 2 m high retaining walls. However, the amount
of sliding material was beyond the support of the
retaining wall and overflowed through the walls.
Previously, people lived on the slopes, and must be
moved duet to landslide.
At the top of the slope, there is a water resource
discharge point. Amount of water of this resource
is enough to provide residential activities for more
than a dozen households along the road. People use
the water by plugging in water pipes at the water
resource mouth, and water directly flows to
households for using throughout the year. On the
slope can be seen these drainages along the slopes
through the retaining wall below the foot of the
slope.
On the wall is a clearly visible trace of 30 m
wide permeable zone (wet with the points of water
discharge from the slope down). This zone runs
from the top of slope, through NH6 into the flat
land and to the big stream.

Fig. 13. Cracks large, parallel to roads, cut along the yard of some households - Photographs at home
Mrs. Nguyen Thi Hong, Long Phu village, Chieng Hac commune, Son La (Km211 + 350)

Fig. 14. Mapping location of landslide block types in the study area

466
 Tab. 1. Summary the classification types of landslide blocks type in the study are

Numbers
Type of of
No. Location
landslide landslide
blocks
HB04-1 at Km 98+200; HB04-3 at Km 101; HB07 at Km 118+300; HB08
at Km 118+650; HB09 at Km 119+600; HB09-01 at Km 120+80; HB09-
21
Rock fall 03 at Km 120+200; HB10 at Km 123+800; HB12 at Km 124+700; HB13-
1. landslide
and Topples 1; HB15 at Km 128+100; HB15-1 at Km 128+700; HB18 at Km 146+200;
blocks
SL01 at Km 186+74; SL02 at Km 198+900; SL04 at Km 199+950; SL13;
SL16; SL20; SL21 at Km 205. SL23-Km203 + 500.
HB01 at Km 78+800; HB13; HB14 at Km 126+900; HB16 at Km
11 129+200; HB17 at Km 129+200; SL09-2 at Km 258 + 100 to Km
Complex
2. landslide 258+180; SL09-2 at Km 258 + 100 to Km 258+180; SL11-1 at Km
landslide
blocks 254+100; SL15 at Km 212+200 to 221+600; SL19 at Km 206+850; SL22
at Km 203+800; SL22 at Km 203+800; SL23 at Km 203+500;
6 HB19-2 at Km 168+600-800; SL03 at Km 199+400; SL08 at Km
Furrow
3. landslide 304+100; SL12 at Km 247+900; SL14 at Km 222+900.
erosion
blocks
Rock fall –
Rock slide
2
following
4. landslide HB11-Km124 + 100, SL 05-Km200 + 900-K201 + 30m.
the weak
blocks
layer
surfaces
1
5. Flow Sliding landslide HB02, Km 79 + 300
block
Slides -
subsidence 1
6. due to landslide SL17- (Km211 + 350) in Chieng He, Moc Chau, Son La
permeability block
deformation

Flat land through NH 6 seriously collapsed in
2014, causing seven houses to be damaged.
Currently, two houses have been rebuilt, but still
subsidence, cracked yard, and serious wall
cracking. Every year in the rainy season, the yard
is wet, deformed, fluttering. This area is very
dangerous, the commune authorities have advised
people to relocate (about a dozen households), but
no other place, so people do not move.
Along the road from Km 211 + 100 to Km 211
+ 250, the slopes were applied protected wall at the
slopes foots. At Km 211 + 250, there is a stream
that collect water from the hill and drain through
the roads and to downstream. The stream is next to
the house (Ms. Hoa, Chieng He commune, Moc
Chau, Son La) about 10 meters away, embankment
is not protected, the two sides have high risk of
erosion. In the rainy season, the water flowing
from the opposite slope is very large and the
stream is strongly eroded. It is very dangerous for
households (Hoa's family) living next to streams.
From the survey results, preliminary
measurements and assessments in the field show
that the types of slides occur on the slope along
National Highway 6 from Hoa Binh to Son La city,
which consists of 6 basic types: (1) Rock falls and
topples; Rock falls and slide following the weak
layers surface; (3) Landslide and slide complex;
(4) Flow; (5) Furrow erosion; (6) Slides -
subsidence due to permeability deformation. The
phenomenon of rock falls and topples is most
common, accounting for 50%, occurs at the slope

467
of limestone or clayey sandstone, which is quite
solid, with 2-3 crack systems, the slope surfaces
rouge by suspended blocks which is high risk of
rock falling. The second common phenomenon as
landslide and slide complex, which occurs in the
thoroughly weathered rocks with many crack
systems, continuous crushed, broken stone, loose,
often occurs sliding partly or whole block
landslide. The furrow erosion is also common in
places having thick weathering from sandstone,
clayey clay, sloping surfaces were ditched.
Specially, there is a site recorded in type of Slides -
subsidence due to permeability deformation in
Chieng He, Moc Chau, Son La. This is the point
where large water emerges, and water pressure is
main factor causing dangerous for the whole area
with complex phenomenon including surface
erosion, internal erosion from the top of the slope
seepage underground road through traffic and
causing collapse and ground subsidence. Table 1
summaries all types of landslide were investigated
and classified in the study area, and Fig. 14 shows
the mapping with location of these landslide
blocks.
4. Proposal of technical countermeasures
against landslide
4.1. Solutions for rockfall and topple
The application of surface slope stabilization
technology with high tensile steel wire mesh is
becoming more and more widespread. This
technology has been developed and widely used in
slope protection in European countries. However,
it has only been introduced to Vietnam in recent
few years. Several pilot sections on the National
Highway No. 6, such as at Km 128 + 700, are the
Fig. 15. General profile and nail arrangement, Nail head section with spike plate, and Spike plate with
high tensile steel wire mesh
468
first successful application in Vietnam. This
technology is not too complicated, easy to apply,
reasonable cost but high efficiency, especially with
rock slope. Under conditions in Vietnam, rocky
slopes should be prioritized to apply this
technology to prevent topple and rockfall. In
addition, the compound slope of rock and soil
should also be applied, especially in conjunction
with sloping grass cover to protect slope, avoid
erosion, and anti-roll rock.
The high tensile steel wire mesh is used as a
surface stabilizer system (Fig. 15). The system is
composed of the main components including: steel
wire mesh, nail, spike plate, connection clip, wire
rope anchor, and lateral wire rope. The steel wire
mesh is stretched, nailed to the slope roof through
3-4m long nails, can protect the slope to the
original stone. Typically, boundaries are threaded
into the head, horizontal and lower edges, and
fixed to the anchor lines at the corners. In special
cases, the topmost strings and therefore can also be
nailed by additional anchor and intermediate
anchor bolts.
Advantages of this solution: Replacement of
conventional methods such as concrete, retaining
walls, gabions; Problem solving when regular steel
mesh does not meet resistance; The combination
of traditional rock / soil anchors with high-
strength steel grids adds stability to the release
soil layers; Special steel grids with very high
tensile strength to withstand high loads with low
deformation and high tearing strength; Combined
using RUVOLUM® software based on
EUROCODE 7 on geotechnical design, it is easy
to optimize sloping system design.
 Fig. 16. Designing the high tensile steel wire mesh system for slope protection and against rockfall,
topple, at Km 119+600

This research shows the examples of application control permeability; Gable wall; Gravel wall of
technical countermeasures for the most popular stone and concrete; Planting Vetiver grass.
landslides (50%) on the national road 6. At the
investigated point HB9, Km 119 + 600, it was
evaluated the RMR as belong to group V,
classified very bad and need to apply the
reinforcement solutions. The current status of the
talus slope is almost vertical limestone cliff, the
slope is around 75-85o. Weathered rock is strong
crack, the crack systems is convenient to topple
and rockfall. The most suitable construction
solution should be applied to protect th e slope,
against rockfall and topple, to be using TECCO
steel wire mesh together with nail, spike plate,
Fig. 17. The complex landslide at HB 13 is
lateral wire rope, etc. The preliminary design
old sliding blocks have occurred, and tend to
image for the slope at Km 119 + 600 is shown on
move slowly down the roadway, appearing
the Fig. 16.
slippery surface is quite clear.
4.2. Countermeasures against complex
landslide 4.3. Countermeasures for other landslide (flow
With the slope of soil and alternate soil - rock, sliding, furrow erosion…)
characterized by the compound sliding process, the The flow sliding as HB02 (Fig. 14) as lateral
solutions have applied effectively along the spread on wreathed cover, material may spread the
highway NH6 include: Reducing the height, road if has heavy rain. The solution applied in this
reducing the inclination (level down the slope roof) location as application of gabion on the toe of
; Embankment; Drainage system, surface water slope, planting vetiver grass to protect the slope
drainage, water saturated many steps on the side; against erosion. For the type of furrow erosion
Surface drainage, drainage of surface water and such as HB19-2 at Km 168+600-800; SL03 at Km
seepage along the foot of the flanks; Spray cement 199+400; SL08 at Km 304+100; SL12 at Km
- concrete, surface water drainage and seepage 247+900; SL14 at Km 222+900, the surface slope
water vertical; Multi-layer horizontal drainage often was strongly weathered, large thickness, has

469
slump holes, ditch scattered 2-10m thick. On the grass on the slope to prevent erosion and applying
slope surface. The solution applied as growing of gabion on the toe of slope (Fig. 18).

Fig. 18. Applying of gabion on the toe of slope and growing grass
on the slope to prevent erosion for flow slide and furrow erosion slide

Table 2 summaries all the possible technical
countermeasures for every types of landslide block
along the study area. For special location as at
SL17- (Km211 + 350) in Chieng He, Moc Chau,
Son La, SL17- (Km211 + 350) in Chieng He, Moc
Chau, Son La (Fig. 13), where is compound of
slides - subsidence due to permeability
deformation. This location may be located at a
shear zone from the slope through the road to the
stream, forming a corridor draining water from the
river bed on the slope to the stream, resulting in the
processes of permeation, erosion, collapse, sliding,
destroyed 7 houses by the way. To mitigate the
damage in this area, some steps should be urgent
performed for this location as following: (1)
Removing the houses near the landslide block; (2)
Detailed investigations are needed to design slip
resistant; (3) The revetment, retaining walls with
gabion; Wells and ditches of collection
groundwater, surface water from the foundation
of the slope; Tunnels, drainage ditches through the
road; Drainage ditches down the stream. This area
should be studied more carefully to have database
for designing prevent solutions of collapsed,
subsidence due to seepage deformation.

Tab. 2. Summary the Technical Countermeasures suggesting for preventing landslide in National
Type of landslide
Rock fall and Topples
Rock fall - Rock slide following
the weak layer surfaces
Complex landslide
Furrow erosion
Flow Sliding
Slides - subsidence due
permeability deformation
Highway No. 6
Suggested Technical Countermeasures
Application of a combination of solutions as using high-strength steel wire
mesh with anchors; Grouting cement; Explosive solutions demolish
dangerous slope structures; Remove dangerous structures on the slopes.
Apply a combination of solutions: Reduce the height, reduce the slope angle
(dividing the slope into some high levels); Embankment; Drainage system
for surface water and ground water by many steps on the slope; Surface
drainage, drainage of surface water and seepage along the foot of the slopes;
Grouting cement, surface water and seawater drainage; Multi-layer
horizontal drainage controlling seepage; Gable wall; Gravel wall of stone
and concrete; Planting Vertices grass
Using mainly solutions of planting surface grass against erosion; Using
stone gabion along the slope’s foot to keep the soil and drainage
Apply solution of stone gabion
Applying the solutions stone gabion; Gable wall; Wells and ditches draining
to
groundwater, surface water from water resource of the slope; Tunnels,
drainage ditches through the road; Drainage ditches down the stream

470
5. Conclusions
From the survey results, preliminary
measurements and assessments in the field show
that the types of slides occur on the slope along
National Highway 6 from Hoa Binh to Son La city,
which consists of 6 basic types: (1) Rock falls and
topples; Rock falls and slide following the weak
layers surface; (3) Landslide and slide complex;
(4) Flow; (5) Furrow erosion; (6) Slides -
subsidence due to permeability deformation. The
phenomenon of rock falls and topples is most
common, accounting for 50%, occurs at the slope
of limestone or clayey sandstone, which is quite
solid, with 2-3 crack systems, the slope surfaces
rouge by suspended blocks which is high risk of
rock falling. The second common phenomenon as
landslide and slide complex, which occurs in the
thoroughly weathered rocks with many crack
systems, continuous crushed, broken stone, loose,
often occurs sliding partly or whole block
landslide. The furrow erosion is also common in
places having thick weathering from sandstone,
clayey clay, sloping surfaces were ditched.
Specially, there is a site recorded in type of Slides -
subsidence due to permeability deformation in
Chieng He, Moc Chau, Son La. This is the point
where large water emerges and water pressure is
main factor causing dangerous for the whole area
with complex phenomenon including surface
erosion, internal erosion from the top of the slope
seepage underground road through traffic and
causing collapse and ground subsidence.
The solution applies for specific type of
landslide:
- For rock falls and topples and rock slide
following the weak layers surface include 22 sites.
Application of a combination of solutions as using
high-strength steel wire mesh with anchors;
Grouting cement; Explosive solutions demolish
dangerous slope structures; Remove dangerous
structures on the slopes.
- For complex landslide: Apply a combination
of solutions: Reduce the height, reduce the slope
angle (dividing the slope into some high levels);
Embankment; Drainage system for surface water
and ground water by many steps on the slope;
Surface drainage, drainage of surface water and
seepage along the foot of the slopes; Grouting
cement, surface water and seawater drainage;
471
Multi-layer horizontal drainage controlling
seepage; Gable wall; Gravel wall of stone and
concrete; Planting Vertices grass
- For flow sliding in a site: apply solution of
stone gabion
- For furrow erosion: using mainly solutions of
planting surface grass against erosion; Using stone
gabion along the slope’s foot to keep the soil and
drainage;
- Slides - subsidence due to permeability
deformation at 1 site, applying the solutions stone
gabion; Gable wall; Wells and ditches draining
groundwater, surface water from water resource of
the slope; Tunnels, drainage ditches through the
road; Drainage ditches down the stream
Acknowledgement
The research described herein was financially
supported by the project SRV-10/0026
Programme, Vietnam National University.
References
[1]. Bieniawski Z. T., 1989. Engineering Rock
Mass Classifications. A Winley interscience
publication.
[2]. Bieniawski, Z.T., 1993, Classification of rock
masses for engineering: The RMR system and
future trends, In: Hudson, J.A., ed.,
Comprehensive Rock Engineering, Volume 3:
Oxford; New York, Pergamon Press, p. 553-
573.
[3]. Cruden, D. M. and Varnes, D. J. (1996).
Landslide types and processes. Special report.
247: Landslides: Investigation and Mitigation
(Eds: Turner, A. K. & Schuster, R. L.), 36-75.
Transportation and Road Research Board,
Washington, D. C. National Academy of
Science.
[4]. Erik Eberhardt and etc, 2002. Slope stability
in rock and soid. Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology Zurich.
[5]. Varnes, D. J. 1978. Slope movement types
and processes. In: Special Report 176:
Landslides: Analysis and Control (Eds:
Schuster, R. L. & Krizek, R. J.).
Transportation and Road Research Board,
National Academy of Science, Washington D.
C., 11-33.
[6]. Ngoi, C.V. 2013. Studying influence of geo-
structure and shear zones for landslide along
the road No.06. Report of SRV-10/0026
Programme, Vietnam National University.
 EXAMINING THE RELIABILITY OF THE LOGARITHMIC SLIDING
SURFACE METHOD IN SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Pham Huu Sy1, Pham Phu Vinh1, Vu Le Minh2
1
Thuy Loi University, Vietnam
2
Hydraulic Construction Institute, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: phamhuusy54@gmail.com

Abstract. Nowadays there are numbers of methods to analyse slope stability. They vary in the
assumptions of the sliding surface, the equilibrium equations as well as the interslice forces. Comparison
of the approaches has been studied based mainly on the output of the calculation and not discussed much
about their theoretical and scientific basis. In this paper, the authors study the logarithmic sliding surface
method based on the comparison with the cylindrical sliding surface and evaluate their reliability.
Advantage and disadvantage of the methods are also evaluated so they can be used appropriately in
practice.

Keywords: slope stability analysis; logarithmic sliding surface; cylindrical sliding surface.

1. Introduction shows to match a landslide in reality better than the

Slope stability analysis is a common task in civil
engineering. The very first method for slope
stability analysis was proposed more than 100
years ago. Since then there have been various
approaches and methods that were established, but
until now only some among them that still have
been used. Limit equilibrium state method with the
assumption of sliding surface to be cylindrical is
the most widely used. Besides this method, using
finite element method to evaluate the stress – strain
relationship is another approach that has been
studied and developed for slope stability in the past
20 years. Both of the approaches have their strong
advantages that keeps them being used in practice
widely nowadays. Recently, another method
proposing the sliding surface of a slope to be
logarithmic and applying a new way to calculate
the safety factor has been well studied by A. Klar
(2011). This paper will study the method proposed
by A. Klar (2011) and compare it with the
cylindrical method to evaluate its reliability.
2. Base of the logarithmic sliding surface
method
The logarithmic sliding surface method was
firstly proposed in 1935 by Rendulic [1]. The
method simulates a sliding surface based on data of
landslide monitoring and conclude the shape to be
logarithmic. As it is based on the monitored data, it
assumption that the sliding surface is an arc. The
equation of a logarithmic sliding surface is
[3,4,5,6]:
r  r0 e tan  (1)
in which r and  are explained in Figure 1, and  is
the soil friction angle. The safety factor is
proposed as:
 c   tan  tan  c
F f   
 m cm   m tan m tan m cm
(2)
where  and c are the true strength properties of
the slope, m and cm are the mobilized strength
properties required for the limit (equilibrium) state,
f is the strength and m is the mobilized strength
with a factor of safety F. The method uses the
argument that a slope fails when its strength is
activated to be equal to the mobilized value and
hence, the safety factor F is 1. With this argument,
Klar (2011) established a g-line which draw all the
combination of φ and c that would result in an F =
1, then applying the values φ and c of the soil into
to graph to evaluate the slope stability. If the point
created by the soil’s φ and c is above the g-line
then the slope is stable, and the safety factor is the
ratio between the length of vector (tan φ,c) and the
vector to the intersection with the g-line along the
direction of (tan φ,c).

472
 O (x0, y0 )


r   
 
 


d
r

A 
x e, ye
B

C

Fig. 1. Logarithmic sliding surface 2

it

 (i-1)t
  
  
3. Comparison between the methods of
Fig. 2. Sliding a logarithmic
logarithmic and cylindrical sliding surface
cross section into bars
3.1. The comparison calculation
The logarithmic sliding surface shows to be The slope is picked from Klar’s work (Klar
different from the cylindrical surface method not et.al. 2011): the height is 100m, the slope angle is
only between the assumptions of the sliding
30o, soil density  is 20 kN/m3. Values of φ and c
surface but also between the safety factor
are not stated, but from their graphical illustration
calculations. So which method is more suitable in
they are identified as φ = 24030’ and c = 200 kPa.
practice? Slopes are diverse in practice, they can
The logarithmic section is divided into bars by the
be natural or man-made slopes, formed by
equation x = it, in which i is integer running from
excavation or filling, homogeneous or
the coordinate origin. Each bar is divided into
heterogeneous. So it is possible that each method is
regions as illustrated in Figure 2, area of each
suitable for specific cases. But overall which
region can be calculated by integral calculation to
method is more generalize? Our interest is focused
obtain the total area of each bar. Considering the
on the applicability of the logarithmic sliding
2nd bar in Figure 2 as an example. The bar is
surface, so we use the conventional safety factor
divided into 3 regions assigned as A, B, C. The
calculation that has been widely used with the
region A is bounded by the two angles: 1 and 2.
cylindrical sliding surface to calculate the safety
The region B is bounded by two angles: 2 and 3,
factor of the potential logarithmic sliding surface
and the region C is bounded by the two angle two
that had been used in Klar’s work (Klar et.al.
2011). angle 3 và 4. The angles are identified as:
The basic cylindrical sliding surface method is 1: y  d  r sin 1  r  d
similar to the method of logarithmic surface in the sin 1
aspect that consider the sliding surface as a whole it
x  it  r cos 1  r   d  it (3)
to calculate the safety factor, while the more cos 1 sin 1 cos 1
explicit cylindrical surface method divides the it
cross section into bars for the calculation. 2: x  r cos  2  it  r   r0 e 2 tan  (4)
cos  2
Considering the cross section as a whole cause the
difficulty in identifying the resistance  and the 3: x  (i  1)t  r cos  3  r  i  1t
cos  3
reference point for moment calculation. It may be
because of this difficulty that the authors need to y  r sin  3  m(i  1)t  p 
find another way to evaluate the stability of a mi  1t  p i  1t
r  (5)
logarithmic sliding surface. In our calculation we sin  3 cos  3
use the method that divide the cross section into 4:
bars. In order to be consistent with the logarithmic
x  i  1t  r cos  4  r 
i  1t  r e 4 tan 
(6)
sliding surface method, our calculation do not cos  4
0

consider the interslice forces between the bars.

473
 Trial and error calculation can be used for the Areas of the bar is calculated as:
equation (4) to (7) to identify the four angles.
  arctan  m    arctan  m  
2
 p it  p 
A     d   ln tan 2  ln tan 1 
1  sin   m cos  cos   1  m2  2 2  (7)
      
it ln tan 2    ln tan 1  
  2 4  2 4 
  arctan  m    arctan  m  
3
 p  p 
B     r0 e tan  d   ln tan 3  ln tan 2 
 2  sin   m cos   1 m  2 2 
2
(8)
r0
tan 

e3 tan   e 2 tan  
4
     
C   
 it  r

 r0 e tan  d  it ln tan 4    ln tan 3    0 e 4 tan   e3 tan   (9)
 3  cos     2 4  2 4  tan 
nd
So the total area of the 2 bar is:
2   A  B  C (10)

Length of the sliding arc L is calculated as:

4 4 4
L  r '    r   d   r02 e 2 tan   r02 tan 2 e 2 tan  d   r0 e tan  1  tan 2  d 
2 2

2 2 2 (11)
r0 1  tan   4 tan 
 
2
e  e3 tan 
tan 
This calculation is applied for all the bars, then the safety factor is calculated:
F
 Wi cos  i tan  cli  (12)
 Wi sin  i 
For the considered slope, the safety factor result is 1,65, while the result obtained by Klar et.al. (2011)
is 1,94.
Tab. 1. Calculation results

Bar No. wi i, (rad) li cosi sini Numerator Denominator

-7 85.131 0.1833 15.2848 0.9833 0.1822 3816.3708 310.2782
-6 371.146 0.1449 20.2174 0.9895 0.1444 7375.4041 1071.5464
-5 653.630 0.0977 20.0725 0.9952 0.0976 9916.2093 1275.6654
-4 895.496 0.0297 20.0008 0.9996 0.0297 12120.9066 531.3214
-3 1098.282 0.1449 20.1728 0.9895 0.1444 13894.2753 3170.8834
-2 1251.142 0.2670 20.6582 0.9646 0.2639 15080.2303 6602.8703
-1 1351.697 0.3700 21.4911 0.9323 0.3616 15731.4645 9776.1602
1 1393.838 0.5131 22.8324 0.8712 0.4909 15583.4020 13684.8372
2 1344.928 0.6562 25.1708 0.7923 0.6101 14701.4754 16412.0566
3 1164.969 0.8517 29.9658 0.6587 0.7524 12954.8948 17530.8284
4 582.371 1.1554 52.8308 0.4035 0.9150 12698.2865 10656.9359
Total 133872.92 81023.383
F= 1.6522751

474
 3.2. Discussion safety factor is still defined as in the cylindrical
The safety factor obtained from the two methods method but the calculation approach is different.
show to have significant difference. The gap Considering Eq. 2, it is separated into two
between the two values can be attributed to the components:
following factors.
The parameters of the slope that Klar et.al. used f c   tan 
F  (13)
in their paper seems arbitrary that the authors used  m cm   tan  m
only for the purpose to illustrate their approach of f tan  c
identifying the safety factor. The authors did not F   (14)
 m tan  m cm
specifically indicate the values of φ, c, so the
values we obtained from their g-line might vary
from their original values. Eq. 13 is the part that is confusing as we do not
The approach proposed by Klar et.al. might be find detail explanation for this expression.
problematic. The conventional method to calculate Mathematically, if we have:
ctt tan  tt
the safety factor which has been used in this paper  F
considers the force equilibrium, so it ensures the cm tan  m (15)
physic meaning of the safety factor, which is the Then ctt  Fc m and  tan tt  F tan  m , hence:
ratio between the resistance and the driving forces.
For the logarithmic sliding surface method, the

ctt   tan  tt Fc  F tan  m F cm   tan  m 

F  m  F
cm   tan  m cm   tan  m cm   tan  m (16)

This is reasonable but not convincing. Eq. 14 is

the condition to obtain Eq. 13, indicating that the
soil must be homogeneous to satisfy Eq. 14 in
order to calculate Fs using Eq. 13. In other words,
if φ and c do not satisfy Eq. 14, the safety factor is
calculated by Eq. 12. The soil needs to be
homogeneous to satisfy Eq. 14, but in reality it is
not. Homogeneity is defined in geotechnology as a
soil having the values of φ and c to be spatially
random. Considering the φ and c to certainly
satisfy Eq. 13 makes the soil to absolutely
homogenous. This difference in the approaches
may also result in the different safety factor results.
Another issue that is not clarify in the results of
Klar et.al, which is about the characteristic of φ
and c. As they are the soil characteristics, they are
influenced by the soil origin, location and the
weather conditions in the soil’s area. The g-line in
the other hand is obtained theoretically and does
not reflect soil characteristic, as it is all the
combination of φ and c resulting an Fs = 1. So how
to know the match of the φ and c of the soil and the
g-line?
A
B
h1
h2
Fig. 3. Slowly sliding causing deformed landslide
Effects of the proposed shape of sliding surface
is another factor influencing the results. As
mentioned above, the reproduction of logarithm
shape sliding surface is based not only by real
observations, but also by calculus of variations
satisfying the Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion, the
exact failure surface has a log-spiral shape. While
the cylindrical sliding surface method is not that
detailed, the cylindrical shape is applied for all of
the soil types. Hence from the first vision, the
logarithm method can be more reliable than the
cylindrical one. However in fact, it is the opposite.
The logarithm sliding surface is represented by Eq.

475
1 which contains φ but not c. So, the question is:
Which kinds of soil does the sliding surface
represent? It cannot characterize only the loose soil
because this soil has a flat sliding surface, not a
logarithm one. If it characterizes both of loose and
sticky soil, why isn’t c taken into account? There is
no effect of magnitude of cohesion on the shape of
sliding surface? Moreover, the higher friction
angle φ, the rounder sliding surface; while in Eq. 1,
φ is in exponent and the parameter e is higher than
1, it means that the higher φ, the flatter sliding
surface. It is the first contradictory. The logarithm
sliding surface is confirmed by both of real
observations and Mohr – Coulomb criterion, thus it
is reliable. How can the formula without cohesion
c match the sliding surface of sticky soil? This is
the second contradictory. It requires an appropriate
explanation to those contradictories. From our
point of views, sliding is an entire process and
there is no sudden sliding. Even in the case of the
large sliding mass happened in Vajont Dam, it is
long time before reaching the speed of 30m/s,
cracks were detected on mountain slope where the
dam’s wing lied on. In September 15th, the entire
flank slipped down 22cm, and at 10:39 PM
October 9th the slip occurred completely. The
process might be longer due to the numbers of
landslides. In some cases, the sliding mass moves a
little and stands still until the next rainy season.
Over such a long period, both of sliding mass and
background has deformed. According to the
physical basis, after separating from a big mass, a
part of it will have the biggest volume with a
specific area of surface. For the logarithm sliding
mass, at the beginning, the sliding surface that
formed in the weak zone has a cylindrical shape
(Fig. 3.). After a period Δt, the mass moves a
distance Δs. At the location A, the deformation
occurs due to pressure of the upper soil mass. At
the location B, the soil head is higher than at the
location A, hence there is more subsidence. And
this phenomena keeps going on to the toe, i.e. the
sliding background subsides more, sliding curve
dilates and forms a logarithm shape. In other
words, at the end of sliding process, the shape of
sliding surface is logarithm, even though it has
cylindrical shape at the beginning. When studying
sliding surface, the sliding process is commonly
neglected and the surface is measured only at the
end of the process (logarithm shape); however in
476
order to analyze slope stability, it is necessary to
evaluate at the moment when the instability just
occurs. The logarithm method can reproduce an
appropriate sliding surface but it carries out safety
factor that is not conformity with the reality of
slope stability. In contrast, the cylindrical method
reproduces a cylindrical surface for all the types of
soil which seems to be inappropriate, but in fact it
evaluates properly slope stability.
4. Conclusions
The analysis of slope stability is a complicated
issues, there are plenty of methods and there is no
dominant one. People tend to use the approach
which is more familiar with them rather than the
more reliable method. Thus, it is important to
continue to analyze and compare the reliability of
methods to select the most appropriate one. The
authors are aware of our limitation on
understanding of the issues due to lack of research,
but we still propose the idea and hope to learn
more from the other opinions. The authors are
looking forward to contribute more to research on
slope stability issues.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Huy
Phuong and Dr. Nguyen Van Dac for giving
suggestions.
References
[1] Rendulic, L. (1935), Ein Beitrag zur
Bestimmung der Gleitsicherheit, Bauingenieur,
16, 230–233.
[2] A. Klar, E. Aharonov, B. Kalderon‐ Asael, and
O. Katz “Analytical and observational relations
between landslide volume and surface area”.
Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 116,
F02001. 2011
[3] Michalowski, R. L. (1995). Slope stability
analysis : a kinematical approach. G&technique
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[4] Muhammad Alizadeh Naderi. Determination of
the Critical Slip Surface in Slope Stability
Analysis. Eastern Mediterranean
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[5] Baker, R. & Garber, M. (1978). Theoretical
analysis of the stability of slopes. GPofechnique
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 APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS FOR LANDSLIDE
FORECASTING MODELS IN THE MOUTAINOUS AREAS OF XIN MAN
DISTRICT, HA GIANG PROVINCE

Pham Quoc Khanh, Nguyen Thi Kim Thanh

Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: phamquockhanh@humg.edu.vn

Abstract: Vietnam is a tropical, rainy country. Vietnamese terrain is divided by mountains that have
big slope. Meanwhile deforestation happens everywhere. Both of these problems caused landslide in the
mountainside, in the mine exploitation areas and in the weak geological background. In order to limit
damage caused by sliding, in the world they installed the sensor network and continuous satellite
positioning system, these instruments help people determine degree of slip and then forecast. However,
the expense for using these modern technology in surveying and data processing is very big. Overcome
this problem, it is able to use the forecasting models that are constructed from cyclical discrete data,
although it is not as effective as real time forecasting but it is helpful for forewarning about the risk of
landslide. Therefore, the article proposed to research about application of the artificial neural network on
modeling and landslide forecasting in Xin Man, Ha Giang province, the final results were compared with
the achievement of Kalman filter model, on the basis of comparison, we will evaluate the precision of
Artificial Neural Network model and then apply to forecast landslide in reality.

Keywords: Kalman filter; neural network; landslide forecasting; horizontal displacement.

1. Preamble method is more economical and more effective for

The study on landslide forecasting in the
mountainous area in the Northwestern of Vietnam
is very indispensable, also scientific and practical.
Owing to severely divided terrain, mining
everywhere, in addition protection forests were
less and less as a result of illegal logging so when
there are heavy rains and earthquakes in this
region, landslide occurs immediately. In developed
countries, the widely available sensor network and
continuous satellite positioning systems were
installed to monitor and predict landslide, these
devices observe the displacement of rock
instantaneuosly, then predict expected values for
future. However, the expense of installation the
system and operation is very huge. So we can use
periodic monitoring system instead because this
predicting in the cases of short-term monitoring.
In Vietnam, the study of observation and data
processing in structural displacement monitoring
that is measured by geodetic and non-deodetic
methods has become more popular [Tran Khanh
2003; Pham Quoc Khanh 2012; Tran Khanh and
the others 2014]; application of GPS technology to
monitor the movement of tectonic plates [Ha Minh
Hoa and the others 2004]. Research on modeling to
describe chronological displacement has been paid
attention recently [Tran Khanh, Hoang Xuan
Thanh 2007; Pham Quoc Khanh, Nguyen Viet Ha
2015; Pham Quoc Khanh, Nguyen Quoc Long
2015]. The obtained results from these studies have
confirmed the applicability of the method but the

477
accuracy is not high in forecasting and limitation
of data processing scale.
Nowadays, the ANN models have been used
more for modeling and predicting structural
defomation in the world [S. Narayanakumar,
K.Raja, 2016]; George Pantazis, Eleni-Georgia
Alevizakou, 2013; Xiaoyu Wang et, 2017; Ke
Fuyang, Li Yayun, 2014]. In Vietnam, ANN was
applied for several studies such as earthquake
forecasting, forecasting the amount of water
flowing to the reservoir [Cao Dinh Trong and the
others 2011; Pham Thi Hoang Nhung 2007] but
nobody applies for predicting landslide. Therefore,
the paper proposed to apply ANN model to
forecast landslide on the basis of geological
measurements in the mountainous area of Xin Man
district, Ha Giang province. Calculating results
were compared with the results of Kalman Filter
qj
w1 j
x1
w2 j
x2 å f ( net j )
xn
Fig. 1. Model of an artificial neron; xi (i = 1,2,…n): input sinals; wij (i = 1,2,…n): weights of the inputs; -
qj : activation threshold of the neuron; - netj: input synthetic signal; f(netj): activation function;- yj: output
signal
The input consists of n signals xi (i = 1,2,…n).
An input signal has one weight that shows
influence of the signal xi on the neuron. The input
signal is able to be outside data or the output of the
other neuron or the output of itself. To improve the
adaptability of the neural network in learning
process, it is necessary to assign an additional
parameter to each neuron. This parameter is called
the weight of neuron qj.
The input signals of a neuron are synthesized
by a set of plus, the obtained result is called netj.
478
and realistic measurements with the aim of
assessing the accuracy of the model.
2. Methodology of research
2.1 the structure of Artificial Neural Network
(ANN)
ANNs are computing systems that simulate
human awareness. ANN includes neurons called
nodes or information processing units that
connected in definite structure to solve specific
issues. ANN is like human brain trained and store
information then use this knowledge in the suitable
situations. Toward create a ANN, we nees to
determine network structural information and the
weight of the each neuron.
1. The structure of a neuron
A neuron receives input signal, the output is
computed by sum and processing its inputs. Figure
1 describes the structure of a neuron.
j
yj
net j
Assume that netj is the function of signals xi and
wetghts wij
After synthesizing the input signals, the
activation function f is used to transforme netj into
the output signal outj
y j = out j = f (net j ) (1)
2. Feedforward neural network use the
backpropagation algorithm
ANN has many different types that depend on
classification, if it is classified by link between
layers, there are feedforward network and
regression network. In structural deformation
forecasting or landslide forecasting, they usually
use the multi-layer feedforward neural network and
the backpropagation algorithm (ANN-BP).
Structure of the ANN-BP has three layers
namely input layer, output layer and hidden layer
as following figure 2. The hidden layer that
connect the input layer to the output layer is an
internal component of the network, a neural
network can have many hidden layers, but actually
a hidden layer is sufficient for modeling any
function (Li Minfu 1994). On the other hand, no
principles guide how many neuron a hidden layer
has, that’s just determined on the basis of the
experience and tests.

x1 y1

x2
y2

M M M M M

xn ym

Fig. 2. The model of the 3-layer feedforward ANN

2.2. The activation function of the ANN
The basic neuron has n inputs, each input has a
weight w, total of inputs have weights and
threshold that make the signal of the activation
function f. Many different activation functions are
used to generate the output signal. The activation
function is popularly used in ANN-BP such as
linear function pureline(x)-figure 3a, sigmoid
function with two forms namely logsig(x)-figure
3b and tansig(x)-figure 3c

f f f
(x) (x) (x)
1 1
1
x x x
0 0 0

-1 -1
-1

3a. f(x)=purelin(x) 3b. f(x)=logsig(x) 3c. f(x)=tansig(x)

Fig. 3. The activation function of ANN

ANN-BP usually use logsig function. This
function limits to a small range for the output. If
the linear funtion is used, the output can choose
any value
2.3. Determination the weight of neuron
ANN with the backpropogation algorithm is
considered to be a supervised learning algorithm,
meaning as network needs sample data to learn.
The sample data includes: the input data xi is the
element that affected on displacement and
deformation, the target value yi is the expected
result. To do learning, it must be performed
through two steps:
- After entering the network, the input data xi is
propagated to obtain the input ui;
- The error (ei=yi-oi) is back - propagated with
purpose of updating the weight

479
 In order to having the most equivalent model to
reality, the network must do a lot of loops that help
to find the most optimal weight for the sample with
the smallest error e
3. Experiment
Clarification the theory, we established an
experimental model about application of the
artificial neural network in monitoring landslide at
some points in Xin Man, Ha Giang province.
3.1. Introduction the experiment area
Xin Man is located in the ancient land, it has
low tectonics, terrain is divided severely and
geology is unstable; so there are many streams and
in addition nature is destroyed seriously by human,
all these reasons cause high slipperiness and
landslide occurs frequently especially in the rainy
1
Fig. 4. Configuration of the horizontal displacement monitoring equipment inclinometer
2. Monitoring principles
Horizontal displacement monitoring by
Inclinometer is actually the indirect survey method
through the movement of the guide tube. When we
survey the displacement, we manipulate to let the
probe with the wheels run along the grooves of the
guide tube. The probe consists of two force-
balanced accelerometers, one accelerometer
measures tilt in the plane of the wheels, this plane
is called the A-axis, the other one measures tilt in
the perpendicular plane to wheel bearing plane,
this second plane is called the B-axis as shown in
figure 5.
Calculation in the horizontal displacement
monitoring through inclinometer device is
480
season. Moreover, there are many villages that
belong to the upstream of the tributaries where
there are a lot of high risks of flash floods, muddy
rocks, causing much damage to people and
property. Therefore, we choose this area for
landslide monitoring to forewarning to the
authorities and people, thus minimizing losses
3.2. Equipment and principle of observation
1.Monitoring equipment
We used inclinometer for landslide monitoring
in Xin Man, Ha Giang. This device is also used to
monitor the horizontal displacement of dams, roads
or piles of underground works…The configuration
of the inclinometer is shown in Figure 4, that
comprises four main parts: (1) guide tube, (2)
probe, (3) signal cable, (4) readout unit.
2
4
determined by getting the bottom of the tube as the
basis for calculating the displacement of the upper
positions. Therefore, the bottom needs to be
keeped stable
A Trục A
0
B18 B
0 0
TrụcB
A1
80
Fig. 5. Conventional directions in horizontal
displacement monitoring by inclinometer
 Fig. 6. Diagram of calculation in horizontal displacement monitoring by Inclinometer
In figure 6, the horizontal deviation of each
position in the axis is determined as the following
fomula:
di  L.sin i (2)
With: di – the horizontal deviation between two
adjacent points in the axis; L – measurement
interval between two adjacent points; θ i - the
angle of tilt at the ith position when the tube is not
vertical
The results that the receiver gets are not the
angle of tilt or deviation of the tube. The measured
values depend on the angle of tilt and the
monitoring constant at each interval of 0.5m along
the tube, as the following formula:
A  IC.sin  (3)
With: A – the value was measured at each
position (in the direction of the A axis); IC -
monitoring constant of instrument.
3.3. Experimental measurements
We observed 3 points in Xin Man, including
IPI3 was set in Ban Diu commune with a depth of
27m, IPI1 and IPI2 in Nam Dan commune have
respectively the depth of 18m and 20m. According
to the observation principle of the Inclinometer, the
origin of the tube was considered to have no
displacement and to be a benchmark, it means the
displacement at 18.0m is zero in all monitoring
cycles; The displacements were recorded in two
orthogonal directions. Using these three
481
monitoring stations, we measured in seven cycles
from June 25th, 2016 to July 31st, 2016 at IPI1
(IPI2 and IPI3 only were measured in
corresponding to four and six cycles). Based on the
observation data at IPI1, we drew a realistic
movement diagram of the soil layers along the tube
as shown in Figure 7.
3.4. Modeling and Forecasting through ANN-
BP
In order to build the displacement model and
forecast, from measured data, we chose two
positions in the direction of the A axis along the
tube at the depth of 0.5m and 6.0m at IPI1 because
this is the point that was observed in maximum
number of cycles (7 cycles), the data is shown in
Table 1. According to the theory that was
mentioned above, we used 6 cycles of ANN- BP to
forecast the displacement of the seventh cycle and
then the results were compared with the realistic
measurements to determine the forecasting
accuracy. In addition, we also compared the
forecasting results with Kalman filter model (Pham
Quoc Khanh, Nguyen Quoc Long, 2015) and on
the basis of the analysis we can make a comment
on the applicability of this model.
Using the ANN-BP module in the Matlab
R2016a modeling program, establish a three-layer
neural network in which the hidden layer consists
of 6 neurons. The network diagram and the
training process are shown in Figure 8.
 Tab. 1. Monitoring data of three positions at IPI1 in A axis

Depth Cyclic displacements (mm)

(m) 6/25/2016 6/26/2016 6/27/2016 6/28/2016 6/30/2016 7/10/2016 7/31/2016
0.5 0.00 7.43 3.95 1.22 -0.16 19.43 16.66
6.0 0.00 5.49 3.32 0.94 0.43 18.08 23.72
- The value that was calculated from the ANN-
BP model is close to the realistic measurement
data, proved by very small error, the maximum is -
0.85mm at depth of 0.5m and -0.54mm at depth of
6m.
- The forecasting values of the ANN-BP model
of the seventh cycle at two positions are also very
good, The error is 0.56mm at the depth of 0.5m at,
0.20mm at the depth of 6m.
- Overall, the ANN-BP model has the same
accuracy as the Kalman filter model.

Fig. 7. the displacements of soil layers at the

IPI1 point in two axes A and B.

The result of the ANN modeling training,

forecasting displacement in the seventh cycle and
the results were got from the Kalmam filter of two
positions, all of them were shown in Table 2 Fig. 8. Network diagram and neural training
Comment: process

Tab. 2. Compare the values from two models with realistic measurements (mm)
Depth of 0.5m Depth of 6.0m
ANN-
Period ANN-BP Kalman Period Kalman
Measure Error Error Measure BP Error Error
model Filter Filter
model
1 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2 7.43 6.58 -0.85 7.41 -0.02 2 5.49 5.49 0.00 5.48 -0.01
3 3.95 3.95 0.00 4.01 0.06 3 3.32 2.78 -0.54 3.36 0.04
4 1.22 1.22 0.00 1.17 -0.05 4 0.94 0.83 -0.11 0.91 -0.03
5 -0.16 -0.08 0.08 0.04 0.20 5 0.43 0.43 0.00 0.54 0.11
6 19.43 19.88 0.45 18.33 -1.11 6 18.08 18.30 0.22 17.16 -0.92
Forecasting value Forecasting value
7 16.66 17.22 0.56 17.34 0.68 7 23.72 23.92 0.20 24.12 0.40

482
4. Discuss and conclusion
- Landslide forecasting in Vietnam especially
moutainous area need to be paid attention and
norms must be put into regulation on monitoring.
Good forecasting will help reduce a lot of damage
on property and human
- Landslide forecasting in mountainous through
ANN-BP model has a relatively good result so it is
necessary to research and do more tests that help
us conclude exactly and it is easy to apply in
production.
References
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determining the crust displacement in the
fracture area in Lai Chau-Dien Bien, 2004.
[2] Tran Khanh and the others. Analyze the
stability of the base network in structural
horizontal displacement monitoring
through the algorithm of indirect
adjustment with the unknown is measure
data. Journal of Mining and Geology
Science and Technology,45, 2014.
[3] Tran Khanh, 2003. Survey on comparison of
resection method in displacement
observation of hydropower dams. Journal
of Mining and Geology Science and
Technology, 4, 2003
[4] Tran Khanh, Hoang Xuan Thanh.
Methodology for modeling of horizontal
displacement of hydropower-irrigation
works over time. Journal of Cadastre,
2007.
[5] Pham Quoc Khanh, 2012. Application of
Pelzer in testing the stability of the base
points in structural deformation
483
monitoring. Journal of Mining and
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[6] Pham Quoc Khanh, Nguyen Quoc Long,
2015. Research on application of Kalman
Filter in surface vertical displacement
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[7] Pham Quoc Khanh, Nguyen Viet Ha,
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[8] Cao Đinh Trong and the others. Application
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[9] S. Narayanakumar, K.Raja. A BP artificial
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[10] George Pantazis, Eleni-Georgia
Alevizakou. The use of artificial neural
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[11] Xiaoyu Wang et, Study on MPGA-BP of
Gravity Dam Deformation Prediction,
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neural network, Geotechnical Investigation
and Surveying, 2014.
 CAUSES OF LANDSLIDE IN THE ONG TUONG HILL AREA,
HOA BINH CITY AND TREATMENT SOLUTIONS

Duong Van Binh1, Bui Truong Son1, Pham Thi Ngoc Ha1, Nguyen Minh Hien2
1
Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, Vietnam
2
Institute of Transport Science and Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: duongvanbinh@humg.edu.vn

Abstract: The headquarters of the Provincial Party Committee and the People's Committee of Hoa
Binh Province are built at the foot of Ong Tuong hill. During the construction process, the construction
unit has dug into the hillside to create the construction site and build the retaining wall system. Climate
change and the status of exploitation and deforestation of tropical forests in order to make flood situation
more serious. During the rainy season in 2017, especially from September to October, Hoa Binh area had
heavy rain for a long time, making the soil saturated with water, increasing its gravity, reducing the
cohesion and slide resistance, leading to the landslide. In Hoa Binh city, landslide occurred in three areas:
East of Ong Tuong Hill, Thai Binh Ward and Cham Mat Ward. We analyzed the survey data and test
results to determine the cause of landslide in Ong Tuong hill. From the current situation and the causes of
the landslide, we have proposed the treatment solutions for sliding mass.

Keywords: landslide; large diameter well; Hoabinh; Vietnam.

1. Introduction Thanh Son district (Phu Tho province), Ky Son

In Hoa Binh province and other neigh boring and Kim Boi districts in the east, Cao Phong
areas, studying geological hazards in general as district in the south, Da Bac district in the west.
well as landslides in particular has always been an Ong Tuong hill is located in Phuong Lam Ward,
urgent issue in recent years. At the provincial level, Hoa Binh city, Fig 1.
there were studies by authors such as Nguyen
Ngoc Thach, et al (2002), Dinh Van Toan, et al
(2006). Landslide occured along major roads in the
province and other places were also mentioned in
the studies by Vu Van Chinh, et al. (2011); Cao
Dinh Trieu, et al. (2012). In addition, landslide
studies and the installation of a landslide
monitoring system and proposed treatment
solutions have also been applied to some sliding
mass in the Hoa Binh area, which are mentioned in Fig. 1. Location of study area
study by Nguyen Quoc Thanh et al., 2008.
2. Geotechnical conditions of study area 2.2. Geological feature of study area
2.1. Location 2.2.1. Formations
Hoa Binh city is about 76 km west of Hanoi. According to the survey results of the
The boundary of Hoa Binh city: The north borders geological map of the scale 1/500 of the survey

484
area, refer to the geological map at the rate of
1/200,000; 1/25,000 in the area, the study area has
the following formations:
1. Ban Diet formation (C-P2bd)
2. Vien Nam Formation (T1vn)
3. Dong Giao Formation:
- Lower sub-formation (T2ađg1)
- Upper sub-formation (T2ađg2)
4. Song Boi formation:
- Lower sub-formation (T2-3sb1)
- Upper sub-formation (T2-3sb2)
5. Quaternary Formations (a,e,d,pQ1v), Fig 2,3.
Fig. 2. Deluvi zone
Fig. 3. Proluvi zone
2.2.2. Faults
The faults in the study area from Ong Tuong
Hill extend south to the Cun slope, in the southern
part of the fault zone located to the west of the Hoa
Binh depression. In this section, five parallel faults
were investigated in detail, Fig 4.
Fig. 4. Location of faults in the study area
485
2.2.3. Weathering
Based on the map of weathering and
Quaternary sediments of Vietnam 1: 1,000,000 by
Ngo Quang Toan (Editor), 2000 and other
documents, in Hoa Binh province, there are 4 types
of weathering: Ferosialite , Sialferite, Seralite and
Saprolite.
2.2.4. HydroGeology
Groundwater in the study area exists in two
water complexes:
- Complex of water in the fractured rocks, water
is not rich, mainly phreatic water.
- Complex of water in Quaternary sediments,
usually contained in sandy and sandy layers. The
groundwater level is 0.5 ÷ 1.5m from the ground
and usually fluctuates in season.
2.2.5. Strata and physical-mechanical
properties of soil and rock
In the area of landslide in the east of Ong
Tuong hill, we have collected the geological
survey data. From the survey results, we
determined the strata in the study area as follows:
- Layer KQ: This layer is unevenly distributed.
The average thickness of the layer is 4.4m. The
composition of the layer is Sandy clay content grit,
firm (Ro = 1.09 kG/cm2; Eo = 60.64 kG/cm2).
- Layer 1: Sandy clay, brownish gray, content
grit, stiff. This layer is under the soil layer of KQ,
distributed throughout the survey area. The
average layer thickness is 4m. (Ro = 0.88 kG/cm2;
Eo = 46.72 kG/cm2, when saturated).
- Layer 2: Yellowish-gray clay, stiff. This layer
is under layer 1, widely distributed throughout the
survey area. The average thickness of the layer is
14.7m. This is the product of the weathering
process from the original rock (Ro = 1.36 kG/cm2;
Eo = 56.20 kG/cm2, when saturated).
- Layer 3: Clay, yellowish gray, very stiff. This
layer is under layer 2. The average thickness of the
layer is 13.8m. This is the product of the
weathering process from the original rock (Ro =
1.48 kG/cm2; Eo = 95.80 kG/cm2+, when saturated).
- Layer 3a: Clay, gray, very stiff. This layer is
under layer 2. The average thickness of the layer is
9.5m. This is the product of the fault operation (Ro
= 1.95 kG/cm2; Eo = 198.9 kG/cm2).
 Layer 3b: Sandy clay content grit, yellowish 3. Status and causes of landslide in study area
gray, very stiff. This layer is under layer 3a. (Ro = 3.1. Status of landslide in Ong Tuong Hill area
1.95 kG/cm2; Eo = 182.5 kG/cm2). Field survey has identified 8 land slide points,
- Layer 4a: Claystone, siltstone, medium including 2 large-scale points; 4 points of medium
weathered, fine-grained, dark gray, brownish gray, scale and 2 points of small scale. Land slide points
sometimes rocks weathered into grit content clay. occur in the talus of the roads or talus after the
This layer is widely distributed in the study area construction or houses, Fig 5,6, Table 1.
(Co = 102 kG/cm2, when saturated).
- Layer 4b: Claystone, siltstone, slight
weathering, mass structure, fine grain, dark gray.
- Layer 5a: Limestone, brownish gray, strong
weathering and cracking (Co = 185 kG/cm2, when
saturated).
- Layer 5b: Limestone, white gray, moderate
weathering and cracking, mass structure, fine grain
(Co = 291 kG/cm2, when saturated).
- Layer 6a: Basalt stone, brownish gray, mass
structure, distributed over the top of Ong Tuong
hill. Rock is an eruption product and lies
unconformably with two layers above (Co = 167.5
kG/cm2, when saturated).
- Layer 6b: Basalt stone, dark gray, mass Fig. 5. Landslide points in Hoa Binh
structure, distributed over the top of Ong Tuong
hill. Rock is an eruption product and lies
unconformably with two layers above (Co = 386
kG/cm2, when saturated).

Tab. 1. Statistics on the number of land slide by scale, sloping type and land use status of Hoa Binh city [3]
Slope Land use status
Scale Total
Natural Artificial Population Mining Cultivation Forestry
Small 2 2 2
Medium 4 4 6
Large 2 2
Very large
Extreme large
Total 8 8 2 6

From the above table, we notice that

landslides mainly occur in artificial slopes, near
residential areas. Landslide are mainly due to
human activities such as digging slopes to make
roads and other structures.

Fig. 6. Landslide points in Hoa Binh city

486
 Headquarters area of Hoa Binh People's 3.2. Slope stability calculation using
Committee is located on the east side of Ong Geoslope software
Tuong Hill. After heavy rains for a long time, on Calculation of landslide during rainy season,
the night of October 9, 2017, there were 18 cracks when saturation line is rising, time of occurrence
on slopes of 2 to 15 cm in width and 10 to 90 of landslide (The saturated line is determined from
meters in length; At the same time, a sliding observation time in August, 2017). Calculations
surface of over 300 m in length, 200 m in width, using GEOSLOPE software, Table 2,3, Fig 11-15.
30 m in depth is formed. The sliding mass is Tab. 2. Input parameters for calculation model
estimated at 1.8 million m3 has been moved sat c 
Layer
downward with a displacement of 5 to 80 cm, Fig (kN/m3) (kN/m2) (Degree)
7-10. KQ 18.7 15.6 12011'
1 17.9 14.8 11020'
2 18.6 19.7 14036'
3 19.3 22.4 13021'
3a 19.4 22.4 13021'
3b 22 27.6 19006'
4a 26.2 50 250
5a 26.2 50 250
Fig. 7. The status of landslide area in the east of 5b 26.8 50 250
Ong Tuong hill 6a 26.4 100 350
6b 26.8 100 350

Fig. 8. Landslide at the entrance of the People’s

Committee

Fig. 11. Result of stable calculation at cross section 1

Fig. 9. Cracks on road 7 behind the substation

Fig. 12. Result of stable calculation at cross section 2

Fig. 10. Cracks on the hill behind the People’s
Committee building

487

Fig. 13. Result of stable calculation at cross section 3
- For the basic load combination: [K] = 1.15
- For special load combinations:
[K]S = [K] * nc = 1.15 * 0.9 = 1.035
- For construction load combination:
[K]S = [K] * nc = 1.15 * 0.95 = 1.093
The calculation results show that the calculated
sections are unstable in saturation condition, which
is perfectly suited to the landslide status, so the
treatment is very necessary and urgent.
3.3. Causes of landslide in Ong Tuong Hill area
3.3.1. Analysis of topography change
In order to evaluate the topography of the
area, we used the survey topography in 2007 to
compare with the survey data in January 2018, Fig
16-18.

Fig. 14. Result of stable calculation at cross section 4 Fig. 16. Cross section of the provincial
commission office area in 2007 and 2018

Fig. 17. Cross section of the National Assembly

Fig. 15. Result of stable calculation at cross section 5 delegation office in 2007 and 2018

Tab. 3. Summary table of stable calculation results

Section K [K] Evaluation
Section 1 0.74 1.035 Unstable
Section 2 0.76 1.035 Unstable
Section 3 0.71 1.035 Unstable
Section 4 0.86 1.035 Unstable
Section 5 0.87 1.035 Unstable

General safety coefficients of works and work Fig. 18. Cross section of the People's Council
items (refer to QCVN 04-05 / 2012 / BNNPTNT). Office 2007 and 2018

488
 Results of research on the topography before
and after construction, some infrastructure works
on the foot of Ong Tuong hill has excavated into
the foot of hill, taking a lot of construction site,
especially the area behind the headquarters
Provincial People's Council has dug up to 20m.
3.3.2. Analysis of strata and physical-mechanical
properties of soils and rocks
Geological features of the area are very
complex, the strata changes continuously, the
composition of the soil is not uniform. In addition,
there are some broken zones formed by the
tectonic process.
Ground structure has many types of soil and
rock with different composition and weathering,
not changing according to the rules. These layers
may be of different geological formations. The
thickness of the cover layer is quite large but
changes continuously; The groundwater level
depends on the seasons, at about 4-5m depth in
rainy season. Particularly, when rain is in the long
time, the soil in the cover may be completely
saturated. Experimental results of soil samples in
saturated state showed that low friction angle and
low cohension are the main cause of landslide in
the rainy season.
Under the cover layer is a medium to strong
weathered zone. The rocks and soils are in
saturated state resulting in reduced shear strength.
In addition, it can also create underground flows.
Conclusion: From the analysis of survey data
and calculation results, we have identified the main
causes of land slide in the study area as follows:
- During construction at the foothill, the slope
has been dug for construction, changing the natural
equilibrium of the soil.
- The area has thick cover, rock and soil have
weak mechanical properties, soils have high
porosity, great permeability increases self weight
and reduces sliding resistance.
- Due to climate change, in 2017, in the study
area, there has been heavy rain for a long time,
causing the soil to become saturated. Heavy rains
also cause soil erosion at the top of the slope and
lead to landslide.
4. Proposal of the solutions for landslide
treatment
Two solutions have been proposed to treat the
landslide in the area:
489
Solution 1:
- Slope treatment by grade down the slope to
reduce the load and construction of bored piles
D1000;
- Surface water drainage by covering
waterproof HDPE membrane on the ground to
slope’s cover and collecting surface water into the
sewer system; treatment of surface cracks by
opening cracks and filling with compacted clay K
= 0.95; combine grass planting in reinforced
concrete frame to protect HDPE membrane and
create landscape;
- Collection and drainage of underground water
by self-flowing horizontal well system, at the foot
of the retaining wall (altitude + 40.0 m) and natural
slope (altitude 86.5 m).
Solution 2:
- Slope treatment by grade down the slope to
reduce the load and use cable anchor system;
- Surface water drainage by covering
waterproof HDPE membrane on the ground to
slope’s cover and collecting surface water into the
sewer system; treatment of surface cracks by
opening cracks and filling with compacted clay K
= 0.95; combine grass planting in reinforced
concrete frame to protect HDPE membrane and
create landscape;
- Collection and drainage of underground water
by self-flowing horizontal well system, at the foot
of the retaining wall (altitude + 40.0 m) and natural
slope (altitude + 86.5 m).
The above mentioned solutions have the
following difficulties and limitations:
- For drainage solution in combination with
concrete cover, grass planting on the sloping
surface: this solution only restricts rainwater into
the aquifer but does not lower the ground water
level in the slope.
Therefore, to ensure the technical, it is
necessary to design underground drainage system,
which is costly and not economical.
- The solution is to install horizontal water
pipes in slope, due to small diameter and limited
length, so it is easy to clog and reduce drainage
capacity, the efficiency of lowering the ground
water is low. In this case, due to the large slide and
high ground water level, the reduction of the
sliding force by drainage is more important than
the increase the sliding resistance with structural
support solutions (such as retaining walls, anchor
or concrete nail).
- Therefore, there must be a solution that both
reduces the sliding force (underground drainage)
and increases the sliding resistance (by using large
diameter piles). To improve efficiency, we propose
solutions of large diameter drainage wells based on
the principle of both surface and ground water
drainage and increase sliding resistance. The Fig. 21. Design section of large diameter wells
efficiency of the solution was analyzed using
Geoslope software, Fig 19-22.

Fig. 22. The layout of the drainage system

5. Stable calculation using Geoslope software.

Fig. 19. Structure of large diameter wells The results of calculation have shown in Table
1. Natural slope; 2. Underground water level in 4 and Fig 23.
slope; 3- Assumed slope; 4- Reinforced concrete
well; 5- Water collection window (with filter); 6- Tab. 4. Input parameters for calculation model
Horizontal drainage pipes; 7- Spare pump; 8. Sat c 
Layer
(kN/m3) (kN/m2) (degree)
Surface water drainage chanel; 9. Ground water
KQ 18.7 15.6 12011'
level when the well is operational; 10. Rainwater.
1 17.9 14.8 11020'
2 18.6 19.7 14036'
3 19.3 22.4 13021'
3a 19.4 22.4 13021'
3b 22 27.6 19006'
4a 26.2 50 250
5a 26.2 50 250
5b 26.8 50 250
6a 26.4 100 350
6b 26.8 100 350
Concrete 25 2000 45
Fig. 20. The layout of the well on the slope

490
 Nomenclature
The following symbols are used in this paper:
c= cohesion, kN/m2
Eo = deformation modulus, kN/m2
Ro = conventional bearing capacity, kN/m2
Sat = saturated unit weight of material, kN/m3
= inner friction angle, o
K= calculated safety factor
[K] = allowable safety factor
References
[1] Nguyen Van Chinh, et al. (2018). Urgent
treatment of sliding masses in the east of Ong
Tuong hill, groups 4, 5, 6 of Cham Mat ward,
Fig. 23. Slope stabilization results when large group 4 of Thai Binh ward, Hoa Binh city.
diameter wells are applied at section 3 with K = Results report.
1.24. [2] Nguyen Van Hung, Pham Tich Xuan (2006).
5. Conclusion Tectonic activity, cracking-landslide in Hoa
The research has assessed the land slide in Ong Binh city. The Journal of Geology. Institute of
Tuong hill area, assessing the impact of this Geology, Hanoi.
phenomenon on the construction works. [3] Tran Ngoc Dien, Nguyen Van Que, et al
Using the numerical modeling method, the (2014). Report on survey results and
team assessed the stability of the slope under establishment of map of landslide scale 1:
current conditions. The results show that at all 50,000 in Hoa Binh province. Results report.
computational slopes, the slope is in a state of Hanoi.
instability, which is consistent with the current [4] Nguyen Van Hung, Pham Tich Xuan (2004).
situation in the area. Fault system in Hoa Binh reservoir area.
The research team has also proposed a Journal of the Sciences of the Earth, 4: pp 139-
solution to ensure slope stabilization, designed and 146. Hanoi
calculated slope stability when applying this
solution. As a result, the stability of the sloping
roof increased, the slope stabilized.
.

491
 PROBABILISTIC ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL-INDUCED LANDSLIDES
IN QUANG NAM PROVINCE

Nguyen Khac Hoang Giang1,2, Trinh Quoc Anh2, Dang Thi Thuy2,3, Do Minh Ngoc2,3
Dao Minh Duc4, Hoang Hai Yen4, Nguyen Huu Ha5, Do Minh Duc2
1
Hanoi University of Natural Resources and Environment, Vietnam
2
Vietnam National University, Vietnam
3
Institute of Geotechnology and Environment, Vietnam
4
Institute of Geological Sciences, Vietnam
5
Binh Dinh Department of Science and Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: ducdm@vnu.edu.vn

Abstract: Rainfall-induced landslides have caused serious damages to the infrastructure in Quang
Nam province in recent years. About 34 events triggered landslides were recorded from 2003 to 2017.
Especially, in the early November 2017, a catastrophic heavy rain triggered many large landslides at the
transport arteries in the mountainous areas. Among the total of 480 road segments of potential instability,
192 landslides were recorded. The paper uses Bayes probabilistic approach to define daily and hourly
rainfall-induced landslides with monitoring data of several stations in mountainous areas of Quang Nam
province. Daily rainfall is meaningful only up to 3 days before landslide with the best probability of 25%.
Incorporation with daily rainfall, the hourly thresholds give a probabilistic accuracy of 80% landslide
occurrence.

Keywords: rainfall-induced landslides; daily rainfall; hourly rainfall; probabilistic thresholds.

1. Introduction rainfall and cloudbursts are leading to more flash

Landslides globally cause major disasters
every year and rank 7th as a cause of numbers of
people killed by natural disasters during the last
decade. Currently, the number of disastrous
landslides appears to be increasing. As a result of
population pressures, hillsides in the world’s urban
areas are being developed at an accelerating rate.
This development increases the risk for urban
landslides triggered by rainfall or earthquake
activity. In Monsoon Asia, a worst-case scenario of
the effect of global warming shows that, when
phenomena attributable to global warming and
other phenomena, such as earthquakes, occur
concurrently, they might cause unprecedented
complex disasters. Moreover, extreme weather
events induced by climate changes are happening
more frequently and with higher intensities. Heavy
floods, debris flows and landslides. During 2005–
2010, the number of dead and missing was 189,
and the economic loss totaled more than 2.8 x 108
yuan (US$4.379 x 107) in Southeastern China.
Analytical results in Fukuoka, Japan indicate slope
disaster risk in the present rainfall condition is
about 36 billion yen/year. The increase in slope
disaster risk in Fukuoka by 2050 posed by global
warming is 70.6%, which will reach to 61.43
billion yen/year.
Due to its geographical position and climate
characteristics Vietnam is highly vulnerable to
landslide disasters. Landslides are among the most
dangerous geohazards in Vietnam, causing annual
damage of nearly 100 million USD. Extensive
landslides often take place during tropical

492
cyclones. The ongoing rapid economic
development and urbanization of Vietnam can be
seriously hampered if the effect of landslides in
various parts of Vietnam are not tackled or
mitigated in an appropriate manner. There is a
need to develop methodologies and models to help
reduce the vulnerability of the country with respect
to landslide disasters. The ongoing climate changes
have the potential to significantly increase the
country’s risk exposure to landslides. Extreme
weather events induced by climate changes are
happening more frequently and with higher
intensities. Local livelihoods experience set-backs.
The events are counterproductive and are
threatening the sustained economic development of
Monsoon Asian countries in general and Vietnam
in particular. Therefore, temporal forecasting of
landslides in extreme rainfall is up most important
for proactive responses to disasters. Quang Nam
Province is subjected to regular and strong impacts
of large-scale atmospheric disturbances such as
storms, tropical depression, cold fronts, and
tropical convergence. During the rainy season in
2017, heavy rains from 3 to 7 November caused
serious damage to transport infrastructure in Quang
Nam province with an estimated cost of about 38
billion VND.
In order to mitigate landslide disaster, the paper
focuses on empirical thresholds of rainfall-induced
landslides. It can set the basics to reduce loss and
damages for prone landslide areas in Quang Nam
province.
2. Landslides in Quang Nam province
2.1 Characteristics of landslides
Along the transport arteries in mountainous
areas, 192 segments with landslides were recorded.
In the early November 2017, during a catastrophic
rain period, the amount of rock and landslide was
very significant all along five national highways
such as QL14B, QL14D, QL14E, QL40B, and
QL24C (see more detail in Duc et al. also in this
proceedings).
Along the QL14B highway, there were 7
positions of very large landslides. Along the
national highway QL14D, a landslide of about
36,595 m3 in volume at km71 + 200 had caused
traffic jam a few days (Fig. 1). Hundreds of
landslides occurred at the national highway
493
QL40B, especially from Tien Phuoc to Nam Tra
My. Along the national highway 40B from Bac Tra
My to Nam Tra My, 45 landslides with hundreds
of thousands of cubic meters of rocks and soils
were recorded. There are 10 serious landslides at
Km 65, 67, 74 (Bac Tra My district), Km 84, 85,
94, 96, 97 (Tra Don commune, Nam Tra My
district), especially at Km67 of national highway
40B, passing through Tra Bui commune (Bac Tra
My district) (Fig. 2). Many households in Bac Tra
My town have been displaced, some have died.
Some communes in Nam Tra My were also
severely affected. Many residential areas had to be
relocated urgently. On national highway QL24C,
from km80-km89 + 600 had traffic jammed due to
460,220 m3 of rock poured down the road. Present
at km89 + 500 QL24C (village 2, Tra Giang
commune, Bac Tra My), we witnessed the amount
of rock and soil slide down such as a mountain
poured down to the road (150,000 m3).
Fig. 1. Landslide at km71+200, QL14D
Fig. 2. Landslide at QL40B route
2.2 Heavy rainfall and records of rainfall-
induced landslide
Rainfall data for analysis was retrieved at 7
monitoring stations (Table 1 and Fig. 3). The total
average rainfall per year at the coastal plain and
some districts such as Hien, Nam Giang, Dai Loc
from 2,200 to 2,500 mm/y. The higher mountain
area in the southwest of the province has annual
rainfall of over 4000 mm.
 Tab. 1. List of meteorological stations and mountain area rainfall stations in Quang Nam province
Number Stations Name Location Latitude Longitude
1 Rainfall Prao PRao, Hien 15.92 107.65
2 Rainfall Kham Duc Kham Duc, Phuoc Son 15.43 107.78
3 Rainfall Thanh My Thanh My, Nam Giang 15.77 107.83
4 Rainfall Hoi Khanh Dai Hong, Dai Loc 15.82 107.83
5 Meteorological Tra My Tra My, Bac Tra My 15.33 108.25
6 Rainfall Tien Phuoc Tien Ky, Tien Phuoc 15.48 108.30
7 Rainfall Nong Son Que Ninh, Que Son 15.70 108.03

Quang Nam is not only a place where the
rainfall is relatively large but also where the
intensity of rainfall is significant. The province has
an annual average of 10 to 20 days of heavy rain
(daily rainfall over 100mm). Extreme daily rainfall
is happening in the period from September to
December (Tab. 2). According to monitoring data
of 30 years , the highest daily rainfall can be more
than 600 mm

Fig. 3. Locations of rainfall monitoring stations in Quang Nam province

494
 Tab. 2. Highest day of rainfall in month
Location Jan. Feb. Mar. April May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual
Hien
72.4 36.2 85 80.5 351 130 78.9 85 440.3 311.9 482.2 136.4 482.2
(Prao)
Kham Duc 115.3 72 142.2 94.2 165 92.5 82 170.5 316.5 531 424 482.7 531
Thanh My 65.4 70.1 81.7 70.7 125.2 244.1 118.6 243.6 386 296.1 621.9 207.3 621.9
Hoi Khanh 88.3 53 56.7 86.3 203.6 148.9 250 161.9 237.4 459.2 419 277 459.2
Tra My 145.9 99.2 125.3 92.3 197.4 224.7 375 201 487.7 493 503.5 486.7 503.5
Tien
125.0 91.6 100 187 164.6 190 115.5 228.3 424.5 430.5 525.5 534.4 534.4
Phước
Nong Son 118.4 58 101 144.1 180 108 113.2 169.3 358.7 513.3 372.2 376.4 513.3

The relationship between the amount of rainfall 3. Thresholds of rainfall-induced landslides

and the landslide was analyzed on the basis of Landslide is always accompanied by a rain. For
rainfall data from 7 above-mentioned stations and landslide warnings, it is important to determine the
26 events were recorded in the period from 2008 to risk of landslide when knowing the precipitation
2016 (Tab. 3). over a period of time. This relationship is
determined based on historical information on the
Tab. 3. Heavy rainfall events induced landslides time of occurrence of landslides and precipitation
Number Time Year prior to that point.
1 7-21/10/2008 Assume that the rainfall is observed “T” days
2 21/10-4/11/2008 2008 before the time of landslides and the number of
3 16-30/11/2008 landslide have recorded is “M”. The statistics of
4 26/8-9/9/2009 total amount of rainfall of T on M in this process
5 11-25/9/2009 2009 will help estimate the amount of rainfall for
6 28/9-12/10/2009 landslides based on total amount of rainfall
7 3-17/11/2010 2010 according to the Bayes probability formula (Naïve
8 12-26/9/2011 Bayes approach). According to Bayes principle,
9 6-20/10/2011 the probability of landslide (called A) when
10 26/10-9/11/2011 2011 knowing total of amount rainfall (called B) is:
11 2-16/12/2011
12 24/9-8/10/2012 2012 In case:
13 9-23/5/2013 - P(A) is the probability of occurrence A
14 2-16/9/2013 (Landslide) of the station / region / province over
15 13-27/9/2013 the period;
16 19/9-3/10/2013 2013 - P(B) is the probability of total amount
17 3-17/10/2013 rainfall in any “T” day reaching and exceeding the
18 3-17/11/2013 “B” threshold over the period;
19 30/8-13/9/2014 - P(B|A) is the probability of total amount
2014
20 20/9-4/10/2014 rainfall in “T” day that exceeds “B” in “M”
21 2-16/9/2015 landslides had recorded.
22 3-17/10/2015 2015 - Statistics on the rainfall data for the whole
23 16-30/12/2015 period will give the following values:
24 19/10-2/11/2016 - N(A) is the total number of recorded
25 20/11-4/12/2016 2016 landslide
26 3-17/12/2016

495
 - N(B) is the total number of rainfall “T” had
total amount of rainfall reaching and exceeding the
rainfall threshold "B";
- N(R) is the total number of rainfall "T" in
the whole period;
- N(AB) is the total number of rainfall "T"
with total amount of rainfall reaching and
exceeding the threshold of rainfall B accompanied
landslide.
The Bayes formula estimates that the risk of
landslide would be approximately:
3.1. Daily rainfall induced landslides
At each station, rainfall corresponding to a
landslide event was analyzed for 1, 3, 7 and 15
days before (e.g. for Tra My station in table 4).
Percentile used to determine the rainfall thresholds
were 90%, 95%, 98%, 100%. The main results of
the report have in the two phases of period 2008-
2011 and 2011-2017 (Tab. 4).

Tab. 4. Thresholds of daily rainfall-induced landslides at the Tra My station

Percentile 15 days 7 days 3 days 1 day
Year
(%) X NB NAB X NB NAB X NB NAB X NB NAB
90 481 145 9 203 147 9 93 147 9 34 146 2
2008- 95 798 72 5 366 73 7 147 73 8 55 74 1
2011 98 980 29 3 606 29 3 274 30 6 100 30 0
100 1066 15 2 746 15 3 419 15 3 158 15 0
90 405 182 9 190 183 11 80 184 11 30 190 8
2012- 95 651 91 6 325 92 7 145 93 10 54 94 7
2016 98 798 37 3 513 37 6 247 37 7 95 37 2
100 964 19 1 628 18 3 359 19 4 154 20 0
(X: rainfall thresholds according to percentile in different number of days; NB: number of rainfall has higher amount of
rainfall than the thresholds; NAB: numbers of landslide events at higher rainfall thresholds)

The results of table 5 show that:
- The threshold of rainfall-induced landslide
in the wet period (2008-2011) dry period (2012-
2018) is different. The threshold in wet period is
one and a half times larger than in dry period.
- The accuracy of probability of daily rainfall
thresholds is not high because it does not reflect
patterns of rain-induced landsildes;
- Daily rainfall is meaningful only up to 3
days before landslide with the best detection rate of
25%. For better results there should be information
rainfall hours at least 24 hours before landslide;

Tab. 5. Probability of landslide corresponding to rainfall thresholds in Tra My

Percentile, 15 days 7 days 3 days
Year
(%) X P(A|B) X P(A|B) X P(A|B)
90 481 0.06 203 0.06 93 0.06
95 798 0.07 366 0.1 147 0.11
2008-
2011 98 980 0.1 606 0.1 274 0.2
100 1066 0.13 746 0.2 419 0.2
90 405 0.05 190 0.06 80 0.06
95 651 0.07 325 0.08 145 0.11
2012-
2016 98 798 0.08 513 0.16 247 0.19
100 964 0.05 628 0.17 359 0.21

496
 3.2. Hourly rainfall-induced landslides
The results of the rainfall-induced landslides at
Tra My station are presented at Table 6. Its shows
that hourly rainfall showed signs of landslide at the
average rainfalls in 1h, 3h, 6h, 12h and 24h. A
comparison of rainfall-induced landslide and
random rainfall in 15 days (Tab. 7) indicates the
rain intensity is three times larger for the case
rainfall-induced landslides.

Tab. 6. Statistics of hourly rainfall-induced landslides

Landslide events 1h 3h 6h 12h 24h
2008-1 2.34 7.06 14.22 28.93 59.65
2008-2 1.2 3.63 7.31 14.87 30.56
2008-3 0.85 2.56 5.16 10.49 21.65
2009-4 2.93 8.83 17.81 36.23 74.85
2009-5 0.16 0.48 0.96 1.95 4.05
2009-6 1.27 3.81 7.65 14.99 29.08
2010-7 1.67 5.02 10.13 20.58 42.32
2011-8 1.27 3.82 7.67 15.52 31.47
2011-9 1.58 4.76 9.59 19.52 40.42
2011-10 1.34 4.03 8.11 16.46 32.71
2011-11 1.11 3.34 6.74 13.64 25.78
2012-12 1.03 3.12 6.28 12.78 26.23
2013-13 0.04 0.12 0.24 0.48 0.99
2013-14 0.41 1.25 2.52 5.13 10.63
2013-15 0.83 2.5 5.04 10.26 21.24
2013-16 0.41 1.24 2.5 5.08 10.38
2013-17 1.14 3.36 6.74 13.65 28.15
2013-18 1.79 5.39 10.88 22.13 45.84
2014-19 0.12 0.35 0.71 1.44 2.97
2014-20 0.17 0.52 1.05 2.13 4.11
2015-21 0.76 2.3 4.63 9.42 19.52
2015-22 0.83 2.51 5.06 10.3 21.21
2015-23 0.73 2.21 4.45 9 17.78
2016-24 0.57 1.73 3.49 7.08 14.62
2016-25 1.86 5.53 10.83 21.36 43.16
2016-26 2.01 6.06 11.68 22.28 44.13

Tab. 7. Comparison of rainfall-induced landslide and random rainfall in 15 days

Average amount of random rainfall in Average amount of rainfall-induced landslide in 15
Hours
15 days (mm) days (mm)
1h 0.50 1.64
3h 1.50 4.92
6h 3.01 9.86
12h 6.01 19.82
24h 12.02 40.08

4. Conclusions of daily rainfall are not significant because it does

Calculate statistics and Naïve Bayes model are not reflect well the patterns of rain-induced slides.
appropriate to determine the threshold of daily and Daily rainfall is meaningful only up to 3 days
hourly rainfall induced landslides. The thresholds before landslide with the best probability of 25%.

497
 For better results there should be information of
hourly rainfall at least 24 hours before landslide.
Hourly rainfall statistics at Tra My showed signs of
landslide at 1h, 3h, 6h, 12h and 24h Incorporation
with daily rainfall, the hourly thresholds give a
probabilistic accurary of 80% landslide occurrence.
Acknowledgment
The paper was supported by the national project
of Ministry of Science and Technology, coded
ĐTĐLCN.23/17.
References
[1] Berti M., Martina M. L. V., Franceschini S.,
Pignone S., Simoni A., Pizziolo M. (2012)
Probabilistic rainfall thresholds for landslide
occurrence using a Bayesian approach Journal
of Geophysical Research, VOL. 117, F04006,
doi: 10.1029/2012JF002367, 2012.
[2] Nguyen Van Bay (2000) Large-scale rainfall
events in the period 1996-2000. Center for
Hydrometeorological Forecasting, Hanoi. (In
Vietnamese).
[3] Hoang Phu Cuong (2001) Some
characteristics and weather patterns cause
heavy rainfall in the North. Center for
Hydrometeorological Forecasting, Hanoi. (In
Vietnamese).
498
[4] Center for Hydrometeorological Forecasting
(1998 – 2004) Meteorological and
hydrological features. (In Vietnamese).
[5] Trương Tuyen (2012) To synthesize results of
scientific works on climate and hydrography
in Quang Nam province. Quang Nam
Meteorological and Hydrographic Center. (In
Vietnamese).
[6] Mai Thanh Tan, Ngo Van Liem, Doan Anh
Tuan, Nguyen viet Tien (2015) Analysis of
the correlation between landslide and
precipitation in Mai Chau - Hoa Binh area.
Journal of Science, VNU: Earth Sciences and
the Environment, Vol. 31, No. 4 (2015) 51-63.
(In Vietnamese).
[7] Nguyen Van Thang, Mai Van Khiem and
others (2014) The change of climate extremes
and the impact on the natural physical
environment. (In Vietnamese).
 ANALYSIS OF PORE WATER PRESSURE AND SLOPE DISPLACEMENT
BY HISTORICAL RAIN SERIES IN XIN MAN DISTRICT,
HA GIANG PROVINCE, VIETNAM

Dao Minh Duc1, Tran Quoc Cuong1, Do Minh Duc2, Dang Thi Thuy2
1
Institute of Geological Sciences - Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Vietnam
2
Vietnam National University, Vietnam
Corresponding author’s Email: ducdm@vnu.edu.vn

Abstract: Rainfall leads to the increase of pore water pressure and is the main triggering factor of
landslides in Vietnam and many parts of the world. Thus, monitoring of both rainfall and pore water
pressures provides significant opportunities in identifying critical conditions for instability. Xin Man is a
highland district in western part of Ha Giang province, characterized by intensive dissection of
topography, terraced slopes, high mountains, and many areas prone to landslides. Two real-time
monitoring stations for landslides were installed in Xin Man district, which are equipped with fixed-in-
place inclinometer probes and pore water pressure sensors. This research used a “phenomenologically
based” approach (landslide events and historical rain series) to analyze and verify the relationship
between pore water pressure and slope movement. A high variation in pore water pressure is the first
reliable signal for landslide warning and a small slope movement was measured by the fixed-in-place
inclinometer probes sensors will confirm the sliding event. This article analyzes the relationships between
pore water pressure and slope movements which associated with several landslide events in Xin Man
district.

Keywords: landslide; real-time monitoring system; pore water pressure; slope; rain gauge.

1. Introduction The slope technical literature proposes many

Xin Man is a highland district in the western
part of Ha Giang province, is a tropical zone with
many heavy rainfalls in summer, many high
mountains and terraced slope terrain and prone to
landslides. Annual natural disaster reports about
Xin Man district show that landslides often occur
in summer. Intense rain and prolonged rain events
are factors that increase the pore water pressure in
the soil, reduce the shear strength of soil. They also
increase the body weight of the slope, which
reduce the slope stability and make faults.
Therefore, it is important to study the relationship
between pore water pressure and slope movement
with the historical rainfall series in order to
improve the accuracy of early warning system for
landslides.
approaches to measure pore water pressure
changes / measure changes for water holes empty
due to rainfall and the fault changes in the slope
movement. These approaches can be divided into
“physically based” and “phenomenologically
based”. The phenomenologically based approaches
[9, 14, 16] aim to establish empirical correlations
between displacements and their triggering factors
or statistical relationships between the measured
groundwater pressures and the weekly/ monthly
rainfall, without explicitly taking into account the
physical processes occurring in the slope. The
research results are focused on a large landslide
with many different methods are very complex and
expensive. The physically based approaches,
because of the hydraulic and mechanical behaviour
of the soil, tries to reproduce the physical

499
processes relating pore water pressure fluctuations
to the rainfall regime [1, 4, 5, 15, 17]. The variable
temporal and spatial response to rainfall events
ensures that it is not possible to define "general
principles" for forecasting landsliding activity.
This paper follows the “phenomenologically
based” approach to understanding the processes
relating the rainfall regime to pore water pressure
variations and to displacement rates of a very
common type of granite residual slope in Xin Man.
1.1. Historical rain series effect pore water
pressure
Monitoring of kinematic, hydrological, and
climatic parameters holds a significant role in
increasing accuracy of slope stability models and
improving the landslide warning, since without
understanding movement patterns and responses to
climate events, forecasting is not possible [1, 8].
This requires not just monitoring of actual
movements, but also environmental factors
including rainfall, temperature and soil moisture
content, as well as geotechnical parameters, such
as pore water pressure. This enables the correlation
of movement events with their triggering
mechanisms and helps to inform the underlying
causalities in the process models. Rainfall and
temperature data is very important because they
can show their tendency to involve with soil
mechanical properties.
One of the primary triggering mechanism for
landslides is intense or prolonged rain, the
frequency and severity of landslides are expected
to fluctuate with changes in precipitation patterns
(spatial and temporal variations of duration and
intensity). In a context of climate change,
precipitation cannot be regarded as a steady state
input and it is essential to develop robust models of
adequate complexity that allow evaluation of
possible future changes in slope instability due to
forecasted changes in precipitation [6]. Mid to high
regions are likely to face an increase in
precipitation of up to 20%, including increased
flash floods due to more frequently appearing high
intensity rainfall events. In Xin Man, this increase
in precipitation is likely to occur during the
summer season, while winter will become drier.
Wetter summers and drier winters will lead to an
increased and deeper weathering of the topsoil,
500
formation of cracks, due to larger amplitudes in the
wetting and drying cycles. This is likely to reduce
the strength of the soil and cause more frequent
slope instabilities.
1.2. Relationship between pore water
pressure and slope displacement
The pore water pressure has been studied in 2D
slope stability problems based on limit analysis
method. Pore water pressure was calculated by
using the pore water pressure ratio, were regarded
as external forces to obtain the lower and upper
bound solutions for slope stability problem
modelling by finite element method. Theory of soil
mechanics were able to show that there was a
variation in the residual properties of the clays due
to variations in the pore water concentrations,
release of cations, the strength of interparticle
bonding and residual strength. These variations
were due to dilution by rainfall, degradation of
clays by weathering or by renewal of failure
surface as the landslide came to a halt. The time to
reach equilibrium under given boundary conditions
depends on the landslide geometric and physical
characteristics and initial conditions. Under the
field time varying boundary conditions,
equilibrium state can be hypothesized which never
to be reached.
The displacement rate of active, very slow
landslides in clay slopes generally undergoes
seasonal variations, which are associated to
changes in pore water pressures caused by
hydrological condition variations [12]. In fine-
grained soils, hydrological variations cause
processes of consolidation and swelling whose
spatial and temporal distribution strongly depends
on the soil hydraulic conductivity and
compressibility. Pore water pressures increase and
decrease in rainy and nonrainy periods
respectively. The perturbation due to changes of
hydrological conditions propagates from the
ground surface into the subsoil. The time rate of
propagation is lower for soils of lower hydraulic
conductivity or higher compressibility. In some
cases, the delay in the response to boundary
conditions can in- crease greatly with depth. The
depth of the slip surface varies in a wide range
both in the longitudinal and in the transversal
directions. During a hydrological event, at a given
time, different areas at different depths of the shear
surface can thus be in very different stages of the
transient processes of pore water pressure decrease
or increase (i.e. of shear strength increase or
decrease – will contributing differently to the
landslide overall response in terms of
displacements or deformations).
This paper analyzes the effects of a historical
rain series on the relationship between pore water
pressure and slope movement in two large
landslides in Xin Man district, Ha Giang province,
Vietnam. The effects of pore water pressure
variations on safety factor and displacement rate of
the landslides are also analyzed. The aim of this
research is to get a better understanding of the
influence of hydrological parameters on the
mechanism of slope movement.
2. Brief description of the study area
The research area was being investigated by the
some research teams from the VINOGEO-SRV
07/056 program: " Capacity Building and
Technology Transfer for Mitigation of Geo-
hazards in Vietnam in the Context of Climate
Change " about geological structure, topographic
features, forecasting risk of landslide and flash
Fig. 1. Landslide map and location of monitoring stations
in Nam Dan commune (a) and Ban Diu commune (b)
501
flood, vulnerability assessment of landslide and
flash flood.
2.1. Geomorphology
Xin Man is a highland district in the western
part of Ha Giang province, characterized by strong
dissection of topography, terraced slopes, many
high mountains, and prone to landslides. The
elevation varies from 140 to 2400 m. Valleys are
very deep, and characteristic V-sharps [11]. Large
sliding blocks appear along the roads where
sloping roofs are severely cut and at the foot of
mountains there is a runoff. This district covers an
area of 582 km2 and is currently considered to be
one of the most prone landslide areas in Vietnam.
Local people usually live on the slopes less than
2100m elevation, which are old deep-
seated landslides. Due to the favorable conditions
of terrain and water source, local residents often
settle on these terrains, they also build terraced
fields for rice and crop cultivation. Therefore, most
sliding masses occurring affect directly or
indirectly to human’s lives in this area.
 There are two main slope surface types that can
cause landslides. The eroded - collapsed slopes
distribute widespread in the study areas with a
slope greater than 30°, and alternate crests of
bedrock and erosion grooves. Landslides often
occur on slopes less or happen in a small scale due
to the thin layer of weathering crust. The eroded -
surface denuded slopes distribute at the edge of the
terraced slope of 1400-1600m and 900-1200m, the
average slope is 25-30°. Landslides often occur
along the grooves that dissected these slopes.
There are many large landslides on terraced slope.
The method of agriculture on the slopes of local
people requires experiment about steep slope
stability. Many large landslides are involved in the
creation of steep slope and the pounding of water
in the steep field. On the rice growing process,
local people have to store water in terraced fields,
which can reduce the factor of safe land.
2.2. Geology
The Chay river complex is the largest igneous
rock formation in Vietnam, with an area about
2500 km2, in the main direction of northeast -
southwest. The Chay River Complex (γaD3sc)
consists of granodioritogneiss, porphyritic
granitogneiss, biotite granite, pegmatite, aplitic
granite; SiO2 = 64.76-75.42%; Na2O+K2O =
6.32-9.43%.
These landscapes often have thick weathering
crust and coated by materials in roll block laying in
a mess with deluvial products. Thus, most sliding
masses developing in these landscapes are
relatively large-scale and high potential risk. The
representative old deep seated landslides could
found easily in Ban Diu, Nam Dan, Che La, Quang
Nguyen and Trung Chinh communes. The strata in
the weathering cover consist of four layers in order
of depth as follows: (1) fine sand layer with highly
organic soils down to 0,5m depth; (2) fine sand
down to 6-8m depth; (3) coarse grained sand with
down to 10-12m depth; (4) rock with many cracks.
2.3. Hydrogeology
Van Ash highlighted the importance of the
hydrological connectivity of the slope or landslide
materials [16] as an important factor in controlling
the rainfall-landslide relationship. Most landslides
have important shallow drainage pathways (e.g.
permeable topsoil with fissures, cracks and macro-
502
pores) which may reduce the maximum rise of the
groundwater table. The residence time of a perched
water table within the topsoil determines the
amount of water supplied to the deeper
groundwater table. The fissures may give rise to
rapid access to the lower groundwater table,
decreasing the response time of triggering and
increasing the frequency of triggering. On the other
hand, fissures may facilitate groundwater drainage
during drier periods.
During the survey large landslide in the rainy
season at Nam Dan and Ban Diu in 2016, the
groundwater level in the borehole is usually near
the top of surface. The groundwater level was
measured at different times continuous for a week,
data graphs of groundwater level fluctuation is the
daily cycle. In the early morning, groundwater
level rise to the highest level and then lower at
night. On Ban Diu landslide, the groundwater can
be overflowed above the land after heavy rain,
especially on steep cliff or root of bamboo trees.
There were many submerged locations; the water
did not drain out to form dangerous sliding mass.
The formation of gully erosion on the surface
often occurs after heavy rain. The locations of the
gully erosion are usually the intersection of small
streamline and a thin weather crust. The formation
of gully erosion on the surface often involves the
formation of underground streams in rock layer.
After heavy rains, the soil may be drift
downstream of the gully erosion, making the
erosion gaps wider and deeper. Local people often
have to fill these erosion gaps. If it appears, it is
difficult to keep the slope steady.
2.4. Landslide locations
The landslide phenomenon had been noticed
since 2000 in Xin Man district. It must be resolved
because there were too many people died and
move from areas with high risk of landslide,
especially in the rainy season from 2007 to 2008.
After that the Institute of Geological Sciences
organized a research project (code KC.08-33/06-
10) to identify causes and propose solutions for
slope protection in the Coc Pai town, Xin Man.
According to the surveyed result and statistical
data, there are 33 sliding mass around Coc Pai
town, including 6 old deep-seated landslides [10].
Since 2014, the other project organized to survey
landslide condition in Xin Man at rate map
1:50.000 and it identified more than 102 landslides
(Figure 1). Detailed statistics of landslide events
(from January 8, 2017 to December 31, 2017) have
recorded some events occurring in Xin Man
district as follows:
In the morning of June 25, on the Xin Man road
to Xin Man border gate, there were some
landslides destroyed nearly 113m road.
It was rain from 6 to 9 in July, it destroyed
many houses completely.
It was rain from the night of July 19, there are
three houses collapsed completely. The No.297
road, from Xin Man to Hoang Su Phi, has five
landslides with an estimated volume of about
3.000m3 derbris.
Heavy rain occurred from 19 to 21 July, many
roads in Xin Man have shallow landslides,
especially the 4D road was completely destroyed at
Km1 + 100 Xin Xin - Bac Ha (Lao Cai).
Heavy rains occurred from 23 to 25 August
made many roads to Pa Vay Su, Chi Ca, Xin Man,
Ban Diu have many landslides.
At 3 am, October 2, on the road from Na Tri
commune to Xin Man, a large landslide destroyed
some teacher’s houses.
3. Historical rainfall data
Climate is typical of mountainous monsoonal
tropical region with two distinct seasons. The
average rainfall is around 1695 mm yearly.
Rainfall mainly happens in summer at 400 -
600mm/month, accounting for 89% of the whole
year, causing flash floods. In late winter and early
spring, there often happens drought with
inconsiderable rainfall. The heavy rain is
particularly high during August and September.
Statistics show that in 1981 - 2010, yearly average
(a)
Fig. 2. Automatic rain monitoring station at Nam Dan (a) and Hoang Su Phi (b)
503
temperature at hydro-meteorological stations was
21.5°C - 23.0°C, monthly average temperature was
the lowest of 14.7°C – 16.1°C in January and the
highest of 26.4°C - 27.9°C in June - July.
3.1. Rain gauges
In Xin Man, annual rainfall varies from 400 to
2,000 mm depending on the height of the slopes. It
has not yet any a study about rainfall zone in Xin
Man now. When VINOGEO-SRV 07/056 project
began from 2016, a automatic rain gauge was
installed directly by Norwegian experts but that
rain gauge was broken in November 2016. The
short-term rainfall data was collected from
September November 2016 helped the research
group to compare rainfall data with other rain
gauges around the study area. Each meteorological
station and rain gauge around the study area has
technological features and can provide rainfall and
climate data including stations as follows:
Ha Giang meteorological station is located at
22° 48,946'N & 104° 58,874'E (Nguyen Trai ward,
Ha Giang city) measuring the environmental
parameters (rainfall, temperature, humidity, speed
wind, wind direction, etc.).
Hoang Su Phi meteorological station is located
at 22° 49,062'N & 104° 58,478'E (Vinh Quang
Town, Hoang Su Phi District) measures the
environmental parameters (rainfall, temperature,
humidity, wind speed, wind direction ...)
Xin Man rain gauge is located at 22° 40,940'N
& 104° 27,660'E (Coc Pai town, Xin Man district)
can only measure precipitation daily.
Nam Dan rain gauge is located at 22° 36,823'N
& 104° 29,105'E (Nam Dan commune, Xin Man
district) can only measure precipitation. This
station had collected rain data before November
2016.
(b)
 According to the collected rainfall data: Ha
Giang, Xin Man, Hoang Su Phi precipitations
compared with the precipitation in Nam Dan from
01 Sep to 8 Oct, 2016. That show Hoang Su Phi
precipitation was similar with Nam Dan (Figure 3).
3.2. Rain data series
Before analyze rainfall data to study landslide,
it is important to determine the different types of
landslides corresponding to historical rainfall
series. Relate similar geological features in the
study area, the weathering crust are formed from
granodiorito gneiss rock. Landslide movement
types are mainly falls, slides, spreads, flows,
complex and its material is debris or earth. Only a
few slope is rock material. According to statistical
results, the research team, there are two landslide
process types related to rain as follows [12]:
First-time landslides developed on steep
colluvium and bedrock slopes, including debris
slides and debris flows. These failures were
associated with short lasting events of 1-2 days of
high intensity rainfall. Shallow translational slides
and debris flows in steep catchments are often
associated with high intensity rainfall. Landslides
tend to be triggered within minutes or hours of the
event.
.
Fig. 3. Compare cumulative precipitation data between stations:
Nam Dan; Xin Man; Ha Giang; Hoang Su Phi from 01 Sep to 8 Oct, 2016
504
Pre-existing landslides (rotational slides and
mudslides) format on clayey sand. These
landslides are normally reactivated by longer rain
events, lasting several weeks. Positive pore
pressures along a shear surface, induced by a rising
groundwater table often trigger this type of failure.
These two contrasting behaviors are a function
of the ability of soils on steep slopes to drain under
different rates of rainfall infiltration. Very pervious
soils on steep slopes will only build up high pore
water pressures under very intense rainstorms.
Clayey soils will require only moderate but long
lasting rainfall. In this study, the author only
analyzed historical rainfall series data in 2017 with
three types of rain events:
High intensity and short-time rainfall events:
They last no more than 3-5 days and have a rainy
day more than 50 mm. In 2017, there may be 10
events like these at different times.
High intensity and long-lasting rainfall events:
They last more than 5 days continuously and have
a peak rainfall of more than 150 mm. In 2017,
there are two rainfall events like these on July and
August.
Low intensity and long-lasting rainfall events:
They are usually 7 rainy days continuously with no
peak precipitation. The average daily rainfall is 50
mm
4. Real-time monitoring stations of landslides
The detection of landslide operations
immediately provided by real-time monitoring
system for landslide can be very important in
making decisions about safety. Traditional field
observations (even they work regularly) cannot
detect changes when the landslides occur. In
addition, landslides can be dangerous when
making field observations, and large movements
often occur when storms occur and limit visibility.
Continuous data provided by real-time monitoring
system allows for a better understanding of slope
dynamic behavior to create more efficient designs
for warning and mitigating damage. Model sensors
provide better rainfall data exactly to analyze cause
of landslides. They also help scientists learn
dynamic of groundwater in the slope to design
some tools for predicting landslide.
4.1. Equipments and installation
In this study, we installed two real-time
monitoring stations in the two large landslides at
Nam Dan and Ban Diu communes, Xin Man
district.
Nam Dan real-time monitoring station: Nam
Dan landslide is a large landslide that was
reactivated. The Nam Dan large landslide is 150m
width and 360m length, its movement causes
appearing many cracks on the surface. There are
many small houses and a market in the middle. On
the landslide mass, the local people transformed
ground into terraced fields for corn crops. The real-
time monitoring station is installed on the top of
the landslide mass in July 2016.
Ban Diu real-time monitoring station: Ban Diu
landslide is a large landslide that destroyed the
teacher's house below and it was prevent with a
retaining wall, so it is quite stable. The real-time
monitoring station is installed on the body of the
landslide mass in August 2016. On the landslide
mass, the local people transformed ground into
terraced fields for corn crops and
domesticated animals raised.

Tab. 1. Type and depth of sensors installed in the boreholes

Station Sensor type No. Borehole Depth
Piezometer – Geokon Model 4500S PIE1 BH1 1,5
Piezometer – Geokon Model 4500S PIE2 BH1 6,0
Piezometer – Geokon Model 4500S PIE3 BH1 10,5
Piezometer – Geokon Model 4500S PIE4 BH1 13
In-Place Inclinometer –
D1 IPI1 6,8
Nam Dan Geokon MEMS Model 6155
station In-Place Inclinometer –
D2 IPI1 12,0
Geokon MEMS Model 6155
In-Place Inclinometer –
D3 IPI2 2,8
Geokon MEMS Model 6155
In-Place Inclinometer –
D4 IPI2 8
Geokon MEMS Model 6155
Piezometer – Geokon Model 4500S PIE5 BH2 1,5
Piezometer – Geokon Model 4500S PIE6 BH2 5,5
Piezometer – Geokon Model 4500S PIE7 BH2 9,5
Ban Diu
In-Place Inclinometer –
station D5 IPI3 2,77
Geokon MEMS Model 6155
In-Place Inclinometer –
D6 IPI3 8,0
Geokon MEMS Model 6155

The station system consists of sensor nodes, center in a half hour for a package. Finally, the
gateway, server and solar power arrangement [3]. data plots are posted on the web site for access by
Data packages received from the real-time the general public. We analyze multi-year, annual,
monitoring stations are transmitted to the data seasonal, and short-term variations in the data to

505
learn how the hillsides respond to rainfall and how
rainfall affects the potential for landslides on
various time scales.
4.2. Pore water pressure
Pore water pressure refers to
the pressure of groundwater held within
soil or rock, in gaps between particles. The
vertical pore water pressure distribution
in aquifers can generally be assumed to be close
to ground water pressure. In the unsaturated zone,
the pore pressure is determined by capillarity and
is also referred to as tension, suction, or matric
pressure. Looking generally at fig 6 and fig 7, pore
water pressure is influenced by seasonal cycle.
The dry season lasts from November to May
has total precipitation of about 20% one year (300-
500 mm / year). Temperatures tend to increase and
evaporate, and water in the soil is released quickly.
Some small rains with a precipitation less than 40
mm are not enough to make the groundwater level
to change clearly. Although the temperature
fluctuation in a day is quite large, the pressure of
groundwater is not much change to be able to see
the relation. Groundwater level fluctuation in a day
without rain is usually less than 10 mm. During the
dry season, groundwater pressure tends to decrease
at different depths. At Ban Diu station, the
groundwater pressure measured at a depth of 9.5 m
(the rock surface) has a rather large variation and is
not similar to groundwater pressure at a depth of
5.5 m. This can be explained by two factors: The
rock layer was cracked strongly to be favorable
condition for the groundwater pressure increase
when it is rain; and the fine sand layer on the
surface is saturated.
Rainy season usually lasts from June to
October; the maximum precipitation can rise up to
200 mm. On the histograms, it can be seen that the
increase in pore water pressure creates a peak
associated with heavy rainfall. After the heavy
rain, the pore water pressure can be reduced to a
few but still at constant highs during the rainy
season. The installation of pore water pressure
506
sensors at different depths shows that the pore
water pressure is very dependent on the soil
characteristics around the sensor. The increase in
pore water pressure at the sensors at Ban Diu and
Nam Dan stations is very different, the pore water
pressure difference measured from the depth
sensor is much higher at the shallow sensor at Nam
Dan station, but at the Ban Diu station is the
reverse.
4.3. Slope movement
Slope movement is the geomorphic process by
which soil, sand, regolith, and rock move down
slope typically as a solid, continuous or
discontinuous mass. Two main factors are the force
of gravity and hydrogeology. When the
gravitational force acts on the slope exceeds its
resisting force, slope failure occurs. Landslide
mass may occur at a very slow rate, particularly in
areas are very dry or areas receive sufficient
rainfall such that vegetation has stabilized the
surface. It may also occur at very high speed, such
as in rockslides or earth flow.
The horizontal displacements change suddenly
was specified only in rainy season. They were
determined by fixed-in-place inclinometer sensors.
When heavy rains occur with a precipitation more
than 50 mm / day, we can see a clear horizontal
displacement. The sudden horizontal
displacements (more than 220 mm) occurs when
the precipitation is more than 120 mm/ day on July
20.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Interpretation of the relationship between
slope movement and pore water pressure
The information gained from the evaluation of
the movement monitoring techniques in
conjunction with the accompanying rainfall and
pore water pressure data begin to an improved
understanding of the movement pattern forming
the landslides in recent years. The relationships
between slope deformation and pore water pressure
are compared with each other and are checked with
the time landslide occurs.
 There is a delay between the pore water
pressure and the horizontal displacement determine
by the time scale. The Nam Dan pore water
pressure data indicated that if the pore water
pressure at 6m of depth was less than 50kPa, it
cannot identified any horizontal displacement
clearly. When the pore water pressure at 6m of
depth increase more than 50 kPa, the variation of
Fig. 5. Rainfall and temperature in Hoang Su Phi hydro-meteorological station in 2017
5.2. Discussion of technique applicability
Landslide monitoring is usually complicated
because the landslide factors are many variations
continuously and there is not any trend to predict
accurately. The landslide scientists often design a
landslide monitoring station with a combination by
some types of sensor: global positioning system
(GPS marker points), tilt meter, piezometer,
acoustic emission sensor, soil strain meter,
extensometer ... [13] but that is often expensive if
the research purpose applies for a large area.
However, the cost of installing real-time
monitoring stations is very expensive; but it is
important to select the location of the sensors
(position and depth).
Landslides occur when the slope changes from
a stable to an unstable condition. A change in the
stability of a slope can be caused the horizontal
displacement. Looking at fig 5, 6 & 7, it was found
that there were five times of landslide occur in
2017. At Nam Dan station, it found out only 2
times of landslides active but they are very exactly
in time. When the fixed-in-place inclinometer
507
pore water pressure is always faster more than 3 -
12 hours and is proportional to the variation of the
horizontal displacement. Therefore, the results of
the monitoring can indicate easily the pore water
pressure threshold at 6m of depth is 50kPa. At Ban
Diu station, due to landslide mass has been rescued
by a retaining wall so the horizontal displacement
is very small.
probes changed clearly the value of horizontal
displacement twice, there are many large
landslides than in other cases. Therefore, we can
confirm that the inclinometer data is very reliable.
If we want to increase the accuracy rate in
landslide warning, we will install many
inclinometer probes as many different places as
possible.
Ban Diu monitoring station is located in the
safety area of landslide, the slope has been
reinforced with a concrete retaining wall, the safety
factor of slope is very high. The monitoring data
from Ban Diu station is also very valuable in
analyzing and warning of the risk of landslides.
Looking at the detail data, it can be recognized that
the rule of the pore water pressure variation will
lead to horizontal displacement. However, the
noise signals are affected by weather variations; it
is difficult to determine the dangerous threshold
from received data. We combined Nam Dan and
Ban Diu monitoring data to take some filter data
and give the last warning.
 .

Fig. 6. Changes of pore water pressure and cumulative horizontal movement of landslide
in Nam Dan commune

Fig. 7. Changes of pore water pressure and cumulative horizontal movement of landslide
in Ban Diu commune

6. Conclusions
The analysis of rains and changes of pore water
pressure is essential for landslide monitoring but it
is still rarely implemented in Vietnam. The paper
analyzed monitoring data from two real-time
stations in 2017 to serve for an accurate time of
landslide warning.
The landslide displacement is often later than
the pore water pressure of about 3-12 hours. When
the pore water pressure exceeds the threshold (e.g.
at Nam Dan station, the pore water pressure at 6m
of depth was less than 50 kPa) and/or the slope has
some motions, the warning signal will be released.
The horizontal displacements were significant
in rainy season. During heavy rains of more than
50 mm/day, a considerable horizontal displacement
could be recorded. The remarkable horizontal
displacements (more than 220 mm) occurred when
the precipitation was more than 120 mm/day.
Acknowledgements
The paper was completed as a part of the first
author’s PhD studies at the Faculty of Earth
Sciences, Graduate University of Science and
Technology (GUST), Vietnam Academy of
Science and Technology. We would like to thank
the project VINOGEO-SRV 07/056 and the project
of Ministry of Science and Technology, coded VT-
UD.05/18-20 for the updated information.
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analysis of active slow-moving landslides.
Jason W, K., William H, S., & Lynn M, H.
Journal of Geotechnical and
(2012). Real-Time Monitoring of
Geoenvironmental Engineering (ASCE),
Landslides. U.S. Geological Survey.
136(9), 1220–1230.
14 Maugeri, M., Motta, E., & Raciti, E.
6 Dijkstra, T. A., & Dixon, N. (2010). Climate
(2006). Mathematical modelling of the
change and slope stability in the UK:
landslide occurred at Gagliano
challenges and approaches. Quarterly
Castelferrato (Italy). Natural Hazards and
Journal of Engineering Geology and
Earth System Sciences, 6, 133–143.
Hydrogeology, 43(4), 371-385.
15 Palis, E., Lebourg, T., Tric, E., Malet, J.-P.,
7 Duc, D. M., Duc, D. M., & Ngoc, D. M.
& Vidal, M. (2017). Long-term monitoring
(2018). Effects of Residual Soil
of a large deep-seated landslide (La
Characteristics on Rainfall-Induced
Clapiere, South-East French Alps): initial
Shallow Landslides Along Transport
study. Landslides, 14(1), 155-170.
Arteries in Bac Kan Province, Vietnam,
doi:10.1007/s10346-016-0705-7.
Cham.
16 Van Asch, T., Van Beek, L., & Bogaard, T.
8 Gariano, S. L., & Guzzetti, F. (2016).
(2007). Problems in predicting the
Landslides in a changing climate. Earth-
mobility of slow-moving landslides.
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Engineering Geology journal, 91, 46-55.
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17 Vassallo, R., Grimaldi, G. M., & Di Maio,
6.08.011.
C. (2015). Pore water pressures induced by
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historical rain series in a clayey landslide:
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31-41. doi:10.1007/s10346-005-0044-6.

509
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOTECHNICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
HAZARDS IN HANOI AREA

Nguyen Van Vu1,2, Nguyen Van Thuong1,2, Nguyen Ngoc Truc2

1
General Dep. of Geology & Minerals, Vietnam
2
VNU-Vietnam National University, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: ngvu171180@gmail.com

Abstract: The article gives an overview on geo-technical and environmental hazards in Hanoi at the
time its administrative boundary has been expanded and its satellite towns are being developed. This
study indicates conditional factors and direct and indirect causes of the hazards in central Hanoi. The
system analysis points out causes of the hazards, including: Geological and geomorphological structure,
Hydrogeological characteristics, tectonics; impacts by constructions, traffic system, water supply and
drainage system, electricity supply system, landfills, and groundwater exploitation. The results of this
study are useful suggestions for Hanoi‟s sustainable development planning, especially in its satellite
towns.

Keywords: geo-technical hazards; environmental hazards; landfills; groundwater exploitation.

1. Introduction In Hanoi, in-depth studies on land and

1.1. A brief on previous researches in geo-
technical and environmental hazards in
Vietnamese cities
Geo-technical and environmental hazards in Ho
Chi Minh city has been increasing, both in number
and in seriousness. Land and traffic road
subsidences are from 5-10mm per year (Associate
professor, Doctor Le Van Trung - Ho Chi Minh
City University of Technology, Vietnam National
University, Ho Chi Minh city). According to some
researches, the subsidences are mainly caused by
over-exploitation of groundwater and high rate of
surface concretisation in construction projects,
which increases in absorbable areas and, as a
result, prevents groundwater recharge process.
Researches in Ho Chi Minh city subsidence are
considered inadequate, not fully evaluating
subsidence factors. Therefore, their solutions focus
primarily on reducing exploitation of groundwater
in subsided areas.
construction subsidence by Tran Manh Lieu,
Nguyen Huy Phuong, Doan The Tuong show that
the cause is constant load from constructions on
the surface, moving load from constructions in
progress and traffic road, and high-capacity
production of groundwater. The studies analyse
specific examples. However, the evaluations,
which apply expert opinion method, are based on
results of similar researches in other countries. As
a result, they are organoleptic and do not quantify
the role of each hazard factor.
Hanoi has also recorded riverbank erosion,
dyke basement seepage, unequal dyke body
subsidence and dyke roof slide (Tran Manh Lieu,
2006). From 1988 to 1995, Nguyen Van Dan et al.
carried out an observation project including a
network of 45 points to measure the subsidence
level in the eastern area of Hanoi‟s Red River. The
results showed that almost all the interior area of
Hanoi (excluding the area by the Red River) and
neighbouring areas were subsided. Currently,

510
„Hanoi Institute of Building Science Technology
and Economic‟ is responsible for carrying out
subsidence observation, which including 10
observing stations mainly placed at critical areas
and at areas with cone of depression due to over-
exploitation of underground water. The reference
point is placed in Neogene sedimentary strata.
1.2. Methodology for evaluation and forecast
.
Existing studies and evaluation on geo-
technical and environmental hazards in Hanoi are
limited in identifying some direct causes and
handling the hazards by technical and engineering
measures while root causes and conditional factors
of the hazards have not been satisfactorily
discussed. Thus, forecast activities remain limited
and hazard management is just about handling
incidents when they have already happened

Fig. 1. Different results produced by system analysis and by studying just some factors

Geological environment consists of geological A system is an organized entity, in which its

units, which continuously interact to one another.
They are also affected by people‟s economic and
building activities. Thus, the issue should be
approached from perspective of system analysis
and evaluation of all the causes and factors.
Without system analysis, none of the issues can be
completely resolved, both in theory and in practice.
elements (materialistic or non-materialistic) are
interrelated and have common characteristics,
creating a cohesive and united body. In other
words, a system is an entity that includes other
entities (sub-system or elements of the system) in
certain relations and is featured by their common
characteristics (Kruch I.V. - 1973).

Sub-system of
geological
environment

Materialistic Energy structure

structural

Geological- Geomorphologys Tectonicss Geological- Geophysicsfield

Petrology structural tructural tructural Water structural structural

Fig. 2. The main factors of the geological environment

In studying a system, the most important thing will be different sub-system structures. This
is dividing it into sub-systems. A system can be depends on objectives and study scale.
divided into different sub-systems; therefore, there Studying a subject from system approach allow
identifying the effect of each subject in causing a

511
hazard and relations between them, interactions
with other sub-systems and interactions between
elements within a syb-system. Those relations,
however, are not always clear.
Analysing structural relations and mutual
relations of a system can help torelevantly explain
internal characteristics of components, deciding the
required number of typical parameters and building
relevant mathematic models in order to have a
detailed and complete study on responding
capability of the system under internal and external
impacts.
2. Structural characteristics
- Geomorphological structure: Hanoi‟s
topography and geomorphology are featured by
very different structures: hill and mountain, hill-
plain, high alluvial delta plain and low alluvial
plain. Hanoi‟s terrain is mountainous in the South-
West and gradually lower to the East. The Red
river flows through Hanoi, dividing it into two
areas: North-East and South-West. The Red river‟s
dyke system changes Hanoi‟s natural topography -
making it unbalanced and triggering the
development of hazards.
- Geological structure: The areas in which
hazards have taken place have a quite thick
Quaternary sediment, from bottom to top are
formations Le Chi, Hanoi, Vinh Phuc, Hai Hung
and Thai Binh, which correspond to different
formation periods. Except for Hai Hung, all the
layers start with bulk sediment and end with fine
sediment. Formations Le Chi, Hanoi and the lower
part of formation Vinh Phuc mainly contain bulk
grains (boulder-gravel-sand) while the upper part
of formations Vinh Phuc and Thai Binh is fine
sediment (clay-mixed clay) and formation Hai
Hung primarily contain weak soil (organic mud).
The formations and sub-formations are divided
into soil and rock layers that have the same
formation origin and geological age, homogeneous
in lithologic type, engineering and geological
characteristics, and have the same state. With the
aforementioned division, there are 21 different soil
and rock layers in Hanoi, including leveled soil by
human. These layers are unequally divided,
making Hanoi‟s geological structure
inhomogeneous and complicated. The leveled soil,
sand and weak soil are vulnerable to loads, which
512
is a good condition for the trigger and development
of geo-technical and environmental hazards.
- Hydrogeological characteristics: Hanoi‟s
Quaternary sediments have two main aquifers
(apart from riverbed sand and alluvial ground),
which are Holocene (qh) and upper Pleistocene
(qp) aquifers. These two aquifers are separated by
an aquitard with unequal thickness and gaps.
Besides, there is also an on-top aquitard.
- Tectonics: The studied area is a part of Red
river basin, in which trails from tectonic activities
during Quaternary period are quite clear. The main
fault systems in the area include Northwest-
Southeast system, Northeast-Southwest system and
longitudinal-direction system. Existence of the
faults is quake-generating condition in the area.
The combination of structural and characteristic
factors of Hanoi‟s geological environment is
necessary condition (not sufficient) to cause geo-
technical and environmental hazards. It also shows
the origin and developmental trend of the hazards.
3. Features of factors
- Civil construction system: All civil
constructions in Hanoi with fewer than 8 storeys
affect its geo-environmental foundation by their
own load, causing foundation subsidence and
surrounding land, especially in weak-foundation
areas. Multi-storey buildings stand on bored pile
system with great depth (usually reaching boulder-
gravel layer of formation Hanoi). Therefore, they
do not transfer their own load to the foundation but
can lead to pollution of qp aquifer.
- Traffic system: Hanoi is the center of national
road network of Bac Bo plain region with rapidly
increasing traffic. Impacts by chemicals and
mechanical vibrations on geological environment
along the urban road network are considerable.
Impact of mechanical vibrations caused by
railways on geological environment is the highest
in the urban traffic system.
- System of electrical cables and transformer
stations: The area has an electrical network of
2,100 km and 2,600 transformer stations of all
types. Electrical leakage will increase natural
electrical field of geological environment and
multiple the rate of electrochemical erosion on
steel and other foundation materials.
 - Water supply and drainage system: Domestic
water supplied via closed pipes will not have much
impact on geological environment. Water drainage
system including sewers, lakes, canals, and rivers
was built a long time ago. A number of water
drainage constructions have been upgraded and
newly built. Primary drainage areas have also been
expanded and lengthened along four main rivers:
Kim Nguu, Set, Lu, and To Lich. The system of
sewers, lakes, canals, and rivers with waste water
and deposited mud is a source of soil and
groundwater pollution to Hanoi city.
- The system of urban landfill, cemeteries, and
industrial zones: Hanoi‟s waste is currently dealt
with by burial. Since 1999 Hanoi started to have
sanitary landfills. However, prior to that, they had
not existed, which resulted ingeo-technical and
environmental pollution. In addition to waste,
cemeteries are also a major source of pollution.
- Dyke system: Red river‟s and Duong river‟s
dykes with the length of nearly 200 km are a part
of Bac Bo delta‟s dyke system, which was built in
thousands of years. The riverbeds and alluvial
grounds rose up during the period, and river level
also increased gradually. Consequently,
geodynamic processes in the coastal areas of the
rivers have become more and more serious. During
flood season, all Bac Bo delta is 2-4m lower than
river level, in some cases 4-6m or even lower. If
flood is combined with storm, the situation will be
extremely dangerous, as it happened in 1964, 1969,
1971, 1986, 1996, etc., causing much damage to
the dyke system, most notably dyke fallings in
1971 and 1986, and resulting in huge human and
property damage.
- The system of groundwater exploitation: the
majority of Hanoi‟s water demand is met by
groundwater. Given the fast pace of urbanisation,
population growth, and agricultural and industrial
development currently, groundwater level has been
dropping and cones of depression have
increasingly expanded and deepened, causing a
range of geo-technical and environment problems.
513
4. Hazards
4.1. Land subsidence due to groundwater
exploitation, constant load from constructions,
and burying materials, moving load from traffic
system and constructions in progress
Except for multi-storey buildings which are
designed and built on bored pile system, other
types of house (from 1-7 storeys) are built on
shallow foundation and natural or levelled ground.
With the complicated geological structure as
discussed above, in the areas with foundation
having low load-bearing capacity such as Thanh
Cong, Giang Vo, Quynh Loi, Quynh Mai, floor
and surrounding land subsidence is unavoidable.
Depending on impact load (the number of storeys)
and geo-structural characteristics, the possibilities
of foundation subsidence in different area can be
varying. Apart from construction load, in areas
with great thickness of leveled ground (5-10mm),
load of leveling soil to natural foundation is
considerable, equal to houses with 2-6 storeys.
Moving load from traffic system leads to a
combination of surface waves and volume waves
(transverse waves and longitudinal waves). These
waves make foundation vibrate. vibration
characteristics of foundation depend on frequency
and vibration level of foundation. According to
Gorskov. C. P‟s observations [8], houses and
constructions along traffic roads subsided 3-8mm
more than houses and constructions situated in
different directions to traffic roads. Within
influential circle of subway, additional subsidence
of houses and constructions is 50-200mm. In
Vietnam, there are not similar researches as this
issue has not been paid attention. However, it is
possible to point out some specific examples about
impacts on geological environment by moving load
from traffic system in Hanoi.
Exploitation of groundwater with high capacity:
resupply to groundwater from precipitation, and
rivers and streams is not fast enough, hence
groundwater level is reduced, establishing cones of
depression. When water is drawn, the volume of
weak layers will be shrunk and, as a result,
foundation will be subsided.
 Tab. 1. Subsidence rate in connection with structure of strata in Hanoi
Rate of surface
Zone subsidence, mm Stratum structure Subsided areas
per year
Mainly consist of soft
cohesionless and soft cohesive
Northof Tu Liem and Dong
soils formed in the Pleistocene
I Anh districts, some areas by
1-2 and having origin of sea and
West lake - Ba Dinh district.
river-sea sediments, Vinh Phuc
formation.
Mainly consist of soft cohesive
East of Gia Lam, South of
and soft cohesionless soils
Thanh Tri, South-East of Dong
formed in the Upper Holocene
5-10 Anh, some areas in the South of
II and having origin of river
Ba Trung district
sediment, Thai Binh formation.
Mainly consist of soft cohesive
soil formed in the Middle Thanh Tri; some small areas of
III Holocene and having origin of Dong Anh, East of Gia Lam;
20-30 river-sea, river-lake, and swamp- Hai Ba Trung and Ba Dinh
sea sediments, Hai Hung districts.
formation.

According to statistics, in Hanoi, there are
about 150 houses with 2-7 storeys suffering from
total subsidence of twice to 5 times, or 15-40cm,
higher that allowed. There are around 50 houses
that bear serious subsidence and need repair.
4.2. Soil, surface water, and groundwater
pollution caused by landfills, and industrial and
domestic waste water
Before the 1980s and early 1990s, Hanoi did
not have sanitary landfills but mainly took
advantage of available sinks for waste burial, for
example, Thanh Cong dump site, Tam Hiep dump
site, Me Tri dump site, and Tay Mo dump site.
Besides, there are a lot of ponds and lakes leveled
by waste in order to build residential houses. This
kind of dump area is still existing and it is a source
of long-term geo-environmental pollution,
especially groundwater. The impact circle of such
dump areas is not large, just 1-2km as the
maximum. Nevertheless, time of waste decay and
pollution can last up to 50 years [3]. Cemeteries,
which are also burial sites, are chemically and
biologically polluted. Impact circle of cemeteries is
similar to dump areas.
A number of manufacturers and enterprises do
not have a sanitary waste processing system.
Industrial waste is preliminarily processed or even
directly released into environment, causing serious
pollution. In industrial waste water, apart from
some organic substances, there are also harmful
elements such as Hg, As, Cr, etc. and poisonous
substances, which require a long time (tens of
years) to decay completely. Domestic waste water
drained directly into environment by residential
areas is a cause of soil and groundwater pollution
and a source of epidemic spread.
4.3. Electrochemical metal corrosion
intechnical pipelines and underground building
materials due to impact of electric field from
Hanoi’s electrical grid
Natural electric field of geological environment
is generated by different processes such as electro-
osmosis, electrochemistry, diffusion, influence by
space and the atmosphere (e.g. lightning) with
current density below 10-3 a/m2. Besides natural
electric field, Hanoi‟s geological environment also
absorbs man-made electrical sources due to
electrical leakage from manufacturers that
consume electricity. The density of those leaking
currents can be up to 101 a/m2, which means
10,000 times that of natural current density [8].
Influence areas (average value) of electrical
leaking sources are different from one another:
200-300m for high-voltage grids and electrical

514
vehicle railways, 1-5m for transformer stations,
etc.
Within the influence area of electrical leaking
sources, the rate of metal and building materials
corrosion caused by electrochemical process in a
geological environment increases significantly [8]:
by 3-5% in sand, twice in clay, by 10 times in
bulk-size leveling soil. The rate of metal corrosion
in urban geological environment can be 1-2mm per
year. Consequently, the process of electrochemical
corrosion caused by leaking electrical currents may
shorten lifetime of urban pipelines from 20 years to
1-2 years.
4.4. Flood after heavy rains due to bad water
drainage system
Flood occurs in Hanoi when there is heavy rain.
The sewer and canal system is overloaded because
of reasons such as too old pipes in some areas and
small surface area of the canals. However, it
should be added that the flood is remarkably
affected by unequal land subsidence in Hanoi,
which is due to groundwater exploitation, as well
as construction and traffic load. These result in
changes in altitude of ground and street terrain, and
deformations and changes in slope of hydraulic
grade line of sewer system,
4.5. Flood and environmental pollution,
riverbank erosion, dyke subsidence and cracking,
dyke basement and body seepage, suffosion, drift
sand, sand boil - dyke foot seepage and dyke
break in the Red river’s coast alactive zone
Red river bed has changed a lot over time. It is
very sensitive to external factors that have impacts
on its flow, which makes the Red river an
complicated ancient river system. Therefore,
geological structure of the Red River‟s coastal
zone is inhomogeneous in depth and facet,
engineering-geological features of soil and rock in
the zone vary dramatically and they react
distinctively to impacts by natural and artificial
factors. This makes it complicated in using them as
construction foundation.
- The topography of the coastal zone is
changeable and in unstable state with interlaced
alluvium and erosion, which have impacts at the
same time. The Red River is turning into a
„suspended river‟. The absolute height of alluvial
groundis10-12m and flood level can mount to 13-
515
14m while absolute height of Hanoi is 5-8m. Thus,
the Red River‟s banks are constantly in unstable
state with frequent erosion and slide. During flood
season, rising water level causes flood, half-flood,
and dyke basement seepage, creating sand boil at
dyke foot and threatening the stability of the whole
dyke system. In fact, the Red River‟s right-wing
dyke broke three times (1903, 1915, 1986).
- The coastal zone is the area attracting a
variety of constructions and building material
exploitation, as well as other economic activities.
These activities, which are spontaneous and not
under management, will be the cause of
disadvantageous engineering-geological and
dynamic processes to Hanoi‟s sustainable
development.
Given the geo-technical and environmental
characteristics, notice able geo-technical and
environmental hazards in the coastal active zone of
the Red River include flood and environmental
pollution, riverbank erosion, unequal dyke
basement subsidence, dyke body and basement
seepage, dyke foot sand boil, suffosion, and drift
sand in the downstream area, all of which have
been thoroughly studied in a major scientific report
of Hanoi city.
5. Conclusions
- Geological environment of Hanoi city is
divided into 21 soil and rock layers (having the
same formation origin and geological age; being
homogeneous in lithologic type, and engineering
and geological characteristics; having the same
state). These layers are unequally divided, making
Hanoi‟s geological structure inhomogeneous and
complicated. The leveled soil, sand and weak soil
are vulnerable to loads, which is a good condition
for the trigger and development of geo-technical
and environmental hazards.
- There are impacts by Hanoi‟s technical
system, including civil constructions, traffic
system, electrical grid, transformer stations, pipe
system of water supply and waste water and
surface water drainage, landfills, cemeteries,
industrial zones, dyke, and groundwater
exploitation system. Meanwhile, major natural
factors are the Red River‟s rising water level and
surface-water flow.
 - Putting altogether Hanoi‟s technical system
and natural factors on the map of geo-
environmental structure and combining it with
other materials, it can be seen that typical geo-
technical and environmental hazards of Hanoi
include:
+ Land and construction subsidence due to
impacts by constant and moving loads from
constructions, leveling materials, traffic system on
geological environment.
+ Land subsidence, deep-level groundwater
pollution and negative skin friction resulted from
high-capacity exploitation of groundwater.
+ Land, surface water, and groundwater
pollution due to chemical and biological impacts
by the systems of landfills and industrial and
domestic waste water drainage.
+ Electrochemical corrosion of metal in
technical pipes and underground building materials
due to electrical field caused by the city‟s electrical
grid.
+ Flood after heavy rains.
+ Geo-technical and environmental hazards in
the Red River‟s coastal active zone (flood,
environmental pollution, riverbank erosion, dyke
subsidence and cracking, dyke body and basement
seepage, suffosion, drift sand, sand boil, dyke foot
seepage and dyke break).
References
[1]. Thiem Quoc Tuan, Huynh Ngoc Sang, Tran Le
The Dien, 2007. A look into mechanism of
land subsidence due to groundwater
exploitation in Hiep Binh Phuoc Industrial
Zone, Thu Duc district, Ho Chi Minh city.
Science and Technology Development Journal,
volume 10, no. 06-2007.
[2]. Tran Manh Lieu et al. Zoning and quantifying
enginering-geological conditions for
construction purpose. Engineering-geological
and Environmental Journal, no. 2/2005.
516
[3]. Tran Manh Lieu, Nguyen Van Ta, Le Thanh
Tung. A method of evaluating and forecasting
the possibility of riverbank erosion based on a
combination of natural-technical factors in
riverside areas. Technology and Construction
Science Journal, no. 1/2007
[4]. Tran Manh Lieu. Geological characteristics
and potential of applyingprobability models
into geological hazard study. Technology and
Construction Science Journal, no. 2/2007.
[5]. Nguyen Huy Phuong (project manager) et al,
2004. “Collecting and verifying available
materials, and conducting an additional
research into creating a map of Hanoi‟s weak
land areas for the capital‟s sustainable
development.” Major report of Hanoi city, the
university of Mining and Geology, Hanoi.
[6]. Tran Quoc Cuong et al. 2016. “Studying
scientific basis and proposing methods of
forecasting Hanoi city‟s land subsidence by
radar inteference technique.”Institute of
Geological sciences - Vietnam Academy of
Science and Technology.
[7]. Tran Nhat Dung, Tran Van Hoang, and
Nguyen Van Hung, 2000. Report on
Environment and General Study Project:
“Researching, evaluating, and forecasting land
subsidence in Hanoi due to changes in
groundwater level. Establishing background in
order to improve Hanoi‟s subsidence
observation network.” Civil Engineering
Institute, Hanoi Department of Construction.
[8]. Nguyen Van Dan and Tran Minh, 1993. “A
study of land subsidence due to groundwater
exploitation in Hanoi city.” Geological
Sciences and Techniques Journal; 7-9;Special
Subject: Issues related to Environmental and
Urban Geology. Volume 2: p. 79-95.
Department of Geology and Minerals of
Vietnam, Hanoi.
 ANALYSIS OF SEDIMENT DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSPORT TRENDS
AT THE DA DIEN ESTUARY, CENTRAL VIETNAM

Dinh Thi Quynh1, Do Minh Duc2, Nguyen Tien Giang2, Tran Ngoc Anh2
1
Institute of Geotechnology and Environment, Vietnam
2
Vietnam National University, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: ducdm@vnu.edu.vn

Abstract: Da Dien is the one of the major estuarine areas in the central coast of Vietnam. This estuary
plays a significant role in the local marine transport. The recurrent sedimentation in the navigation
channel and beach erosion are serious problems in this area. The sediment transport trends are examined
using a grain-size distribution of surface sediment. This method allowed understanding of the behaviour
of sediment transport pathways. At the Da Dien estuary from the shoreline down to about 21 m water
depth, sediments are characterized by five mixed types of coarse sand to sandy mud and clay. Five
patterns of sediment transport trends were defined. The patterns show that sediment deposition in the
central part of the Da Dien estuary was a result of longshore sediment transport from both the north and
the south parts.

Keywords: Da Dien estuary; sediment transport trend; deposition.

1. Introduction 2015 to 2018 (Figure 1c, d). Dredging of the two

The Da Dien estuary is located in Tuy Hoa city,
Phu Yen province. This is the main estuary of Da
Rang river which is one of the largest river systems
in the middle central coast of Vietnam, with a total
basin area of 13,900 km2 (Figure 1a). It has a total
length of 374km, which begins at Ngoc mountain
range (1,240 meters high), flows across 4
provinces (Gia Lai, Dak Lak, Kon Tum, and Phu
Yen) and pours out the East Sea.
In the recent years, the navigation channel
entrance of more 900 fishing ships was decreased
significantly by the sediment deposition in the inlet
(Figure 1b). The length shoreline of 7 km was
eroded severely (Hoang et al, 2015) which was
caused collapsing of a dozen houses at Ro hamlet
(in the southern side) (Posthumus, 2015). To face
with the impacts of erosion beach, the local
government has constructed a 970 m long groins
(phase 1) and a 1,155 m long groins (phase 2) from
to 7 months in the dry season, which lasts from
January till August and the wide-open mouth is for
barriers of the river mouth was frequently required
to open the navigation channel of the Da Dien
estuary. This is quite different from the designed
dredge sites in other estuaries such as Tam Quan,
De Gi (Binh Dinh province) (Duc et al, 2016,
Quynh et al, 2015).
There was a large amount of research this issue.
The researchers focused on analysing the change
of hydrodynamics and topographic in Da Rang
river (Cong, 2006; Huong, 2009, Hoang et al,
2015; Cuong et al, 2017). Using a one-dimensional
model for combining the flow and the river bed
change, Cong, 2016 calculated that the annual
amount of the sediment supply at the river mouth
of the Da Dien estuary was 410,000 m3. 90% of
these amounts of sediment supply were transported
mainly in the flood season because the river flows
have the high velocity (the top at 5,000 m3/s)
(Huong et al, 2016). The wide-close mouth is for 6
3 to 4 months in the rainy season (Cuong, 2017).
The results presented the analysis about the

517
satellite images, the measured hydrodynamic
parameter data.
The paper aims to analyse sediment distribution
and transport trends, then confirm the reasons of
.
sediment deposition in the inlet and shoreline
erosion. The results can help better knowledge
which will provide appropriate solutions in the
future research.

Fig. 1. Study area; a) River system and estuaries in the middle central coast of Vietnam; b) The river
mouth width of Da Dien estuary: 68m (10 March 2018, Google earth); c) Erosion at Ro hamlet (5 May
2016); d) The groins at Rơhamlet (30 May 2017)

2. Methods and materials

A total of 145 stations were sampled in May
2016 (Fig. 2). The device which collected bottom
surface sediments was a grab sampler (the mini
Ponar grab). It had of designs that use a set of jaws
when lowered to the sediment and hinged tops
allow water to flow freely through the device
during descent. The mini Ponar grab is suitable for
collecting fine – grained to coarse material. A
sample grid was based from the coastline to a
depth of more 21 meters. Sample locations were
about 200 meters apart. The most sample obtained
at predetermined locations, however, where had
dangerously precluded dropping the grab, samples
were collected as close as planned position.
Positioning was achieved by a Garmin GPS to a
nominal accuracy of ± 3 meters. Thereby it was
provided material for the determination of the
Fig. 2. Surface sample distribution at the Da Dien
particle-size distribution of variables. estuary
All samples were analysed for their complete
grain-size distribution using a sieve and a laser.

518
Sieves included 10, 5, 2, 1, and 0.5 mm which
analysed the content of gravel and coarse sand.
Fine-sized particles (medium sand through silt) are
usually analysed by a Horiba 950V2 laser.
Although the principle for the two types of
instrument is the difference, significant differences
in the distributions due to instrumentation are not
considered to be likely. The laser scattering size
distributions were merged with sieve data for
particles larger than 0.01 µm in diameter. The
grain-size distributions were entered into software
(VISUAL and FORTRAN) to establish mean,
sorting, skewness, sediment trends and transport
functions which were assessed using the ϕ scale (-
log2d) (Wentworth, 1922; Folk, 1966, 1980).
McLaren and Bowles illustrated the theory
behind a sediment trend analysis which was
published firstly in 1985. There are two models
based on the same theory. The 1D method model
(called a line by line analysis) written by
McLaren’s method which known as Sediment
Trend Analysis. The 2D method model (called a
vector approach) written by Gao and Collin’s
method and Le Roux method. McLaren and
Bowles (1985) showed that case A does not
determine a transport pathway, as do cases B and
C. The latter two cases are referred to by Gao and
Collins (1994) as cases 1 and 2, and as types 1 and
2 by Le Roux et al. (2002).
The major theory of two this model was
presented that there are two sediment samples (d1
and d2) which are taken sequentially in a known
transport direction from d1 to d2. The sediment
distribution of d2 was able to finer (case B) or
coarser (case C) than that of d1. If d2 becomes finer
than d1, the skewness of the distribution must
become more negative. Conversely, if d2 is coarser
than that of d1, the skewness must become more
positive. In both cases, the sorting of d2 becomes
better than that of d1. If the trend is different as this
both fields, it cannot be supposed that transport
between the two samples.
Besides, McLaren and Bowles also gave
significance dynamic behaviour. If it has sediment
pathway between d1 to d2, based on the shape of
the sediment distribution of samples. X(s) is the
statistical relationship between the two deposits
which may be defined mathematically as:
519
d2 (s) = d1X(s) (1)
The shape of X(s), d1 and d2 distributions have
defined the behaviour such as net erosion, net
accretion, equilibrium, total deposition type 1 and
total deposition type 2 (McLaren and Bowles,
1985; Hughes, 2005, Duc et al, 2016)
Based on the experience of McLaren et al
(2007), preliminary first stage frequently use a
vector technique as first way to discern possible
trends. Then it must be followed by far more
rigorous line by line analysis. The line by line
analysis draws on communication theory, the goal
being retrieve information on transport direction
and dynamic behaviour from the signal provided
by the grain-size distributions of the sediments.
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Sediment distribution at the Da Dien
estuary
To base on surface sediment characteristics
(Table 1), the bathymetry in March 2016, the Folk
triangle classification and the Wentworth
classification were defined into 5 types sediment at
the river and sea (Figures 3).
There are described of sediment in the river of
the studying region as follow:
(1) Coarse sand in the river has larger
distribution area, mainly in sand bars of Da Rang
river. Mean diameters are from -0.34 to 0.91 ϕ,
which is very coarse and coarse sand following the
Wentworth classification. Sorting coefficients are
moderately well sorted from 0.51 to 0.66 ϕ,
average value of 0.59 ϕ. Skewness coefficients
vary from -0.14 (coarse skewed) to 0.22 ϕ (fine
skewed), average value of 0.04 ϕ.
(2) Medium sand in the river has at higher
depth (from -3 to -9 m). Mean diameters are from -
1.52 to 1.68 ϕ, average value of 1.65 ϕ. Sorting
coefficients are poorly sorted from 1.26 to 1.93 ϕ,
average value of 1.85 ϕ. Skewness coefficients
vary from 0.31 to 0.36 ϕ, average value of 0.34 ϕ.
(3) The river fine sand has narrow
distribution area. Mean diameters are from 2.35 to
2.54 ϕ, with the average value of 2.45 ϕ. Sorting
coefficients are moderately well sorted
 (4) from 0.56 to 0.61 ϕ, with the average
value of 0.59 ϕ. Skewness coefficients are -0.26
(coarse skewed) to 0.35 (very fine skewed), with
average value of 0.05 ϕ.
(5) The river muddy and silty sand
distributes at the triangle classification on muddy
sand and silty sand. This sediment type hold on
smallest in the study area. Mean diameters are
from 3.53 to 3.68 ϕ, with the average value of 3.61
ϕ. Sorting coefficients are from 0.45 (moderately
well sorted) to 1.02 ϕ (Poorly sorted), with the
average value of 0.74 ϕ. Skewness coefficients are
Fig. 3. Sediment distribution at the Da Dien estuary
Similar to the sediment river, the sediment at
the sea illustrated such as:
(1) The sea coarse sand has 840 m wide and
1,672m length. This sediment type distributes in
front of estuary to -6 m depth. Mean diameters are
from 0.15 to 1.00 Φ, with the average value of 0.54
ϕ. Sorting coefficients are from 0.46 (well sorted)
520
-0.2 (coarse skewed) to 0.35 (very fine skewed),
with average value of 0.26 ϕ.
The river sandy mud and clay shows on the
triangle classification on sandy mud and sandy
clay. This sediment type distributes at the
navigation channel. Mean diameters are from 6.31
to 9.48 ϕ, with the average value of 7.63 ϕ.
Sorting coefficients are from 2.49 (very poorly
sorted) to 4.7 ϕ (extremely poorly sorted), with the
average value of 3.66 ϕ. Skewness coefficients are
-0.15 (coarse skewed) to -0.04 (near symmetrical),
with average value of -0.1 ϕ.
to 1.43 ϕ (poorly sorted), with the average value of
0.76 ϕ. Skewness coefficients range from -0.23
(coarse skewed) to -0.05 (near symmetrical), with
average value of -0.05 ϕ.
(2) The sea medium sand ranges from the
shoreline to -6 m depth (south and north parts), -22
m depth (central part). Mean diameters are from
1.01 to 2.00 ϕ, with the average value of 1.45 ϕ.
Sorting coefficients are from 0.40 (well sorted) to
1.27 ϕ (poorly sorted), with the average value of
0.76 ϕ. Skewness coefficients vary from -0.34
(very coarse skewed) to 0.38 (very fine skewed),
with average value of –0.04 ϕ.
(3) The sea fine sand ranges from -6 m depth
(south and north parts), -22 m depth (central part)
to more than -17 m (south part). Mean diameters
are from 2.04 to 2.99 ϕ, with the average value of
2.62 ϕ. Sorting coefficients are from 0.36 (well
sorted) to 1.63 ϕ (poorly sorted), with the average
value of 0.66 Φ. Skewness coefficients vary from -
0.3 (very coarse skewed) to 0.42 (very fine
skewed), with average value of –0.01 ϕ.
(4) The muddy and silty sand in the sea
extends the depth more -17 m depth (south part)
and -22 m depth (central and south parts). Mean
diameters are from 3.01 to 3.50 ϕ, with the
average value of 3.19 Φ. Sorting coefficients are
from 0.4 (well sorted) to 1.37 ϕ (poorly sorted),
with the average value of 0.88 ϕ. Skewness
coefficients vary from -0.28 (very coarse skewed)
to 0.41 (very fine skewed), with average value of
0.13 ϕ.
(5) The sandy mud and clay includes sandy
mud and sandy clay in the Wentworth
classification. Mean diameters are from 3.01 to
3.50 ϕ, with the average value of 3.19 ϕ. Sorting
coefficients are from 0.4 (well sorted) to 1.37 ϕ
(poorly sorted), with the average value of 0.88 ϕ
Skewness coefficients vary from -0.28 (very coarse
skewed) to 0.41 (very fine skewed), with average
value of 0.13 ϕ.
In the central part of the Da Dien estuary,
medium sand older is found in the large depth. It
has 1.84 ϕ mean diameter, 1.36 ϕ poorly sorted
and -0.30 ϕ coarse skewed

Tab. 1. Surface sediment characteristics

Total
No. Sediment types Mean (ϕ) So (ϕ) Sk (ϕ)
samples
-0.14 - 0.22
1 Coarse sand (river) -0.34 - 0.91 (0.28) 0.51 - 0.66 (0.59) 3
(0.04)
-0.23 - 0.13
2 Coarse sand (sea) 0.15 - 1.00 (0.54) 0.46 - 1.43 (0.76) 28
(-0.05)
Medium sand 0.31 – 0.36
3 1.52 – 1.68 (1.65) 1.26 – 1.93 (1.85) 8
(river) (0.34)
-0.34 - 0.38
4 Medium sand (sea) 1.01 - 2.00 (1.45) 0.40 - 1.27 (0.76) 45
(-0.04)
Medium sand (sea,
5 1.84 1.36 -0.30 1
older)
-0.30 – 0.42
6 Fine sand (sea) 2.04 -2.99 (2.62) 0.36 -1.63 (0.66) 36
(-0.01)
-0.26 – 0.35
7 Fine sand (river) 2.35 -2.54 (2.45) 0.56 – 0.61 (0.59) 2
(0.05)
Muddy and silty -0.2 – 0.35
8 3.53 – 3.68 (3.61) 0.45 – 1.02 (0.74) 2
sand (river) (0.26)
Muddy and silty -0.28 - 0.41
9 3.01 - 3.50 (3.19) 0.40 - 1.37 (0.88) 13
sand (sea) (0.13)
Sandy mud and clay -0.15 - -0.04
10 6.31 – 9.48 (7.63) 2.49 – 4.7 (3.66) 5
(river) (-0.10)
Sandy mud and clay 0.06 – 0.15
11 5.25 -5.56 (5.40) 4.13 – 4.45 (4.29) 2
(sea) (0.11)

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 3.2. Sediment transport trends at the Da Dien
estuary
The results calculated for the Da Dien estuary
calculated by McLaren method show detailed in
figure 4. In this figure, five cases are illustrated
such as dynamic equilibrium, net accretion, net
erosion, total deposition 1 and total deposition 2.
In the inside of the Da Rang river, net accretion
type distributed in the sand bar. Then, the
sediments transported to estuary by the type of
total deposition 2. This pathway shows the
situation correspond to sediment far from the
source which is the main reason to sediment
deposition in the river mouth. In front of the Da
Dien estuary, sediment were eroded and bypassed
through which is defined the net erosion.
Fig. 4. Sedimentation transport trends at the Da
Dien estuary
In the sea part, sediment transport trends caused
deposition on the central region estuary from all
North and South parts. The South shore, mainly
sediment trends are the net erosion trend at the
beach and the net accretion trend between -8 and -
17 meters water depth. Conversely, the Northern
shore, sediment trends are the net accretion trend at
the beach and the total deposition 2 pathway from -
7 to -1 meters water depth. This is the source of
materials of sand bars in front of the river mouth.
In the sea, there was three parts. Firstly, in the
north part of Da Dien estuary, the net erosion trend
522
extends from shoreline to -8 meters water depth
and then the total deposition 2 ranges from -8 to -
17 meters water depth. Secondly, in the south part
of Da Dien estuary, it inversely witnesses that the
net erosion distributes between shoreline to -7
meters water depth and the net accretion disposes
from -7 to -17 meters water depth. Lastly, sediment
transport trends, in the central part of Da Dien
estuary, is significant heterogeneous. About 300
meters in front of shoreline, sediment transport
trends holds on net accretion. Then, type of
dynamic equilibrium and net accretion is made
deposition at the sand bar which is a 600 meters
distance and keeps this state to -21 meters water
depth. At more -21 meters water depth, there are
type of total deposition 2.
4. Conclusions
Five types of sediment distribution were define
in the river and sea area at the Da Dien estury
including coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand,
muddy and silty sand, and sandy mud and clay.
Boundary of modern and ancient distributed at
about 21 m water depth.
There were five distinct trends such as dynamic
equilibrium, net accretion, net erosion, total
deposition 1 and total deposition 2. Sediment
transport concentrated in the central part of the Da
Dien estuary.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by the project
“Identifying mechanisms of deposition and erosion
of the two river mouths: the Da Nong and the Da
Dien Estuaries, in Phu Yen province and proposing
solutions to stabilize the two estuaries for the
sustainable socio-economic development”
(DTDLCN.15/15).
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Rang river mouth – Filed measurements and
numerical simulations. Yokohama National
University.
[2] Cuong, K. N., Giang, T. N., Anh, N.T., Duc, D.
D., Vinh, N. T., 2016. Hydrodynamics and
short – term morphology change in the
estuaries of Phu Yen province, Vietnam. The
8th Asia- Pacific workshop on marince
hydrodynamics in Naval Architecture, Ocean
Technology and construction, APHydro 2016.
[3] Duc, D. M., Thanh, D. X., Quynh, D. T.,
McLaren, P., 2016 Analysis of sediment
distribution and transport for mitigation of sand
deposition hazard in Tam Quan estuary,
Vietnam. Environmental Earth Sciences (2016)
75:741. DOI 10.1007/s12665-016-5560-2.
[4] Folk, R. L., 1974. Petrology of sedimentary
Rock. Hemphill Publishing Company, Austin.
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[5] Gao, S. and Collins. M. (1990). A critique of
the “McLaren Method” for defining sediment
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Sedimentary Petrology, Vol. 61, p. 143-146.
[6] Gao, S., Collins, M.B., Lanckneus, J., De Moor,
G., and Van Lancker, V. (1994). Grain Size
Trends Associated with Net Sediment
Transport Patterns: An Example from the
Belgian Continental Shelf”. Marine Geology,
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H. 2015. Shoreline change at the Da Rang
River Mouth, Vietnam”, International
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the identification of net sediment transport
paths based on grain-size trends. Sedimentary
Geology 94(1–2): 97–107.
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[11] Le Roux JP, O’Brian RD, Rios F, Cisternas M
(2002) Analysis of sediment transport paths
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Sedimentary Petrology 51: 611-624.
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Geology 30, 377– 392.
 SLOPES IN LOOSE ROCK - STABILISATION AND EROSION PROTECTION
IN A SINGLE OPERATION

Tran Dong1, Dennis Gross2

1
National Civil Engineering University, Vietnam
2
Geobrugg AG, Switzerland
Corresponding author’ Email: dongtran265@gmail.com

Abstract: The creation and widening of infrastructures such as roads, railway lines and buildings
frequently requires new cuttings or the steepening of existing slopes in loose rock. This article explains
findings with planting vegetation and the stabilization of such slopes and introduces novel combined
systems of randomly entangled mesh made of synthetic material with mesh consisting of high-tensile
steel wire, facilitating efficient installation.

Keywords: Geotechnics; Loose rock; Securing slopes; Erosion protection; Efficiency; Innovation;
geobrugg.

1. Introduction of sustaining major forces and transfer them

In many cases new cuttings and the steepening
of ex- isting slopes are required in loose ground
and rock (Fig. 1) when producing and extending
infrastructures such as roads, railway lines and
buildings. Effective planting with vegetation is of
great significance for successful and sustainable
stabilization of natural slopes and new cuttings in
loose rock.
Ideally slopes should be created with a slight
gradual incline so that stability is not jeopardized.
If this is feasible then the effect of straightforward
greening measures such as erosion control mats is
usually sufficient to protect against washouts.
However, they soon reach their limits of
application if steeper slopes have to be secured or
stability problems close to the surface or of a
global nature occur (Fig. 2).
Geotextiles, which are used as greening aids,
generally only possess minimal strength and are
thus only effective for flat slopes or combined with
a stabilization scheme such as wire mesh. During
the last 15 years, meshes made of high-tensile steel
wire combined with soil nailing have established
themselves for stabilizing slopes. They are capable
effectively into the nailing thanks to their high
puncturing resistance. Suitable dimensioning
methods are available.
In order to extend the range of application of
fibre matting or geomats made of synthetics in
conjunction with dry or wet seeds as greening aids,
they were com- bined at the factory with a high-
tensile steel wire mesh in order to enhance their
load-bearing capacity. They are applied to stabilise
rock and loose ground slopes. A newly developed
product now combines the advantages of mesh
made of high-tensile steel wire for slope
stabilization and geomats for greening slopes or
protecting them against erosion in conjunction with
soil nailing. Quite apart from enabling still higher
loads to be sustained, the system can be easily
installed.
This article explains developments and
experiences with erosion control mats as greening
aids and wire meshes for stabilizing slopes during
the past fifteen years. At the same time, it
introduces two new combined systems and
findings during their application.

524
Fig. 1. Ad hoc slumping on a slope in the grounds
of a sports facility
(Source of images:Geobrugg AG)
Fig. 2. Slumping on an embankment with a slope
with appox. 25° incline and geotextile erosion
protection mat without nailing
2. Supporting greening with synthetic or
natural erosion control mats
An effective and functional layer of vegetation
is required or must be produced for stabilizing
slopes in the long term [1, 2]. Newly developed
loose rock slopes usually lack nutrients owing to
the removal of the surface layer [3]. Through the
removal of the vegetation layer there is a
corresponding lack of roots capable of growth and
a natural presence of seed.
The aim is essentially to diminish or control
external erosion. In this connection, a distinction is
drawn between primary erosion with the so-called
dropping effect and secondary erosion with the so-
called flowing effect (Fig. 3). An erosion control
mat should minimise the impact energy of the
drops and be able to correspondingly retain soil
particles in the flowing water [2].
525
Fig. 3. Erosion channels caused by the flow effect
of the draining water, which remove the soil and
reduce or prevent the growth of plants.
Fig. 4. Exemplary slope stabilization with high-
tensile wire mesh, soil nailing and erosion control
mat [5]
In order to support the greening of loose rock
slopes, a large number of erosion control mats and
geotextiles exists [4]. Synthetic geotextiles e. g.
consisting of poly- propylene, and natural
geotextiles made of organic materials, e. g. jute or
coconut fibers are used. Organic natural products
can be applied for flatter slopes. The advantage is
that they store a portion of the water and on
account of their composition release nutrients thus
enabling plants to grow. In the case of steeper
slopes, synthetic products offer an advantage.
Their intrinsic weight is lower and alters only
slightly on contact with water. Furthermore, the
strength decreases at a later point of time than in
the case of organic products.
3. Flexible slope stabilisation systems with wire
meshes and their dimensioning
Flexible slope stabilization systems made of
wire mesh combined with nailing have become
widespread in the meantime for securing lose
ground and rock slopes and have proved
themselves if applied correctly (Fig. 4). Owing to a
lack of principles such as standards or guidelines it
is often the case that only inadequate demands are
posed on these safety systems and no proofs of
stability conducted.
As a consequence, systems are available or
installed, which are not adapted to the given local
static conditions or their components are not Fig. 5. Superficial instabilities running parallel to
geared to each other. This can possibly lead to the slope
malfunctioning with disastrous results on account
of material collapses – as well as causing serious
instabilities. Both the interplay of the system’s
bearing resistances as well as its individual
elements including netting, mesh or attachments
must be known so that the required proofs of
stability can be conducted thanks to adequately
dimensioned models [6, 7].
Dimensioning against instabilities close to the
surface can be carried out in accordance with the
Ruvolum® [8] dimensioning concept. It is
generally valid and can be applied for
dimensioning safety factors for instabilities close
to the surface in loose rock as well as for
extensively loosened rock slopes. The basis for Fig. 6. Local instabilities between individual nails
dimensioning is provided by the bearing
resistances, which are established in realistic, 4. Tests on a steep slope to evaluate erosion
repeatable tests. The dimensioning concept was control mats
described at length by Rüegger in 2002 and 2004 In 2000, initial field tests were embarked on in
[6, 1]. It contains the investigation of instabilities Switzer- land to evaluate the efficacy of three
close to the surface and running parallel to the different erosion control mats combined with high-
slope (Fig. 5) as well as local instabilities between tensile wire mesh on a steep slope.
the individual nails (Fig. 6). The influence of pore The following requirements were defined by the
water overpressure, flow pressure and seismic Geobrugg AG in conjunction with the
forces can also be taken into consideration. Ingenieurbüro Rüegger Flum [9]:
- Good spray ability for wet and dry seed to
establish as much sowing material on the
substratum as possible
- Good adaptability to the underground
- Low mass related to area, even given
ingressing water
- Good adherence of the mat to the
underground/ low sliding potential

526
 - Good retention properties for soil particles,
organic materials and seed material
- Colour coordinated for a natural appearance
and low degree of heating
During the tests in 2000, various erosion
control mats were installed on a test area in the
Valais, Switzerland and a high-tensile wire mesh.
The following alternatives were tried out (Fig. 7):
- Area I: Three-dimensional, extremely dense,
three- layer erosion control mat made of black
polypropylene
- Area II: Three-dimensional, corrugated
erosion control mat made of black polypropylene
- Area III: Two-dimensional, flat geo-grid
Fig. 7. Test areas in Switzerland for evaluating
made of black polypropylene
different erosion control mats on a steep slope
The test area was aligned south-west and was
located on low-nutrient soil with pronounced dry-
moist changes. Greening was accomplished with
dry seed. The best greening success was provided
by the three-dimension- al corrugated mat on Area
II. In the case of Area III it is presupposed that the
retention properties of a two- dimensional, flat
erosion control mat are too minimal for soil
particles and seed material. For Area I, it is
presumed that owing to the pronounced albedo, in
other words the reflection of the black surfaces in
the case of this dense mat caused greater heating of
the slope, which led to faster drying out or rather
non-germination of the seed.
In July 2003, field tests were undertaken with a Fig. 8. Test areas in Switzerland for examining the
three dimensional so called geomat or randomly efficacy of a geomat for erosion protection in 2013
entangled mesh based on the recognitions from the
previous tests. The aim was to investigate the
retention properties, adaptability to the
underground and spray- ability. Focus was
concentrated on an erosion control mat consisting
of extruded monofilaments, which was 18 mm
thick and possessed a 600 g/m² mass relating to
area. The cavity proportion amounts to more than
95 %. Fig. 8 shows the test areas in Bischofszell,
Switzerland. The described geomat was installed
on the far right. The other areas are reference areas
without erosion control mat or with similar
products consisting of polypropylene. In order to
come up with conclusions relating to the spray
ability, wooden frames with an area of 1 m² were Fig. 9. Test area approx. 10 weeks after the hydro
set up, which are visible on the lower edge of the seeding process and after heavy rain: otl with out
photo. erosion control mat and otr with geomat

527

Fig. 10. Erosion control mat Tecmat [8], high-
tensile steel wire mesh [6] and soil nailing
The test area was landscaped with a hydroseed
by the Verdyol Company of Switzerland. For
hydroseeding water is mixed with the seed, a
mulch and an adhesive on an algae basis. The
mulch in question was a so called export mulch
comprising straw fibres with a fibre length < 4 mm.
Roughly four weeks after hydro- seeding, the test
area experienced heavy precipitation, leading to
the slope being affected by landslides close to the
surface. After a further six weeks, it was shown
that all but roughly 10 % of the seed in the
reference area without erosion control mat had
been removed. Correspondingly low plant growth
was identifiable (on the left in Fig. 9). In the area
with the geomat, which was between 30 and 45°
steep, more than 90 % of the area was covered
with a layer of vegetation (on the right on Fig. 9).
Based on these tests, in 2004 the Geobrugg AG
marketed an erosion control mat under the trade
name Tecmat [10] with the following
characteristics (Fig. 10):
- Extruded monofilaments made of
polypropylene with irregular loop structure
- 18 mm thick
- 600 g/m² mass related to area
- Cavity proportion > 95 %
- Colour curry green
528
5. Examples of applications for stabilising slopes
combined with erosion control mats
5.1. Stabilizing an irregular Rock Slope in
Miraflores, Panama
A very irregular rock slope in ftiraflores, Panama,
was secured in 2013 with the Tecco® G65/3
System and the Tecmat erosion control mat. The
erosion control mat and the mesh were adapted
successfully to the irregular slope. The fall of the
folds indicates that part sectors do not fit properly
(Fig. 11). The neighboring zones are lavishly
landscaped thanks to the good conditions for
growth. Vegetation is starting to reveal itself in the
area that was secured.
5.2. Securing a Slope in weathered Rock after
a Landslide in Remscheid, Germany
Following a landslide, a slope with weathered
rock in Remscheid, Germany, was secured with the
Tecco® G65/3 System and the Tecmat erosion
control mat in the year 2015 (Fig. 12). The growth
conditions are good as can be seen on the opposite
slope. The slope is relatively uniform. It is hard to
fix the mat to the hard underground, thus resulting
in slight displacements affecting the erosion
control mat.
5.3. Securing an evenly profiled Slope in loose
Rock at Dorndorf, Germany
In 2015 in Dorndorf, Germany, an evenly
profiled slope was secured in loose rock. Deep
hollows were excavated around the nail heads in
order to be able to pretension the Tecco® G65/3
high-tensile wire mesh. The erosion control mat
could be located in such a way that it fitted snugly
with a low proportion of cavities beneath the
erosion control mat on the slope (Fig. 13).
5.4. Conclusions
The three examples indicate that applying a
combina- tion of erosion control mat and high-
tensile wire mesh can be accomplished with great
success. It emerged from the irregular slopes in the
first two examples that the erosion control mat did
not always fit uniformly. It is equally important in
the case of wet that the mat can be treated with an
export mulch (fibre length < 4 mm). Owing to the
slighter water absorption capacity of synthetic mats
they are less susceptible to sliding under load.
Depending on the conditions underground, it can
be difficult to fix a mat in place. The third
application example adapts well to the
underground. No displacement of the mat is
anticipated even when subjected to load.
Nonetheless, the mat must be suitable for being
injected with a sowing method.
6. Factory devised systems with combined
meshes made of high- tensile steel wire and
erosion control mats made of polypropylene
Optimisation by means of a factory-devised
combination of erosion control mat and high -
tensile wire mesh as a joint product was the
obvious approach. First of all, the erosion control
mat is reinforced in structural terms. This affords
the possibility of ensuring that the safety measure
is more resistant to sliding. Straight forward
assembly represents a further advantage as the Fig. 11. Rock slope in Miraflores, Panama, secured
erosion control mat and the high - tensile mesh with mesh and erosion control mat
can be installed on the slope in a single working
cycle.
Initial tests with a standard product were carried
out with the Deltax® G80/2 high - tensile wire
mesh [11] in 2012. The mesh possesses an internal
circular diameter of 80 mm with a wire diameter of
2 mm. The load-bear- ing capacity amounts to 53
kN/m. It is frequently used without nailing as a
curtain and for steep slopes, where only smaller
stones are anticipated. The erosion control mat
reinforcement provides sufficient support for small
stones. In some cases, applications with soil
nailing take place. Fig. 12. Securing a cut slope after a landslide in
As described in Chapter 5, the erosion control weathered rock
mat cannot accept all loads without harm for all
applications. Displacements of individual
membranes beneath the mesh are to be expected in
the fall line, above all, when fixing is tricky. In
order to be in a position to secure and green slopes
affected by landslides close to the surface or with
global stability problems adequately, re- inforcing
the Tecco G65/3 high-tensile wire mesh was
tackled (Fig. 14). The mesh possesses an inner
circu- lar diameter of 65 mm with a wire diameter
of 3 mm. The load bearing capacity amounts to
150 kN/m with a puncturing resistance of 180 kN
against the spike plate system with edge lengths of
33 cm x 20 cm [12]. Fig. 14 shows that the choice
of mulch fibres is important. Long fibres cannot Fig. 13. Uniformly profiled slope in loose rock
penetrate the erosion control mat sufficiently. with close-fitting erosion control mat

529

Fig. 14. Erosion and greening mesh made of high-
tensile steel wire and mat consisting of three
dimensional polypropylene textiles after hydro
seeding
7. Conclusions and outlook
Essentially, naturally degradable, organic
erosion control mats are preferable. However, they
reach their limits in the case of steep slopes. Three-
dimensional geomats, e. g. made of polypropylene,
offer advantages thanks to their lower weight and
their good retention properties. Colour-coordinated,
lighter erosion control mats heat up to a lesser
extent and provide a better greening effect apart
from being less conspicuous.
The structural reinforcement of geotextiles,
which are used for erosion control mats, with high-
tensile wire mesh extends their application range
through their higher load-bearing capacity. Thanks
to reinforcement with high-tensile wire mesh with
a puncturing resistance of 180 kN, instabilities
close to the surface can be secured down to a depth
of 2 m. They can be reliably dimensioned in
keeping with the Ruvolum concept. Global
instabilities can also be secured given
commensurate dimensioning.
Furthermore, the extent to which the properties
of synthetic geomats can be combined with those
of organic ones was studied. An alternative is
provided by the direct application and
reinforcement of coconut, jute or cellular wool
mats. Further developments of natural geomats
based on paper represent a further possibility. One
thing is certain: the greening of slopes is a very
complex topic and depends on a large number of
factors.
530
References
[1] Rüegger, R.; Weingart, K.; Bickel, ft. (2004):
Flexible Oberflächensicherungssysteme aus
hochfesten Draht- geflechten in Kombination
mit Boden- und Felsnägeln, 3 Fallbeispiele.
Technische Akademie Esslingen, Beitrag für 3.
Kolloquium „Bauen in Boden und Fels“
[2] Rüegger, R.; Flum, D. (2006): Anforderungen
an flexible Böschungsstabilisierungssysteme
bei der Anwendung in Boden und Fels.
Österreichische Geologische Gesellschaft,
Salzburg
[3] Bosshard, A.; ftayer, P.; ftosimann, A. (2013).
Leitfaden für Naturgemässe Begrünungen in
der Schweiz., Ö+L Ökologie und Landschaft
GmbH
[4] SN-Norm 640 550. (2003): Geotextilien und
die Prüf- vorschriften nach VSS/SVG
[5] Geobrugg AG: TECCO® G65/3. Data Sheets,
System Drawings, Certificates and Product
ftanuals, www. geo- brugg.com
[6] Rüegger, R.; Flum, D.; Haller, B. (2002):
Hochfeste Geflechte aus Stahldraht für die
Oberflächensicherung in Kombination mit
Vernagelungen und Verankerungen
(Ausführliche Bemessungshinweise).
Technische Aka- demie Esslingen, Beitrag für
2. Kolloquium „Bauen in Boden und Fels“
[7] Flum, D.; Strolz, ft.; Roduner, A. (2014):
Grossfeldver suche mit flexiblen
Böschungsstabilisierungssystemen. Technische
Akademie Esslingen, Beitrag für 9. Kollo-
quium „Bauen in Boden und Fels“
[8] Geobrugg AG: RUVOLUft® Software.
online-Tool and ftanual. www.geobrugg.com
(mygeobrugg)
[9] Cala et al. (2012): TECCO Slope Stabilization
System and RUVOLUft Dimensioning ftethod
[10] Geobrugg AG: TECftAT® Erosion control
mat. Data Sheets, www.geobrugg.com
[11] Geobrugg AG: DELTAX®-ftesh. Data
Sheets, System Drawings snd Certifikates,
www.geobrugg.com
[12] Geobrugg AG: Erosion control / re-
vegetation mesh TEC- CO® GREEN G65/3.
Data Sheet. www.geobrugg.com.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 4th INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE VIETGEO 2018

QUANG BINH, VIETNAM

21&22 September 2018

SESSION 5
TECHNICAL NOTES
 DISTRIBUTION AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF CLAYEY SOILS OF
THE PHU BAI FORMATION IN THUA THIEN HUE AND QUANG TRI

Hoang Thi Sinh Huong1, Tran Thanh Nhan1, Tran Huu Tuyen1,
Do Quang Thien1, Ho Sy Thai2, Massimo Sarti3
1
Hue University of Sciences -Hue University, Vietnam
2
Quang Tri Branch - Hue University, Vietnam
3
Politechnic University of Marche, Italia
Corresponding author’ Email: sinhhuonghht@gmail.com

Abstract. The Quaternary stratigraphy of the coastal plains in Thua Thien Hue and Quang Tri
provinces consist of various types of soft soils and among which, dark coloured-organic soils of Phu Bai
formation (ambQ21-2pb) are characterized by high organic content and compressibility, low bearing
capacity and shear resistance and therefore are considered as one of the weakest components of the soil
profile in the regions. In addition to the changeable thickness and distribution depth, soft soils of Phu Bai
formation spread nearly continuous and in the most areas, they extend close to the ground surface. In this
paper presents the result of studying the distribution and engineering properties of clay mud constituting
Phu Bai formation. It is shown that this soil is in alkaline condition (pH > 7) with the clay minerals
comprising of Il lite (17 - 21%), Kaolinite (7 - 20%), Chlorite (6 - 8%) and Quartz is the main
composition of crude dispersions (24-49%). The organic content of clayey mud constituting Phu Bai
formation decreases with the depth of distribution (OC = 11.4% at 9.9 meters decreasing to about 3.39%
at 27.3 meters) meanwhile the chemical compositions are mainly composed of SiO2 (51.15 - 58.25%),
Al2O3 (17.39 - 20.97%) and MKN (8.97 - 13.98%).This soft soil has not consolidated with low pre-
consolidated pressure (Pc = 38.246 to 77.473 kPa), and weak shear strength (Undrained-unconsolidated
triaxial test: Cuu =8.83 kPa, Consolidated-undrained triaxial test: Ccu=10.4 kPa; C’cu = 9.02 kPa).In-situ
testing such as Vane shear test (VST) and Standard penetration test (SPT) show the low shear strength of
the soil with original soil samples (Su = 13.73 - 32.36 kPa), index of sensitivity (Sr = 2.38 - 4.64) and low
SPT index of N30 = 2 - 4.

Keywords: clay mud; distribution; engineering properties; Phu Bai formation; undrained strength.

1. Introduction kinds of constructive foundation, especially

The soft soils including clayey soils of Phu Bai
formation show changeable distribution and mostly
expose at the ground surface along the coastal
plains of Quang Tri and Thua Thien Hue
provinces. They have a variety of component,
states and objects that are directly affected by the
construction. The engineering properties of soft
soil in Phu Bai formation sediments are very
necessary to study. Physico-mechanical properties
have frequently been used for designing various
engineering on soft soils. Other way, material
compositions (grain composition, mineral
composition, chemical composition and organic
content) take an important part too because they
have a great influence on the formation and change
of the physico-mechanical of the soil. From the
testing results of the authors and the results
collected in the field, the authors want to show the
characteristic values of material composition,
consolidation properties and shear strength of clay

533
mud of Phu Bai formation as well as the general
rules of their transformation. The data provided are
comprehensive and the system should be reliable,
can be referenced in the design and orientation for
the study and geological survey of constructions in
the Quang Tri and Thua Thien Hue plain.
2. The distribution of Phu Bai formation
Holocene sediments are distributed in the
Quang Tri and Thua Thien Hue plain with the
origin of rivers-sea-bog (ambQ21-2pb). They have
mixed origin so they are not uniform in surface and
depth. The sediments have a relatively large
change in thickness, from a few meters to several
tens of meters. On the other side of the sediment is
found only in Phu Bai, the rest is mainly in the
hole. In addition, according to Nhan, 2004 [4], Phu
Bai formation sediments contain organic matter
(animal and plant carcasses) and most commonly
soft soils, including clay mud, silty clay mud,
plastic silty sand and liquid-plastic silty clay.

Fig. 1. Geological map of the coastal plain from Quang Trị to Thua Thien Hue province
(scale of 1/50.000)

Fig. 2. The distribution of clay mud constituting Phu Bai formation in Quang Tri and Thua Thien Hue
(vertical scale of 1/1000)

534
 Petrographic characteristics of sediment
include: layer 1 is silty clay mixed sand, gray
green, green black, 1meter thick; layer 2 is silty
sand mixed humus plant, gray, dark gray, gray
black, someplace be weathered pretty strongly into
coffee color, 0.8 meter thick.The general thickness
is 1.8m and the transition to the white sand layer
belongs to the upper layer. In addition, in depth
from 22 - 36.3m, the clay siltymixes the sandy silty
layers with gray black, gray brown, greenish gray
and many shells and many ruins of plants.
Based on survey routes, the authors found that
the study area of clayey soils type of Phu Bai
formation have wide distribution and those which
are directly involved in the construction of
buildings, it is necessary to research in a
comprehensive and careful researching when we
collect documents and incorporate additional drills
with construction consulting companies.
Although the clayey soils of the Phu Bai
Formation consists of many types (clay mud, silty
clay mud, plastic silty sand and liquid-plastic silty
clay)however, in this article the authors selected
clay mud as the main research object of
a)
Fig. 3. (a) Clay mud sample; (b) Vane shear test
4. Material composition of clay mud
The material compositions of the soil include:
grain composition, chemical composition, mineral
composition and organic matter content, not only
affect the consolidating properties of the soft soil,
but also have an important role in the selection,
proposal, design for soft soil treatment solutions.
535
engineering properties (material composition,
physico-mechanical properties).This is the most
common subject in the collection of samples for
laboratory testing as well as field testing. The
results of engineering properties of clay mud are
shown below.
3. Sampling
To meet the goal of the research, we have
collected data in many projects in this area and
have taken soil at many different positions.
Laboratory tests have mainly been done at
mechanical geology lab, Faculty of civil
Engineering, Hue University - Quang Tri Branch,
some at other labs in Hue city and Institute of
Hydrologyin Ha Noi [8]. Undrained shear strength
tests of clay mud (Undrained-unconsolidated
triaxial test, Consolidated-undrained triaxial test)
have been collected from many surveying
consultant firms in Hue [9]. The number of
research samples collected in locations: Hieu river
- Dong Ha (30), Thach Han river - Dong Ha (20),
Thanh Tien-Phu Vang (15), Phu Xuan - Phu Vang
(3), Vinh Tu - Quang Dien (10), Century hotel -
Hue city (5).
b)
The influence of minerals in the soil to reinforce
the intensity of soft soil have been studied by Hilt
and Davidson, 1960; Wissa et al.,1965 [6].
4.1. Grain composition
The results of particle analysis showed the
particle content > 2mm in clay mud is very low.
The clay particles are dominant. The major are
clay and silt particles in mud clay generated small
permeability which lengthens settlement of
construction, and simultaneous deaden uniform
ability of inorganic bond and soil mixing. Grain
composition of clay mud was tested by the
Tab. 1. The average value of grain composition
Grain composition,mm >2
Max 1.75
Min 0 33.4
Medium 0.875
4.2. Mineral compositions
The mineral compositions determine the
thickness and viscosity of diaphragm water
surrounding soil particle, thus affecting the
cohesive and shear strength of soil. Mineral
compositions are analyzed by X-ray method in
Center for Geological Experiment Analysis,
General Department of Geology and Minerals of
Vietnam. The mineral composition of the clay mud
is shown in table 2 and figure 4.
The results showed that the clay mud of Phu
Bai formation has mineral composition in the fine
dispersion mainly clay minerals. The popular clay
Fig. 4. Mineral compositions of clay mud
4.3. Chemical compositions
The chemical compositions of the clay mud
were analyzed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) at the
Institute of Geological Sciences. The concentration
of the major oxides in this soil includes: SiO2 from
51.15% to 58.25%, Al2O3 from 17.39 to
536
hydrometer method at mechanical geology lab,
Faculty of civil Engineering, Hue university -
Quang Tri Branch. The results of seed analysis are
shown in Table 1.
2÷0,05 0,05÷0,005 <0,005
34.3 20.5 45.2
26.7 39.9
33.85 23.6 42.55
minerals are Illit changed from 17-31%; kaolinit
changed 7-20% and clorit is from 4-8%. This
affects to plastic, swell and deformation properties
or treatment ability by inorganic bond of soils. The
coarse particle is mainly quartz. It changed from
24-49%.The soft soils are both continental and
marine origin (alluvial - marine - bog) so that they
contain all clay minerals (Illite, kaolinite). This
affects to plastic, swell and deformation properties
or treatment ability by inorganic bond of soils.
20.97%, content of T-Fe2O3 from 5.86 to 7.91%,
SO3 is 1.07 to 6.46%. The results are quite
consistent with the results of mineral soil analysis.
The chemical compositions of the clay mud are
shown in table 3 and figure 5.
 Tab. 2. Mineral compositions of clay mud

Mineral compositions (%)

Depth,
m
lllit Kaolinite Chloride Quartz Felspat Goethite Pyrite Other

11.1 17 - 19 7-9 4-6 47 - 49 3-5 4-6 7-9 Calcite

15.1 17 - 19 7-9 4-6 46 - 48 3-5 4-6 7-9 Calcite
9.9 29 - 31 17 - 19 6-8 24 - 26 2-4 3-5 7-9 T-high

27.3 22 - 24 18 - 20 5-7 29 - 31 3-5 3-5 2-4 4% Sid;

Tab. 3. Chemical compositions of clay mud

Content by distribution depth according to the mass (%)

No Compositions
11.1 m 15.1 m 9.9 m 27.3 m
1 SiO2 53.93 58.25 51.15 51.87
2 TiO2 0.95 1.00 0.83 0.97
3 Al2O3 17.39 17.79 19.80 20.97
4 T-Fe2O3 6.59 5.86 7.22 7.91
5 MnO 0.09 0.06 0.14 0.17
6 MgO 3.50 2.76 2.16 3.25
7 CaO 2.76 1.93 0.97 0.70
8 Na2O 1.01 0.37 0.67 0.09
9 K 2O 2.45 2.74 2.84 2.75
10 P2O5 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.12
11 SO3 6.46 4.71 6.19 1.07
12 MKN 11.05 8.97 13.98 11.03

Fig. 5. Chemical compositions of clay mud

537
 In addition, when analyzing the pH and organic
content of clay mud samples shown that pore
environment is alkaline, pH values range from 7.04
to 8.15. The organic content of Phu Bai formation
decreases with distribution depth from 11.4% (9.9
m) to 3.39% (27.3 m).
5. Physico-mechanical properties
5.1. Combination of physico-mechanical
properties
Typical physico-mechanical parameters of clay
mud were collected and coordinated with the
Institute of Hydrology. The testing results are
presented in table 4.
5.2. Consolidation characteristics of clay mud
Consolidated parameters have been determined
by standard consolidated compressive test.
Samples have been loaded every level with
monitoring time is 24 hours complied with
Vietnamese standard (TCVN4200:2012) [7].
Loading level are 0.125; 0.25; 0.5; 1.0; 2.0 and 4.0
kg/cm2 interval rate depended on soil state and
depth of sampling. Test results for mud clay which
is shown in table 5.
Test results for mud clay which is shown that:
Compressive index Cc varies from 0.316 to
0.428;
Unloading index Cs is 0.07 to 0.075;
Ratio Cc/Cs = 4.514 to 5.707;
Pre-consolidated pressure Pc varies from
38.246 to 77.473 kPa;
Compression coefficient av1-2 change from
5.01to11.57kPa-1;
Deformation modulus change from 887.502 to
1531.8 kPa;
There results shown that clay mud is very soft
and unconsolidated; pre-consolidated pressure is
small, the compressive coefficient. Therefore,
when the construction build will be sure the
persistence and stable of the process, need to the
attempt to a process and processing. Compressive
index Cc has relationship with physical properties:
natural moisture, liquid limit, initial void ratio.
In addition, from the results of physico-
mechanical value (Table 4), we calculate the
natural compression coefficient of clay mud (Kd)
by Briklonski, 1948.

Tab. 4. The value of physico-mechanical properties of clay mud (112 sample)

Properties
φ, degrees
γw,g/cm3

γs,g/cm3
γc,g/cm3

WL, %

N30
c, kPa
WP,%
W,%

Sr,%

IP,%
e0

3-
Max 87.6 1.6 0.98 2.67 2.405 99.6 84.0 46.7 37.3 1.61 7°32 14.42
4
Min 54.98 1.46 0.78 2.65 1.608 83.34 48.54 28.11 18.9 1.03 3°33 4.71 1-3
Medium 71.2 1.53 0.88 2.66 2.007 91.47 66.27 37.405 28.1 1.32 5°33 9.61 2-4
Note: W -Natural moisture (%); w -Natural mass density (g/cm ); γc- Dry mass density (g/cm ); γs-Mass density of soil
3 3

particle(g/cm3); e0-Initial void ratio Sr-Saturation degree (%); wL-liquid limit (%); wP-Plastic limit (%);-Internal friction angle
(degree); c-Cohesive force (kPa); N30- Standard penetration index.

538
 Tab. 5. Results determine compression parameters of clay mud consolidation (54 soil samples)
No Properties Symbol Unit Max Min Medium
1 Moisture content W % 68.54 59.87 64.17
2 Liquid limit WL % 61.24 46.89 54.065
3 Plastic limit WP % 34.88 29.47 32.175
4 Plasticity index IP - 27.13 17.42 22.275
5 Void ratio e0 - 1.9 1.685 1.793
6 Soil viscosity B - 1.77 1.27 1.52
7 Compression index Cc - 0,428 0,316 0,381
8 Swelling index Cs - 0,075 0,07 0,073
9 Ratio Cc/Cs - - 5.707 4.514 5.248
10 Preconsolidated pressure Pc kPa 77.473 38.246 61.684
-3 2
11 Consolidated coefficient Cv1-2.10 cm /s 0,227 0,222 0,226
-1
12 Compressive coefficient av1-2, kPa 11.57 5.01 8.287
13 Deformation modulus E0 kPa 1531.8 887.502 1209.65
14 Permeability Kv1-2.10-7 cm/s 0.107 0.096 0.985

Tab. 6. Kd value of clay mud of Phu Bai formation

Value Kd
Recipe Levelof compression
Max Min Medium
Kd = eL  e0 Kd<0: Uncropped soil, sediment and clay soil are in
eL  eP
-0.16 -0.595 -0.458
the early stages of formation; unconsolidated soil.
Note: eo, eL,ep: the void coefficient corresponds to the natural state, liquid state and plasticstate of soil. Under saturation
conditions: eL=WL.γs, eP=WP. γs, with WL, WP is liquid limit (%); plastic limit (%) γs is volumetric mass of the solid
particles unit (g/cm3)

5.3. Shear strength resistance in a shear box apparatus, ASTM D3080,

The underained shearing strength parameters
are determined by various tests on different
equipment and standards: Triaxial compression test
according to diagram UU: ASTM D2850 [1], BS
1377: Part 7: 1990: clause [2], confined
compression test: ASTM D2166, BS 1377: Part
7:1990: clause 7[1],[2], in-situ by Van shear test:
BS 1377: Part 9:1990: clause 4.4 [2], ASTM
D2573[1].
The shearing strength is determined by
consolidated-undrained triaxial compression test
with measurement of pore pressure (CU) on the
triaxial compression equipment made according to
standards such as: BS 1377: Part 8: 1990: clause 7;
laboratory method of determination of shear
AASHTO T236, BS 1377: Part 8: 1990: clause 4/5
[1], [2], [6].
We conducted the tests with the Hydraulic
Construction Institute and collected testing data
from engineering geological investigation of
companies in this area [9]. The results are shown in
the table 7 and 8.
Table 7, 8 indicates that undrained shear
strength of clay mud is small. Comparative
experimental diagrams show that, the undrained
shear strength of clay mud has the greatest value
for Vane shear test(τ = Su = 32.36 kPa), next to the
triaxial compression UU (C = 8.83kPa). When the
soil has consolidated, the shear strength increases
significantly.

539
 Tab. 7. Vane shear test of clay mud (16 soil samples)
Shear strength, Su (kPa) Sensitivity index, Sr
Max 32.36 4.64
Min 13.73 2.38
Medium 23.05 3.51

Tab. 8. Undrained shear strength of clay mud

Testingmethods Targets Unit Value
Cuu kPa 8.83
Undrained-unconsolidated triaxial test
uu degree 0000’
Ccu kPa 10.4
cu degree 10051’
Consolidated-undrained triaxial test
C’cu kPa 9.02
'cu degree 16020’
Unconfined compression test C kPa 15.69

6. Conclusion with the depth of distribution (OC = 11.4% at 9.9

1. Multi-origin clay mud of Phu Bai Formation
in Quang Tri and Thua Thien Hue plain distribute
irregularly. Thickness change in wide range and
almost not expose to the surface, soils are not
compressed tight enough, just the first phase of
sediment rock formation process. Thus, these are
inconvenient object affecting planning, designing
of construction engineering
2. Soil composition are mainly fine particle,
clay and silt content predominate that will decrease
permeability, lengthen settlement time of
embankment. Besides, the popular of illite
influences to plastic, swell and deformation
properties of soils as well as affect to soil treating
ability by inorganic bandon method.
3.This soil is in alkaline condition (pH > 7)
with the clay minerals comprising of Illite (17 -
21%), Kaolinite (7 - 20%), Chlorite (6 - 8%) and
Quartz is the main composition of crude
dispersions (24 - 49%). The chemical compositions
are mainly composed of SiO2 (51.15 - 58.25%),
Al2O3 (17.39 - 20.97%) and MKN (8.97 -
13.98%).In addition, most of the samples show that
the soil contains organic matter, the organic
content in the soil is high. The organic content of
clay mud consituting Phu Bai formation decreases
meters decreasing to about 3.39% at 27.3
meters),influence of physico-mechanical
properties, as well as the quality of soil
improvement by cement.When researching or
investigating the engineering geology of the Quang
Tri and Thua Thien Hue plain, it is necessary to
determine the organic matter in this soil.
4. Clay mud is not compacted (Kd<0), contains
organic matter, strong compression
strength,compression coefficient and compressive
index in all samples were greater than 0.1,the
compression coefficient is small, ranging from
approximately 38.246 to 77.473 kPa.
5. Undrained shear strength from van shear test
and triaxial compression test in the study area
showed that the studied soil was not favorable for
the construction of the facility, and the research
testing could serve for the audit of the stability of
the foundation.The undrained shear strength of
clay mud has the greatest value for Vane shear test
(τ = Su = 32.36 kPa), next to the triaxial
compression UU (C = 8.83kPa). When the soil has
consolidated, the shear strength increases
significantly.

540
References
[1] ASTM Standards Book of Standards, 2003.
Volume 04.08, Soil and Rock (I): D420 -
D5779.
[2] BS 1377:1990. Methods of Test for civil
engineering purposes.
[3] Kenneth, H., 1986. Manual of Soil Laboratory
Testing, Volume 3: Effective Stress Tests,
London: Pen tech Press Limited.
[4] Thi Thanh Nhan, N., 2004. Research on the
physico-mechanical properties of under-
between Holocene sedimentary formation,
river-sea-bog origination (ambQ21-2) and their
improvement by sand piles for construction of
civil works in the Thua Thien Hue coastal
plain, Postgraduate Master of Science, Hue
University of Sciences.
[5] Thi Nu, N., 2012. “Shear strength
characteristics of clayey soft soil amQ22-3
distributed in Cuulong plain,” Science &
Technology Mining Geology Journal42,
April.2013, p.36.
[6] Schifano, V., Thurston, N., 2010.
541
“Remediation of a clay contaminated with
petroleum hydrocarbons using soil reagent
mixing,” Proceedings of the Annual
International Conference on Soils, Sediments,
Water and Energy 12, P. 272.
[7] TCVN 4200:2012. Construction soil-Method
of determination on laboratory compressive
test, Soil Engineering.
[8] Coordinated sampling and collecting firms:
“The dam project of the Hieu river in Quang
Tri”, Investment Management Board and
irrigation construction 5.
[9] Engineering geological documents of:
“Vietnam My A hot spring project; Cho Mai
street project-Tan My; Duong Van An street
project”, Hue general traffic design consulting
joint stock company.
 SOFT SOIL IMPROVEMENT WITH CEMENT AND FLY ASH IN VIETNAM

Chu Long Hai 1, Nguyen Chau Lan 2, Hoang Duc Chi 1, Nguyen Vinh 1, Nhu Tuan 1
1
Faculty of International Education, UTC, Vietnam.
2
Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory, UTC, Vietnam.
Corresponding author’ Email: quangthanh06hl@gmail.com

Abstract: Fly ash, generated in vast quantities as a by-product of burning coal at electronic power
plants, is a considerable threat to environment in Vietnam. In this study, various tests were carried out in
order to evaluate the suitability of utilizing fly ash for soft soil treatment. The unconfined compressive
strength and swelling property of soft soil treated with 3%, 5%, 7% cement and 20% fly ash were
determined. Besides, the relevant microstructural changes due to strength development were observed by
conducting scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) and X-ray
diffraction (XRD). As a result of these tests, it is confirmed that mixture of cement and fly ash can be
potentially used as solution in soft clay treatment, especially soil treated with 5% cement and 20% fly ash
is more suitable solution.

Keywords: soft soils; sand-cement-lime column; bearing capacity; settlement.

1. Introduction necessary due to the rapid development of

Soft soil typically characterized as a soil with
low shear strength, highly compressible and low
permeability (Mohamad, 2015). The shear strength
of the soft soil is reported to be less than 40 kPa
and it can be physically molded by light finger
pressure. Generally, construction problems in this
soil are insufficient bearing capacity, excessive
post construction settlement and instability on
excavation and embankment forming.
Theoretically, settlement problem can be defined
as a deformation in the soil due to the applied
stresses. As a result of settlement, the geometry of
load carrying system will be changed, and if the
ground water level is high, a part of the fill
material will become buoyancy which will
influence the total surcharge loading and the
stability of the soil.
In addition, Mekong River Delta (MRD) has
one of the most extensive soft clay deposits in the
world (Quang and Giao, 2014). In Vietnam, almost
big projects are located on MRD, Red River Delta
(RRD) and the coastal areas. The soil in these areas
often consists of thick layers of soft clay or silts.
Thus, a technically and economically effective
approach to improving soft natural ground and
minimizing incidents is extremely important and
constructions in Vietnam conditions. Soil
stabilization is a technique introduced a number of
years ago in order to render the soil capable of
meeting the requirements of specific engineering
projects. More specifically, soil stabilization is
recommended to aid the engineer in being able to
employ the natural soil of a project’s site as an
engineering material with specific properties,
especially strength, volume stability, permeability
and durability. Stabilization of subgrade soil has
traditionally relied on treatment with lime, cement,
and special additives such as pozzolanic materials.
One of the most popular soil stabilization
method is cement stabilization. Cement
stabilization of soil is performed by mixing
pulverized soil and cement with water and by
compacting the mixture. Presence of water causes
hydration of cement particles which grow into
crystals that interlock with one another. In order to
achieve a successful bonding, the cement particles
need to coat most of the soil particles so that upon
hydration a crystalline structure is created
throughout the mixture.
The manufacture of 1 tons of PC (Portland
Cement) assumes the consumption of 1.5 tons of
quarry material, energy consumption of 5.6

542
GJ/tons and a CO2 emission of approximately 0.9 Thus, this study is an attempt to assess the use of a
tons (Brian O’Rourke et al., 2009). Thus, due to waste material, fly ash, and cement as a potential
the high cost and negative environmental impact of highway material in various percentages ranging
cement production, researchers have been driven to from 03, 05, and 07%.
find alternative materials to replace or decrease the 2. Materials and Methods
use of PC in the concrete industry. The reuse of Materials
waste materials, such as fly ash (FA) or ground The undisturbed soil samples were collected
blast furnace slag (GBFS), in highway from drill holes in Cao Lanh city, Dong Thap
construction, has a significant potential to province. These samples, after collected and
minimize the amount of disposed waste materials removed the top soil, were coated with plastic tube
(Baykal, 1997). They also improve some of in order to keep the moisture content unchanged.
physical and engineering properties of soft soils Then, soil samples were transported to the
dependent on their specific surface area and laboratory to determine the physical and
fineness which causes in decrease the cohesion and mechanical properties in Geotechnical Laboratory
increase the density for soft soils as indicated in at University of Transportation and
recent research projects (Cetin and Aydilek, 2013). Communications.
On the other hand, many researchers have used Portland cement Vicem But Son (PC40
waste materials as SCM in soil stabilization to conforming to Vietnamese standard TCVN
reduce the use of PC and to boost the hydration 2682:1999 and is similar to CEM I42.5R
reactivity dependent on the pozzolanic reaction of conforming to DIN EN 197-1), and fly ash were
these materials. Bumjoo et al. (2005) studied the used in this study. Fly ash is a by-product of pre-
suitability of fly and bottom ash mixture in selection and is taken from Vung Ang Thermal
highway embankment construction. In this study, it Power Plant, Ha Tinh province. The main physical
was found that the optimum water content (OMC) properties and the chemical composition of
increased, while the maximum dry density (MDD) admixtures (cement PC 40 and fly ash) are
decreased, as the FA content was increased from summarized in Table 1.
50% to 100%. Das and Yudhbir (2005) state that
the additional strength gained by utilizing cement Tab. 1. Main physical properties and chemical
or lime is an indication of the FA pozzolanic composition of PC 40 and fly ash.
reactivity, which depends on the carbon content,
Admixtures PC 40 Fly Ash
the fineness and also the quality and quantity of
Parameters (FA)
glassy phase present in the FA. It is highly
dependable on the pozzolan content of each ash, SiO2 (%) 21.49 53.88
the degree of self-cementing property of Class C Al2O3 (%) 05.40 21.82
fly ash (Little and Nair, 2009). Another advantage Fe2O3 (%) 03.49 06.70
of using fly ash and cement together is that it can
help in containing the leachate of heavy metals. In CaO (%) 63.56 04.27
another article, Kaniraj and Havanagi explain that MgO (%) 01.40 01.45
there is a significant gain in strength (particularly
SO3 (%) 01.65 00.20
in the case of class F fly ash) even with a small
addition of cement, and the gain depends on the Na2O (%) 00.15 00.67
cement content and curing time. K2O (%) 00.70 03.40
In Vietnam, there are some researches on the
reinforcement of local soil materials by fly ash MKN (%) - 06.27
cement to construct road-bed (Huong, 2017; Thuy LOI (%) 01.20 06.27
et al.), or stabilization soil in the riverside dike by
Mean particle size (μm) 14.6791 29.42781
cement and fly ash as a highway material (Trong et
al., 2017). However, there is not any study to
research carefully about the suitable proportion of
cement-fly ash mixed with soil for highway
construction in real environment in Viet Nam.

543
 Methods Tab. 2. Test methods according to ASTM and
In this research, soil samples before and after TCVN Standards
mixing were conducted to determine main physical Tests Referred Standard
and mechanical properties according to ASTM and Unit Weight ASTM D 2937 – 00
TCVN standard (see Table 2). Moreover, method Water Content ASTM D2216 – 80
of Laser Light Scattering analysis on Horiba LA Atterberg Limits TCVN 4197 – 2012
950 were used to determine the graduation of soil, Particle Size Analysis N/A
cement PC 40, and fly ash. Standard Compaction ASTM D698 – 78
In the scope of this paper, automatic Unconfined ompressive ASTM D2166 – 06
compaction was applied for compaction test. Soil One-Dimensional
Strength Swell ASTM D4546 – 14
sample was compacted by automatic rammer with Scanning Electron ASTM E2809 – 13
of Soils
the number of drops of the rammer equal 25 blows X-ray Diffraction
Microscopy/ X-Ray N/A
and soil was divided to 3 layers as Proctor standard
in agreement with ASTM D 0698. After Spectrometry
conducting soil sample without admixtures in
automatic compaction test, this test was also
conducted with soil samples mixing with cement
of 3%, 5%, 7%; and cement of 3%, 5%, 7% and
20% fly ash; respectively. Then, the compacted
samples were cured and conducted unconfined
compressive strength at 07, 14, and 28 days in
agreement with ASTM D 2166. Besides,
compacted samples were also cured for taking into
small molds to test the one-dimensional swell
property.
In addition, XRD analysis was conducted on fly
ash, untreated soil sample, soil samples treated
with 20% fly ash and 3%, 5%, 7% at 07, 14 and 28
days. After running the unconfined compression
test, the specimens were stored at a constant
temperature of 800C in an oven for 24 h for air- Fig. 1. Unconfined compression equipment
drying. Then, a piece of each specimen around the Cement PC40
core was taken and grounded to powder with a Soil
Fly ash
100
maximum particle size smaller than 75 μm.
Percent passing (% by weight)

Parameters (using Siemens D5005 with Cu 80

radiation (Kα1,2)) during these measurements

60
involve voltage 40 kV, current 30 mA, leap 0.02,
downtime 0.3s, and scanning range with 2θ from 40

0° to 70°. The obtained XRD schema was

separated to diffraction peaks and was analyzed 20

single line by using MDI Jade 5.0 software. The d

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
values obtained were compared with the Diameter (µm)
ICDD/JCPDS data system to identify minerals. For
SEM/EDX analysis, it was conducted in Scanning
Electron Microscope machine – model NANO- Fig. 2. Grain size distribution curve of untreated
SEM450 – Netherlands for soil sample treated with soil, cement PC 40, and fly ash
20% fly ash and 5% cement at 28 days.

544
3. Results and Discussion of fly ash was still remaining in three samples
Physical Property Results because of high water absorption of the fly ash.
The grain size distribution curve is shown in
Fig. 2. In addition, physical test results of untreated
soil also are presented as in Table 3.
1.85

Tab. 3. Physical property results of untreated soil 1.80

Main properties Unit Result 1.75

Dry density (g/cm )

3
1.70
Unit weight g/cm3 1.784
1.65

3
Dry unit weight g/cm 0.767 1.60

1.55

Water content % 56.984 1.50

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Liquid limit % 51.458 Actual water content (%)

Plastic limit % 31.881 Fig. 3. Automatic compaction curve for treated and
untreated soil samples
Plasticity index 19.577

Maximum dry density g/cm3 1.779

Optimum water content % 17.502

Maximum UCS MPa 2.700

Automatic Compaction Results

The result of automatic compaction test for soil
sample without admixtures is shown in Fig. 3.
From this figure, it is clear that the more increasing
additive the more decreased maximum dry density
(MDD) in the samples. The untreated compacted
soil had the biggest MDD (1.7791 g/cm3) while the
mixture of 7% cement and 20% fly ash had the
smallest MDD (1.5540 g/cm3). It could be
explained that the weight of fly ash and cement are
lighter than soil. The only exception when rose the
amount of cement of cement samples from 3% to
7%, the MDD of 3% sample improved from
1.6556 g/cm3 to 1.6821 g/cm3 in 7% sample. The
reason is a hydrated lime inside the samples made
the samples heavier. On the other hand, all the
treated soil samples had a higher optimum
moisture content compare to the normal compacted
soil (17.502%). However, when added more
cement into the cement samples, the OMC of
samples lost from 20.819% to 17.941%, but in the
mixture of cement and fly ash, the OMC improved
when the amount of cement increasing; the amount
Fig. 4. Length change due to cement content of
untreated and treated soil samples in One-
Dimensional Swell
One-dimensional Swell Results
According to Vietnam Standard (TCVN
10379:2014), swelling property of soil to use as
highway materials is smaller than 3%.; thus; the
untreated soil sample is not accepted for
construction highway materials. Fig. 4 shows that
the mixtures of soil and cement had a bigger length
change compare to the other mixtures. The length
changes of 3% cement, 5% cement, 7% cement
samples are 10%, 12%, 16% respectively. For the
cement mixed with fly ash samples, the 5% cement
and 20% fly ash had the smallest length change
(4%). 7% cement and 20% fly ash got 2% while

545
3% cement, 20% fly ash was the smallest with 1%
length change. ODS decreases significantly with
an increase in the fly ash content (Arvind Kumar
Jha et al., 2017). Further, one-dimensional swell of
the soil–fly ash mix increases with cement
treatment. This is due to the flocculation of soil
particles and the formation of cementitious
than the 14 days one, and the 7 days was the
smallest with 7.20 MPa. The axial strain of 3
mixtures are also not similar when the 7 day-
percentage was three times of 28 days one.
a)
18000

16000
compounds of gel type. However, the dominant

Compressive stress (kPa)

14000
effect of substitution of finer particles by coarser
12000
particles results in a reduction in ODS with an
10000
increase in fly ash content. The soil–cement mix,
8000
in the presence of varying gypsum content, shows
6000
a reduction in ODS with an increase in fly ash
4000
content. Availability of additional calcium present 2000
in gypsum enhances the flocculation process and 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
suppresses the effect of coarser particles with
Axial strain (%)
lower fly ash content. Despite the flocculation
process, the possibility of rapid formation of the
hydrous ettringite mineral causes an increase in
pore size (Kaniraj and Havanagi; Kolias et al., b) a
2005). 18000
)
Unconfined Compression Strength Results 16000
The UCS results of untreated soil, soil treated
Compressive stress (kPa)

14000
with cement of 3%, 5%, 7%, and soil treated with 12000

cement of 3%, 5%, 7%, and 20% fly ash at 07, 14, 10000

28 days are shown in Fig. 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3, 8000

respectively. In Fig. 5, the 28 days mixed soil from 6000

both figures have the shortest displacement before 4000

it was broken. The 7 day-mixtures can also sustain 2000

the smallest compressive stress compare to the 0

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

other mixture. On the other hand, the 28 day- Axial strain (%)
samples reached the highest compressive stress,
especially in soil, cement and fly ash, when it got Fig. 5.2. Comparison compressive stress and axial
14.41 MPa which means 4.0 MPa higher than the train of soil samples at 14 days
mixture of only cement. Moreover, the
compressive stress and the axial strain of the c)
18000
cement, fly ash samples do not have a huge 16000

different in the amount. The 7 day-sample reached

Compressive stress (kPa)

14000

14.69 MPa, while the two others were 12000

10000
approximately 15.50 MPa. In spite of that the
8000

compressive strength of the cement - soil samples 6000

are totally difference. The 7 days, 14 days, 28 days 4000

got 6.56 MPa, 8.60 MPa, and 9.90 MPa 2000

0
respectively. 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Axial strain (%)

In addition, the compressive stress of the
cement, fly ash samples were around 16.00 MPa.
Their axial train was also 0.58 %. However, the
samples of cement had the different levels in both
factors. The strength of 28 day-sample was higher
Fig. 5.3. Comparison compressive stress and axial
train of soil samples: A) at 07 days, B) at 14 days,
C) at 28 days

546

Fig. 6. UCS Images of soil sample treated with
cement at 14 days
Fig. 7. UCS Images of soil sample treated with
cement and fly ash at 07 days
To sum up, the mixture of both soil, cement and
soil, cement, fly ash increased the strength of soil.
The reason for this improvement, it is because of
the hydrated lime in the samples. In comparison to
the sample of cement and soil, the sample of soil,
cement and fly ash is stronger in the same day and
same amount of the mixture. With the increase in
cement percentage, in cement, fly ash samples, the
strength of them grew slightly. The strength
improvement is slowdown when added more 2%
cement from 5% cement and 20% fly ash.
Moreover, the different level of strength in days of
5% cement, 20% fly ash and 7% cement, 20% fly
ash was quite narrow while there was a huge
difference in 3% cement, 20% fly ash samples.
With the similar soil, the report of Huong (2017)
showed that the UCS of soil sample treated with
15% fly ash and 10% cement at 28 days was
approximately 11.06 MPa. Trong et al. (2017) also
showed that the UCS of soil treated with 6%
cement at 28 days cured in environment of greater
547
than 90% relative humidity was about 1.85÷2.0
MPa.
XRD and SEM/EDX Analysis Results
XRD tests were performed in fly ash, untreated
soil and treated soil with 20% fly ash along with
different cement content. The diffraction patterns
from these tests indicated that the major crystalline
phases present are quartz, muscovite, and kaolinite.
The significant differences observed in the
untreated soil and treated soil samples are quartz
(SiO2) and kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) as shown by
the results. As shown in Table 4, quartz content
increased with increasing of cement content and
curing times (excepted that the difference in soil
sample treated with 7% cement and 20% fly ash at
28 days is because of minor errors during
measurement). In contrast, kaolinite content
decreased with increasing of cement content, and
was almost unchanged due to curing time. Due to
an increasing of quartz development with time and
cement content, it cannot be denied that quartz is
principally responsible for the strength
development of the stabilized clay.
In Fig. 8, gypsum, ettringite, pyrite and some
cementitious compounds such as CSH (calcium
silicate hydrate, H6Ca3O10Si2), C3S (tricalcium
silicate, Ca3SiO5), C2S (dicalcium silicate,
Ca2SiO4), etc. were not detected. Absence of
calcium sulftae-type materials (mainly gypsum and
ettringite) indicates that no calcium sulfate
reactions occurred on samples and caused
swelling. This finding rules out the possibility that
the pyrite oxidation occurred and contributed to
soil swelling. Besides, montmorillonite was not
detected. Montmorillonite is an aluminum silicate
clay mineral that will absorb water and swell.
Whereas, kaolinite is low elasticity and low cation
exchange capacity. Thus, it seems that XRD
analysis was agreeable with the results from the
UCS and One-dimensional swelling tests. The
most noticeable difference between the
combination of cement-fly ash stabilized soil
samples and non-stabilized soil sample obtained
was the presence of calcium (Ca), kalium (K),
oxygen (O) in the stabilized samples, as shown in
Fig. 9. This is expected because calcium is a
principal components of cement, CaO (or reaction
product of CaO and H2O, Ca(OH)2). Kalium
content decreased with increasing of cement
content, meanwhile oxygen content and calcium A
B
content increased with increasing of cement C
D
content. Besides, the presence percentage of small E
F
amounts of others elements such as: carbon (C), G

magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), silicium (Si), G

titanium (Ti), ferrum (Fe), natrium (Na), and
F
chlorum (Cl) is different in different samples.
However, these differences of such element E
percentage in each samples are infinitesimal or are A D
not follow any rules; thus, it is assumed that these C
differences do not effect on main mechanical and B
physical properties of each samples.
A

Fig. 8. XRD results of fly ash, untreated and

treated soil with cement and 20% fly ash

Tab. 4. Percentage of minerals from XRD analysis of fly ash, untreated and treated soil with cement and
20% fly ash

5% C- 5% C-
Fly Untreated 3% C- 5% C- 7% C-
07 14
ash Soil 28 days 28days 28days
days days
Hematite: Fe2O3 0.00 0.93 0.90 0.87 1.32 1.35 1.11
Chlorite: Mg2Al3-
0.00 3.42 3.25 1.83 3.98 2.44 2.43
(Si3Al)O10(O)8
Kaolinite: Al2Si2O5(OH)4 0.84 7.99 5.06 2.46 3.15 2.67 3.87
Clinochlore:
1.21 4.13 4.07 3.63 5.15 4.06 5.02
Mg5Al(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8
Muscovite: H2KAl3(SiO4)3 0.00 6.58 7.00 6.91 7.11 5.71 6.72
Quartz, syn: SiO2 56.23 71.19 78.74 83.91 84.55 91.06 87.32
Triplite: (MnFe)2PO4(F,OH) 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.40 0.00 2.49 1.22
Mullite: 3Al2O3.2Si3O2 15.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Tab. 5. Percentage of minerals from EDX analysis of fly ash, untreated and treated soil with cement and
20% fly ash

% Element % Atomic
Untreated 3% C - 5% C - 7% C - Untreated 3% C - 5% C - 7% C -
Element
soil 28days 28days 28days soil 28days 28days 28days
CK 3.48 4.37 3.08 2.28 6.20 7.65 5.43 3.80
OK 42.80 43.62 45.82 55.24 57.18 57.38 60.56 69.02
Mg K 0.22 0.17 0.20 0.28 0.20 0.15 0.17 0.23
Al K 11.46 7.29 9.91 5.74 9.08 5.69 7.77 4.25
Si K 23.95 20.10 23.90 20.44 18.23 15.07 17.99 14.55
KK 9.04 4.10 3.79 2.41 4.94 2.21 2.05 1.23
Ca K 3.07 4.49 8.07 9.46 1.62 2.39 4.00 4.97

548
Ti K 0.59 0.51 1.94 0.39 0.27 0.22 0.86 0.16
Fe K 3.96 2.62 7.23 2.80 1.52 0.99 2.74 1.00
Na K 0.00 3.35 0.56 1.30 0.00 3.07 0.51 1.13
Cl K 0.00 4.41 0.50 1.09 0.00 2.62 0.30 0.61
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Fig. 9. EDX results of fly ash, untreated and treated soil with cement and fly ash

Fig. 10. SEM images of soil treated with 5% cement and 20% fly ash at 28 days in this study

549
 When using Portland cement (PC) to stabilize
soil, the major hydration product is CSH, which
wraps around and binds together the soil particles
to form a structure that contributes strength to
stabilized soil (Arvind Kumar Jha et al., 2017). By
using stabilizer containing gypsum (CaSO4.H2O)
and alumina-bearing phases to stabilize some kinds
of soil, ettringite can be formed in the stabilized
soil, and the volume expansion that occurs during
the formation of ettringite can fill the pores in the
soil, and further improve the final strength.
However, by observation in SEM images and
comparison with SEM images in others high
reputation-international reports, it is clear that with
soil treated with 5% cement and 20% fly ash at 28
days, the presence in sample consists of fly ash
particle (circular form with mean size = 29.42781
μm), soil particle (circular form with mean size =
6.76841 μm), binding of fly ash particles
(amorphous form with dark color), and
cementitious gel between particles (amorphous
form with light color). The absence of the ettringite
is explained clearly in EDX results that amounts of
sulfur (S) was not detected in all samples. The
presence of sulfur is signigficant because sulfates
could form when the sulfur is oxidized. If the
sulfate quantity is large enough, and calcium is
present in a basic high pH environment, gypsum
and other calcium-sulfur based minerals such as
ettringite, can form. Further, consumption of
sulfate in the formation of ettringite also causes a
consequent release of silica which leads to the
formation of sufficient amounts of CSH and CASH
gel. The formation of ettringite within the soil–fly
ash matrix shows a compacted and reinforced
matrix by the binding of particles and the filling of
voids. This supports the fact that formation of
ettringite controls the improvement in strength
(Das S.K and Yudhbir, 2005). This is in the
agreement with the absence ettringite crystals in
both SEM images and XRD analysis (Fig. 10)
resulting in an improvement in strength with
curing periods. Besides, ferrum and sulfur can
form pyrite (FeS). The oxidation of pyrite has been
a factor in the swelling in building subgrades,
where crushed cement stone has been placed
between a concrete slab and fill material
containing pyrite. These SEM/EDX results are also
reasonable explanations for the increase in strength
557
and limitation of swelling for soil samples
treatment with cement, especially when mixed
with fly ash.
4. Conclusions
This research is conducted to evaluate the
strength development and the microstructure of
soft soil treated with cement and fly ash. By
comparing the properties of clay soil before and
after treated with cement of 3%, 5%, 7%; and
treated with cement of 3%, 5%, 7% and 20% fly
ash, there are some important conclusions have
been given as below:
The soil treated with mixture of both fly ash
and cement has higher unconfined compressive
strength and lower value in one-dimensional swell
by comparison with soil treated with only cement,
especially when combining with 5% cement and
20% fly ash.
The XRD analysis results revealed that the
primary crystal (quartz) played a role in the
increase in the clay strength in Vietnam condition.
Although the reaction/hydration products or
cementitious compounds, i.e. CSH, CAH,
ettringite, etc. have an influence in the soil
strength, they were not detected in XRD patterns.
The mixture of cement and fly ash can be
potentially used as solution in soft clay treatment,
especially soil treated with 5% cement and 20% fly
ash is more suitable solution.
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 SOFT SOIL IMPROVEMENT IN THE 2/9 ROAD (EXTENSION) PROJECT,
VINH LONG TOWN, VINH LONG PROVINCE
Thai Ba Ngoc, Tran Van Xuan, Hoang Quang Trung Phi, Luong Bao Minh,
Truong Xuan Hien, Vo The Anh
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: tbngoc@hcmut.edu.vn

Abstract: According to the survey results, the stratigraphy of the area is characterized by the
Holocene sediments of the Quaternary covering the entire survey surface with average thickness of 15m.
These sediments are represented by soft soil clay layer, liquid state, high compressibility with low load
intensity, this is the main cause of unstable for construction on it. The layer has a large thickness with the
distribution cover throughout the route. Therefore, without applying treatment measure, the construction
builds up on the surface of this area is either difficult or impossible. The article discusses the design
option and soft soil treatment, by using method of prefabrication vertical drain (PVD), sand drains
combined with pre-loading, sand piles and application to soft soil treatment at the project 2/9 Road
(extension), Vinh Long town, Vinh Long province. Based on three aspects: technical, construction and
economic measures the paper proposed the best treatment for unconstructed soil in this area to ensure the
settlement construction rate in accordance with the test time also the shortest and the most effective cost
of construction. It can be seen that the total cost of treating the soil in this structure by sand piles is 5.85
times of PVD and 4.36 times of sand drain, the sand drain is 1.34 times the cost of treatment with PVD,
furthermore the time of foundation settlement of the method of PVD is less than of sand drain method 85
days, therefore PVD is the most suitable method for soft soil improvement. Based on the geotechnical,
economic and technical condition and the conditions of construction permit, it is suggested to choose the
combination of pre-mixed PVD for the treatment of soft foundation for 2/9 Road (extension) project, the
distance between the PVD is 1m, the arrangement is in triangles, the time for embankment and soil
consolidation to 90% is 475 days (16 months) to ensure the conditions of stability, settlement and high
economic efficiency.

Keywords: prefabrication vertical drain (PVD); sand drain; sand pile; pre-loading; settlement.

1. Characteristics of the soil 1.2. Soil characteristics

1.1. Overview of the survey, study area Based on the survey results in the field and
Survey area is located in the 2/9 extended road laboratory test, stratigraphic survey area can be
(segment Nguyen Hue Street - 53 Highway) of divided into the following soil layers in sequence
Vinh Long town, Vinh Long Province with the from top to bottom:
following characteristics:
Tab. 1. Summary of Physio - mechanical properties
Physio- mechanical properties Layer1 Layer2
-Sieve analysis: %
+ Gravel % 0,1 9,2
+ Sand % 23,7 28,8
+ Silt % 35,5 19,2
+ Clay % 40,7 42,7
- Water content, W % 51,94 24,74

552
 - Unit weight, γW g/cm3 1,66 1,95
- Dry weight, γd g/cm3 1,09 1,56
- Specific gravity, Δ g/cm3 2,70 2,72
- Void ratio, e 1,477 0,744
- Degree of saturation, G % 95 90
-Atterberg limits:
+ Liquid limit, WL % 45,0 35,2
+ Plastic limit, WP % 24,0 18,2
+ Plasticity index, IP % 21,0 17,0
-Liquidity index, IL 1,33 0,38
- Compression Coefficient a0.5 – 1 cm2/kG 0,166 0,036
- Compression modulus E0,5 – 1 kG/cm2 7,89 20,56
- Cohesion C kG/cm2 0,058 0,2
- Internal friction angle φ Degree 4017’ 12000’
- Undrained cohesive force, Cohesion (UU) CU kPa 6,4 –
- Undrained internal friction angle (UU) φUU 4000’ –
- Drained internal friction angle (CU) φCU Degree 18053’ –
- Drained cohesive force (CU) Cohesion CCU Degree kPa 12,3 –
- Vertical Coefficient of consolidation CV 1,0 – 2,0 10-3 cm2/s 0,316 0,250
- Compression index Cc 0,716 0,14
- Re Compression index Cr 0,093 0,027
- Pre-consolidated pressure PC kG/cm2 0,659 2,971

Layer A: Backfilling Sand with, vegetation,
mud; Layer 1: Composed of mud with clay and
Layer 2: hard plastic clay.
The mechanical indicators calculated by the
method of mathematical statistics (coefficient of
variation, standard deviation). Internal friction
angle and cohesion determined by the least squares
method. The calculated value is determined by two
limit states: The first limit status: with α1 = 0.95:
calculate the ground under the load capacity and
the second limit state: with α2 = 0.85: calculate the
ground under strain.
The cohesion and internal friction angle
parameters of layer 1 be determined by vane shear
test at the field: φ = φu = 0, CU = 0,145 kG/cm2 =
14,5 KN/m2 = 1,45(T/m2).
Based on the table above mechanical synthesis
we can see that: This area stratigraphy is
characterized by Holocene sediments of
Quaternary cover the entire ground survey with
average thickness 15m. These sediments
represented by mud with clay (1), liquid state, this
is soft soil, high deflection compression, very low
load capacity is a major cause destabilizing for
construction on it. This layer has a thickness of
large, distributed over the entire route. So in the
design process, if using class 1 bearing layers
should consider more carefully as well as the use
of the road-improvement solutions to increase the
load capacity for projects such as piles of sand,
sand pit, PVD. Soil distribution layer beneath the
aged Pleistocene mud with clay is hard plastic
clay, brown - yellowish gray, this is the soil has a
high load capacity, should design drying pile set in
this class with a depth of piles instead change
depending on the load requirements of the project.
2. Calculation and design
Soil parameters
In fact, given the design parameters for roads
depends on many factors, requires assurance
requirements for traffic, traffic density, vehicle
density, as well as requirements for surge, flood
inundation season ...
Geometrical characteristics of the road (figure
1):
Parameters of Soil
+ According to the preliminary design, the
height of embankment is selected higher than

553
 natural ground elevation: H = 4m. Width of
Pavement 12 m, width of bottom embankment B =
24m. Talus slope 1:1,5. Density of Soil roadbed γ
= 19 KN/m3 = 1,9 T/m3. Cohesion C = 0 KN/m2.
Internal friction angle φ = 250.
Load calculation of Backfilling Soil
Vehicle load intensity follow 22 TCN 262-2000
Standard regarded as a soil embankment with a
height hx is calculated by the following formula:
nG 4  30
hx  hx   0,80 (m) (1)
  B  l 1,9 11,9  6, 6
With:
Fig. 1. Typical geometry of the road
B’ – the horizontal distribution width of the car
(m) is determined by the following formula:
B'  n  b   n  1 d  e
B'  4 1,8  (4 1) 1,3  0,8  11,9 (m) < 12 (m) (2)
Among them: b, d, e are the coefficients
defined as figure 2; n is selected maximum but
have to ensure B calculated using the formula
above is still smaller than the width of the roadbed;
Fig . 2. Diagram ranked vehicle for determining
vehicle load exerted on soft soil
The intensity of the load in the center ground of
the embankment caused by:
2 Ha = 25m.
q1   d  H  1,9  4  7,6 (T/m ).
The intensity of the load from vehicles:
2
q2   d  hx  1,9  0,80  1,5 (T/m )
554
G – vehicle weight (T) (normally we take the
load of the vehicle with the greatest load on the
road-going G = 30T);
n – The number of vehicles to be loaded on
roadbed width (designated n = 4). The car park
diagram in Figure 2;
γ – density of the backfilling soil (T/m3);
l – the length of the vehicle (m) (distance
between front and rear wheels. For car G = 30T we
take l = 6.6 m);
1,95
g/cm³ kG/cm²
1,66
g/cm³ kG/cm²
1,95
g/cm³ kG/cm²
Load intensity at the center caused the roadbed:
2
qtt  q1  q2  7,6  1,5  9,1 (T/m ).
Identify cohesive regional activities
Determine the influence depth (Ha) follow rules
TCVN 9355:2012
The active area of consolidation is determined
from the bottom of the embankment to a depth that
[3]:
 z   0,1  0, 2   vz
(3)
σz – compressive stress due to building caused;
σvz – compressive stress due to the load of the soil
itself above cause in the natural state;
Because of the importance of building up here
compressible selected depth (Ha) in depth σz = 0,2
σvz.
Hence the influence depth is established
hereinafter (tables 2):
So the depth of operational consolidation area is
Calculating subsidence
Within the scope of the operational
consolidation area (Ha = 25m from the bottom of
 Tab. 2. Spreadsheet of influence depth (Ha)
Thick-ness Depth Z σz = I  qtt σz / σvz
Soil Layer a/z b/z I /2 I σvz (T/m2)
(m) (m) (T/m2)
2.000 1.00 6.000 6.000 0.500 1.000 0.686 9.100 13.265
2.000 3.00 2.000 2.000 0.490 0.980 2.058 8.918 4.333
2.000 5.00 1.200 1.200 0.470 0.940 3.430 8.554 2.494
2.000 7.00 0.857 0.857 0.438 0.876 4.802 7.972 1.660
Layer 1
2.000 9.00 0.667 0.667 0.405 0.810 6.174 7.371 1.194
2.000 11.00 0.545 0.545 0.375 0.750 7.546 6.825 0.904
2.000 13.00 0.462 0.462 0.340 0.680 8.918 6.188 0.694
2.000 15.00 0.400 0.400 0.310 0.620 10.290 5.642 0.548
2.000 17.00 0.353 0.353 0.280 0.560 12.262 5.096 0.416
2.000 19.00 0.316 0.316 0.272 0.544 14.234 4.950 0.348
Layer 2 2.000 21.00 0.286 0.286 0.242 0.484 16.206 4.404 0.272
2.000 23.00 0.261 0.261 0.221 0.442 18.178 4.022 0.221
2.000 25.00 0.240 0.240 0.218 0.436 20.150 3.968 0.197

the embankment) ground is mud, clayed soil in a Tab. 3. Spreadsheet immediate settlement Si
normal consolidation state should choose formula Hembank (m) 4 5 6
subsidence calculation is: Sc (m) 2,337 2,616 2,877
+ For ordinary consolidation soil  ipz   vzi m 1,100 1,100 1,100
(OCR ≤1) then: Si (m) 0,234 0,262 0,288
n
hi  i  vzi   zi 
Sc    c
C log  (5) - Determine forecast subsidence height:
i 1 1  eoi   vzi 
hi – thickness of subsidence calculation in ith Tab. 4. Spreadsheet forecast subsidence height Hpl
soil (hi ≤ 2m); Cci – Subsidence compression index Hembank (m) 4 5 6
or slope of the compression curve segment Sc (m) 2,337 2,616 2,877
depression (expressed as e loge) the extent Si (m) 0,234 0,262 0,288
S = Sc + Si 2,571 2,878 3,165
 vz   pz of soil layer i; e0 – Initial void ratio of the
i i i

HR – H 0,000 1,000 2,000

ith soil layer in the original natural state (without
embankment above);  vzi – Initial vertical pressure Based on the relationship between S&HR
th
of the i soil layer, by own weight in between (figure 3) the roadbed to have long-term stability
calculated subsidence soil;  ipz – Pre-consolidation height 4 (m) on the ground naturally, the road
embankment high need to reach to 7.63 (m), with a
pressure in the ith soil layer;  zi – Load of the
corresponding settlement about the S = 3. 63 (m).
embankment caused in the ith layer, taking into Hence the height for settlement compensation, Hpl
account the influence factor of Osterberg is predicted at 7.63 (m).
nomogram; Identify consolidation time of the ground:
Calculating subsidence Soil for different The time needed to reach the level of
embankment to determine the predicted subsidence
consolidation platform U = 90% is: Tv  Cv  t
height. Select embankment height respectively: 2
Ha
4m, 5m, 6m.
(7) with t is time and U = 90% ≥ 60% so:
- Calculate instantaneous settlement:
Tvv 1,781 0,933log100
1,7810,933log 100UvU v1,781
 1,781
 0,933log 100100
 0,933log  90 90   0,848 .
 0,848
Si   m  1  Sc (6)
The average consolidation coefficient:

555
 H a2 252 soft soil layer thickness H = 15 m therefore PVD
Cvtb    0,904

2 2
plug down to 15m deep.
h   15 10 
 i    
 Cvi   0,997 0, 788 
(m2/year).
Here: Consolidation coefficient of the first layer
of soil: Cv  0,316 103 (cm2/s) = 0,997 (m2/year);
Consolidation ratio of the second layer of soil:
Cv2 = 0,250 * 10-3 (cm2/s) = 0,788 (m2/year);
Standby time necessary for subsidence:
Tv  H a2 0,848  252
t   586 (year).
Cv 0,904
 Check stability
Check stabilize the embankment height and Fig. 4. Results calculated by Geoslop
height compensation settlement was 7,63 (m),
weight load was 1,5 (T/m2). Total building load Slice 12 - Bishop Method

transmitted to the floor ground is 89.126

2
q  7,63 1,9  1,5  15,997 (T/m ). 485.66
495.73

13.252

88.993

Fig. 5. The forces acting on the sliding surface

Equivalent diameter of PVD:

a  b 100  3
dw    51,5mm  0,0515m .
2 2
Fig. 3. The relationship between settlement S and Select equilateral triangle
roadbed height HR diagram,diameter of effeted area:
de  1,05SPVD  1,05L .
On the basis of the test results by the stability of
all two methods: under load safe (qat), based on the The diameter of the turbulence area around
limit equilibrium theory, with results respectively: PVD:
4 Fm 4  85 150
0,29 /1,2; 0,47/1,2 shows the road-all into a state of d s  2d m  2 2  2 127mm  254mm  0, 254m
 3,14
instability. On the other hand, deep sliding stability
test by M. N. Goldstein method and GEOSLOPE
The vertical consolidation coefficient:
V5.14 software (Bishop method)-figure 4&5 with
Cv  0,316 103 (cm /s) = 0,997 (m /year).
2 2
the result 0,59/1,5 and 0,855/1,1 are shown
roadbed will fall prey to instability deep slide. The horizontal consolidation coefficient:
2.1. The calculated parameters handle soft Ch = 2Cv = 1,994 (m2/year).
ground by PVD The vertical permeability coefficient:
Processing area: 1292 m x 24 m. Influence kv = 1,159.10-7 (cm/s) = 0,0366 (m/year).
depth by consolidation activities Ha= 25m. Select The horizontal permeability coefficient:
Kolon PVD type with: Width (a) 100 mm. kh = 2kv = 0,0732 (m/year).
Thickness (b) 3 mm. Tensile strength 2kN. Identify PVD plug distance to consolidation
Elongation > 20%. Influence depth Ha = 25m > factor U reaches 90% in period t

556
 According to TCVN 9355:2012 the distance
between the PVD is 1.3 m minimum and
maximum of 2.2m. We try to gradually turn
spacing PVD is: L = 1 m; 1.3 m; 1.5m. For each
value of L will have the corresponding time period
t to the level of consolidation of 90% as follows:
The average vertical consolidation level is:
U z  1   exp( t ) (8)
The average horizontal consolidation level is:
 8T 
U h  1  exp   h 
 F 
Therefore the relation between PVD plug
distance and consolidation time (L, t) are
established when the degree of consolidation
reached U = 90% (Table 5).
Tab. 6. Table of time value follow individual preloading phased
Tab. 5. Table relation between PVD plug distance
and consolidation time
PVD plug Consolidation time (days)
distance
1,0 (m) 203 (7 months)
1,3 366 (12 months)
1,5 503 (17 months)
So here we choose the PVD plug distance is
1m.
Embankment height calculated for each stage
(9)
and time to achieve such consolidation phase
To the soft ground reinforced by PVD effective
(pore in soft ground is escaping by PVD), we need
to create compressor pressure (weight load) to the
gradient by compressive load inz greater than
initial gradient of the ground (or stresses by
compressive pressure σz greater than structural
strength) qkc (σp’).
Identify time for each covered with PVD pug
distance L=1m
For the ground complete consolidation under
the load of soil thickness hi, the construction
process must pause and wait for a while.

Height, m Time, days

Phase Embankment Added awaiting
Total
blocks embankment settlement
0 0 0 0 0
1 3,28 3,28 203 203
2 5,01 1,73 203 406
3 7,63 2,62 203 609

So total waiting settlement time and months  waiting period cohesive ground is too
consolidation are 609 days = 1.67 years = 20 long, it does not meet progress requirements.
Tab. 7. Table of cover time value follow preloading stage
Height, m Time, days
Phase Embank-ment awaiting
awaiting settlement Total
blocks settlement
0 0 0 0 0
1 3,28 3,28 136 136
2 5,01 1,73 136 272
3 7,63 2,62 203 475

557
 Based on the level of consolidation ground
chart over time, we found that when the level of
consolidation U <80% of the large curve slope
(variance of U follow t is greater, in a period of 50
initial days after finished loading consolidation
level rise is 50%), while the level of consolidation
U > 80% of the smaller curve slope (variation of U
follow t is small, in the period Δt = 200-150 = 50
days U only increase was 8%). According to
Fig. 6. The relationship between consolidation
level l total U and time t
Apply layer 1 with thickness 3.28 m; wait 136
days to ground reaches U = 80%. Apply to layer 2
with thicknes 1.73 m; wait 136 days to ground
reaches U = 80%.
Apply to layer 3 with thickness 2.62 m to reach
the total embankment height is 7.63 m; then wait
203 days to ground reaches U = 90%.
So total waiting time settlement was 475 days ≈
1.30 years ≈ 16 months. Saving time is 20 months -
16 months = 4 months.
In fact when processing soft ground by PVD
method combined preloading load in individual
stages, requirements to ensure the quality of
construction and construction time is the fastest. So
we also use both covering and monitoring the
changes situation of soft soil below the
embankment to control speed: horizontal mobile
speed monitoring of the pile sides embankment
while soil filling. If horizontal mobile speed of the
piles is 2  30mm/day, then velocity of banking
as this will ensure no occurrence of consolidation
had not been adjusted, destabilizing. If the pile is
moved with large distance, then soil filling must
stop or be removed all loads to wait for
background become to stable.
558
research results about rule changes of soil shear
strength follow the process of consolidation soil
[7], in the interval U = 80-100% increase of soil
shear strength is not much, hence just wait the
ground reaches 80% level of consolidation is
possible to load the next layer of soil. So waiting
time between the stage background preloading
combined with prefabricated vertical drains can
choose as follows:
Fig. 7. Load processing graph by PVD
Check the ground after being treated by PVD
Check settlement
Embankment height H = Hpl = 7.63 m.
The pressure at the bottom of the roadbed:
q  q1  q2  7,63 1,9  1,5  15,997 (T/m ).
2
From the graph, determine subsidence forecast
height, it has a total settlement St = 3.63 m. With a
degree of consolidation after handling PVD U =
90%, The remaining settlement after the treatment
by PVD: S  1  U   St  1  0,90  3,63  0,363
(m) < 0,4 (m) (level street is 60 follow 22TCN 262
: 2000).
Thus we can construct the roadbed upon
request.
On the basis of the test results subsidence
stability emerged in both methods: under load safe
(qat), the load limit results respectively: 2,13/1,2;
2,34/1,2 showed roadbed at steady state does not
sink protruded. On the other hand, deep sliding
stability test by M. N. Goldstein method and
GEOSLOPE V5.14 software (Bishop method)-
figure 8&9 with results of 4,29/1,5 and 1,511/1,1
are shown roadbed stability the deep slide.
 - Case 1: Distance between sand drains a = 5d =
2,0 (m).
Sand drains are arranged in equilateral triangle,
influence diameter of wells:
de  1,05  a  1,05  2,0  2,1 (m).
Carrying out the embankment to increase the
load fisrt as the order when processing the ground
by PVD. We calculate the necessacry time for
ground to gain cohesive level per loading stage.
Fig. 8. Results of the audit stable after Based on the level of consolidation ground chart
treatment with PVD over time we found that when the level of
Slice 4 - Bishop Method
18.704
consolidation U <80% of the large curve slope
47.696 (variance of U follow t is greater, in a period of 50
initial days after finished loading consolidation
138.73
level rise is 50%), while the level of consolidation
191.93
U > 80% of the smaller curve slope (variation of U
follow t is small, in the period Δt = 200-150 = 50
days U only increase was 4%). According to
8.5816 research results about rule changes of soil shear
86.396
strength follow the process of consolidation soil
Fig. 9. The forces acting on the slip surface [8], in the interval U = 80-100% increase of soil
shear strength is not much, hence just wait the
ground reaches 80% level of consolidation is
possible to load the next layer of soil. So waiting
time between the stage background preloading
combined with prefabricated vertical drains can
choose as follows:
Apply layer 1 with thickness 3,28 m; wait 160
days to ground reaches U = 80%. Apply to layer 2
with thicknes 1,73 m; wait 160 days to ground
reaches U = 80%. Apply to layer 3 with thickness
2,62 m to reach the total embankment height is
7,63 m; then wait 240 days to ground reaches U =
Fig. 10.The level of consolidation over time graph 90%.
when process by sand drain

2.2. Calculation of sand drain design

Parameters of sand drain
Length of sand drain Lgc = 15m. Diameter of
sand drain d = 0,4m. Drainage capacity = 20 x 10-6
m3/s.
Tab. 8. Table of cover time value follow preloading stage

Height (m) Time (days)

Phase Embank-ment Added embankment awaiting settlement total
0 0
blocks 0 0 0
1 3,28 3,28 160 160
2 5,01 1,73 160 320
3 7,63 2,62 240 560

559
 So total waiting time settlement was 560 days
≈ 1,53 years ≈ 19 months
- Case 2: Consolidation time equal
consolidation time by PVD, t = 475 days.Calculate
the distance between sand drain to have 90%
consolidation time is 475 days:
The average vertical consolidation level is:
U z  1   exp( z t ) ; The average horizontal
consolidation level is:
 8T 
U h  1  exp   h   0,875  de  1,107m.
 F ( n) 
The distance between wells is:
d 1,107
agc  e   0,98m.
1,13 1,13
Fig. 11. Load processing graph by sand drain
The distance between two wells is determine in
range: a   4  5 d  agc  0,98m is not suitable
because soil will be disorder, more danger is the
horizontal compression break the sand drain, then
the sand drain does not take on the role of
drainage.
2.3. Calculate sand pile design
According to survey data, sand pile and
embankment parameter, we calculate the following
data:
The vertical consolidation coefficient:
2 2
Cv  0,316 103 (cm /s) = 0,997 (m /year).
The horizontal consolidation coefficient:
kh 2
Ch  Cv  2  0,997  1,994 (m /year).
k
Depth of settlement: Ha = 25 m. Depth of sand
pile: H = 15 m. Diamenter of sand pile: dw = 0,4 m.
Sand pile layout in triangle. Distance between sand
piles: Lb = 0,75 m. Calculated distance between
sand piles:
560
De  1,05  Lb  1,05  0,75  0,788 (m).
Fig. 12. The relationship between U and t when
processed by sand piles
The vertical and horizontal consolidation
coefficient of the part has sand piles: Cv = 0,997
(m2/year); Ch = 1,994 (m2/year).
- The average vertical consolidation level is:
U z  1   exp( t )
- The average horizontal consolidation level is:
 8T 
U h  1  exp   h 
 F 
Thus:
U  1  1  U h 1  U z   1  1  (1  0,811.exp(0,011t))  1  1  exp  27,891t  
 U  1  0,811exp  27,902t 
Thus, if the distance of sand piles L = 0,75m
then the characteristics of muddy clay will the
same as sand layer.
Therefore, in the case of sand piles, the soil is
almost immediately consolidated.
- Testing of soil bearing capacity after
compression by sand piles:
When enc = 0.932 and the ground is muddy clay
has moisture in plastic limit WL = 24%; viscosity B
= 1,33: E0 = 90 (kG/cm2); Ctc = 4,1 (T/m2); φtc =
170.
 Rtc  m  Ab  Bh  Dc    nc  1  0,395  24  2.575  0  5,155  0,58   0,932  11,62
(T/m ).2
When: A, B, D – the coefficient depends on the
angle of friction φ; with φ = 170  A = 0,395; B =
2,575; D = 5,155;
b – width of the bottom of the road (m), b = 24
(m); h – depth of buried base(m), h = 0 (m); σ0 =
6,45 (T/m2) < Rtc = 11,62 (T/m2). So the
compression method of sand piles here is
reasonable.
Calculate the estimated subsidence of the soil
after compression by sand piles:
The subsidence of the soil after compression by
sand piles can be determined by the following
formula:
Sc  a0 hs p (10)
With: a0    0, 4  0, 0044 (cm2/kG); β – The
E0 90
coefficient depends on the relative horizontal
deformation of the soil, to simplify choose 0.8 for
all soil types; E0 = 90 (kG/cm2);
Determination of settlement pressure P:
P   0   h  6, 45 1,66  0  6, 45 (T/m ).
2
When: σ0 - Average stress on the bottom of the
foundation caused by outside load (Foundation
weight and load), σ0 = 6,45 (T/m2); γ – Density of
soil from foundation, γ = 1,66 (T/m3); h – Depth of
buried foundation (m), h = 0 (m);
Thus: Sc  a0 hs p  0,0044  15  6, 45  0, 21 (m)
2 drainage.
< Scp = 0,4 (m).
Or: The settlement over time:
St  U  Sc  0,90  3,63  3, 267 (m)
The residual settlement:
S  1  U   St  1  0,90   3, 267  0,327 (m)
< Scp = 0,4 (m).
So, the method of compacting the soil by sand
piles applied here is effective and perfectly
reasonable.
3. Select soil improvement method
3.1. Technical aspects
PVD: Geotextile cover are Polypropylence and
nonwoven Polyester or synthetic materials, they
have the function of separating the plastic core
from the surrounding soil, it’s also a filter –
prevent fine sand get into the core and clogging the
device. Plastic core has two important functions:
Supports the outer sheath, make the water
permeable zone even when the surrounding
pressure is high. This is advantage of PVD
compare with sand drains or sand piles. PVD has
relative diameter small dw=0,0515m so it makes
the disturbance zone smaller than sand drain d =
0,4m, so the permeability is less reduced.
561
Construction rate is high, 5000/day/machine. No
rupture occurs. No slipping occurs. High
permeability allows high drainage rate 30.10-6-
90.10-6 m3/s (sand drains -20.106m3/s). PVD plug
depth may up to 40m. Easy to check the quality.
The wick quality is stable and hardly change.
Meanwhile the sand drain depends on the sand
quality. Besides, PVD also has the function of
improving the stability of the embankment and
cleaning the soil.
Sand drain: When installing the sand drain, the
disturbance area is greater than the disturbance
area of the PVD. When filling and installing sand
drains, waterways may be cut due to plastic
deformation. Moving construction equipment is
difficult due to heavy weight equipment. Sand
must have good quality, must be used in large
quantities and must be carefully selected.
Construction is slower than the PVD. The quality
of the sand drain is mainly due to the quality of the
sand. Compared to sand piles, sand drains are used
for many types of land. And its main task is
Sand pile: Sand pile compact the ground and do
vertical drainage tasks. When using sand piles,
deformation modulus values in the ground will be
the same at every point. Therefore, the stress
distribution in the soil compacted by sand piles can
be considered as the natural background. This
feature is not possible with other types of piles.
Compaction with sand piles is an effective method
when building large load structures on soft soils of
great thickness. When the thickness of soft soil is
more than 2m, we can use compacted piles. It is
recommended that some case, sandy piles should
not be used is too soft soil that cannot be
compacted (When the compression factor enc > 1
indicates that the compacting effect of the pile is
very small) or soil with high organic content.
3.2. Manner of execution
The constructing rate of PVDs higher than sand
drains and sand piles. The PVD can transport easy
with high amount compare to sand drains and sand
pile. A truck can transport over 120.000m PVD but
with the same drainage length it will take 1.500
trucks with loading capacity of 12 tons to transport
the sand. When constructing sand drains, sand
piles the devices moving is more difficult because
of the high weight of devices. PVDs has small size
and weight about 60-90g/m so the weight of device
is smaller and easier to move on the soft ground
without damage the sand floor. When installing the
PVD requires less supervision than sand drains, A A

sand piles due to the easy installation and easy to

test. Moreover, the research area does not have
good quality sand source. Therefore, in order to
CROSS SECTION A - A LOADING SOIL LAYER

construct the sand drain and sand pile, it is

necessary to transport large amount of sand from
other areas so that the cost is high and does not
guarantee of construction progress. When applied,
sand drains need to remove soils or drill holes but
Fig. 13. Triangle layout design
sand piles do not need to remove soils or drill hole
so that the constructing time faster. While applied
Total cost (Consist of material, manpower and
sand piles, sand can be mixed with ground soils but
machine cost) 1m PVD cost 15.000 dong/m. Total
sand drains does not.
cost (Consist of material, manpower and machine
3.3. Economic aspects
cost) 1m sand drain cost 40.000 dong/m. Total cost
The distance between PVDs: 1m, distance
(Consist of material, manpower and machine cost)
between sand drains 2m and the distance between
1m sand pile cost 40.000 dong/m.
sand piles 0,75m. Three methods also construct
The total cost of sand piles is as 5.85 times as
with triangle layout design. Total processing area:
PVD and as 4.36 time as sand drain; Sand drain
1292 x 24 = 31.008 m2. Total PVD point: 34.898
cost is as 1.34 times as PVD, moreover the
points. Total length of PVD: 523.470 m; Total
awaiting time of PVD smaller than sand drain 85
number of sand drain: 17.555 wells. Total length of
days. Therefore, using PVD is more economical.
sand drain: 263.325 m; Total number of sand pile:
76.604 piles. Total length of sand pile: 1.149.060
m;
Tab. 9. Compare table of the cost when treat the ground by PVD, sand drain and sand pile
Total constructing Cost of 1m length, Awating settlement
Project Total cost, VND
length, metre VND time, day
PVD 523.470 15.000 7.852.050.000 475
Sand drain 263.265 40.000 10.545.000.000 560
Sand pile 1.149.060 40.000 45.962.400.000 30

Depend on three targets: technical,
constructing, economical; we choose using PVD to
improve the soft soil of the project the 2/9
extended road is the optimal.
4. Conclusion
From the study research, we can have some
following conclusion:
1.Study area has complicated geology
condition, engineering geology. The ground
structure is mostly Holocene sediment. This
sediment is soft and the thickness varied. Geo -
mechanical characteristic of this layer is not good
to construct.
2.Depending on the in-situ investigate and
experiment results, the stratigraphy of area can
divide into 2 layer. The load bearing layer (layer 1)
is muddy clay, greenish gray – dark gray, average
thickness is 15.0m. In this layer also has thin layer
of sand and tree roots. This is soft sediment has
small load-bearing capacity and high settlement
compaction. The lower layer is Pleistocene clay,
quasi-plastic, brown – light yellowish gray, this is

562
the layer has high load-bearing capacity, therefore
we can design the foundation inside this layer with
the depth varied depend on constructing weight.
3.The 2/9 extended road has side 1292m × 24m,
thickness of sand floor 7,63m, weight of
construction 15.997T/m2. If there is no method to
treat the ground it takes 586 years to reach the
cohesive level 90%.
4.Design three method to improve the soft soil:
Improve the soft soil by PVD and pre-loading
with the distance between PVDs is 1m, PVD is
plug through soft muddy clay 15m, the total time
to embankment and settlement awaiting is 475
days (16 months) to reach cohesive level 90%;
Improve the soft soil by sand drain and pre-
loading with well diameter Φ = 0,4m, distance
between sand drains is a = 2,0m, the depth of sand
drain is 15m, embankment and settlement awaiting
time is 597 days (20 months) to reach cohesive
level 90%;
Improve the soft soil by using sand pile with
pile diameter Φ = 0,4m, distance between sand
piles Lb = 0,75m, sand piles depth 15m, count as
change the characteristic of muddy clay to sand
layer. Therefore, improve the soft soil by sand pile
the soil is almost immediately consolidated.
Awaiting settlement time is 30 days to reach
cohesive level 90%;
5.Depend on the geo-mechanical, economical
and constructing condition, I propose using PVD to
improve the soft soil for the 2/9 Road (extension)
of Vinh Long town, Vinh Long Province to ensure
the stable, settlement and high economical
effectiveness.
References
[1]. Division for water resources planning and
investigation for the South of Vietnam
(1997). Geomorphology survey report of
Vinh Long urban area.
[2]. Pierre Lareal, Nguyen Thanh Long, Le Ba
Luong, Nguyen Quang Chieu, Vu Duc Luc
(1986). Works on soft soil in Vietnam
563
condition. Ho Chi Minh City University of
Technology.
[3]. Hoang Van Tan, Tran Dinh Ngo, Phan
Xuan Truong, Pham Xuan, Nguyen Hai
(1973). Methods of building construction
on soft soil. Science and Technics
Publishing House.
[4]. D.T. Bergado, J.C. Chai, M. C. Alfaro, A.S.
Balasuvramaniam (1996). New technical
measures to improve soft soil in
construction. Vietnam Education
Publishing House
[5]. Ministry of Construction Of The Socialist
Republic Of Vietnam (MOC) (2012).
TCVN 9355: 2012. Ground improvement
by prefabricated vertical drain (PVD).
[6]. Ministry of Transport of Vietnam (2000).
22TCN 262 – 2000. Surveying and
designing the motorway sub-grade on the
soft ground.
[7]. Trinh Thi Ngoc Diep (2006). Geological
features of the project and solutions for
weak soil treatment for the Coastal Station
project of Ca Mau gas and electricity.
Dissertation, Ho Chi Minh City University
of Technology.
[8]. Ta Thi Thu Hien (2004). Behavior of soft
soil during pre-loading. Master thesis, Ho
Chi Minh City University of Technology.
[9]. Vinh Long Portal. “vinhlong.gov.vn”
(2006). <http://www.vinhlong.gov.vn >
(access to 20/12/2008).
[10]. Pham Van Ty, Nguyen Manh Thuy
(2002). Determination of correlation
between horizontal and vertical
consolidation coefficient in soft soil
treatment with PVD. Journal of Geology,
Series A, No. 272.A
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE OF THE WATER FILTER SOLUTIONS IN
BOAT PUMPING STATION FOR AQUACULTURAL WATER SUPPLY IN THE
CA MAU PENINSULA

Nguyen Quoc Dung, Phan Dinh Tuan, Le Anh Duc, Nguyen Quang Thanh1
Hydraulic Construction Institute, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: nguyenquocdunghsc@gmail.com

Abstract: Saltwater provided for aquaculture in a CA Mau Peninsula area normally is taken from
natural channels or rivers, water resources quality was affected by spoiled surrounding environment. So
that, it is very difficult to control deals and product reduction.
In order to treat water resources before providing for aquaculture farms, people there use sediment
ponds. However, due to the requirement of the sedimentation area of 20% ~ 30% of the cultivated area,
many households have to reduce sedimentation pond area leading to low productivity.
This article introduces a water filtration solution located on the boat pump station and the results of the
modeling experiments to supply water for aquaculture and can be applied to other areas in the Delta Cuu
Long River (Mekong Delta). This solution can replace/reduce the sedimentation area, it is highly mobile,
easy to apply to small farming areas in the Mekong Delta.

water collection Filter Modun

tube sand
Fig. 1. Water filter on the float [1]

Keywords: water supply for aquaculture; water filter; moveable pumping station; clean salt water
resources.

1. Introduction
Boat pump model is a model of floating buoys
to filter the water and collect fresh water for the
pond. In the research results of the research project
“Water supply solution for aquaculture in Ca Mau
Peninsula’’, the research team has proposed the
creation of a new long structure filter on floating
floats to supply water for aquaculture (Figure 2).
Each filter module of length L obtained the flow
according to the results of the experimental study Fig. 2. Model of boat pump station
presented in this paper.
Filter tube with an outer D900 diameter, D300
diameter core. Perforated core tube with 20%

564
opening, hole diameter d = 4 mm. Between the
outer tube and the core tube, the layers of sand are
filtered with a gradual grading, ensuring that the
diameter of the layer close to the core is not
penetrated by d = 4mm. The perforated core tube is
sandwiched (4-6) mm, followed by layers 2-4 mm
(close to the perforated tube is (1-2) mm and
finally applying 10 cm to each layer to form a 30
cm thick concentric filter tube.
Fig. 3. Diagram of filter tube used in research
The filter module is submerged in water with a
depth from the water surface to the center of the
hull H. Water (chisel) from the surrounding
environment permeates through the multi-layer
sand filter into the core with Q flow according to
the principle of slow filtration. According to the
laws of physics, filter flow depends on the depth of
the water column H. However, the quality of water
through the filter depends on the velocity
penetration through the filter layer, high
permeability velocity is poor filter quality and vice
versa. The purpose of this study was to find
suitable flow rates for filtered quality to meet the
requirements for aquaculture (concentration of
alluvial sediment <100 mg / l [2]).
2. Materials and methods
Figure 4 describes the experimental system
consisting of three main tanks. The first tank to
pump into the experimental tank. Alluvial
sediment concentrations in the study strip were
generated by weighing the sludge at each
experiment.
The third tank to store filtered water, each of
the experimental scenarios will take water samples
for experimentation and visual observation. Water
565
flow from the current filter for the tank through a
van can be adjust the volume by request.
Experiment tanks were large enough to
accommodate the filter, and at the same time the
mouth was overflowed to maintain consistent
water depth throughout the experiment. In
addition, the space around the filter should be large
enough to not affect the results of the experiment.
In this study, the smallest size was over 20cm.
Depth H may also vary, but in actual conditions,
this study only changes within less than 1m.
The filter rotated during the experiment. The
purpose is to simulate how to clean the filter when
required.
Fig. 4. Three experimental tanks system
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Experiment with three layers of dress sand
by hand
In this experiment, the filter tube was set at
maximum flooding, the external sediment content
was 300 g / m3.
The maximum capacity of the water intake is
Q1 (according to equation 1).
Based on the equation 1, biggest filtering
capabilities:
m3
Q1  0,5*0, 6*  *0,152 * 2 g *0,5  140
h
Q1 1 *v1
 V1   0,55m / s   1   12,8cm2
1 v
Q   2 gH 0 ( 1)
Fig. 5. Flow chart of water intake of the filter [3]
 However, the flow velocity in the above Experimenting with different levels of Q, the
filtration layer is much higher than the allowed research team constructed a relationship between Q
condition without disturbing the filter layers. and turbidity. From Figure 8, the team found that
Water quality is almost opaque. Therefore, it is in order to achieve a safe turbidity (<80 mg / l),
necessary to control the flow to achieve a condition three layers of the filter as above and compress the
[V]1 <1 cm / s (Table 1) in order not to disturb the sand by hand are difficult to achieve. If acceptable
filter by reducing water intake area to the point, as to reduce the flow to Q <1 m3/h, turbidity can be
the request  1 <12.8 cm2. achieved. However, this does not guarantee
economic conditions for the requirement of the
Tab. 1. Limiting velocities cause turbulence project with a capacity of 50 m3/h, then a filter
Small Average Big core of up to 25m would be needed.
Gravel sand
Sand Sand Sand
0,05-
Diameter (mm) 025-0,5 0,65-2 100

0,25 90

Limiting velocity 1,7-

1-1,5 1,5-1,7 80

(cm/s) 3,7 70

60

3.2. V1 control experiment to improve filter

50
quality
From the condition of < 12,8 cm2, choose the 40

two D38 tubes and the D28 tube to continue the 30

experiment. Measurement of flow in two cases of 20

D38 and D28 shows the dependency of water 10

column H according to the curve shown in Figure 0

0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0

5. In the working water column (estimated H =

60cm), the difference between the formula (1) is Fig. 6. Q ~ H relationship through experiment
about 20%, namely:
m3 tt m3 One of the important factors affecting the
QDlt 38  9 ; QD 38  7,5 permeability velocity is the K coefficient and the
h h
3 3 number of filter layers. The research team
m m
QDlt 28  5 ; QDtt 28  4 recommends adding 1 layer of material and
h h compacting as tight as possible to control
Inside: permeability.
Qlt: Flow calculated by formula (1); 3.3. Experiment with 4 layers of lagoon filter
Qtt: flow measurement; with K = 0.95
Based on the graph in Figure 7 the research 3.3.1 Recreate the core filter model
team found that the ability to get the core D28 Filter core is improved with full width and
should be approximately 4m3 / h and D38 should opening of D300 & D900, add one layer of sand
be 7.5 m3 / h with water column H  50 cm while 0.5-1 mm, the parameters for 4 layers of filter
velocity Boot Campaign material is V= 0.3 cm / s include: sand layer (4-6) mm thickness 7 cm, sand
& 0.7 cm / s <[V]1. layer (2-4) mm thickness 7 cm, followed by sand
With flow Q = 4 m 3 / h (tube D28), the team layer (1-2) mm thickness 8 cm and finally sand
took water for testing. The result of water quality layer (0,5-1) mm thickness 8 cm. The experimental
through turbidity is 91 mg / l <[requirement = 100 water column H = 50 cm and collect water with a
mg / l]. The test certificate is shown in 28 mm diameter pipe.
Table 2. Similarly, with D38, Q = 7.5 m3 / h,
turbidity is 103 mg / l, as satisfactory (see Table 2).

566
 - Then use concrete dress directly to smooth the
1.0

face
0.9

- Submersible sand filter soaked in filter for 1

0.8
hour, measured subsidence height and recorded
0.7
data
0.6
- Continue to pour the layers of material
0.5
calculated, and at the same time pumping water up
0.4
against the old layer of 10 cm
0.3 - Dress and soak the filter for 1 hour for each
0.2 dress.
0.1

0
0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0

Fig. 7. The TH1 physical speed boot the physical

and the test.

Fig. 9. Filtration of 10 cm layer of filter soaked in

water

Fig. 8. Relationship between Q and turbidity TH1

In order to achieve sand filtering structures,

select a height of 10cm for each of the five times to
achieve a height of 50 cm with a relatively tight
K95. The compaction process is divided into 5
times as follows: Fig. 10. Model after lagoon and soak overnight
Sand the sand into the formwork and pump the
water to reach the height of H = 10 cm. Using a
vibrating sieve for the steel plant about 5cm,
compacted with a density of about 10 times / 0.02
m2 surface area of the layer.

Tab. 2. Summary results calculation

Input Output Results
Experimental
STT Experimental TSS
methods Q (m3/h) TSS (mg/l)
(mg/l)
1 4 91
Turbidity (TSS) TCVN 4560:1988 165
2 7,5 103

567
 3.3.2 Results of calculations and experiments
for four compaction layers
With varying levels of flow and water column
H, the results obtained from the 4 layers of
material have Q> 3 m3 / h; water column H> 50
cm; Starting material velocity V = 0.5 cm / s <[V]
2.
Experimenting with samples with multiple
levels of Q yielded the turbidity results for the
samples (Figure 13).
Based on Figure 15, it was found that the effect
was noticeable when Q increased the amount of
alluvium that was rapidly increased when Q> 4m3.
At the rate of Q <3 m3/h, the output of sediment is
very small but the economic efficiency is not high.
The decision to choose Q = 3 m 3 / h, where the
velocity through the filter core [V] = 0.5 cm / s
<[V1] is suitable for turbidity and velocity not
causing filter flutter.
4. Conclusion
The experimental parameters of the filter
module for the design of the water supply pump
for aquaculture in the Ca Mau peninsula are as
follows:
The filtration system consists of a series of
50cm long filter modules placed on floats to
provide water for aquaculture (shown Figure 1).
Filter tube with an outer D900 diameter, D300
diameter core. Perforated core and core tube with
aperture 20%, hole diameter d = 4 mm. Between
the outer tube and the core tube, four layers of
filter sand are added from the outside to the core,
which is compacted and immersed in water to
obtain a compacting factor of K = 0.95.

1
100

0.9
90

80 0.8

70 0.7

60 0.6

50 0.5

40 0.4

30 0.3

20
0.2

10
0.1

0
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

Fig. 11. Q-H relationship with 4 coats of Fig. 12. Relationship Q – V

compacted core

Tab. 3. Alluvium concentration is 10 mg/l when q = 3 m3/h

Input Output Results
Experimental
No Experimental TSS Q TSS
methods
(mg/l) (m3/h) (mg/l)

1 Turbidity (TSS) TCVN 4560:1988 165 3 10

568
Fig. 13. Visual quality evaluation output when the Fig. 14. From left to right: input and output with Q
water column H from H = 80cm to H = 0 cm. = 5 m3 / h; 4 m3 / h; 3m3 / h.

100
Each module is 50cm long and allows the filter
90
to be at least 3 m3 / h, the output water turbidity is
80
<80 mg /l.
70
In addition, the filter structure according to
60
research results can be used to filter river water
during the flood season for domestic water supply.
50

Acknowledgments
40

This work was financially supported by

30

research project Water supply solution for

20

aquaculture in Ca Mau Peninsula (Code:

10

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Fig. 15. Relation Q - turbidity with four
compaction layers
The sequence is as follows: close to perforated
core tube is sand layer 4-6 mm diameter 7cm thick,
followed by layer 2-4 mm thickness 7cm, followed
by layer 1-2mm thickness 7cm and finally (close
with perforated tube) is 0.5-1mm thick 8cm. The
thickness of each layer is 10 cm, forming a 30 cm
thick concentric three-layer filter.
The filter is immersed in water with the water
column H = 50 cm. (from the center of the pipe to
the water surface)
114/KHCN)
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
References
1 Phan Dinh Tuan ; Le Anh Duc ; Nguyen
Quang Thanh , 2018: “Water filtration
solution located on the pump station for
water supply for aquaculture”- Water
Resources Journal
2 QCVN 38:2011/BTNMT “ National
technical regulation on Surface Water
Quality for protection of aquatic lifes”.
3 Tran Van Hung; Outline of hydraulic works,
website:
4 https://websrv1.ctu.edu.vn/coursewares/co
ngnghe2/thuyluccongtrinh/ch1.htm”

569
 EFFECTS OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY ON RIVERBANK STABILITY

Duong Thi Toan

VNU-University of Sicence, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: duongtoan109@gmail.com

Abstract: Hydraulic conductivity is considered as important factor affecting to riverbank stability. In

this paper, two riverbank sites in Red river, Hanoi, Vietnam as Ba Vi riverbank and in Xuan Canh (Dong
Anh) riverbank were analyzed. In Ba Vi riverbank, the analyses were carried out with the changes in soil
hydraulic conductivity and rain fall intensities; In Xuan Canh area, the analyses were implemented with
the changes in soil hydraulic conductivity and river water level. The obtained results indicated that the
hydraulic conductivity has greatly affects in both analyzed cases as following conclusions: (1) In rain
season, the rainfall infiltration causes an increase in the groundwater table when hydraulic conductivity is
higher than rainfall intensity and the riverbank failure often happens in high rainfall intensity. When
hydraulic conductivity is lower than rainfall intensity, the saturation is from the surface and the wetting
front appears, the factor of safety (FOS) has the higher value in low hydraulic conductivity. (2) In
analyses the riverbank stability with the river water level (RWL) change, the FOS was approximately the
same for soil with a low hydraulic conductivity (< 10-4 cm/s) irrespective of the rate of the river water
level fluctuations. With a high hydraulic conductivity (> 10-4 cm/s), the pore-water pressure and the rate
of water level change are the primary factors affecting the FOS. During the RWL rising process, the FOS
decreased, and bank failure occurred when the hydraulic conductivity was equal to or higher than the
rising rate of the RWL.

Keywords: hydraulic conductivity; river water level change; rainfall.

1. Introduction rainfall event and finally controlling the

The interaction of soil and water has greatly
affects to slope, especially to riverbank slope,
where the seepage transient process from the
rainfall infiltration (RI) the fluctuation of river
water level (RWL) often occur. Soil bank’s
hydraulic conductivity controls that process by
controlling the rates of rainfall infiltration into soil
bank, and by controlling changes in groundwater
and pore water pressure when the RWL increases
or drawdown (Arezoo et al., 2010)
Then the soil hydraulic conductivity is
considered one of the most importance factor
affecting to riverbank stability.
By rainfall infiltration, the soil hydraulic
conductivity controls the transient seepage, the
depth of rainfall infiltration and the depth of
saturated soil, the change of pore pressure during
riverbank’s FOS. The potential of rain infiltration
depends on the relationship between the soil slope
hydraulic conductivity (cm/s) and the rainfall
intensity (mm/h). Rainfall water will infiltrate into
soil when (i) the saturation soil hydraulic
conductivity (Ks) is higher than the rainfall
intensity (RI); and (ii) the Ks < RI < IC (IC, the
infiltration capacity is maximum rate at which
infiltration can occur). When RI > IC > Ks, it may
more complex, some cases the infiltration process
not occurs or very few in surface. The excess
rainfall water will perform water ponding in the
slope crest and run off to lower area or toward
slope surface (Yang et al., 2015).
Some researchers shown the relationship
between the instability of riverbank with hydraulic
conductivity and indicated the threshold of

570
hydraulic conductivity causes the riverbank failure
(Nian et al., 2011, Berilgen et al., 2012. One of
important conclusion as following: The riverbank’s
factor of safety (FOS) was not affected by the
drawdown rate when the hydraulic conductivity
was low (10-8 m/s). However, when the hydraulic
conductivity was relatively high (>10-6 m/s), the
FOS was significantly influenced by the drawdown
rate (Nian et al., 2011).
By overview previous papers, it can see the role
of soil hydraulic conductivity in the seepage
transient process on the soil slope. The probability
of the riverbank slope failure will be greatly
affected by that process with the heavy rainfall and
the fluctuation in RWL. This paper has a main
objective to clarify the effects of hydraulic
conductivity on the riverbank stability in two
cases. The first case is to build the relationship
between the hydraulic conductivities and rainfall
intensity with the riverbank’s FOS. The second
case is the analysis effects of hydraulic
conductivities and the river water fluctuation on
the riverbank stability.
2. Study area
Two cases in this paper are the Ba Vi and Xuan
Canh, Red river, Hanoi city. At Ba Vi, the
riverbank is high area and the people built housed
and local road very closely the riverbank. This area
is not often affected by river water level change,
however, the shear strength and suction reduced
quickly by increasing of saturation condition in
rainy season. The Ba Vi riverbank site will be
analyzed to simulate the effects of the hydraulic
conductivity and rainfall infiltration to the
riverbank stability. At Xuan Canh, the riverbank is
natural condition and is not applied any the
protection, the riverbank failure and erosion here
often happened by hydraulic dynamic in rainy
season. The effects of hydraulic conductivity and
the change of river water level will be analyzed in
Xuan Canh riverbank. Fig 1-3 show the site of
study area as Red river through Hanoi area, the
broken sites in Ba Vi (Fig. 2) and in Xuan Canh
(Fig. 3).

Fig. 1. Location of the Red River in Vietnam and Hanoi

Fig. 2. The road near river was broken in rainy season 2016 by rainfall and high river water level of
Red riverbank in Ba Vi area

571
 Fig. 3. Broken riverbank in Xuan Canh

3. Methods infiltration and the river water level, a boundary

3.1. Field investigation and sample collection condition was defined using a function of water
Field investigate was performed during the both head (m/d), and the flux (mm/d) versus time in the
dry and rainy season to descript the status of the transient model. The simulated results were then
riverbank, the condition of river water level. The used for slope stability analysis using SLOPE/W.
field data were measured and collected including: Spencer’s method was applied to calculate the FOS
geometry bank (measuring the riverbank’s high in the SLOPE/W, for which a constant inclination
(m) and slope angle (o), soil layer depth (m)), is assumed for inter-slice forces. Fig 4 and Fig 5
current river water level, soil samples, and human show the riverbank’s configurations in two cases
activities. The monitoring data including of the study area in Ba Vi and Xuan Canh. Table 1
groundwater level and river water level fluctuation, and Table 2 present the input data of riverbank
rainfall also was collected from the Nation geometry condition, soil layers, and soil properties.
Meteorology Station.
Soil sample were collected by digger holes
following the depth from surface to the toe of the
riverbank, and by the shallow hand bore hole
(available 3-5 m from the toe of the riverbank).
The samples were determined soil properties in
Ibaraki University belonged to results of PhD
thesis. The soil properties including soil physical
properties (water content, density and grain size)
were determined following the standards of ASTM
D 2216 and D 2937-00, JGS 0524: 2000, and JIS
A: 1218, respectively. Soil suction, which
represents the basic unsaturated property of the
soil, was determined using a pressure plate
apparatus.
3.2. Modeling the riverbank conditions
The riverbank stability was analyzed using
commercial Geo-slope program (Geo-slope
International Ltd.). The configuration of the
riverbank was built using finite element grid in the
Fig. 4. The initial riverbank configuration
SEEP/W. To simulate the change rainfall

572
Tab. 1. Bank soil layers and hydraulic conditions used in simulated models for riverbank stability analysis
Bank surface Hydraulic conditions
elevation Bank Soil layer and Initial Change in river
Location (H) slope elevation of surface soil elevation water level
(m) (degrees) layer water (RWL) and
level (m) rain fall
Layer 1: 10-(-1) m Xuan Rise rates:(RI)
intensity 0.1,
Canh Silt sand 0.3 m/day
Xuan Canh 10 m 81 1m
Layer 2: (-1)-down Bed
Sand
Layer 1: 10-1.5 m Ba Vi Silt
sand RI = 10; 30; 50
Ba Vi 10 m 52 3m
Layer 2: 1.5 m - down Bed mm/h
Sand

negative head can be used in SEEP/W to determine

Fig. 5. The riverbank configuration along with the
initial pore-water pressures at XC
3.3. Boundary condition
By using Geoslope program, it is available to
set up the initial saturated condition, change input
data of soil hydraulic conductivity and change
boundary condition of rain fall insensitive and
river water level. The initial saturation condition
can be set up by the difference of the maximum
the pore pressure profile above the groundwater
table. The pore pressure graph is linear and
negatively sloped from the water table to the
maximum negative head in a partly saturated zone
depend on saturation condition and soil suction
curve as shown in Fig. 6. By setting the maximum
negative head, it is available to control the
hydraulic conductivity and the degree of
saturation.
The initial riverbank soil has the saturation
hydraulic conductivity as Ks = 7.39 x 10-5 cm/s
(Table 2). For simulating the effects of soil
hydraulic conductivity to the processing of rainfall
infiltration and riverbank stability, three values of
saturation hydraulic conductivity are assumed as
Ks = 7.39 x 10-3 cm/s; Ks = 7.39 x 10-4 cm/s; Ks =
7.39 x 10-5 cm/s. In Xuan Canh, to evaluate the
effects of hydraulic conductivity on the bank
stability when the RWL changes, three values of
saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) were
assumed in the XC area (Ks = 2.24 x10-6 m/s,
which is equal to the natural hydraulic conductivity
of the XC silt), 2.24 x10-5 m/s, and 2.24 x10-4
m/s. The rate of the RWL rise of 0.1 m/d and 0.3
m/d were used in these simulations.

573
 Tab. 2. Soil properties used in riverbank stability analysis.

Riverbank geometry and soil properties Ba Vi Sand Base Xuan Canh

1-0.25 mm 18.38 0
Sand
0.25-0.075 mm 13.46 80.91 36.6
Silt 0.075-0.005mm 71.03 0.71 53.4
Clay <0.005mm 15.51 0 10.0

Natural water content (%) 18,5 4.72 16.06

Dry density (kN/m3) 15.0 14.9

Specific gravity 2.62 2.68 2.62
Liquid limit (%) 34,5 27.92
Plastic limit (%) 21 19.35
Liquid index 1.23 8.57
Soil classification ML SP CL
Saturated volume water content 42 29 45
Air-entry value (kPa) 20.05 9.3 10
a 28.39 10.33 16.59
n 4.205 18.89 3.535
m 0.72 0.53 0.476
Hydraulic conductivity (cm/s) 7.39x10-5 1.69x10-2 2.24×10-6
Cohesion force ((kPa) 5.0 0 5
Internal friction angle (o) 32 30 30

FOS with the changes in the soil hydraulic

conductivity and rainfall intensity. When Ks =
7.39 x 10-3 cm/s, the FOS decrease in the same rate
from early rain up to about 30 hours.

rain = 10 mm/h
rain = 30 mm/h
Factor of Safety

rain = 50 mm/h

Fig. 6. Calculation pore-pressure condition by

saturation condition
Time (hours)

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Effect of soil hydraulic conductivity with Fig. 7. The change of FOS with difference rainfall
difference of rain fall intensities intensities when K = 7.39 x 10-3 cm/s
Fig.8 – Fig.10 show the analysed results of the

574
 The FOS is variation in difference rainfall
intensity, however, the FOS is not significant
change with increasing of rainfall accumulation.
The rainfall accumulation at which the higher
rainfall accumulation cannot make change in FOS
call be call as the threshold rainfall accumulation,
which appears and depends on the recharge by
rainfall in surface and drawdown toward to river.
The riverbank is stable with RI = 10 mm/h and 30
mm/h; the riverbank failure happened when RI =
50 mm/h after 36 hours raining. And, it can see
clearly increasing of ground water table with
increasing of rain fall accumulative (Fig. 7).
When Ks = 7.39 x 10-4 cm/s, the range of FOS
is 1.39 – 1.03 (Fig 8). The FOS decrease quite
obviously in deference rainfall intensity. However,
the riverbank failure does not happen in 5 days
raining. With Ks = 7.39 x 10-5 cm/s, the FOS
decrease in the same rate with all rainfall
intensities and the riverbank is stable after 5 days
raining. The FOS in this case change in narrow
range, FOS – 1.35 – 1.37 (Fig 9).
RI=10 mm/h
RI=30 mm/h
Factor of Safety
Time (hours)
Fig. 8. The change of FOS with difference rainfall
intensities when K = 7.39 x 10-4 cm/s
Fig. 9. The change of FOS with difference rainfall
intensities when K = 7.39 x 10-5 cm/s
575
Fig. 10 shows the comparison of FOS when the
RI = 50 mm/h and the different soil hydraulic
conductivities. The FOS obtained the smaller
values in Ks = 7.39 x 10-3 cm/s and Ks = 7.39 x 10-4
cm/s because of increasing groundwater table. And
the riverbank failure happened after 30 hours in
case of Ks = 7.39 x 10-3 cm/s. The FOS changes
insignificantly when Ks = 7.39 x 10-5 cm/s because
of all the rainfall runoff. The FOS decrease quickly
and the riverbank failure occurs when the Ks =
7.39 x 10-3 cm/s. In this case, the rainfall
infiltration quickly causes the increase in
groundwater table and pore water pressure due to
the high hydraulic conductivity.
Fig. 10. The FOS in difference soil hydraulic
conductivity when the RI = 50 mm/h
When the soil hydraulic conductivity is smaller
than rainfall intensity, in case of K = 7.39 x 10-4
cm/s and K = 7.39 x 10-5 cm/s, the rainfall water
infiltrate slowly into riverbank soil and causes
descending of wetting front. In these cases, the
wetting line will appear, and descends deeper and
deeper into riverbank soil with increasing of
rainfall accumulation. The increasing of wetting
depth causes the larger fully saturated zone nearly
the riverbank surface. The depth of wetting front is
dominantly affected by soil hydraulic conductivity,
the wetting front descend very slowly when the
soil hydraulic conductivity is much lower than
 2.4
rainfall intensity. Because of that reason, the
Simulating for XC water rising 0.3m/d with
saturation area (from surface to wetting front) in 2.2 ks==2.24 x 10-6m/s; kp =10-8m/s
0.1935m/d
kks==2.24
1.935m/d
x 10-5m/s; kp =10-7m/s
the lower hydraulic conductivity soil (K = 7.39 x 2 kks==2.24
19.35m/d
x 10-4m/s; kp =10-6m/s
10-5 cm/s) is smaller than that in the higher
hydraulic conductivity (K = 7.39 x 10-4 cm/s), then 1.8

Factor of Safety
the FOS in low hydraulic conductivity is higher in 1.6

high hydraulic conductivity (Fig. 10).

1.4
4.2. Effects of hydraulic conductivity with
river water level change 1.2

In Xuan Canh area, the initial condition with 1

the volumetric water content of a soil bank near the
0.8
surface is 28%, and the negative pressure was
determined to be -35 kPa. Three simulated 0.6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
hydraulic conductivity functions for saturated River water level rising up (m)
permeability values of Ks=2.24 x10-6 m/s, 2.24
x10-5 m/s, and 2.24 x10-4 m/s. The unsaturated Fig. 12. The effect of the variation of simulated
hydraulic conductivity for the initial negative pore- hydraulic conductivity on the XC bank stability in
water pressure of -35 kPa was estimated as 10-8 case RWL rises of 0.3 m/d
m/s, 10-7 m/s, and 10-6 m/s (equal to 10-6 cm/s, 10-5
cm/s, and 10-4 cm/s, respectively.
Fig. 11 and 12 presents the analytical results for
2.4
the XC with the simulated hydraulic conductivity
Simulating for XC water rising at 0.1m/d with during the RWL rise at 0.1 m/d and 0.3 m/d. For a
2.2 kks==2.24 x 10-6m/s; kp =10-8m/s
0.1935m/d high hydraulic conductivity of 10-4 cm/s and a low
kks==2.24
1.935m/d
x 10-5m/s; kp =10-7m/s RWL rate (0.1 m/d), the FOS dropped below 1
2 kks==2.24
19.35m/d
x 10-4m/s; kp =10-6m/s which indicates that bank failure occurred. The
FOS also decreased with the RWL rate of 0.3 m/d
1.8
rise of 1-7 m. For lower hydraulic conductivity
Factor of Safety

values of 10-5 cm/s and 10-6 cm/s, the probability of

1.6
bank failure was high when the RWL rises from 1
1.4
m to 4 m at a rate of 0.1 m/d. Subsequently, the
FOS increases after the RWL rises higher than 4
1.2 m. Above 4 m, the soil has a lower hydraulic
conductivity value than the rate of the RWL; due
1 to this reason, the groundwater table does not rise
rapidly. For this scenario, confining pressure is a
0.8 dominant factor contributing to an increase in the
FOS.
0.6
Fig. 13 and 14 respectively, show the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
groundwater table response to a RWL rising rate of
River water level rising up (m)
0.1 m/d for hydraulic conductivity values of 10-4
Fig. 11. The effect of the variation of simulated cm/s and 10-6 cm/s. For a high hydraulic
hydraulic conductivity on the XC bank stability in conductivity (i.e. 10-4 cm/s, Fig.13), the
case RWL rises of 0.1 m/d groundwater table reached a high level, and caused
failure. However, the groundwater table reached a
lower level in the case with a lower hydraulic
conductivity (i.e. 10-6 cm/s, Fig.14) in which the
FOS obtained a higher value. These results

576
elucidate the manner in which hydraulic failure occurred when the hydraulic conductivity
conductivity, pore-water pressure, and confining was equal to or greater than the rate of the RWL
pressure affect the stability of the riverbanks. Bank rise.

Fig. 13. Levels of groundwater change with a hydraulic conductivity of 10-4 cm/s and a RWL rate of 0.1
m/d

Fig. 14. Levels of groundwater change with a hydraulic conductivity of 10-6 cm/s and a RWL rate of 0.1
m/d

5. Conclusions analyzed cases, and can be shown as following

This paper focused simulating the effects of the
soil hydraulic conductivity on the riverbank
stability in rainy season. Two sites of the study
area were analyzed: In Ba Vi riverbank, the
analyses were implemented with the changes of
soil hydraulic conductivity and rainfall intensity; In
Xuan Canh area, the analyses were carried out with
the change of hydraulic conductivity and river
water level. The obtained results show that the
hydraulic conductivity has strongly effects in both
conclusions:
In rain event, the infiltration cause increasing
the groundwater table when the hydraulic
conductivity is higher than rainfall intensity, and
the riverbank failure often happens in high rainfall
intensity. When hydraulic conductivity is lower
than rainfall intensity, the saturation is from the
surface and the wetting front appears, the FOS has
the higher value in low hydraulic conductivity.
In case of the river water level changes: The

577
FOS was approximately the same for soil with a
low hydraulic conductivity (< 10-4 cm/s)
irrespective of the rate of the RWL fluctuations.
With a high hydraulic conductivity (> 10-4 cm/s),
the pore-water pressure and the rate of water level
change are the primary factors affecting the FOS.
During the RWL rising process, the FOS
decreased, and bank failure occurred when the
hydraulic conductivity was equal to or higher than
the rising rate of the RWL.
Acknowledgements
The research described herein was financially
supported by the project Code 105.08-2015.24,
sponsored by Nafosted, Ministry of Science and
Technology, Vietnam. The authors express their
sincere gratitude for this support.
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Effect of hydraulic properties of soil on
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[4] Manikathiyakanathan, S., 2011. Impact of
permeability and surface cracks on soil slopes.
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 DISCUSSION ON NEARLY CORRECT DETERMINATION
OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF STRONGLY WEATHERED ROCK ZONE IA2

Bui Khoi Hung, Dang Hoang Cam, Ho Minh Long, Tran Xuan Sinh
Power Engineering Consulting Joint Stock Company 1, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: sinhang209@gmail.com

Abstract. When designing new slopes or repairing sliding mountainous slopes, it is very difficult to
define properties of rock and soil in zone IA2 (comprising of half-rock and half-soil). The paper has
proposed the usage of SPT results in the boreholes to determine shear strength in the natural state of the
zone IA2. In Vietnamese standard: TCVN 9351-2012 (the Standard Penetration Test, SPT), it has shown
the formula for calculating shear strength basing on value N30: υ' = (12 N30) 1/2 + a
Of which υ' is the overall friction angle, that already included υ and C, taking the factor a = 25. Since
computational programs such as geoslope, slide ... are set up according to Mhor-Coulomb so when
there’s no value C, it is impossible to calculate the stability of the slope or foundation under zone IA2. On
the basis of empirical data, the authors have selected the values of inner friction angle υ of zone IA2
corresponding to value N30, as follows:
N30 50 65 80 ≥100
υ tc , degree 28 30 32 34
For computing C, the authors have proposed the empirical formula: C = 2tgυ '- 2υ (kG/cm2).
The empirical coefficients to calculate and convert from shear strength in the natural state to the
saturated state: υbh = υtn x 0.80, Cbh = Ctn x 0.70. Proposals from SPT value to calculate the shear strength
(υ and C) of rock, soil at zone IA2 have given the results relatively reasonable and conservative compared
to the results from outdoor tests.

Keywords: slope; shear strength; SPT; zone IA2; saturated state.

1. Introduction determination of the shear strength of zone IA2

The design of new slopes or repairing the slided
slopes in mountainous areas requires the
availability of geological sections and physico
mechanical properties of existing rock, soil layers
at there. The typical geological section of the
typical mountainous slope encountered at the top is
the eluvial deluvial soil layer (e-dQ) and the soil of
the completely weathered rock zone (symbolised
as CW or IA1), beneath is soil mixed with rock of
the strongly weathered rock zone (symbollised as
HW or IA2) then rocks of the medium weathered
zone (MW or IB) and the rock of the slightly
weathered zone (SW or IIA). Soil of the eluvial
deluvial layer and weathered rock zone can take
undisturbed samples for laboratory testing but
comprising of half-rock and half-soil is very
difficult.
In Vietnamese standard: TCVN 8477: 2010
(Water resource Works- Requirements on
component, quantity of geological investigation in
FS and design stages of the project), the strongly
weathered zone (symbolised as HW or IA2) is
described as below:
"Majority of the rock has been stained, most of
the feldspar has turned into opaque, Fe and Mg
minerals are blurred and turned into brown soils.
Soil accounts for <50%. Almost rocks are soft,
porous, as slightly hammered, joints shall be
splitted, can be broken by hand, hammering
sounded unclear, the structure of bedrock still

579
exists. As dropping into water, non or very little air
bubbles appear. Can be shoveled, sometimes
difficult to excavate hence spud bar or blasts have
been used. They are classified as IV graded soil
and partly of IV graded rock."
With the feature of half rock, half soil as
mentioned above, in IA2 zone, samples failed to be
taken there for shear test in laboratory. It’s
impossible to use the Roclab program to compute
its mechanical properties. Zone IA2 is usually
located deep (below zone IA1), almost unvisible
on the ground. Therefore, the conduct of shear test
of zone IA2 at the outdoor can only be carried out
during construction that the IA2 zone has been
excavated exposing or can be done in adit which is
costly at important projects. Therefore, it is very
difficult to determine the shear strength of the zone
IA2 to provide materials for the design of slope
calculation. It’s often taking references to data of
previous projects (the more taking reference, the
less accuracy of the data to be used later), therefore
it has a low reliability, normally to be too
conservative.
2. Methods
The simplest and most convenient method to
study mechanical properties of the IA2 zone which
is located deeply in the design, investigation stages
is drilling and conducting SPT test in the borehole.
Normally in zone IA2, the value of N30 is 50 to 80,
but in many cases, even with more than 100 times
of hammering, the result is only 5-7cm going
down.
In Vietnamese standard: TCVN 9351-2012 (the
Standard Penetration Test - SPT), the formula for
calculating the shear test basing on N value is
given, as follows:
"The relationship between inner friction angle
and the standard penetration strength is as follows:
(After Terzaghi, Peck, Meyerthof ...)
= +a (1)
Of which: a is the coefficient, taking values from
15 to 25, see Figure E.2
It’s seen that in this formula, only υ property is
metnioned, without C. It should be understood that
in this υ value, it already included the value C.
Previously, when computing the stability of the
dam, it’s not distinguished between υ and C but
580
only used the friction factor f between concrete and
rock foundation.
Patton also outlined the shear strength by
serrated plane of rock sample, as follows:
τ= σn tg (υb + i) (2)
of which υb is the basic friction angle, i is the
angle of the serrated plane.
However, we are familiar with the Morh -
Coulomb formula:
τ= σn tg υ+ C (3)
of which: τ is the peak shear strength, σn is the
normal stress, υ is the inner friction angle, C is the
Cohesion. The term "Cohesion" is used for
convenience and is a mathematical quantity related
to the surface roughness, the cohesion is just a
block on the vertical axis τ when the normal stress
is zero.
Since computational programs such as
geoslope, slide ... are set up according to Mhor -
Coulomb so when there’s no value C, it is
impossible to compute the slope or foundation
stability under zone IA2.
3. Results
a. It is possible to make a theme of subject on
determination of shear strength of the zone IA2
using the SPT values and outdoor shearing tests.
Based on an extensive testing data, it is possible to
establish a correlation between the N30 value and
the shear strength comprising of υ and C.
Nevertheless, presently such data are rare hence
this theme of subject has not been done yet.
All documents presently do not include a
method from N30value that can simultaneously
compute υ and C, hence it is difficult to determine
the shear strength of zone IA2 if there is no
outdoor shearing tests.
b. To this situation, the authors have proposed
an approximate correct method to determine values
υ and C of zone IA2 according to the SPT results
conducted in boreholes on the basis of empirical
formula of Terzaghi, Peck ..., Mhor -Coulomb
theoretical formula in combination with actual data
of tests that have been collected from many
projects, as follows:
* As zone IA2 consists of weathered rock and
mixed with soil, then penetration values in
boreholes will vary widely, so it is important to
select the average N30 value representing for this
zone.
 * In many cases, when testing SPT in zone IA2,
even many hammers have been conducted but it
failed to reach down to 30cm. The authors
recommend to hammer maximumly to 100
hammers and then measuring the depth down,
recorded in the document of N30> 100.
* From one N value, it is impossible to
determine simultaneously the values of υ and C,
and as we know, when the triaxial tests of soil
samples are conducted, as well as for rock samples,
the relationship between the shearing force τ and
the normal stress σn is nonlinear, therefore values
υ and C change according to value σn.
Specifically, when the normal stress is bigger, the
larger is the value C, and the smaller is the value υ
and vice verse, when the normal stress becomes
smaller, the smaller is the value C, and the greater
is the value υ.
* Coming back to the Moul-Coulomb formula τ
= σn tg υ + C. When computing the deformation
modulus of the soil, it’s considered the vertical
load range of 1-2 kG/cm2, here it has chosen: σn =
2.0kG/cm2.
Since two unknowns cannot be defined in one
equation, the authors select the value of friction
angle υ corresponding to value of N30, while the
value C will vary depending on the value of υ and
N30.
According to the outdoor testing results, the
N30 value of soil, rock at zone IA2 varies from 50
to ≥100, the problem is to select the appropriate
value based on the lower limit value and the actual
upper limit value of υ of zone IA2.
- Regarding the lower limit: according to
Vietnamese standard: TCVN 9362: 2012 (The
design standard of the building foundation and
works), in table B.2, then sandy semi-hard soil
(0≤Is ≤ 0.25) has shear strength as below:
Tab. 1. Shear strength
Poroxity index, e
Shear strength
0.45 0.55 0.65
Ctc (kPa) 15 11 8 hence C = 2,0 tg 560 – 2,0tg 320 = 1,72 kG/cm2
υtc(degree) 30 29 27
- For upper limit: according to Chinese
regulation DL 5108-1999 (The design code for
concrete gravity dams), for IV graded rock with a
compressive strength of rock sample of 30- 15
581
MPa, then υ of the rock mass is: tg υ = 0.88 to
0.55, i.e: υ = 41o to 29o.
Based on these empirical data, the authors
select υ values of the zone IA2 corresponding to
the N values as follows:
Tab. 2. Relationship between N and υ
N30 50 65 80 ≥100
υ tc ,degree 28 30 32 34
Note: N values outside the above numbers are
interpolated to υ values
d. Carry out the computation of Cohesion C
We have an empirical formula:
υ '= (12 N30) 1/2 + a
υ'is the overall friction angle, of which includes
the inner friction angle υ and the Cohesion C,
taking a = 25
Then σ tg υ’ = σ tgυ+ C, of which υis inner
friction angle, C is cohesion.
Taking: σ= 2.0 kG/cm2, , we have
2.0 tgυ’ = 2.tgυ +C.
There fore we have empirical formula:
C = 2.0tgυ’ – 2.0tgυ
- Example value N30in average of zone IA2 is
50
We have: υ’= (12 x 50)1/2 + 25 =490
With N30 =50, according to table 2 then taking
υ = 280
Therefore C= 2.0tg 490 – 2.0tg280 = 1.23kG/cm2
- Example of value N30in average of zone IA2
is 65
We have: υ’= (12 x 65)1/2 + 25 = 520
with N30 = 65, according to table 2 then taking
υ = 300
hence C= 2.0 tg 520 – 2.0 tg300 = 1.40 kG/cm2
- Example of value N in average of zone IA2 is
80.
We have: υ’=(12 x 80)1/2 + 25 =560
with N30 =80 according to table 2 then taking υ
= 320
- Example: value N30 in average of zone IA2 is
100
We have: υ’= (12 x 100)1/2 + 25 = 590
with N30 = 100, according to table 2 then taking
υ =340
 hence Cohesion: C= 2,0tg 590 – 2,0tg 340 =1,98 2012 (Foundation for hydro works) we have tgυtt =
kG/cm2 tgυtc /1.15, Ctt = Ctc/1.8.
Calculated values υ and C mentioned above are The table statistised computed results of υ and
standard values of the zone IA2 in the natural state. C according to the N30 value of the zone IA2 in
When converted to the calculated values, the natural state.
according to Vietnamese standard: TCVN 4253 -
Tab. 3
Value N30 that gained Standard value Computed value
from testing υtc , degree Ctc , kG/cm2 υtt , degree Ctt , kG/cm2
50 28 1,23 24 0,68
65 30 1,40 26 0,77
80 32 1,72 28 0,95
100 34 1,98 30 1,1

Tab. 4
Project Type of bedrock Dry density, g/cm3 υ, degree C, kG/cm2
Son La Basalt 2.40 33 1.0
Lai Chau Granite 2.30 26 0.8
Cua Dat Lake Quartzous schist 2.20 30 0.6
Tuyen Quang Shale 2.10 25 0.3

c. Comparison values of the shear strength
calculated from the value N30 with the computed
shear strength values of zone IA2 with outdoor
shearing tests.
Below representing calculated values of
physico-mechanical properties of zone IA2 in the
saturation state of some water resource works and
hydropower projects in Vietnam for reference:
Calculated values υ and C in Table 3 are in the
natural state, while the calculated values υ and C
in Table 4 are in the saturated state. It’s seen that
the results based on calculations are small
compared to the values measured from outdoor
tests.
d. On the basis of the results from shear test at
outdoor in zone IA2 at hydropower projects, the
approximate and conservative calculation on
relationship between the shear strength of rock and
soil of zone IA2 in natural state and in saturated
state, as follows:
- υ in the saturated state equal to in the natural
state multiplied by a factor of 0.80;
υbh = υtn x 0.80
- C is at saturated state equal with C in natural
state multiplied by factor of 0.70;
Cbh = Ctn x 0.70
The example case based on the results of SPT
in rock, soil of zone IA2 has calculated the shear
strength in natural state of: υ = 30o, C = 1.4
kG/cm2, thus it’s calculated in saturated state of: υ
= 30o x 0.8 = 24o, C = 1.4 x 0.7 = 0.98 kG/cm2.
4. Conclusions
- Determination of the shear strength by value
N30 of the SPT is only approximate correct. Even
in formula for computating υ, the value a
according to different authors is taken from 15 to
25, i.e, the angle υ varies to 10o.
- Normally only value N30 = 80 is considered,
but the authors have calculated for value N30 = 100
because in many cases, SPT in zone IA2 have
encountered this value or even bigger.
On the other hand, the taken of normal stress of
2 kG/cm2 is based on taking the normal load of
2kG/cm2 when calculating the deformation
modulus of the soil and in order to have computed
results relatively matching with actual data, there is
no strong, strictly tight argument. Therefore, the
authors have given out the empirical formula: C =
2tgυ '- 2υ (kG/cm2).
Setting the values υ with respect to the value
N30 is based on statistic empirical evidence, it’s
seen that the selected data are also relatively
matched with reality.

582
 - Zone IA2 of different rocks has different shear
strengths and is expressed in different N values, so
when calculating υ and C of zone IA2 according to
the value N30, it’s not necessary to consider type of
weathered bedrock.
- Zone IA2 consists of complex distributed
weathered soil and rock, even outdoor tests have
scatter results, in rocky areas there’re high shear
strengths, while in more soil distribution area, the
shear strength is small. Therefore, selection of
value N30 representing the entire IA2 zone on the
slope is very important.
The recommended method is only approximate
correct, as compared to the results of outdoor
shearing tests, it is rather small as it only counts
N30=100, while the SPT in zone IA2 has
encountered many cases that are higher than 100,
on the other hand, it’s for conservative. However,
for the necessary of awaring the shear strength
which is difficult and costly to determine by
outdoor shearing tests, it’s the only way to find the
approximation calculated method for values υ and
C of zone IA2 on the basis of the SPT test. It’s
583
seen that this method also gives reasonable results,
with a conservative error which is acceptable,
therefore it can be used under current actual
conditions.
Above is our proposal to solve a long-standing
problem in the investigation and design of water
resources works and hydropower projects. We
would like to receive as many as comments from
your fellows.
References
1 Vietnamese standard: TCVN 9351-2012
(Standard penetration test - SPT)
2 Vietnamese standard: TCVN 9362:2012
(Design standard of building foundation and
works)
3 DL 5108- 1999 (The design code for concrete
gravity dams), Chinese norms
4 Shearing testing documents in zone IA2at the
field of PECC1
 USING PIEZCONE PENETRATION TESTING OF SOILS (CPTU) TO
DETERMINE THE PHYSICO-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LOCAL SAND
USING FOR SEA DYKES IN TRA VINH SHORE - SOUTH VIETNAM
Nguyen Huu Son, Dau Van Ngo, Ho Chi Thong, Nguyen Thi Ngoc Thuy
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam
Corresponding author’ Email: sonbkrectie@gmail.com

Abstract: Climate change and sea level rise have been impacting heavily on Vietnam, especially in
coastal areas and have caused great economic losses. The construction of sea dykes to minimize the effect
of Climate change and sea level rise is greatly concerned, however there are many difficulties with the
construction sand. The use of construction sand in traditional mines with guaranteed physico-mechanical
properties have met many difficulties due to their high transportation costs and the rising prices of the
material because of its scarcity. Therefore, using local construction sand is currently being considered as a
substitute solution in those areas with financial difficulties of our country. The sand in the Dinh An
estuary, Tra Vinh province, with the advantage of close proximity and abundant reserves, can be
considered as a local substitute material. The objective of the research team is to find a local substitute
material with good quality based on the data assessment of the physico-mechanical properties of the sand
in Dinh An area of Tra Vinh province in accordance with American standards ASTM D 5778 and Bristish
Standards BS 1377 and BS 5930. The experiment to simulate the size of the sea dike foundation in the
testing pit at the depth of 5 m, the bottom of the foundation is 15 x 15 m and the surface of the foundation
is 45 x 45 m performs in Long Vinh Commune, Duyen Hai District, Tra Vinh Province, which is the
location with similar hydrogeology to the sea dyke areas that we have studied. Research experiment on
natural unit weight of soil and Piezocone penetration testing of soils (CPTu) on sand with the indexes for
measurement are natural unit weight of soil and internal friction angle (). The results show that the
natural unit weight of sand at all penetrating pits is> 18.0 KN / m³, the internal friction angle (angle ) is
from 31.63° † 51.26° ≥ 30 ° and it is possible to use local sand as substitute material for some dyke
projects in the Tra Vinh shore - South Vietnam.

Keywords: sea dyke; piezocone penetration testing of soils; internal friction angle ()

1.Introduction wall stress, slope stability, settlement beneath

Natural unit weight () of construction soil is a
property of physical condition. It belongs to solid –
liquid – air pharse relationship (apparent specific is
the relationship of the mineral composion –
porosity – fracture – moisture content). Natural
unit weight is an important property used to
calculate some derivative parameters, for example:
dry unit weight, porosity, relative compaction. It is
also used for calculating of soil mechanics,
foundation engineering which include retaining
foundation, pressure distribution, bearing capacity,
embankment as well as construction materials
using. Besides, natural unit weight is also used for
researching, evaluating some natural geological
process, etc.
Nowadays, the construction of sea dyke to
minimize the effects of climate change - sea level
rise is being strongly concerned, however the use
of construction sand in traditional mines with
guaranteed physico-mechanical properties have

584
met many difficulties due to their high
transportation costs and the rising prices of the
material because of its scarcity. Therefore, using
local construction sand is currently being
considered as a substitute solution in those areas
with financial difficulties of our country.
The sand in the Dinh An estuary, Tra Vinh
province, which is the location with similar
hydrogeology to the sea dyke areas that we have
studied, with the advantage of close proximity and
abundant reserves, can be considered as a local
substitute material.
In this paper, The objective is to find substitute
sand source based on the data assessment of the
physico-mechanical properties of the sand in Dinh
An area of Tra Vinh province in accordance with
American standards ASTM D 5778 and Bristish
Standards BS 1377 and BS 5930, the research team
has conducted a study on using substitute sand for
the Project "Traffic Stream for big dead weight
ship to the Hau River”, in which, conduct a study
on natural unit weight and Piezocone penetration
testing of soils (CPTu) on sand with the indexes
for measurement are natural unit weight of soil and
internal friction angle (). The results show that the
natural unit weight of sand at all penetrating pits
is> 18.0 KN / m³, the internal friction angle (angle
) is from 31.63° † 51.26° ≥ 30 ° and it is possible
to use substitute sand source for some dyke
projects in the Tra Vinh shore - South Vietnam.
2.Research Methods (From this section down
need to rewrite)
2.1. Testing construction site
The objective of the project is to find a
substitute sand source requires an internal friction
angle which is tested by the Standard Penetration Test
is  ≥ 30o, using for the construction of a southern
2.4km length breakwater to protect the waterway,
including the ports of the Duyen Hai Center Power
Company (Figure 1).

Fig. 1. Breakwater section.

The research was carried out at Dinh An

estuary (Giong Bang village, Long Vinh commune,
Tra Vinh province) with a size of 45m x 45m. The
testing study site has a natural environment and
construction conditions similar to the working
construction site of the southern breakwater. The
testing study area shown in Figure 2 and the
control point‟s coordinates of the study area are
given in Table 1. The site plan of the penetrating
pits is given by Figure 3 and the coordinates of the
penetrating pits given by Table 2.
Fig. 2. Location of the study area

585
 Construction of the slope by the stepped
method (Figure 4) according to each design section
to ensure the technical standards are archived. Each
hoe layer should be no more than 50cm high. The
slope will be poured naturally according to each
hoe layer.

Fig .3. Site plan of the penetrating pits

Fig .4. Slope construction method

Tab. 1. The coordinates of penetrating pits. 2.2. Calculated parameters.

Coordinates. a) Cone resistance, qc
No. Penetrating pit. Cone resistance, qc, is a force impact on an area
X (m) Y (m)
unit, determined by dividing the Force impact to
1 CPTu01 1062173 586819 the Area of the cone, AT = 10 cm2.
2 CPTu02 1062175 586820
3 CPTu03 FT
1062178 586820
qc  (MPa) (1)
4 CPTu04 1062171 586815 AT
5 CPTu05 1062176 586818 Corrected cone resistance, qt
6 CPTu06 1062175 586816 qt  qc  (1   s )  u 2 (MPa) with s = 0,80 (2)
7 CPTu07 1062173 586816 b) Sleeve friction, fs
8 CPTu08
Sleeve friction, fs is determined by dividing the
1062170 586820
total Force of friction measured to the area of the
9 CPTu09 1062173 586824 friction sleeve, As = 150 cm2.
10 CPTu10 1062175 586823
11 CPTu11 1062175 586821 Fs
fs  (MPa) (3)
12 CPTu12 1062172 586820 As
13 CPTu13 1062170 586824 c) Friction ratio, Rf

586
 Friction ratio is the ratio between sleeve friction
and cone resistance at a certain location.
fs
Rf   100 (%) (4)
qt
d) Internal friction angle ’
The selection and use of the internal friction
angle values ', the internal friction angle ‟ of
sand is calculated by the Roberson's and Cabal's
experimental formulation [1] that have considered
the effect of pore water pressure and effective load
of the coating to check the internal friction angle ‟
after filling (Figure 5 † 7).
Interpretation Effective Stress Friction Angle Fig. 6. Friction Angle of sands from CPT [1].
from In-Situ Test.
Drained frictional response of soils (use secant
o' and c'=0).
Effective frictional envelope for dry sands or
saturated geomaterial (undrained, drained, static,
cyclic) [1].
Drained penetration in uncemented clean quartz
sands (SPT, CPT, DMT, PMT) [1].
Undrained penetration in all soil types by
piezocone (CPTu).

Fig .7. The Mathematics diagram defines the

internal friction angle by Robertson and
Campanella [1].

Internal friction angle ‟ of sand is calculated

by the Roberson's and Cabal's experimental
formulation as guided by BS 5930 - 1999 [2]:
qc
tg '  0.1  0.38 lg (5)
Fig. 5. CPT from Bearing Capacity Theory [1].  ov, z '

In which: qc- Cone resistance;  vo ,z ' :

Effective vertical stress.
e) Classification of soil.
Classification of soil is based on ratio of
friction or the Robertson„s Soil classification chart
(Figure 8). However, the soil classification can
also be based on the porewater pressure ratio Bq
and the corrected cone resistance, qt [1].

587
 Tab. 2. Soil classification based on porewater pressure ratio and unit resistance:

Layer Type of soil Layer Type of soil Layer Type of soil

1 Sensitive, fine grained 5 Sand mixtures 9 Sand

2 Organic soils-peats 6 Sand dust to clay dust 10 Sand gravel to sand

3 Clays 7 Garvelly sand to sand 11 Fine-grained soil, hard

4 Clays-clay to silty clay 8 Sand to sand dust 12 Sand to sandy

Thin-walled pipe, knife ring;

Fig. 8. Soil classification chart by Robertson
(1990) [3].
2.3. Testing equipment.
1) Cone penetration equipment, produced by
Netherlands, consisting of the following main parts
Penetration equipment CPT with hydraulic
pump and reaction system can reach a maximum
load of 100kN;
Electrical cone: Model C10CFIIP;
The push-/pull system with a self-recording
system;
Penetration pipe: with the external diameter of
36mm, internal diameter of 16mm, length of
1000mm;
Signal Cable: Standard or connection cable,
8.8mm diameter; 50m long;
Data acquisition system: Model GME500 IP65;
Windows computer and specialized soft wares
of CPT test and CPT task;
2) Other equipment.
Testing equipment for sand filling, include:
0.075mm sieve according to BS standard;
Electronic balance, Accuracy of 0.01;
Gas stove and mosturizing box.
2.4. Experiments.
a) Cone Penetration Test CPTu.
The cone with an opening angle of 60° and an
area of 10 cm2 is pressed into the soil with an
average speed of 20 ± 5mm/s. The pressing force
at the cone at certain depth is measured by the
electric method according to each 10mm
penetration depth. The stress is calculated by
dividing the measured force to the area of the cone
to determine the cone resistance, qc.
The sleeve friction is placed immediately after
the cone and the force impact on the friction sleeve
is also measured by the electric method in each
10mm penetration depth. Sleeve friction fs is
determined by dividing the total friction measured
to the area of the friction sleeve.
The penetrating machine is capable of
recording the porewater pressure generated by the
cone through the water pressure sensor. These
devices are often referred to as "piezocones". The
piezocone device is pressed down at the given
speed, and data is recorded at each 10 mm
penetration depth.
Test before CPT experiment.
Begin the penetration experiment:
Turn on the computer;
Open CPT data acquisition software: To start
the program, open the menu “Start”, choose
“Programs” after that open the installed CPT
folder. Click on CPT Test, and the program will
automatically start.
Before starting the CPTu experiment, the values
“Zero value” are displayed on the screen. The
program will record the actual corrected value of

588
the cone or pressure. This means that the
measurement of the cone or pressure will be
synchronized with Zero value. The correcting
process is complete when a blue notification strip
appears. If the current value exceeds the allowable
limit of Zero value, the program will issue a
message to notify that the program cannot be
performed. In case the correcting process is good,
the program will automatically switch to the screen
to start receiving penetration data.
b) Sand material experiment.
- Particle content experiment through 0.075mm
sieve:
Initial sampling: Samples were randomly taken
at 10 different locations both on the surface and at
the bottom of the sand barge before the sand is
being poured into the pit.
Shortening the samples: The original samples
after the collection are pooled together, blended
and reduced by the fourfold division method. Pour
small aggregate onto a clean, dry, waterproof
surface. Smooth the sample‟s surface and draw two
perpendicular lines to divide the sample into four
equal parts. Take two vertical opposite sections
and pooled them together. After that, mixing and
shortening the sample until the required weight is
about 2kg.
Weigh approximately 500 g of the aggregate
after passing 5 mm sieve then pour the weighed
aggregate into a 0.075mm sieve for filter. Stop
filtering when the amount passing through each
sieve have not exceeded 0.1% of the total weight
of the sample in 1 minute.
- Experiment of natural unit weight:
Sampling: Place the belt knife (with internal
lubrication) into the cap, press by hand or using a
0.5kg hammer to lightly slice the wood pad onto
the knife so that the knife will submerge deep into
the sand by vertical position. When the knife was
fully submerge, dig the soils around the knife off to
take the whole knife belt full of land, flatten both
heads. Redo the experiment if the sand sample is
broken.
Balance the filled-soil knife belt after cleaning
the outside.
- The volumetric mass of moisture:
589
g1 -g 2
w = (6)
V
In which: g2 – the mass of filled-soil knife
belt(g); g1 - the mass of knife belt (g), V - the
volume of knife belt (cm3).
3. Applicable Standards.
BS 5930: 1999: Code of practice for soil
investigations [2].
TCVN 4419 – 1987: The survey for
construction - Fundamentals [4].
TCVN 9352 – 2012: Construction Soil – The
Method of Cone Penetration Test [5].
ASTM D 5778: Standard Test Method for
Performing Electronic Friction Cone and
Piezocone Penetration Testing of soils [6].
BS 1377-1990: Methods of test for soil for civil
engineering purposes [7].
4. Result and Discussion.
4.1. Sand testing results.
Penetration test is conducted for 10 sites,
symbolized from CPTu_01 to CPTu_10. CPT
drilling results are shown in Figures 9 †11 and
Table 4.
Fig. 9. The experimental chart of CPTu test.
Cone Resistance Graphic, qc, according to the
depth. Friction Ratio Graphic (Rf= fs/qc) according
to the depth [3].
From the experimental results, we have:
1. From 0 – 0.08m: Sandy Soil mixed with clay
2. From 0.08 – 0.46m: Sand (7-Garvelly sand to
sand), qc = 0,56 – 0,78 MPa,  = 43018‟ – 48024‟
3. From 0.46 – 0.52m: Sand (6- Sand dust to
clay dust). qc = 0.79 – 0.87 MPa.  = 43000‟ –
43010‟
4. From 0.52 – 0.70m: Sand (7- Garvelly sand
to sand). qc = 0.92 – 1.13 MPa.  = 43000‟ –
43018‟
 5. From 0.70 – 2.72m: Sand (6- Sand dust to
clay dust). qc = 0.75 – 1.80 MPa.  = 36050‟ –
43000‟
6. From 2.72 – 2.78m: Sand (5-Sand mixtures).
qc = 1.22 – 1.57 MPa.  = 36000‟ – 37036‟
7. From 2.78 – 5.08m: Clays-clay to silty clay
(Natural soil ground).

Fig. 11. The section of soil type based on the

Fig. 10. Graphic of the porewater pressure (u2) results of the CPTu data interpretation.
according to the depth [3].
Tab. 3. CPTu test data.
Dynami Corrected Effective Internal
Cone Sleeve Friction Soil Unit
c pore cone vertical friction
Depth resistanc friction ratio Classifica weight
pressure resistance stress angle
[m] e (qc) in (fs) in (Rf) in -tion in
(u2) in (qt) in , z') in ') in
MPa MPa % (using Fr) kN/m3
MPa MPa kPa Degree
0 0.0523 0 0.001 0 0.0525 0.19 0
0.08 0.4792 0.0005 0.0798 0.1171 0.4944 0.64 7 50.0
0.1 0.563 0.001 0.0804 0.1735 0.5783 1.09 7 48.5 18.1
0.3 0.6406 0.001 0.0825 0.1548 0.6563 2.89 7 44.8 18.1
0.46 0.7854 0.0011 0.0841 0.1395 0.8014 4.24 6 43.9 18.3
0.52 0.8263 0.0012 0.0851 0.1403 0.8425 4.69 6 43.6 18.4
0.6 1.0498 0.0012 0.0861 0.1158 1.0662 5.59 7 43.9 18.6
0.65 1.1017 0.0012 0.0865 0.1096 1.1181 6.04 7 43.8 18.6
0.7 1.1336 0.0013 0.0871 0.1147 1.1501 6.49 7 43.6 18.7
0.8 1.2094 0.0016 0.0881 0.1327 1.2261 7.39 6 43.3 18.9
1.2 1.219 0.0014 0.0921 0.1154 1.2364 10.99 6 41.3 18.8
1.6 0.8224 0.0012 0.097 0.1432 0.8408 14.59 6 37.4 18.4
2 1.4368 0.0027 0.1006 0.1906 1.4559 18.19 6 39.4 19.6
2.4 1.5765 0.0047 0.1045 0.2978 1.5964 21.79 6 38.9 20.3
2.6 1.7999 0.0055 0.1073 0.3089 1.8203 23.59 6 39.2 20.5
2.65 1.7752 0.0062 0.1079 0.3515 1.7958 24.04 6 39.0 20.6
2.72 1.7082 0.0107 0.1084 0.6637 1.7288 24.48 6 38.7 21.3
2.75 1.353 0.0193 0.1091 1.5349 1.3737 24.87 5 37.2 21.9
2.78 0.9695 0.0049 0.0997 0.5242 0.9884 24.14 5 35.4 20.2
3 1.9438 0.0074 0.094 0.3717 1.9617 27.19 6 38.8 20.8
3.3 2.3428 0.0084 0.0968 0.371 2.3612 29.89 6 39.3 21.1
3.6 1.7882 0.0065 0.1002 0.3597 1.8072 32.59 6 37.3 20.7
3.9 2.2271 0.0084 0.103 0.3782 2.2467 35.29 6 38.1 21.1
4.2 2.8455 0.009 0.1059 0.3278 2.8656 37.92 6 39.1 21.3
4.5 1.6286 0.0147 0.1095 0.9901 1.6494 40.4 5 35.4 21.7

590
 Tab. 4. The summary table of substitute sand results.
Internal friction angle, ‟
Cone resistance, qc (MPa) Natural unit weight, kN/m3
(degree)
Depth, Number Max Max
Max – The Number of The Number of The Evaluation
m of – –
Min average measurement average measurement average
measurem Min Min
Value value points value points value
ent points Value Value
52,1 21,3
2,56 –
0-1 200 1,12 200 – 45,3 190 – 19,3 Correct
0,46
39,4 17,9
45,3 21,4
2,79 –
1-2 200 1,14 200 – 39,4 200 – 19,4 Correct
0,43
34,3 18,1
43,1 21,9
3,71 –
2-3 192 1,66 192 – 38,4 192 – 20,3 Correct
0,49
30,8 18,3
43,8 23,5
5,31 –
3-4 130 1,93 130 – 37,4 130 – 20,8 Correct
0,57
30,4 19,2
40,5 21,9
3,54 –
4-5 55 1,65 55 – 35,0 58 – 20,8 Correct
0,79
30,4 19,6
4,15 29,6
0,64 –
– 3 0,63 3 – 29,4 0 - - Incorrect
0,61
4.30 29,1
Note: The internal friction angle and natural unit weight are determined from the experimental formulas as
instructed in BSI 5930.

4.2. Result evaluation. 4.3. Recommendation

1. Total number of penetrating tested pits for
substitute sand: 10 pits
2. The total penetrating volume has made:
53.5m, in which, the total penetrating volume in
the substitute sand layer: 39,0m
3. Evaluate the internal friction angle:
On the number of testing points: Total score is
780 points, in which, the number of achieved
points is 777 points (accounting for 99.62%), the
number of unachieved measurement points is 3
points (accounting for 0.38%).
On the number of testing length: The total
penetrated length in the sand layer is 39.0 m, in
which, the number of achieved penetration length
is 38.7m (accounting for 99,2%), the number of
unachieved penetration length is 0,3m (accounting
for 0,8%).
4. Evaluation of natural unit weight: 100% of
tested pits are achieved the technical requirements.
On the selection and use of the internal friction
angle ϕ‟, the internal friction angle of sand is
calculated from the experimental results of CPTu
by Roberson and Cabal [1], which have considered
the influence of the pore water pressure and the
effective stress of the coating is the appropriate
method to check the internal friction angle
indicator ϕ‟ of the sand after ground filling
construction. However, it should be noted, due to
the internal friction angle ϕ‟ of the sand is an
inverse function of the effective stress of the
coating, so at the surface layers (<= 2 m), the
effective stress of the coating value is quite low
leading to the calculated internal friction value ϕ‟
of the sand is usually high. Therefore, while
selecting the internal friction angle value ϕ‟ of the
sand for calculation or testing, the values within
the depth of 2m or less should be selected.
On data processing from the experimental
results, the CPTu test results can be exported
values with the thickness from 1-2 to 20 cm or

591
larger. To ensure the principles of data processing
according to statistics, according to TCVN 9153:
2012 there must have at least 06 measured values.
However, to ensure that we don‟t ignore the
alternating layers that may affect the stability of
the substitute sand layer, we propose exporting the
CPTu data of each 5cm thickness of substitute sand
layer.
On the evaluation of CPTu experimental
results, in case where the results of the experiment
(data exports in each 5cm thickness) there are
points which do not satisfy the technical
requirements, it is necessary to analyze and
evaluate the results as follows:
Re-export the test results with the thickness of
20 cm, if the output values of each 20cm satisfy
the technical requirements of the project, the test
results are achieved and do not need to be
processed (according to TCVN 9165: 2012, section
9.24).
In cases where the output values of each 20cm
do not meet the technical requirements, two pits
shall be penetrated in two perpendicular directions
to each other, away from the penetrated pit that
have the unachieved values from 1 to 2 m to
determine whether the unachieved layer is local or
occupies in a larger area (greater than 5m2). If two
additional penetrated pits have values that satisfy
technical requirements, the test results are achieved
and do not need to be processed. In case, one of the
two penetrated pits have a unachieved value
roughly coincides with the unachieved depth of the
first penetrating inspection pit, it shall be further
examined by penetrating pits within the grid
distance of 5-10 cm to localize and determine the
area of the zone that does not satisfy the design
requirements.
On the work of processing places with values
do not satisfying the design requirements, after
localizing and determining the areas of the zones
that have values which fail to satisfy the design
requirements, one of the following solutions may
be selected for processing:
Adding better quality sand to the area of
unsatisfactory values by the construction method
of adding sand piles.
592
Excavating all sand layer in the area that did not
satisfy design requirements and using other sand to
cover.
Excavating part of the sand layer in the area
that did not satisfy the design requirements and
replace with the sand with higher quality.
On drilling work to take experimental sand
samples after ground filling, sampling sand by
thin-walled pipe to determine backfilling sand
quality standards has many disadvantages such as
not seeing and accurately evaluating the alternating
layers by observed with naked eye and the
measured values do not reflect the real value of the
sand because the compactness of the sand has
changed during the sampling and testing.
Therefore, it is recommended to drill and take the
sand sample by the thin-walled pipe with split
double-barreled type in each meter from top to
bottom. After obtaining the sand sample
immediately, open the split pipes, observe with the
naked eye, take picture of the whole length of the
drilling, sampling the sand to determine the natural
unit weight of the soil by the in-situ Drive Cylinder
method. Taking sand samples to specify other
physico-chemical criteria in the laboratory. The
test results are processed and evaluated in
according to ISO 9153: 2012 and ISO 9165: 2012.
5. Conclusion
The results of the CPTu experiment at the "Sand
replacement test pit " show that the sand source
taken at Dinh An area, Duyen Hai district, Tra
Vinh province satisfies the technical requirements
for the quality of the substitute sand for the bidding
package 10A‟s background with its internal friction
angle ≥ 30o and natural unit weight ≥ 18 kN/m3.
The selection and use of the internal friction angle
‟ of sand is calculated by the Roberson's and
Cabal's experimental formulation [1] that have
considered the effect of pore water pressure and
effective load of the coating to check the internal
friction angle ‟ after filling is suitable. Content
passes through the 0.075 mm sieve is <15%.
Therefore, sand at this mine can be used as
substitute sand for the background of the project.
References
[1] Roberson P. K and Cabal K. L (2010),
“Guide to cone pentration testing for
geotechnical engineering”, Gregg Drilling
and Testing Inc,. (GREGG).
[2] BS 5930: 1999: Code of practice for soil
investigations.
[3] Lunne T., Robertson P. K., and Powell J. J.
M. (1997), “Cone Penetration Testing in
geotechnical practice”, Blackie Academic
& Professional London, UK.
593
[4] TCVN 4419 – 1987: Khảo sát cho xây
dựng – Nguyên tắc cơ bản (Survey for
construction – Fundamentals).
[5] TCVN 9352 – 2012: Đất xây dựng –
Phương pháp thí nghiệm xuyên tĩnh (Soils
– Method of Cone Penetration Test).
[6] ASTM D 5778: Standard Test Method for
Performing Electronic Friction Cone and
Piezocone Penetration Testing of soils.
[7] BS 1377-1990: Methods of test for soil for
civil engineering purposes.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 4th INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE VIETGEO 2018

QUANG BINH, VIETNAM

21&22 September 2018

SPONSORS
 Q uang Binh province is situated in the north of Central Vietnam with an area of 8,000km2 and a
population of 882,505 people in the year 2017.

Geographic position:The province has a coastline of

116.04km in the East and shares a border of
201.87km with Laos in the West. It is the place where
Hon La seaport is situated. The national road No.1A, Ho
Chi Minh road and the north - south railway run through
the province. The national road No. 12 and the provincial
roads No. 20, No. 16 running from the east to the west
connect the province with Laos through Cha Lo border
gate and other sub-border gates.
Topography: The provincial topography is narrow
A conner of Dong Hoi city at night
and sloping from the West to the East. Hilly and
(by Loner Nguyen photographer)
mountainous land occupies 85% of the natural area. The
total area is divided into specific geological zones: mountainous, hilly and midland, lowland and coastal sandy area.
Climate: Quang Binh is situated in the monsoon-tropical zone and influenced by the climate of North and the
South. The climate is divided distinctly into two seasons. Rainy season lasts from September to March of next year.
The annual average rainfall is 1,500 - 2,000mm. Months with heavy rain are from September to November. Dry
season lasts from April to August with the average temperature of 24 0C - 250C. Months with highest temperature are
June, July and August.
Land resources: Quang Binh land is divided into two
main types: alluvial soil in lowland and ferralite soil in
mountainous areas. There are 15 land types with main
groups as sandy, alluvial and barren soil. The barren soil
laying mainly in the mountainous districts in the West
accounts for over 80% of natural area of the province.
Sandy dunes account for over 5,9% and alluvial soil
accounts for 2,8%.
Flora and fauna: Quang Binh is located in the
biological zone of northern Truong Son range with a unique
Red Shanked Douc Langur in Quang Binh and diversified fauna and flora of many rare and precious
(by Huong Tra) species. The Kast Phong Nha - Ke Bang reservation zone
contains a typical biological diversity.
 Fauna diversity: There are 493 species, 67 kinds of animal, 48 kinds of reptile, 297 kinds of bird and 61 kinds
of fish....Many rare and precious animals can be found in this area such as Ha Tinh langur, bear, tiger, Saola, Giant
muntjact, lophura with white tail, lophura with black crest, pheasant and others.
Flora diversity: Quang Binh has 486,688 ha of forest including 447,837ha of natural forest and 38,851ha of
planted forest. Pine forests cover 17,397 ha. The barren land occupies 146,386ha. Flora is diversified and divided
into 138 families, 401 branches and 640 species. There are various kinds of precious wood such as ironwood,
sindora vietnamiensis, ebony, fragrant wood, pine, rattan, etc. Quang Binh is one of the provinces which contains a
big reserve of wood. At present the total wood reserve is 31 million m3.
Marine and coastal resources: Quang Binh has
116.04km of coastline and 5 estuaries including 2 big
ones. There are seaports namely Nhat Le, Gianh, Hon
La. Hon La gulf, which is of 4km2 water surface, over
15m depth and surrounded by the islands of Hon La, Hon
Co, Hon Chua, allows 30,000 - 50,000 tons ships to shelter
without excavation. A large area of over 400ha of the
mainland is a convenient condition for building an
industrial zone and a deep water seaport.
The province enjoys beautiful landscapes along the
sea. The sea platform with an area of 2.6 times bigger than
the mainland creates a large fishing zone which provides a Nhat Le beach, Quang Binh
potential volume of about 100,000 tons of sea products. (by Phuong Nga)
There are 1650 kinds of sea products, including precious kinds such as lobster, tiger shrimp, cuttlefish, holothurians,
coral. In the north of Quang Binh is located a white coral island with the area of tens hectare. This is not only a
valuable resource of material for making artistic products but also forms an ecological area for the coral system. All
these conditions enable the province to develop a comprehensive coastal economy.
Water surface for aquaculture: With 5 estuaries, Quang Binh has a large water surface for aquaculture. The
total area of the water surface is 15,000 ha. As the salted proportion is varying within 8 – 30%o and pH proportion
within 6.5 - 8 in the area from the estuary to 10 - 15km far way, it is very convenient to raise shrimp and crab for
export. Semi-tide regime in costal area is good for water provision and drainage in shrimp and crab ponds.
Water resources: Quang Binh has a large system of rivers and streams with the density of 0,8 - 1,1km/km2. 5
main rivers are named Ron, Gianh, Ly Hoa, Dinh and Nhat Le. There are 160 natural and artificial lakes with
expected capacity of 243.3 million m3.
Mineral resources: Quang Binh has various kinds of metal minerals such as gold, iron, titanium, pyrites, lead,
zinc and none-metal materials as kaolin, quartz, limestone, marble, granite. In particular, limestone and kaolin of big
volume provide favorable conditions for development of big scale of cement and construction materials. A hot water
stream at 1050C is located in the province. Gold potential enables to develop gold mining and processing industry.
Population and labour force: The population of Quang Binh is 882,505 people in the year 2017. The majority
of residents belong to Kinh group. Most of the main ethnic minorities of Chut and Van Kieu including such groups
as Khua, Ma Lieng, Ruc, Sach, Van Kieu, May, Arem live in mountainous districts of Tuyen Hoa and Minh Hoa
and some western communes of Bo Trach, Quang Ninh and Le Thuy districts. Residential proportion is different
from area to area. 80.31% of people live in rural areas and 19.69% in urban areas.
Culture and tourism potentials: Quang Binh land
spreads out as a nice picture with mountains, sea,
landscapes and famous spots as Ngang pass, Ly Hoa pass,
Nhat Le estuary, Hac Hai lagoon, Cong Troi (Heaven
gate), etc., especially, the natural heritage of Phong Nha
- Ke Bang.
Quang Binh is the land of rich culture and famous
people. There is an archaeological site of Bau Tro, Hoa
Binh and Dong Son cultures. There are also many
historical relics such as Quang Binh Quan, Luy Thay,
outer walls of Trinh – Nguyen, well-known places in the
wars as Cu Nam, Canh Duong, Xuan Bo, Cha Lo, Cong
General Vo Nguyen Giap’s tomb
(Source: http://dulich-quangbinh.com/)
Troi, Gianh river, Long Dai, especially Ho Chi Minh
legendary trail. This land has generated preeminent
figures such as Duong Van An, Le Thanh Hau Nguyen Huu Canh, Nguyen Ham Ninh, Vo Nguyen Giap and many
other outstanding people.
(Source: ''www.quangbinh.gov.vn')
 GIỚI THIỆU NGÀNH ĐÀO TẠO MỚI:
NGÀNH ĐỊA KỸ THUẬT XÂY DỰNG

Ngày 15 tháng 8 năm 2018, Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo đã ban hành quyết định số 2955/QĐ-BGDĐT
cho phép Trường Đại học Mỏ - Địa chất được đào tạo trình độ đại học ngành Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng, mã
số: 7580211. Sinh viên tốt nghiệp ngành Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng được cấp bằng kỹ sư thuộc lĩnh vực xây
dựng. Có thể nói, Đại học Mỏ - Địa chất hiện là Trường đại học đầu tiên ở Việt Nam được cấp mã
ngành Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng. Hiện nay một số trường đại học kỹ thuật ở nước ta đào tạo một số chuyên
ngành về Địa kỹ thuật, trong đó, Trường đại học Mỏ - Địa chất đào tạo chuyên ngành Địa chất công trình
- Địa kỹ thuật thuộc mã ngành Kỹ thuật địa chất.
Chương trình đào tạo ngành Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng được thiết kế với thời gian 4 năm. Nội dung
chương trình đào tạo cung cấp đầy đủ những kiến thức cơ bản, cơ sở và kiến thức chuyên môn toàn diện
về ngành Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng như: toán, kiến thức về cơ học và các kiến thức nền tảng về xây dựng;
địa chất; địa chất công trình - địa kỹ thuật. Kỹ sư Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng có thể thực hiện được các công
việc như: thiết kế và thi công nền móng của các loại công trình xây dựng; thiết kế và thi công các giải
pháp Địa kỹ thuật; thiết kế và thi công các giải pháp cải tạo và xử lý nền đất yếu; thiết kế và tổ chức
thực hiện công tác quan trắc địa kỹ thuật; giải quyết các bài toán liên quan đến các hoạt động tai biến
địa chất và môi trường; thực hiện các công tác khảo sát địa kỹ thuật cho các đối tượng công trình xây
dựng dân dụng - công nghiệp, công trình giao thông, thủy lợi, sân bay, bến cảng, các công trình ngầm,
công trình khai thác mỏ và các công trình quân sự…

Thiết kế xử lý mái dốc Thiết kế xử lý nền đất yếu

Thiết kế các giải pháp ổn định hố móng sâu Khảo sát, đánh giá ổn định bờ sông, bờ biển
 Khảo sát địa kỹ thuật phục vụ thi công Khảo sát địa kỹ thuật phục vụ thi công
công trình dân dụng và công nghiệp công trình ngầm

Quan trắc địa kỹ thuật hố đào sâu Quan trắc cảnh báo sớm trượt lở mái dốc

Sau khi tốt nghiệp, kỹ sư ngành Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng có thể làm việc tại các cơ quan, đơn vị sau:
- Các doanh nghiệp về tư vấn thiết kế và thi công thuộc các lĩnh vực xây dựng khác nhau như: xây
dựng dân dụng - công nghiệp, xây dựng công trình giao thông, thủy lợi, sân bay, bến cảng, công trình
ngầm, công trình mỏ, các công trình quân sự…
- Các đơn vị quản lý về công tác xây dựng nói chung thuộc các bộ ngành, các sở, các phòng ban
quản lý dự án về xây dựng;
- Các viện nghiên cứu và các trường đào tạo liên quan đến ngành xây dựng;
- Các đơn vị tư vấn khảo sát xây dựng thuộc các lĩnh vực xây dựng dân dụng - công nghiệp, xây
dựng công trình giao thông, thủy lợi, sân bay, bến cảng, công trình ngầm, công trình mỏ, các công trình
quân sự…
- Tự mở các doanh nghiệp hành nghề trong lĩnh vực khảo sát Địa kỹ thuật, thiết kế, thi công các giải
pháp địa kỹ thuật; thiết kế và thi công các giải pháp cải tạo và xử lý nền đất yếu; thiết kế và tổ chức thực
hiện công tác quan trắc địa kỹ thuật; thiết kế thi công nền móng công trình xây dựng…
Ngành Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng do Bộ môn Địa chất công trình - Địa kỹ thuật, Trường Đại học Mỏ -
Địa chất quản lý và tổ chức đào tạo. Bộ môn Địa chất công trình - Địa kỹ thuật, tiền thân là Bộ môn Địa
chất công trình được thành lập và đào tạo từ năm 1961 tại Đại học Bách khoa Hà Nội. Sau khi trường Đại
học Mỏ-Địa chất được thành lập trên cơ sở tách ra từ Đại học Bách khoa Hà Nội, Bộ môn Địa chất công
trình thuộc Trường Đại học Mỏ - Địa chất và đào tạo các ngành Địa chất công trình - Địa chất thủy văn,
từ năm 2000 đào tạo ngành Địa chất công trình - Địa kỹ thuật và sau này là chuyên ngành thuộc mã
ngành Kỹ thuật địa chất.
Hiện tại, tất cả cán bộ giảng dạy của Bộ môn đều có trình độ sau đại học. Nhiều cán bộ có trình độ
tiến sỹ được đào tạo tại các nước: Anh, Pháp, Bỉ, Đức, Nhật và Canada về lĩnh vực Địa kỹ thuật xây
dựng. Hiện nay Nhà trường có đầy đủ các phòng thí nghiệm phục vụ giảng dạy khối kiến thức cơ bản và
cơ sở; các phòng thí nghiệm Địa kỹ thuật công trình (LAS-XD 928), phòng thí nghiệm Xây dựng với
các trang thiết bị hiện đại của Châu Âu phục vụ tốt cho công tác đào tạo ngành Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng.
Với hệ thống phòng thí nghiệm và các điều kiện cơ sở vật chất khác, sinh viên sẽ được học đầy đủ kiến
thức lý thuyết và đủ điều kiện thực hành để nâng cao kỹ năng nghề nghiệp. Một số hình ảnh về phòng
thí nghiệm Địa kỹ thuật công trình hiện nay:

Đất nước ta đang bước vào giai đoạn phát triển để trở thành nước công nghiệp nên có nhu cầu rất
lớn về xây dựng các công trình hạ tầng như đường xá, cầu cống, sân bay bến cảng, các công trình thủy
lợi, thủy điện; các tòa nhà cao tầng, các nhà máy, công xưởng, đường tầu điện ngầm và các công trình
ngầm đô thị, các công trình phục vụ quốc phòng và dân sinh khác…. Điều kiện tự nhiên nói chung và
điều kiện về địa chất công trình nói riêng của nước ta rất phức tạp. Miền núi và trung du có địa hình phân
cắt, trong đất đá thường phát triển các hệ thống đứt gẫy và khe nứt cũng như xuất hiện nhiều tai biến địa
chất như trượt lở, lũ bùn đá, hiện tượng karst, gây bất lợi cho công tác xây dựng. Miền đồng bằng có địa
hình thuận lợi hơn nhưng phát triển nhiều thành tạo đất yếu, đòi hỏi phải chọn các giải pháp nền móng
thích hợp cũng như áp dụng các giải pháp cải tạo, xử lý nền đất yếu trước khi xây dựng công trình, một số
hiện tượng địa chất thường gặp như xói lở bờ sông, bờ biển…Thực tế công tác xây dựng ngày càng đa
dạng, quy mô xây dựng ngày càng lớn trong điều kiện tự nhiên phức tạp luôn đặt ra những nhiệm vụ phức
tạp và cấp thiết để các kỹ sư và các nhà nghiên cứu về lĩnh vực Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng giải quyết.
Để đáp ứng nguồn nhân lực về Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng hiện nay, Bộ môn Địa chất công trình - Địa
kỹ thuật Trường Đại học Mỏ - Địa chất xác định, đồng thời với việc đào tạo kỹ sư Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng
hệ đại học chính quy tuyển sinh từ năm 2019, dự kiến sẽ tiến hành tổ chức đào tạo chuyển đổi bằng theo
hình thức đào tạo bằng hai Địa kỹ thuật xây dựng đối với kỹ sư đã tốt nghiệp các ngành và chuyên ngành
Địa chất công trình - Địa chất thủy văn, Địa chất công trình - Địa kỹ thuật và kỹ sư ngành xây dựng. Với
những kinh nghiệm thực tiễn trong lĩnh vực xây dựng đã được tích lũy nhiều năm, những kỹ sư này sẽ
đáp ứng tốt yêu cầu của công tác xây dựng ở nước ta trong thời gian tới.

PGS.TS. Lê Trọng Thắng

 TECHNICAL WORLD CO.,LTD,
A MEMBER OF TWGROUP CORPORATION (TWG)
Add: 25-27 Do Thua Tu Street, Tan Quy Ward, Tan Phu District,
HCMC, VietNam
Tel: (+84 8) 35592250 - Ext: 666 Fax: (+84 8) 35592251
E-mail: info@twgroup.com.vn Web: tw.twgroup.com.vn

Technical World Co.Ltd (TW), a

member of TWGroup Corporation (TWG),
specialises in construction related consultancy
service.
From very first beginning, TW always
determines its target to be the first choice for
client looking for a trustful partner and on stop
solution provider in projects in civil
construction works, infrastructure,
transportation and other public facilities. We
always put the interests of customers on top,
provide services with high efficiency,
reasonable price to save cost for customers
and partners.
Since its establishment in 2006, TW has contributed its consultancy to many big projects at high level
importance of Vietnam, such as: The HCM- Long Thanh - Dau Giay Expressway; Ben Luc - Long Thanh
Expressway; Da Nang - Quang Ngai Expressway; Song Hau Thermal Power Plant; Nghi Son Refinery and
Petrochemicals Factory; Bason Shipyard in Cai Mep; Ho Chi Minh City Metro Line 1: Ben Thanh - Suoi Tien;
Vietnam Parliament House, The One Building, Thu Thiem New Urban Area.
At TW, we established our own in house geotechnical and construction laboratory (Code the LAS 439) with
modern equipment imported from USD, Japan, Germany and other European countries. Proudly, TW is leading in
modernising equipment.
The key of our strength is our human resource. Currently, more than 160 staff members, including Ph.D.,
Master, and Engineer trained in famous schools in the world and the prestigious universities in Vietnam are working
at TW.

Geotechnical - Construction Laboratory (LAS439) Rig for Geotechnical Monitoring in marine works (Jackup platform)

Geotechnical Monitoring HCM Metro line 1 – CP 1B Experiment to test pile quality with test load up to 5000 tons
 FECON - TRƯỞNG THÀNH TỪ ĐỊA KỸ THUẬT

Nói đến lĩnh vực Địa kỹ thuật ở Việt Nam, không thể không nói đến FECON!
Thành lập năm 2004 từ một nhóm kỹ sư và chuyên gia đầu ngành về xử lý và thi công nền móng công
trình, trải qua gần 15 năm hình thành và phát triển, FECON được biết đến là một doanh nghiệp hàng đầu về
nền móng và công trình ngầm tại Việt Nam. Hệ thống FECON cũng không ngừng được mở rộng với 16 đơn
vị thành viên, cùng đội ngũ nhân sự chất lượng cao lên tới gần 2.000 người. Với hơn 700 công trình lớn nhỏ,
FECON đã dần định vị được thương hiệu, uy tín với các chủ đầu tư, nhà thầu trong nước và quốc tế. Đó chính
là bệ phóng để FECON chinh phục mục tiêu “dẫn đầu về hạ tầng tại Việt Nam vào năm 2020”.
Xuất phát từ một kỹ sư địa chất công trình, Chủ
tịch FECON - Ông Phạm Việt Khoa đã vạch ra
hướng đi riêng cho công ty từ những ngày đầu tiên -
dựa trên những hiểu biết sâu sắc về Địa kỹ thuật.
FECON cung cấp giải pháp tổng thể, tối ưu cho nền
móng công trình, bắt đầu từ những công việc nghiên
cứu nền đất: Khảo sát địa chất và thí nghiệm địa kỹ
thuật công trình đến các nhiệm vụ kỹ thuật: Thiết kế
và thi công xử lý nền đất yếu; Thiết kế, sản xuất và thi
công cọc, móng các loại. Từ đó đưa ra và giải quyết
các bài toán về Nền và Móng cho hàng loạt công
trình, dự án trọng điểm quốc gia như các nhà máy
nhiệt điện: Nghi Sơn 1, Thái Bình 1, Thái Bình 2,
Long Phú 1, Nhơn Trạch 2; các đường cao tốc Ảnh: Công trường Nhà máy Thép Hòa Phát
Tp.HCM - Long Thành - Dầu Giây, Đà Nẵng - Quảng
Ngãi cùng nhiều dự án FDI nổi bật như: Nhà máy Điện tử Samsung (Thái Nguyên, Bắc Ninh, Tp.HCM); Nhà
máy Điện tử LG Hải Phòng; Nhà máy Honda…
Điểm đặc biệt, FECON xác định rõ sứ mệnh phát triển các hoạt động nghiên cứu và ứng dụng công nghệ
tiên tiến trong kỹ thuật nền móng, từ đó liên tục áp dụng những tiến bộ của khoa học công nghệ vào lĩnh vực
của mình. Từ 2008, FECON đã tiên phong trong việc sản xuất và sử dụng cọc ly tâm PHC/ PC như một sản
phẩm công nghiệp tinh vi, được sản xuất hàng loạt tại nhà máy. Riêng năm 2017, FECON đã thử nghiệm và áp
dụng thành công công nghệ đầm rung sâu tại dự án Thép Hòa Phát Dung Quất (Quảng Ngãi), Công nghệ
Shaft Grouting tại các dự án Empire City - phía Nam; đưa Jet Grouting đường kính lớn vào dự án Nhà máy
nhiệt điện Duyên Hải 3…
Không chỉ dừng ở việc phát triển kinh doanh,
doanh nghiệp dẫn đầu ngành nền, móng, công trình
ngầm, hạ tầng đô thị ở Việt Nam này đã không ngừng
nỗ lực để rút ngắn khoảng cách về khoa học công
nghệ trong ngành Địa kỹ thuật giữa Việt Nam và các
nước phát triển thông qua việc tổ chức thành công 3
lần Hội nghị quốc tế GEOTEC Hà Nội vào các năm
2010, 2013, 2016, thu hút sự tham gia của trên 500
nhà khoa học và các doanh nghiệp công nghệ xây
dựng đến từ gần 30 nước trên thế giới. Năm 2019,
FECON sẽ tiếp tục tổ chức GEOTEC Hà Nội lần thứ tư.
Ảnh: Hội thảo GEOTEC Hanoi 2016
TRUNG TÂM NGHIÊN CỨU CÔNG NGHỆ VÀ THIẾT BỊ CÔNG NGHIỆP
(RECTIE)
Trường Đại học Bách Khoa Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh
Địa chỉ: 268 Lý Thường Kiệt, Phường 14, Quận 10, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh
Email: rectie@hcmut.edu.vn; lasxd238@gmail.com
Điện thoại: (028) 38651664 Fax: (028) 38645398 Email: dauvanngo@hcmut.edu.vn
Giám đốc Trung tâm: PGS. TS Đậu Văn Ngọ

Ngày 03 tháng 12 năm 1993, Trung tâm Nghiên cứu Công nghệ và Thiết bị Công nghiệp thành lập
theo quyết định số 2673/QĐ-BGDĐT của Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo, hoạt động theo Giấy phép Đăng ký
hoạt động Khoa học Công nghệ số A-066 ngày 27/07/2011 do Bộ Khoa học và Công nghệ cấp lần 5 bao
gồm các đơn vị:
1. Phòng thí nghiệm tổng hợp - LAS-XD238 - ISO 9001:2008;
2. Phòng thí nghiệm Dịch vụ Phân tích và Kiểm nghiệm chất lượng - VILAS-1025 VIMCERTS 187;
3. Phòng Địa kỹ thuật;
4. Phòng Kiểm định - Thí nghiệm vật liệu xây dựng;
5. Phòng Kỹ thuật Thiết kế;
6. Phòng Công trình;
7. Phòng Hành chính tổng hợp;
8. Phòng Kế toán.

Trung tâm Nghiên cứu Công nghệ và Thiết bị Công nghiệp với nhiệm vụ nghiên cứu khoa học và
chuyển giao công nghệ trong nhiều lĩnh vực, tạo cầu nối để đưa các đề tài nghiên cứu khoa học, hợp đồng
chuyển giao công nghệ của các cán bộ Trường Đại học Bách Khoa - ĐHQG TP.HCM vào thực tiễn cuộc
sống, phục vụ xã hội, phục vụ sự nghiệp công nghiệp hóa, hiện đại hóa đất nước.
Kết quả hoạt động KHCN: Hàng năm thực hiện nhiều đề tài nghiên cứu khoa học các cấp và đăng
nhiều bài báo khoa học đăng trên tạp chí, kỷ yếu hội nghị trong nước và quốc tế.
Khen thưởng: Luôn luôn là tập thể lao động xuất sắc nhiều năm và được tặng nhiều bằng khen các cấp.
 CÔNG TY TNHH ĐẦU TƯ VÀ PHÁT TRIỂN GMC

Tên viết tắt: G.M.C

Địa chỉ: Bãi Cháy, Hạ Long, Quảng Ninh
Điện thoại: 0333.844.711; Fax: 0333.844.711;
Email: cpptgmc@gmail.com
Đại diện: Chủ tịch, Giám đốc: Hoàng Văn Ba

Công ty TNHH Đầu tư và Phát triển GMC kế thừa truyền thống về ngành Tư vấn khảo sát,
thiết kế từ 1958, là một trong các Công ty tư vấn và Phát triển Đầu tư Chuyên nghiệp - Độc lập -
Lâu đời ở Việt Nam. Với 60 năm kinh nghiệm trong lĩnh vực khảo sát, thiết kế, quản lý và giám
sát các dự án xây dựng, thi công xây lắp các dự án hạ tầng giao thông.
Quan hệ hợp tác và chính sách kinh doanh: Chúng tôi đã và đang hợp tác với các nhà đầu
tư, các đơn vị tư vấn trong nước và quốc tế để xúc tiến và triển khai hỗ trợ kỹ thuật, các dự án
đầu tư hạ tầng, các dự án đầu tư trực tiếp trong nước và quốc tế về các lĩnh vực xây dựng, cầu
đường, cảng biển, khu đô thị, khu công nghiệp, hạ tầng, thủy điện. Liên danh, liên kết với các
đơn vị lớn của quốc tế như Nippon Koie, PCI (Nhật); KBR, SMEC, MWH (Úc), MINWAY
(Thái Lan) và các Công ty tư vấn trong nước như Viện Khoa học Công nghệ - Bộ Giao thông
vận tải, TEDI, Viện Quy hoạch - Bộ Xây dựng, Trường Đại học Mỏ - Địa chất….
Triết lý kinh doanh: Gia tăng lợi ích - Kết nối thành công, quyết tâm xây dựng một tổ chức
GMC kiểu mới. Để có những đội ngũ chuyên nghiệp trong tư vấn, xây lắp, tinh thông trong phát
triển đầu tư và là đối tác hoàn hảo đối với các nhà đầu tư.
Năng lực nhân sự của nhà thầu: GMC hiện có 89 chuyên gia cao cấp, kỹ sư địa chất công
trình, kỹ sư địa hình, thủy văn, cầu đường, xây dựng, kiến trúc sư, nhà kinh tế, chuyên gia công
nghệ, IT, đội ngũ cán bộ chuyên môn trên 10 năm kinh nghiệm. Số lượng kỹ sư và chuyên gia
trong từng lĩnh vực chuyên môn thuộc các bộ phận tư vấn cùng các kỹ sư tư vấn và các kiến trúc
sư có trình độ cao đã được đăng ký hành nghề với cơ quan nhà nước.
Thiết bị máy móc: Trong lĩnh vực hoạt động của mình, GMC có đầy đủ năng lực thiết bị về
khoan thăm dò địa chất, khảo sát địa hình, khảo sát nền mặt đường, đo sâu, máy siêu âm. Máy
kéo nén thép, phòng LAS về thí nghiệm, các công nghệ tính toán cầu, đường, công trình xây
dựng, nền đất yếu… để phục vụ cho công tác khảo sát địa hình, địa chất, khảo sát nền đất yếu
phục vụ công tác thiết kế xử lý, các thiết bị phục vụ khảo sát điều tra thủy văn và phòng thí
nghiệm, phòng kiểm định chất lượng, các máy móc thiết bị phục vụ thi công xây lắp. Nguồn gốc
xuất xứ chủ yếu từ các quốc gia Nga, Trung Quốc, Đức, Thụy Sĩ, Hà Lan, Nhật, Anh và Mỹ.