biology

Insvestigatory
project
Topic :- typhoid

Name :- Moksh.S.Solanki
Class :- 12th Div :- B
Roll No. :- 25
 index
Ø ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Ø WHAT IS TYPHOID ?
Ø FROM WHERE IT IS CAUSE ?
Ø SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
Ø DIGNOSIS
Ø PREVENTIONS
Ø REFRENCES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am highly indebted to my Biology Teacher
Mrs. Aparna More, under guidance, I could perform
the project successfully. Her support, motivation
and concern has been a guiding force me. Also, I
would thnk our lab asistant Mr. Ingle for his support.
I have no words to thank my family who hve been
inspirartion for me and have been ever willing to
encourage me by their unfailing constant care. I am
thankfull to my classmateswho extended their
helping hand to preparetis project in a presentable
from
 What is typhoid ?
Typhoid  acute infectious disease caused by
the bacterium Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi.
The bacterium usually enters the body through the
mouth by the ingestion of contaminated food or
water, penetrates the intestinal wall, and multiplies
in lymphoid tissue; it then enters the bloodstream
and causes bacterem
From where it is cause ?
v Most major epidemics of typhoid fever have been caused by
the pollution of public water supplies. Food and milk may be
contaminated, however, by a human carrier of the disease who is
employed in handling and processing them; by flies; or by the use
of polluted water for cleaning purposes. Shellfish,
particularly oysters, grown in polluted water and
fresh vegetables grown on soil fertilized or contaminated by
untreated sewage are other possible causes.
v The prevention of typhoid fever depends mainly on proper sewage
treatment, filtration and chlorination of water, and exclusion of
carriers from employment in food industries and restaurants. In
the early part of the 20th century, prophylactic vaccination using
killed typhoid organisms was introduced, mainly in military forces
and institutions, and contributed to a lowering of the incidence of
the disease.

Signs & Symptoms :-
v The body temperature rises slowly, and fever fluctuations are seen with
relative bradycardia (Faget sign), malaise, headache, and cough. A bloody
nose (epistaxis) is seen in a quarter of cases, and abdominal pain is also
possible
v Intestinal haemorrhage due to bleeding in
congested Peyer'spatches occurs; this can be very serious, but is
usually not fatal
v Intestinal perforation in the distal ileum is a very serious complication
and is frequently fatal. It may occur without alarming symptoms until
septicaemia or peritonitis sets in.
v Platelet count goes down slowly and the risk of bleeding rises.
v The fever is still very high and oscillates very little over 24
hours.Dehydration ensues, and the patient is delirious (typhoid state).
One-third of affected individuals develop a macular rash on the trunk
v Metastatic abscesses, cholecystitis, endocarditis, and osteitis
.
Causes:-

v Bacteria
v The Gram-negative bacterium that causes typhoid fever
is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica. The two
main types of the subspecies enterica are ST1 and ST2,
based on MLST subtyping scheme, which are currently
widespread globally.
v Transmission
v Unlike other strains of Salmonella, no animal carriers of
typhoid are known. Humans are the only known carriers
of the bacteria. S. e. subsp. enterica is spread through
the fecal-oral route from individuals who are currently
infected and from asymptomatic carriers of the
bacteria. An asymptomatic human carrier is an individual
who is still excreting typhoid bacteria in their stool a year
after the acute stage of the infection.
Diagnosis :-

 Widal test is a serological test which is used for the diagnosis of enteric fever
or typhoid fever. The test was developed by Greembaum and Widal in 1896.
Typhoid or enteric fever is caused by a gram negative
bacteria Salmonella enterica (Salmonella Typhi or Salmonella Paratyphi), found
in the intestine of man. Salmonella paratyphi also causes Typhoid but of a
milder form.
v Clean the glass slide or test card supplied in the kit well and make it dry.
v Label the circles (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) in the test card as O, H, AH, BH,
Negative control and Positive control
v Place a drop of undiluted test serum in each of the four labelled circle (1,
2, 3 and 4) ie O, H, AH and BH and place a drop of Negative control serum
in circle 5 and  Positive control in circle 6.
v Place a drop of antigen O, H, AH and BH in circle 1, 2, 3, and 4
respectively and no antigen in circle 5 and O/H antigen in circle 6.
v Mix the content of each circle with a separate wooden applicator stick and
spread to fill the whole area of the individual circle.
v Rock the test card for a minute and observe for agglutination.
….
Prvention :-
v Receiving a typhoid fever vaccination.
Currently, two vaccines are available to help
prevent the spread of typhoid fever. Talk with
your doctor about getting vaccinated.
v Avoiding food that is raw or undercooked
v Drinking only bottled water or water that has
been boiled
v Thoroughly washing your hands each time
before eating
v Avoiding raw fruits and vegetables that cannot
be peeled.
v Avoiding eating foods and beverages purchased
from street vendors.
Refrences :-
v www.google.com
v www.typhoid.com
v www.wikipedia.org
v NCERT CLASS 12TH BIOLOGY BOOK