SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

 A social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals and is a

building block of society. Social interaction can be studied between groups of two
(dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups.
 By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems
within which they seek to live. Symbols are used to communicate the expectations
of a given society to those new to it.
 The empirical study of social interaction is one of the subjects of microsociology.
Methods includes symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology as well as later
academic sub-divisions and studies such as psychosocial studies, conversational
analysis and human-computer interaction.
 With symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed interaction with
others. Ethnomethodology questions how people’s interactions can create the
illusion of a shared social order despite not understanding each other fully and
having differing perspectives.

Key Terms

 dyad: A pair of things standing in particular relation; dyadic relation.

 Social Interaction: A social exchange between two or more individuals.
 social group: A collection of humans or animals that share certain
characteristics, interact with one another, accept expectations and obligations as
members of the group, and share a common identity.

In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic sequence of social actions between

individuals (or groups) who modify their actions and reactions due to actions by their
interaction partner(s). Social interactions can be differentiated into accidental, repeated,
regular and regulated.

A social interaction is a social exchange between two or more individuals. These

interactions form the basis for social structure and therefore are a key object of basic
social inquiry and analysis. Social interaction can be studied between groups of two
(dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups.

Social structures and cultures are founded upon social interactions. By interacting with
one another, people design rules, institutions and systems within which they seek to live.
Symbols are used to communicate the expectations of a given society to those new to it,
either children or outsiders. Through this broad schema of social development, one sees
how social interaction lies at its core.

The empirical study of social interaction is one of the subjects of microsociology, which
concerns the nature of everyday human social interactions and agency on a small scale.
Methods include symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology, as well as later
academic sub-divisions and studies like psychosocial studies, conversational analysis
and human-computer interaction.

With symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed interaction with others.
It argues that both individuals and society cannot be separated far from each other for
two reasons. One being that they are both created through social interaction. The
second reason is they cannot be understood in terms without the other.
Ethnomethodology, an offshoot of symbolic interactionism, which questions how
people’s interactions can create the illusion of a shared social order despite not
understanding each other fully and having differing perspectives.

Key Terms

 ethnomethodology: An academic discipline that attempts to understand the

social orders people use to make sense of the world through analyzing their
accounts and descriptions of their day-to-day experiences.
 agnosticism: The view that the existence of God or of all deities is unknown,
unknowable, unproven, or unprovable.
 Harold Garfinkel: He is known for establishing and developing
ethnomethodology as a field of inquiry in sociology.

SOCIAL ISOLATION

Social isolation is a state of complete or near-complete lack of contact between an

individual and society. It differs from loneliness, which reflects temporary and involuntary
lack of contact with other humans in the world. Social isolation can be an issue for
individuals of any age, though symptoms may differ by age group.

Social isolation has similar characteristics in both temporary instances and for those with
a historical lifelong isolation cycle. All types of social isolation can include staying home
for lengthy periods of time, having no communication with family, acquaintances or
friends, and/or willfully avoiding any contact with other humans when those opportunities
do arise.

Effects

True social isolation over years and decades can be a chronic condition affecting all
aspects of a person's existence. Social isolation can lead to feelings of loneliness, fear
of others, or negative self-esteem. Lack of consistent human contact can also cause
conflict with the (peripheral) friends the socially isolated person may occasionally talk to
or cause problems with family members.

In the case of mood-related isolation, the individual may isolate during a depressive
episode only to 'surface' when their mood improves. The individual may attempt to justify
their reclusive or isolating behaviour as enjoyable or comfortable. There can be an inner
realization on the part of the individual that there is something wrong with their isolating
responses which can lead to heightened anxiety. Relationships can be a struggle, as the
individual may reconnect with others during a healthier mood only to return to an isolated
state during a subsequent low or depressed mood.

Social isolation can be a precipitating factor for suicidal behavior. A large body of

literature suggests that individuals who experience isolation in their lives are more
vulnerable to suicide than those who have strong social ties with others. A study found
social isolation to be among the most common risk factors identified by Australian men
who attempt suicide. Professor Ian Hickie of the University of Sydney said that social
isolation was perhaps the most important factor contributing to male suicide attempts.
Hickie said there was a wealth of evidence that men had more restricted social networks
than women, and that these networks were heavily work-based.

A lack of social relationships negatively impacts the development of the brain’s structure.
In extreme cases of social isolation, studies of young mice and monkeys have shown
how the brain is strongly affected by a lack of social behaviour and relationships.

Social isolation is both a potential cause and a symptom of emotional or psychological

challenges. As a cause, the perceived inability to interact with the world and others can
create an escalating pattern of these challenges. As a symptom, periods of isolation can
be chronic or episodic, depending upon any cyclical changes in mood, especially in the
case of clinical depression.

Every day aspects of this type of deep-rooted social isolation can mean:

 staying home for an indefinite period of time due to lack of access to social
situations rather than a desire to be alone;
 both not contacting, and not being contacted by, any acquaintances, even
peripherally; for example, never being called by anybody on the telephone and
never having anyone visit one's residence;
 a lack of meaningful, extended relationships, and especially close intimacy
(both emotional and physical).

The following risk factors contribute to reasons why individuals distance themselves from
society.

 Domestic violence – perpetrator uses social isolation as a means of controlling

their victim.
 Family crisis – Mostly occurs when one member of a family neglectfully
performs harmful action. For example, if a parent performs any unwillful action
against its child, the child could end up in shock, and eventually feeling defeatist.
Furthermore, the symptoms could last for the child for an indefinite period of time,
with more symptoms uprising.
 Health and disabilities – People may be embarrassed by their disabilities or
health problems, such that they have a tendency to isolate themselves to avoid
social interaction out of fear that they would be judged or stigmatized. This is
common in people who have autism and other known disorders.
 Loss of a spouse – If a spouse has recently separated, divorced, or died, the
other person may feel lonely and depressed.
 Living alone – A 2015 study by the National Center for Family & Marriage
Research found 13 percent of adults in the United States were living alone, up
from 12 percent in 1990. The rate of living alone for people under 45 has not
changed, but the rate for Americans aged 45 – 65 has increased over the past 25
years. People over the age of 65 are living alone less often.
 Unemployment – This can begin if someone is fired, dismissed, or released from
a job or workplace, or leaves one of their own accord. If the person struggles or is
unable to find a new job for a long period of time (i.e. months or years) the sense
 of isolation can become exacerbated. Social isolation due to unemployment has
been seen to particularly affect men.
 Aging – Once a person reaches an age where problems such as cognitive
impairments and disabilities arise, they are unable to go out and socialize.
 Transportation problems – If the person doesn't have transportation to attend
gatherings or to simply get out of the house, they have no choice but to stay
home all day, which can lead to those feelings of depression.
 Societal adversity – Desire to avoid the discomfort, dangers, and responsibilities
arising from being among people. This can happen if other people are
sometimes, or often, rude, hostile, critical or judgmental, crude, or otherwise
unpleasant. The person would just prefer to be alone to avoid the hassles and
hardships of dealing with people. There are some cases when not even seeing
the sun long enough each day will affect them; by the time they try to go out and
play, heart attacks and heat strokes are more common.
 Missing certain events – Special events are full of tradition and making
memories. But if a person couldn't attend a special event, like a social gathering,
dance, or any sort of outing of an event, the symptoms of isolation are on the
rise, which could last for an indefinite period of time. Even if another person
performed neglectful action to prevent one person from attending the event, this
could instantly lead to isolation, along with other multiple symptoms,
including nervous shock, which could cause the victim to keep
itself secluded from any sort of future activity to avoid any further damage.

Privacy

Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves, or information

about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively. The boundaries and
content of what is considered private differ among cultures and individuals, but share
common themes. When something is private to a person, it usually means that
something is inherently special or sensitive to them. The domain of privacy partially
overlaps with security (confidentiality), which can include the concepts of appropriate
use, as well as protection of information. Privacy may also take the form of bodily
integrity.

The right not to be subjected to unsanctioned invasions of privacy by

the government, corporations or individuals is part of many countries' privacy laws, and
in some cases, constitutions. All countries have laws which in some way limit privacy. An
example of this would be law concerning taxation, which normally requires the sharing of
information about personal income or earnings. In some countries individual privacy may
conflict with freedom of speech laws and some laws may require public disclosure of
information which would be considered private in other countries and cultures. This was
a major concern in the United States, with the Supreme Court passage of Citizens
United.

A broad multicultural literary tradition going to the beginnings of recorded history

discusses the concept of privacy. One way of categorizing all concepts of privacy is by
considering all discussions as one of these concepts:

1. the right to be let alone

2. the option to limit the access others have to one's personal information
3. secrecy, or the option to conceal any information from others
4. control over others' use of information about oneself
5. states of privacy
6. personhood and autonomy
7. self-identity and personal growth
8. protection of intimate relationships

States of privacy

Alan Westin defined four states—or experiences—of privacy: solitude, intimacy,

anonymity, and reserve.

Solitude is a physical separation from others. 

Intimacy is a "close, relaxed, and frank relationship between two or more

individuals" that results from the seclusion of a pair or small group of individuals. 

Anonymity is the "desire of individuals for times of 'public privacy.' 

Lastly, reserve is the "creation of a psychological barrier against unwanted

intrusion"; this creation of a psychological barrier requires others to respect an
individual's need or desire to restrict communication of information concerning
himself or herself.

In addition to the psychological barrier of reserve, Kirsty Hughes identified three

more kinds of privacy barriers: physical, behavioral, and normative. Physical
barriers, such as walls and doors, prevent others from accessing and
experiencing the individual.[ (In this sense, "accessing" an individual includes
accessing personal information about him or her.) Behavioral barriers
communicate to others—verbally, through language, or non-verbally, through
personal space, body language, or clothing—that an individual does not want
them to access or experience him or her. Lastly, normative barriers, such as laws
and social norms, restrain others from attempting to access or experience an
individual.

Factors to be considered in planning a building.

 External environment and approach

 Entrances and horizontal circulation
 Vertical circulation
 Internal environment and services
 Sanitary facilities
 Facilities in buildings
 Building types
Why universal design?

People are diverse - some are left-handed and some right-handed - and vary in
their age, size and functional capacities. Illness or disability (whether temporary
or permanent) can also affect characteristics such as a person’s mobility,
dexterity, reach, balance, strength, stamina, sight, hearing, speech, touch,
knowledge, understanding, memory, or sense of direction. A reference list with
these booklets indicates some of the key differences in human abilities that
should guide the design of buildings and of outdoor places. People of diverse
abilities should be able to use buildings and places comfortably and safely, as far
as possible without special assistance. People should be able to find their way
easily, understand how to use building facilities such as intercoms or lifts, and
know what is a pedestrian facility, and know where they may encounter traffic.
Given the wide diversity of the population, a universal design approach, which
caters for the broadest range of users from the outset, can result in buildings and
places that can be used and enjoyed by everyone. That approach eliminates or
reduces the need for expensive changes or retro fits to meet the needs of
particular groups at a later stage. It is good practice to ascertain the needs of the
range of expected users as early as possible, and to check the practicality and
usability of emerging designs with a diverse user panel.

Designing for one group can result in solutions that address the needs of many
others. For example: • level entry (Step-free) entrances facilitate not just
wheelchair users but also people with buggies; people with suitcases or shopping
trolleys; people using walking or mobility aids; and people with visual difficulties •
larger toilet compartments provide easier access to wheelchair users; those with
luggage or parcels; parents with pushchairs or accompanying small children;
those using walking or mobility aids; and larger-sized people • clear, well-placed
signage that uses recognised symbols or pictograms helps people with reading or
cognitive difficulties, and those whose first language is neither English nor Irish
Sometimes one solution will not suit all and a range of options will need to be
provided. For example: • providing both steps and a ramp where there is a
change in level • providing parking ticket machines that offer slots at different
heights to facilitate use at standing height, sitting height, and by people of small
stature This series of booklets is for architects, engineers, planners, developers,
designers, building contractors, building workers, building managers and others
involved in designing, commissioning and managing buildings and their
surroundings. It provides guidance on a universal design approach to all new
buildings, and the use and adaptation of existing environments. Those who
commission, design, construct or manage any part of the built and made
environment also have a duty of care to adhere to relevant legislation and
regulations including equality legislation, building regulations and health and
safety regulations.

Human abilities and design

Physical, sensory and mental abilities vary from person to person and for
individuals as they get older. Diversity is normal. Designers need to be aware of
difference across the range of human abilities, and of associated design
considerations. (a) Physical abilities. This includes walking, balance, handling,
pulling, pushing, lifting and reaching. Many activities involve simultaneous use of
more than one of these skills. Physical strength and stamina may also affect
people’s abilities to perform these actions.

Walking

For some people walking on the level or up gradients is difficult. Some people
may have a limited walking range, may have difficulty with turning movements or
may use mobility devices such as crutches or a walker. They may need to stop
frequently, to regain strength or catch breath. Design considerations include
provision of handrails, seats at regular intervals, convenient set-down parking
and adequate time for slower pedestrians at road crossings. Designers should
also consider the needs of people walking and engaging in sign language when
designing access to and from buildings plus within the buildings themselves.

Balance

Balance limitations can affect someone’s gait or control of hand movements.

Design considerations include handrails, regular seating, and providing controls
within easy reach. A surface against which a person may stumble against or walk
into should be designed to limit abrasion.
Handling

A significant minority of people are left-handed. Some people may have

restricted use or no use of one or both hands, or may have limits on strength or
precision. Facilities and components should be designed to be suitable for use
with either hand or with one hand only. Handling includes gripping, grasping and
manipulation. Each of these has a different purpose with specific design
considerations. For instance, components should be designed to be easily held.
The circumference of the supporting structure and stability are critical.
Manipulation involves the moving, turning and twisting of components with a
hand or hands. For those who have limited manipulation abilities, size and shape
and ease of movement are critical. Another option to consider is to design for
manipulation by using a pushing, pulling or pressing action using a clenched fist,
or by using the wrist or the elbow.

Strength and endurance

Strength and endurance may be required on sloping paths and floors, stairways
and long travel distances, when sustained effort may be needed. For those with
limited endurance, frequent resting-places are essential. 69 People generally find
it easier to push a component, than to pull it. This is particularly so if the
individual uses a wheelchair. Self-closing devices on manual doors can be
difficult for some people to operate, particularly if the doors are required to resist
wind forces. For these reasons, doors that open and close automatically are
preferred.

Lifting

Activities such as opening a vertically sliding sash window and an upward

opening access gate, should be designed to be easily operated with minimal
force.

Reaching

Design has a role to play in ensuring that key components in a building or

environment are in easy reach, bearing in mind the range of people’s sizes and
abilities. Having components within easy reach is particularly important for those
with more severe limitations in mobility. The reach range is dependent on the
height and arm length of the person, use of the arms, and the balance and
mobility of the upper body. A ‘comfortable reach range’ has been defined as one
that is appropriate to an activity that is likely to be frequent and in need of precise
execution and that does not involve stretching or bending from the waist. Putting
things within comfortable reach can ensure use by a greater number of people.
An ‘extended reach range’ has been defined as one that is appropriate to an
activity that is likely, neither to need precision nor to be frequent and that can
involve stretching or bending from the waist.

(b) Sensory abilities

Speech

Some conditions affect the capacity for or quality of speech. Two-way

communication can be facilitated by environments designed to minimise barriers
to hearing low or indistinct speech.

Hearing

People differ in their capacity to hear sound, to determine its direction, its source,
to discern pitch, frequency, volume and variation and to separate out different
sounds. Hearing quality is important for communication, for information, and for
detection of hazards such as traffic. Many people with hearing difficulties 70 use
a hearing aid which amplifies all sounds caught by the microphone, making
communications very difficult in noisy environments. Keeping background noise
level low is essential. The selection of structural and surface materials can make
a substantial difference in audibility. Auditoriums, meeting rooms and reception
areas can benefit from additional sound enhancement such as a loop system.
The careful design of illumination can assist in communication such as lip reading
and sign language. Provision of visual information and visual alarm systems can
communicate information to those who have hearing difficulties or who cannot
hear. Designers should also consider the colour and size of rooms and even the
furnishing arrangement as this is very important for visually based
communication. Also the use of vibration as means of sensing others should be
considered.
Sight

Vision allows an individual to be aware of the luminance of surfaces, objects,

form, size and colour. For people who are blind or who have visual difficulties, the
provision of suitable tactile walking surface indicators and tactile or acoustic
warnings at hazardous locations, should provide information on using the built
environment and should limit the risk of injury. The built environment can be
designed for orientation by providing sound cues and tactile cues. An easily
discernible system of ‘way finding’ should also be considered. For people with
limited, but low vision, effective visual contrast between surfaces or objects helps
to identify critical locations. Warning markings on glass surfaces, and markings
on the edges of stair treads, help minimise hazards. Differences in friction
between one floor surface, or one stair tread surface, and the next should be
avoided. Therefore, adjacent surfaces that display different standards of slip-
resistance, or that depend on raised surfaces, should be carefully considered.

Touch

In selecting surfaces in the built environment that people will need to touch (such
as handrails, handles, knobs and controls, tactile information), it is important to
select materials that avoid distress, injury or allergies. Surfaces should be free of
abrasions. Metals that may cause adverse reactions when touched should be
avoided.

(c) Mental abilities

Mental abilities include cognition, intellect, interpretation, learning and memory.

People differ in their knowledge, their capacity to understand, reason, or interpret
information. Designing for differences in these capacities helps provide a usable
environment for the population at large, from the very young to the old, and
people of diverse abilities. Means of communication in the environment should be
designed to be immediately and easily understood, and correctly interpreted. As
people age, some experience loss of memory or find it increasingly difficult to
absorb new information, so changes in the environment should be carefully
considered before implementation. Design considerations that take account of
mental abilities Aural and visual messages should be simple, clear and have
immediate impact. Figures, symbols and simple words are likely to be the most
effective. Symbols should be instantly recognisable as representing images seen
and activities undertaken in everyday life. Way finding should be simple, such as
tactile, graphic, audible or architectural cues that are easy to follow. Signage
should be large and clear. Way-finding maps should be clear, indicate the
person’s whereabouts in the building or facility, and be free from extraneous
information.

(d) Age and size

Accommodating the developing child It is important to create environments that

are safe, accessible and useable for children. Individual components should be
safe and useable as age-appropriate. Learning to manage risk is an essential
part of a child’s development.

Accommodating ageing adults

Life span within the human population is increasing. More and more we expect
to maintain an economic and social life within both the public and private domains
as we age. However, many human faculties are in decline as we age, such as
mobility, dexterity, stamina, strength, hearing, sight, or memory. Familiarity with a
particular environment is important.

Diversity of size

The population contains a diversity of sizes and heights, from children, to the
diversity in the height of fully-grown adults. The positioning of components and
the heights of building elements such as steps should recognise the diversity of
height. Increased weight and girth is now also a feature of the population.
Can Architecture solve societies problems?

There are many architects who believe physical design can positively impact
social life and solve some of society’s problems. A basic example would be when
a sign or landmark in the middle of a city makes people find orientation easier.
However, most social scientists believe it is more of a social dynamic that plays a
role in shaping our space.

 Perhaps a fair conclusion would be that interaction between physical design and
social change is a two ways process? Both design and social dynamic influence
each other.

Whilst it is good to embrace the sense of social responsibility of architects, it is

just as important to balance the mistaken belief that design alone can solve
problems like poverty or injustice. Socially sensitive architectural design can
solve physical problems that have social consequences, like improving poor
quality housing or unsafe streets.

 In 1966, a British planner called Maurice Broady came up with a new

term: architectural determinism. This was to describe the practice of asserting
that design solutions would change behaviour in a predictable and positive way.
Over the latter half of the 20th Century, there became a loss of faith in these
assertions due to a string of failures.

 The high-point of this loss of faith was the demolition of the famously dangerous
and dysfunctional Pruitt-Igoeurban housing complex in St Louis in the US. It was
designed by architects George Hellmuth, Minoru Yamasaki and Joseph
Leinweber to provide “community gathering spaces and safe, enclosed play
yards.” By the 1960s, however, it was seen as a hotspot for crime and poverty
and demolished in the 1970s.

However, faith in architectures power to change human behaviour is being

restored but perhaps with a little more caution to not make the same outlandish
claims for social change as before. The fact is that environments do affect us,
regardless of whether by design or by accident. In 2008, researchers in the UK
found that a ten-minute walk down a South London main street increased
psychotic symptoms significantly!

Design may be able to mitigate the symptoms or experiences of problems like

segregation, crime or disinvestment by altering the patterns of the built
environment or changing its perception visually. But design cannot solve
economic decline, poverty, racism, or discrimination; these problems are
structural, defined by our values, policies, economic practices and laws.

So, it is fine to understand the real limits of what design can accomplish without
discouraging idealistic designers who want to make change. It simply means that
designers need to understand the true causes of some of society’s problems.
They can then choose which projects will have the most impact and feel
embolden to take more calculated risks.