Loneliness

Solitude, Jean-Jacques Henner

Loneliness is a complex and usually

unpleasant emotional response to
isolation. Loneliness typically includes
anxious feelings about a lack of
connection or communication with other
beings, both in the present and extending
into the future. As such, loneliness can be
felt even when surrounded by other people
and one who feels lonely, is lonely. The
causes of loneliness are varied and
include social, mental, emotional, and
physical factors.

Research has shown that loneliness is

prevalent throughout society, including
people in marriages, relationships,
families, veterans, and those with
successful careers.[1] It has been a long
explored theme in the literature of human
beings since Classical antiquity.
Loneliness has also been described as
social pain—a psychological mechanism
meant to motivate an individual to seek
social connections.[2] Loneliness is often
defined in terms of one's connectedness
to others, or more specifically as "the
unpleasant experience that occurs when a
person's network of social relations is
deficient in some important way".[3]

Common causes
People can experience loneliness for many
reasons, and many life events may cause
it, such as a lack of friendship relations
during childhood and adolescence, or the
physical absence of meaningful people
around a person. At the same time,
loneliness may be a symptom of another
social or psychological problem, such as
chronic depression.

Many people experience loneliness for the

first time when they are left alone as
infants. It is also a very common, though
normally temporary, consequence of a
breakup, divorce, or loss of any important
long-term relationship. In these cases, it
may stem both from the loss of a specific
person and from the withdrawal from
social circles caused by the event or the
associated sadness.

The loss of a significant person in one's

life will typically initiate a grief response; in
this situation, one might feel lonely, even
while in the company of others. Loneliness
may also occur after the birth of a child
(often expressed in postpartum
depression), after marriage, or following
any other socially disruptive event, such as
moving from one's home town into an
unfamiliar community, leading to
homesickness. Loneliness can occur
within unstable marriages or other close
relationships of a similar nature, in which
feelings present may include anger or
resentment, or in which the feeling of love
cannot be given or received. Loneliness
may represent a dysfunction of
communication, and can also result from
places with low population densities in
which there are comparatively few people
to interact with. Loneliness can also be
seen as a social phenomenon, capable of
spreading like a disease. When one person
in a group begins to feel lonely, this feeling
can spread to others, increasing
everybody's risk for feelings of
loneliness.[4] People can feel lonely even
when they are surrounded by other
people.[5]
A twin study found evidence that genetics
account for approximately half of the
measurable differences in loneliness
among adults, which was similar to the
heritability estimates found previously in
children. These genes operate in a similar
manner in males and females. The study
found no common environmental
contributions to adult loneliness.[6]

Typology
Feeling lonely vs. being
socially isolated

There is a clear distinction between feeling

lonely and being socially isolated (for
example, a loner). In particular, one way of
thinking about loneliness is as a
discrepancy between one's necessary and
achieved levels of social interaction,[1]
while solitude is simply the lack of contact
with people. Loneliness is therefore a
subjective experience; if a person thinks
they are lonely, then they are lonely. People
can be lonely while in solitude, or in the
middle of a crowd. What makes a person
lonely is the fact that they need more
social interaction or a certain type of
social interaction that is not currently
available. A person can be in the middle of
a party and feel lonely due to not talking to
enough people. Conversely, one can be
alone and not feel lonely; even though
there is no one around that person is not
lonely because there is no desire for social
interaction. There have also been
suggestions that each person has their
own optimal level of social interaction. If a
person gets too little or too much social
interaction, this could lead to feelings of
loneliness or over-stimulation.[7]

Solitude can have positive effects on

individuals. One study found that, although
time spent alone tended to depress a
person's mood and increase feelings of
loneliness, it also helped to improve their
cognitive state, such as improving
concentration. Furthermore, once the
alone time was over, people's moods
tended to increase significantly.[8] Solitude
is also associated with other positive
growth experiences, religious experiences,
and identity building such as solitary
quests used in rites of passages for
adolescents.[9]

Loneliness can also play an important role

in the creative process. In some people,
temporary or prolonged loneliness can
lead to notable artistic and creative
expression, for example, as was the case
with poets Emily Dickinson and Isabella di
Morra, and numerous musicians. This is
not to imply that loneliness itself ensures
this creativity, rather, it may have an
influence on the subject matter of the
artist and more likely be present in
individuals engaged in creative activities.

Transient vs. chronic

loneliness

The other important typology of loneliness

focuses on the time perspective.[10] In this
respect, loneliness can be viewed as either
transient or chronic. It has also been
referred to as state and trait loneliness.
Transient (state) loneliness is temporary in
nature, caused by something in the
environment, and is easily relieved.
Chronic (trait) loneliness is more
permanent, caused by the person, and is
not easily relieved.[11] For example, when a
person is sick and cannot socialize with
friends would be a case of transient
loneliness. Once the person got better it
would be easy for them to alleviate their
loneliness. A person who feels lonely
regardless of if they are at a family
gathering, with friends, or alone is
experiencing chronic loneliness. It does
not matter what goes on in the
surrounding environment, the experience
of loneliness is always there.

Loneliness as a human
condition

The existentialist school of thought views

loneliness as the essence of being human.
Each human being comes into the world
alone, travels through life as a separate
person, and ultimately dies alone. Coping
with this, accepting it, and learning how to
direct our own lives with some degree of
grace and satisfaction is the human
condition.[12]
Some philosophers, such as Sartre, believe
in an epistemic loneliness in which
loneliness is a fundamental part of the
human condition because of the paradox
between people's consciousness desiring
meaning in life and the isolation and
nothingness of the universe.[13]
Conversely, other existentialist thinkers
argue that human beings might be said to
actively engage each other and the
universe as they communicate and create,
and loneliness is merely the feeling of
being cut off from this process.

In his recent text, Evidence of Being: The

Black Gay Cultural Renaissance and the
Politics of Violence, Darius Bost draws
from Heather Love's theorization of
loneliness[14] to delineate the ways in
which loneliness structures black gay
feeling and literary, cultural productions.
Bost limns, “As a form of negative affect,
loneliness shores up the alienation,
isolation, and pathologization of black gay
men during the 1980s and early 1990s. But
loneliness is also a form of bodily desire, a
yearning for an attachment to the social
and for a future beyond the forces that
create someone’s alienation and
isolation."[15]

Frequency
There are several estimates and indicators
of loneliness. It has been estimated that
approximately 60 million people in the
United States, or 20% of the total
population, feel lonely.[2] Another study
found that 12% of Americans have no one
with whom to spend free time or to
discuss important matters.[16] Other
research suggests that this rate has been
increasing over time. The General Social
Survey found that between 1985 and 2004,
the number of people the average
American discusses important matters
with decreased from three to two.
Additionally, the number of Americans with
no one to discuss important matters with
tripled[17] (though this particular study may
be flawed[18]). In the UK research by Age
UK shows half a million people more than
60 years old spend each day alone without
social interaction and almost half a million
more see and speak to no one for 5 or 6
days a week.[19] On the other hand, the
Community Life Survey, 2016 to 2017, by
the UK's Office for National Statistics,
found that young adults in England aged
16 to 24 reported feeling lonely more often
than those in older age groups.[20]

Loneliness appears to have intensified in

every society in the world as
modernization occurs. A certain amount of
this loneliness appears to be related to
greater migration, smaller household
sizes, a larger degree of media
consumption (all of which have positive
sides as well in the form of more
opportunities, more choice in family size,
and better access to information), all of
which relates to social capital.

Within developed nations, loneliness has

shown the largest increases among two
groups: seniors[21][22] and people living in
low-density suburbs.[23][24] Seniors living in
suburban areas are particularly vulnerable,
for as they lose the ability to drive, they
often become "stranded" and find it
difficult to maintain interpersonal
relationships.[25]

Loneliness is prevalent in vulnerable

groups in society. In New Zealand the
fourteen surveyed groups with the highest
prevalence of loneliness most/all of the
time in descending order are: disabled,
recent migrants, low income households,
unemployed, single parents, rural (rest of
South Island), seniors aged 75+, not in the
labour force, youth aged 15–24, no
qualifications, not housing owner-occupier,
not in a family nucleus, Māori, and low
personal income.[26]
Americans seem to report more loneliness
than any other country, though this finding
may simply be an effect of greater
research volume. A 2006 study in the
American Sociological Review found that
Americans on average had only two close
friends in which to confide, which was
down from an average of three in 1985.
The percentage of people who noted
having no such confidant rose from 10% to
almost 25%, and an additional 19% said
they had only a single confidant, often their
spouse, thus raising the risk of serious
loneliness if the relationship ended.[27] The
modern office environment has been
demonstrated to give rise to loneliness.
This can be especially prevalent in
individuals prone to social isolation who
can interpret the business focus of co-
workers for a deliberate ignoring of
needs.[28]

Whether a correlation exists between

Internet usage and loneliness is a subject
of controversy, with some findings
showing that Internet users are lonelier[29]
and others showing that lonely people who
use the Internet to keep in touch with loved
ones (especially seniors) report less
loneliness, but that those trying to make
friends online became lonelier.[30] On the
other hand, studies in 2002 and 2010
found that "Internet use was found to
decrease loneliness and depression
significantly, while perceived social
support and self-esteem increased
significantly"[31] and that the Internet "has
an enabling and empowering role in
people's lives, by increasing their sense of
freedom and control, which has a positive
impact on well-being or happiness."[32] The
one apparently unequivocal finding of
correlation is that long driving commutes
correlate with dramatically higher reported
feelings of loneliness (as well as other
negative health impacts).[33][34]

Effects
Mental health

Loneliness by Hans Thoma (National Museum in

Warsaw)

Loneliness has been linked with

depression, and is thus a risk factor for
suicide.[35] Émile Durkheim has described
loneliness, specifically the inability or
unwillingness to live for others, i.e. for
friendships or altruistic ideas, as the main
reason for what he called egoistic
suicide.[36] In adults, loneliness is a major
precipitant of depression and
alcoholism.[37] People who are socially
isolated may report poor sleep quality, and
thus have diminished restorative
processes.[38] Loneliness has also been
linked with a schizoid character type in
which one may see the world differently
and experience social alienation,
described as the self in exile.[39]

While the long term effects of extended

periods of loneliness are little understood,
it has been noted that people who are
isolated or experience loneliness for a long
period of time fall into a “ontological
crisis” or “ontological insecurity,” where
they are not sure if they or their
surroundings exist, and if they do, exactly
who or what they are, creating torment,
suffering, and despair to the point of
palpability within the thoughts of the
person.[40][41]

In children, a lack of social connections is

directly linked to several forms of
antisocial and self-destructive behavior,
most notably hostile and delinquent
behavior. In both children and adults,
loneliness often has a negative impact on
learning and memory. Its disruption of
sleep patterns can have a significant
impact on the ability to function in
everyday life.[35]

Research from a large-scale study

published in the journal Psychological
Medicine, showed that "lonely millennials
are more likely to have mental health
problems, be out of work and feel
pessimistic about their ability to succeed
in life than their peers who feel connected
to others, regardless of gender or
wealth.”[42][43]

In 2004, the United States Department of

Justice published a study indicating that
loneliness increases suicide rates
profoundly among juveniles, with 62% of
all suicides that occurred within juvenile
facilities being among those who either
were, at the time of the suicide, in solitary
confinement or among those with a history
of being housed thereof.[40]

Pain, depression, and fatigue function as a

symptom cluster and thus may share
common risk factors. Two longitudinal
studies with different populations
demonstrated that loneliness was a risk
factor for the development of the pain,
depression, and fatigue symptom cluster
over time. These data also highlight the
health risks of loneliness; pain, depression,
and fatigue often accompany serious
illness and place people at risk for poor
health and mortality.[44]

Physical health

Chronic loneliness can be a serious, life-

threatening health condition. It has been
found to be associated with an increased
risk of stroke and cardiovascular
disease.[45] Loneliness shows an
increased incidence of high blood
pressure, high cholesterol, and obesity.[46]

Loneliness is shown to increase the

concentration of cortisol levels in the
body.[46] Prolonged, high cortisol levels
can cause anxiety, depression, digestive
problems, heart disease, sleep problems,
and weight gain.[47]

″Loneliness has been associated with

impaired cellular immunity as reflected in
lower natural killer (NK) cell activity and
higher antibody titers to the Epstein Barr
Virus and human herpes viruses".[46]
Because of impaired cellular immunity,
loneliness among young adults shows
vaccines, like the flu vaccine, to be less
effective.[46] Data from studies on
loneliness and HIV positive men suggests
loneliness increases disease
progression.[46]

Physiological mechanisms link

to poor health

There are a number of potential

physiological mechanisms linking
loneliness to poor health outcomes. In
2005, results from the American
Framingham Heart Study demonstrated
that lonely men had raised levels of
Interleukin 6 (IL-6), a blood chemical linked
to heart disease. A 2006 study conducted
by the Center for Cognitive and Social
Neuroscience at the University of Chicago
found loneliness can add thirty points to a
blood pressure reading for adults over the
age of fifty. Another finding, from a survey
conducted by John Cacioppo from the
University of Chicago, is that doctors
report providing better medical care to
patients who have a strong network of
family and friends than they do to patients
who are alone. Cacioppo states that
loneliness impairs cognition and
willpower, alters DNA transcription in
immune cells, and leads over time to high
blood pressure.[2] Lonelier people are more
likely to show evidence of viral reactivation
than less lonely people.[48] Lonelier people
also have stronger inflammatory
responses to acute stress compared with
less lonely people; inflammation is a well
known risk factor for age-related
diseases.[49]

When someone feels left out of a situation,

they feel excluded and one possible side
effect is for their body temperature to
decrease. When people feel excluded
blood vessels at the periphery of the body
may narrow, preserving core body heat.
This class protective mechanism is known
as vasoconstriction.[50]

Treatments and prevention

There are many different ways used to
treat loneliness, social isolation, and
clinical depression. The first step that
most doctors recommend to patients is
therapy. Therapy is a common and
effective way of treating loneliness and is
often successful. Short-term therapy, the
most common form for lonely or
depressed patients, typically occurs over a
period of ten to twenty weeks. During
therapy, emphasis is put on understanding
the cause of the problem, reversing the
negative thoughts, feelings, and attitudes
resulting from the problem, and exploring
ways to help the patient feel connected.
Some doctors also recommend group
therapy as a means to connect with other
sufferers and establish a support
system.[51] Doctors also frequently
prescribe anti-depressants to patients as a
stand-alone treatment, or in conjunction
with therapy. It may take several attempts
before a suitable anti-depressant
medication is found.[52]

Alternative approaches to treating

depression are suggested by many
doctors. These treatments include
exercise, dieting, hypnosis, electro-shock
therapy, acupuncture, and herbs, amongst
others. Many patients find that
participating in these activities fully or
partially alleviates symptoms related to
depression.[53]

Paro, a robot pet seal classified as a medical device by

U.S. regulators

Another treatment for both loneliness and

depression is pet therapy, or animal-
assisted therapy, as it is more formally
known. Studies and surveys, as well as
anecdotal evidence provided by volunteer
and community organizations, indicate
that the presence of animal companions
such as dogs, cats, rabbits, and guinea
pigs can ease feelings of depression and
loneliness among some sufferers. Beyond
the companionship the animal itself
provides there may also be increased
opportunities for socializing with other pet
owners. According to the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention there are a
number of other health benefits
associated with pet ownership, including
lowered blood pressure and decreased
levels of cholesterol and triglycerides.[54]

Nostalgia has also been found to have a

restorative effect, counteracting loneliness
by increasing perceived social support.[55]

A 1989 study found that the social aspect

of religion had a significant negative
association with loneliness among elderly
people. The effect was more consistent
than the effect of social relationships with
family and friends, and the subjective
concept of religiosity had no significant
effect on loneliness.[56]

One study compared the effectiveness of

four interventions: improving social skills,
enhancing social support, increasing
opportunities for social interaction,
addressing abnormal social cognition
(faulty thoughts and patterns of thoughts).
The results of the study indicated that all
interventions were effective in reducing
loneliness, possibly with the exception of
social skill training. Results of the meta-
analysis suggest that correcting
maladaptive social cognition offers the
best chance of reducing loneliness.[57]

See also
Adam's Song
Autophobia
Eleanor Rigby
Individualism
Interpersonal relationship
 Loner
Pit of despair (animal experiments on
isolation)
Solitude
Shyness
Social anxiety
Social anxiety disorder
Social isolation
Schizoid personality disorder

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External links
Quotations related to Loneliness at
Wikiquote
Quotations related to Solitude at
Wikiquote
The dictionary definition of loneliness
at Wiktionary
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Loneliness&oldid=914228958"

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