03.seismic Waves PDF

03.
SEISMIC WAVES
GEOFISIKA DASAR
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• DEFINITIONS
• ELASTIC WAVES
• Body Wave Propagation
• Velocity of Body Waves
• Surface Wave Motions
• CONTROLLED SOURCE SEISMIC
TECHNIQUES
• Direct, Critically Refracted, and Reflected
Waves
• True Velocity and Apparent Velocity
• CONCLUSION
Definitions
INTRO: Why we have to
study seismic?
• A great deal of what we know about the
interior of the Earth comes from the
recording of seismic waves.

• Seismic refraction data are particularly
useful for mapping depth to bedrock, crustal
thickness, and uppermost mantle velocity.

• Seismic reflection profiles show details of
layering within sedimentary basins and
gross structure of the deeper crust.

• The velocity structure for deeper parts of
the Earth are determined from the study of
earthquake seismic waves.

-spring analogy
ELASTIC WAVES
-brittle: development of fractures -factor: characteristic and
strain rates
-elastic and inelastic behaviour of the asthenosphere
Silly Putty, analogi dari

astenosfer
the elastic material considered to be isotropic and
unbounded
Body Wave Propagation

Elastic Constants
→ describes the strain of a material
under a certain type of stress.

• Bulk Modulus
• Shear Modulus
• Young’s Modulus
• Poisson’s Ratio
• Bulk Modulus (“incompressibility”)
• Shear Modulus (“rigidity”)
• Young’s Modulus (“stretch
modulus”)
for a stretched
• Poisson's ratio →
rod, the ratio of transverse strain to
longitudinal strain
• Lame's constant (λ) illustrates the
relationship between the four
constants discussed above,
according to:
• λ can then be used as one of the
parameters describing the velocity of
seismic waves through the material.

Types of Body Waves
Compressional Wave (P-Wave)
Animation
Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of
alternating compression and dilation. Particle motion
is parallel to the direction of propagation
(longitudinal). Material returns to its original shape
after wave passes.
Shear Wave (S-Wave)
Animation
Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating
transverse motion. Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction
of propagation (transverse). Transverse particle motion shown
here is vertical but can be in any direction. However, Earth’s
layers tend to cause mostly vertical (SV; in the vertical plane) or
horizontal (SH) shear motions. Material returns to its original
shape after wave passes.

Ingat:
-air -water -other materials
Kinsler et al. (1982)
The solid portions of the superimposed curves

Ludwig. Nafe. and Drake. 1971
highlight the crudely

linear relationship between density and
seismic velocity for crustal rocks and minerals
Grirfiths and King,l981
it is difficult to identify rocks based only on velocity

information, because the wide ranges result in s izeable
overlaps.
Surface waves can be generated when a medium has a free boundary, such as the
surface of the Earth.
Surface Wave Motions

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of elliptical
motions (generally retrograde elliptical) in the vertical plane and
parallel to the direction of propagation. Amplitude decreases with
depth. Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.
Rayleigh Wave (R-Wave)

Animation
Love Wave (L-Wave) Animation
Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating
transverse motions. Particle motion is horizontal and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation (transverse). To aid
in seeing that the particle motion is purely horizontal, focus on the
Y axis (red line) as the wave propagates through it. Amplitude
decreases with depth. Material returns to its original shape after
wave passes.
CONTROLLED SOURCE
SEISMIC TECHNIQUES
• Source: explosives (dynamite,
quarry blast, or even nuclear tests),
Vibroseis, Air guns.

• Receivers: Geophones,
Hydrophones.
Seismic Sources !!

© John F. Hermance September 05, 2002
Vibroseis platform jacked down (Anne
Sheehan; U. Colorado)

Vibrating type sources. (Photos from Terraplus.)

• Travel-Time Curves
Wave fronts are surfaces along which particle motions of
the propagating wave are in phase.
Maximum positive amplitude: 90° Maximum negative
amplitude: 270°
-Seismic energy travels along trajectories perpendicular to
wavefronts, known as raypaths . - Variations in body wave
velocity cause wave fronts to deviate from perfect spheres, thus
bending or "refracting" t he raypaths.
• A seismic trace i s the recording of
ground motion by a receiver. plotted
as a function of time
Receivers
Source
Distance From Source (X
)
3 4
>
5
6
Seismic Traces
ach of t he R
for e eceivers
ime ( T)
Travel T
ange
N Disparsion R
-V=X/T → velocity -Why T? → T often relates to depth
within the earth
a
Xy
x
b
b
Slope = 1NpP
-o...Slope - 11.5
Slope = ....
Slope
Slope = 4 T/AX dT/ d
X - lim ( A
T/A
X)
- Slope a t distance X ,
T-XV OT/d X - 1N

- Slo pe
a
x,
x=>
Б
Slope - 1NP
47
22
Slope = 11
AX
Slope
Slope - AT/AX dT/dX - lim (4T/AX
- Slope at distance X,
T- X dT/ d
X - I N
- Slope
TO
The slope of the line is the elapsed time (AT) divided by the distance
traveled during that time (AX):
Slope A
The slope at a given distance (X) can also be determined by t aking the first
deriva tive at that point on the travel time curve (Fig. 3. 18a):
The travel time can be written:

T = +(x)
so that:
dT_1
dXv The velocities for each type of wave can thus be calculated by
taking the inverse of the slope (Fig. 3.18b):
V =
1
dT/dx
The first derivative, or slope, is thus useful in determining the velocity
represented at any point on travel time curves for different arrivals.
Direct, Critically Refracted, and

Reflected Waves
A. Direct B. Refracted C. Reflected
-why only P?
A. Direct Arrival
The compressional wave that goes directly from the
source to a receiver is a body wave traveling very close to
the surface.
X * 11,
Slope = d./d
The equation for the straight line representing the direci
arrival on a travel time graph (Fig. 3.21b) is therefore:
Note that the velocity of the near-surface material can be
determined by tak ing the inverse of the slope of the direct
arrival (dTd/dX) on the travel-time graph:
dTo 1
so that:
V; = dt,/dX
B. Critically Refracted Arrival
Snell ' s Law:
Travel T ime ( Seconds)

V, >V
1
2
Incident Raypathy
Direct Wave Fronts
www
W
MO
w www
M
M
WA
www
www

Refracted a
Raypath
Refracted Wave F ront s
ime (Seconds)
Travel T
Incident
02
Refracte
d
a
vz<V,
b Ve = ve
o Ve > Vi
Incident
Interface
V2
Refracted
92
Refracted a way f rom interface.

Ray not bent
Refracted toward interface.
V> Vi
Incid ent
efra
20. Critically R ct od V2
θc =
Critical angle
etums t o Surface a
Energy R t Critical Angle
incident
Critically Refracted
a
htanec
htá
Xc
Т.
hicosoc
hicosoc
ritically Refracted 90%
=C ravels w
(T ith Velocit y V)
Xo
X
1
Slope = /2
h/cos,
a
hrano,
htano.
X - 2 htan
h/cose
hicosoc'
hicosoc
= Cr itically R
efracted
/ (T
ravels w
ith Velocit y V

where:
X = horizontal distance from source to receiver. The
total travel time from source to receiver is:
T, = T, + T2 + T
h/cose X - 2 htan, - h/cos VV*+
2h/cos Q c X 2h tan 6
= 216v, corte
htanec
htano.
Bo V,
*hicos oc
hicosoc
"
= sin &
But: rane c
Critically Refracted 90% (Travels w
ith Velocit y V
)
,
cos
so that:
T, = 2h(v, caso, V, conse)
By Snell's Law:
ell's Law:
$2/ 10
so that:
= sin 6.
T. - v,caso (1 – s inoo) + - v, use. (cas?o) +
Let: 19 = 2h cose

(t, is a constant)
Slope = 1
/2
T. = t; +
The above equation is a straight line (Fig. 3

.26b) with:
1 = T-intercept time
and
y = slope
-Relationship between the direct and critically refracted
arrivals -Note Xc, t1, and Xcr; both in raypath and travel
time curves
Critically refracted waves = headwaves
C. Reflected Arrival
When seismic energy traveling in one layer encounters a
layer with different acoustic impedance, some of the
energy is reflected back into the first layer.
Reflected waves therefore fo llow V-shaped raypaths
Incident
Reflected
p, V
X12x12
AN
WLAN
An
AM MW
Source
WA
w
WMN VN
Hyperbola
L = L, + L2
= Vh? + (X/2)2 + Vh? +
(X/2) = 2Vh2 + (x/2)
= V4h + X? The total travel time (T.) from source to
receiver is:
T, = L/V,
V4h2 + x?
T,* = 4h2 + x2

www
Fig. 3.29b illustrates that the time (1.) to go

vertically down to the interface and straight
back up to the shot location is a constant,
given by:
The travel time equation for a reflected wave from a

horizontal interface overlain by a constant velocity
medium is therefore:
T2+ = t?+ (.) x
or
Hyperbola
This is the equation of a hyperbola (Fig.

3.29c), with:
to = T-axis intercept time.
-at long distance from the source, Tf ≈ Td -critical
distance: reflected wave arrive at the same time as
critically refracted
Xc = critical distance (closest distance from the source
where the critically refracted wave is observed). Xcr =
crossover distance ( beyond that
distance the critically refracted wave a rrives before the
direct wave).
Summary of Raypaths.
Travel-Time Curves, and
Equations
• Direct Wave
• Critically Refracted Wave
• Reflected Wave
True Velocity and
Apparent Velocity
• True velocity refers to the actual speed at
which seismic energy (that is, a seismic
wave) travels through a material.

• The distance (ΔY) traversed along a
straight line, divided by the elapsed time
(ΔT), gives the true velocity (Vt) of the
material.
• A seismic wave emerging at Earth's
surface, however, appears to travel with a
certain velocity across a horizontal array of
receivers.
• Apparent velocity (Vap) is the distance
(ΔX) between two closely spaced receivers,
divided by the difference in travel time (ΔT)
to the two receivers:

∆X

Vap = ∆T
e
Dir ct Wavefronts
ave Fronts
Refracted W
IIIIIIIII
K
M
UEHITTA ||10|||0
AY=V, AT
Refracted Wave F
ronts
.
TAY = V, AT
But: sin 8. = AY/AX, m

eaning AY = AX sino
so that:
From Snell's Law: sin 8. = V/V

,
so that:
• The apparent velocity (Vap) measured at
the surface for the critically refracted wave
is therefore exactly the same as the seismic

velocity of the refracting layer (V2).
3 situations are apparent from the raypath diagram
and travel-time graph
• 1) A ray emerging almost vertically has high
apparent velocity. The reflected wave that travels
straight down and up, arriving at time t0, thus

appears to have infinite velocity.
• 2) At the critical distance raypaths for the
rrivals emerge
reflected and critically refracted a
at the same angle. The refracted wave is therefore
tangent to the reflected wave on the travel-time
curve. signifying the same apparent velocity (V2) .

• 3) The apparent velocity of a ray travelling
almost horizontally is approximately the same as

elocity of the near-surface material.
the true v
The direct and reflected waves observed at great
distance thus have apparent velocity ≈ V1.
Conclusion
• DEFINITIONS
• ELASTIC WAVES
• Body Wave Propagation
• Surface Wave Motions
• CONTROLLED SOURCE SEISMIC
TECHNIQUES
• Direct, Critically Refracted, and Reflected
Waves
• True Velocity and Apparent Velocity
Direct Wave
Reflected Wave
Critically Refracted Wave
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03.

recording of seismic waves.

thickness, and uppermost mantle ​velocity.

gross structure of the deeper crust.

earthquake seismic waves.

Silly Putty, analogi dari

Body Wave Propagation

under a certain ​type of stress.

rod, the ratio of ​transverse strain to

relationship ​between the four

constants discussed above,

seismic waves through ​the material.

• Velocity of Body Waves

Th​e ​so​li​d ​port​i​ons of ​the ​s​uper​im​posed c​u​rves

high​l​i​g​h​t ​th​e ​crude​l​y ​

it ​i​s ​d​iffic​ult to id​ent​i​fy ​r​ocks based o​nl​y o​n velocit​y

Surface Wave Motions

Rayleigh Wave (R-Wave)

quarry blast, or even ​nuclear tests),

Vibroseis, Air guns.

• A ​seismic trace i​ s the ​recording of

ground ​motion by a receiver. ​plotted

The travel ​time ​can ​be ​written​:

Direct, Critically Refracted, and

Travel T ​ ime (​ ​Seconds)​

Refracted a ​ way f​ rom ​interface​.

L​et​: ​19 ​= ​2​h ​cose

The ​above ​equation is ​a ​straight ​line ​(​Fig​. 3

T​,​* ​= ​4h2 ​+ ​x2

Fig​. ​3​.​29b ​illustrates ​that ​the ​time ​(​1​.​) ​to ​go

The ​travel ​time ​equation ​for ​a ​reflected ​wave ​from ​a

This ​is ​the ​equation ​of ​a ​hyperbola ​(​Fig​.

Travel-Time Curves, ​and

wave) travels through a material.

(ΔT), gives the true velocity (Vt) of the

certain ​velocity across a horizontal array of

(ΔX) between two ​closely spaced receivers,

divided by the difference in travel time (ΔT)

to the two ​receivers:

TAY ​= ​V​, ​AT

But​: ​s​in ​8​. ​= ​AY​/​AX​, m

From ​Snell​'​s ​Law​: ​sin ​8​. ​= ​V​/V

is therefore ​exactly the same ​as the ​seismic

• 1) ​A ray emerging almost vertically has ​high

apparent velocity. ​The reflected ​wave that travels

straight down and up, arriving at time t​0,​ thus

• 2) ​At the critical distance raypaths for ​the

at the same angle. ​T​he refracted wave is therefore

tangent to the reflected wave on the travel-time

curve. signifying the same apparent velocity (V​2)​ .

almost horizontally is approximately the same as

The direct and reflected waves observed at great

distance thus have apparent velocity ≈ V​1.​

You might also like

thickness, and uppermost mantle velocity.

under a certain type of stress.

rod, the ratio of transverse strain to

relationship between the four

seismic waves through the material.

The solid portions of the superimposed curves

highlight the crudely

it is difficult to identify rocks based only on velocity

quarry blast, or even nuclear tests),

• A seismic trace i s the recording of

ground motion by a receiver. plotted

The travel time can be written:

Travel T ime ( Seconds)

Refracted a way f rom interface.

Let: 19 = 2h cose

The above equation is a straight line (Fig. 3

T,* = 4h2 + x2

Fig. 3.29b illustrates that the time (1.) to go

The travel time equation for a reflected wave from a

This is the equation of a hyperbola (Fig.

Travel-Time Curves, and

certain velocity across a horizontal array of

(ΔX) between two closely spaced receivers,

to the two receivers:

TAY = V, AT

But: sin 8. = AY/AX, m

From Snell's Law: sin 8. = V/V

is therefore exactly the same as the seismic

• 1) A ray emerging almost vertically has high

apparent velocity. The reflected wave that travels

straight down and up, arriving at time t0, thus

• 2) At the critical distance raypaths for the

at the same angle. The refracted wave is therefore

curve. signifying the same apparent velocity (V2) .

distance thus have apparent velocity ≈ V1.