MODULE V : Social Psychology

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Explain the basic concepts of social relationships;
2. Discuss how relationships with others could be enhanced and improved
by applying the ideas on social relationships;
3. Identify and evaluate critical factors for meaningful social relationships;
4. Differentiate behaviors that make acceptable social relationships from
those behavior that are not acceptable.
5. Understand the concept of love and interrelationships.

Reference: Arcega, Analiza F. & Brawner, Dalisay G. (2018). Understanding The Self, C &
E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City.
 Social Psychology Defined
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, beliefs,
intentions and goals are constructed within a social context by the actual or imagined
interactions with others.

The study of social relationships or interactions is called social psychology.

Every individual has what we call social dimension.

A branch of psychology that studies individuals as they interact with others, Lahey
(2007).

This concept “social” has something to with relating to others or interacting with others.

Social psychologists, therefore, deal with the factors that lead us to behave in a given way
in the presence of others, and look at the conditions under which certain behavior/actions
and feelings occur.
 
 Key Figures in Social Psychology

1. Allport (1920) : Social Facilitation

Allport introduced the notion that the presence of others

(the social group) can facilitate certain behavior.
It was found that an audience would improve an actors’
performance in well learned/easy tasks, but leads to a
decrease in performance on newly learned/difficult tasks
due to social inhibition.
 Social facilitation 
Refers to the finding that people sometimes show an increased level
of effort as a result of the real, imagined, or implied presence of
others.

2. Albert Bandura (1963) : Social Learning Theory

 Bandura introduced the notion that behavior in the social world

could be modeled.
 Three groups of children watched a video where an adult was
aggressive towards a ‘bobo doll’, and the adult was either just seen
to be doing this, was rewarded by another adult for their behavior or
were punished for it.
 Children who had seen the adult rewarded were found to be
more likely to copy such behavior.
 3. Festinger (1950) : Cognitive Dissonance
 Festinger, Schacter and Black brought the idea that when we
hold beliefs, attitudes or cognitions which are different, then we
experience dissonance – this is an inconsistency that causes
discomfort.
 Dissonance occurs when there are difficult choices or
decisions, or when people participate in behavior that is contrary
to their attitude.
 Refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or
behaviors.
 This produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an
alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the
discomfort and restore balance.
 Example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that
smoking causes cancer (cognition), they are in a state of cognitive
dissonance.
 4. Tajfel (1971) : Social Identity Theory
 Tajfel & Turner’s social identity theory, states that individuals
need to maintain a positive sense of personal and social identity.
 This is partly achieved by emphasizing the desirability of one’s
own group, focusing on distinctions between other “lesser”
groups.
 Social identity is a person’s sense of who they are based on
their group membership(s).
 Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family,
football team etc.) which people belonged to were an important
source of pride and self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of
social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world.
 We divided the world into “them” and “us” based through a
process of social categorization (i.e. we put people into social
groups).
 5. Weiner (1986) : Attribution Theory

 Attribution theory is concerned with how ordinary people

explain the causes of behavior and events. For example, is
someone angry because they are bad-tempered or because
something bad happened?

 “Attribution theory deals with how the social perceiver uses

information to arrive at causal explanations for events.  It
examines what information is gathered and how it is combined
to form a causal judgment”.
Important Concepts in Social Psychology
a. Interactions.
It refers to the mutual and reciprocal exchange of
communication or action between two or more persons or groups.

b. Relationships.
It refers to a particular way in which two or more individuals,
groups, or even countries talk to, behave toward, or deal with
each other.
There is an established connection, kinship, or attachment
between persons or groups attributable to several factors , like
interests, philosophy of life, goals, or ways of thinking, that bind
them together.
c. Person Perception

Refers to forming impressions and making judgments about another person’s

likability after seeing or meeting him/her.
The assessment involves as well what kind of person one is, including his / her
intentions, traits, and behaviors (Plotnick & Kouyoumdjian, 2014).
First impressions, which are formed within a very short time with little conscious
thought and biased by past experiences, are part of person perception (Macrae and
Quadflieg, 2010).

d. Norms.

Are patterns or traits characterized as typical or usual for a group. Other terms
associated with norms are “average” and “normal”.
Norms in social behavior serve to guide or regulate the manner in which people
conduct themselves.
Behaviors have to be controlled or regulated because of social consequences. It is one’s
responsibility to make sure that his/her behavior does not hurt, offend, or disturb other
people
 e. Social Norms
 Refer to spoken and unspoken rules for behaving in particular
situations.
 Observing norms in social behavior is expected of members of a
group and the larger society in general.
 Doing so ensures and maintains good relationships within the group.

f. Social Facilitation

 Social facilitation refers to the finding that people sometimes show

an increased level of effort as a result of the real, imagined, or
implied presence of others, or defined as improvement in individual
performance when working with other people rather than alone.
g. Social Loafing
Social loafing is a phenomenon in which people put in
less effort on a task when they are working in a group,
compared to when they are working alone.

h. Conformity
Refers to yielding to group pressure to act as everyone
does, even when no direct request has been made.
It is the tendency to behave like others in the group do.
It is brought about by two motivations: to gain reward
(approval) or avoid punishment (disapproval), and to gain
information.
A number of factors are known to increase the likelihood of
conformity within a group. Some of these are as follows:

Group size—larger groups are more likely to conform to similar

behaviors and thoughts than smaller ones.

Unanimity—individuals are more likely to conform to group

decisions when the rest of the group’s response is unanimous.

Cohesion—groups that possess bonds linking them to one another

and to the group as a whole tend to display more conformity than
groups that do not have those bonds.

Status—individuals are more likely to conform with high-status

groups.
Culture—cultures that are collectivist exhibit a higher degree of conformity than
individualistic cultures.

Gender—women are more likely to conform than men in situations involving

surveillance, but less likely when there is no surveillance. Societal norms establish
gender differences that affect the ways in which men and women conform to social
influence.

Age—younger individuals are more likely to conform than older individuals, perhaps
due to lack of experience and status.

Importance of stimuli—individuals may conform less frequently when the task is

considered important. This was suggested by a study where participants were told
that their responses would be used in the design of aircraft safety signals, and
conformity decreased.

Minority influence—minority factions within larger groups tend to have influence

on overall group decisions. This influence is primarily informational and depends on
consistent adherence to a position, the degree of defection from the majority, and the
status and self-confidence of the minority members.
i. Social roles
Specify the part or position of a person in society.
It also specifies behavior expected to be exhibited by an
individual in practicing his/her role.
Without these delineated roles, a student, for example,
will not know what to expect from his teacher.
Understanding the role of others, as well as those of one’s
own, facilitate people’s ability to work together towards the
common good.
When people work together in groups, the efforts of the
different members need to be coordinated with those of
others to prevent chaos.
This scenario is where the social roles come in.
j. Sociogram
Indicates the social structure of a group and the relationship of people
within that group.
It shows who are popular, isolates, islands, and mutual friends.

k. Familiarity
Refers to being comfortable with another person and is a necessary
condition for a close relationship to develop.

l. Attraction.
In social psychology, attraction is the natural feeling of being drawn to
other individuals and desiring their company.
This is usually but not necessarily due to having a personal liking for
them.
 L o v e
 The concept of love varies from every individual.
 It is essential to our well-being.
 There is what we call self-love, and there is what we call
love for others.
 Love for others is associated with intense and deep
feelings always looking on the happiness, welfare and
good of the other.
 Although for a number of people who claim that love is
a choice, making sacrifices, or giving up something for
the good of one’s love, is part and parcel of being in
love.
 Kinds of Love
1. Romantic love. It is also referred to as passionate love.
Emotions like fear, anger, sexual desire, joy, and jealousy and
others are associated with this kind of love. College students
put a high interest on matters of romantic relationships.

2. Affectionate love. It is also referred to as companionate love.

A kind of love when a person has a deep and caring affection
for a person with a desire to have him/her near constantly.

3. Consummate Love. This is the strongest and fullest type of

love (Sternberg,1985). An ideal form of love where passion,
intimacy and commitment are involve.
 Other Types of Love 
1. Friendship

 This type of love is when the intimacy or liking component is

present, but feelings of passion or commitment in the romantic
sense are missing.
 Friendship love can be the root of other forms of love.

2. Infatuation

 Infatuation is characterized by feelings of lust and physical passion

without liking and commitment.
 There has not been enough time for a deeper sense of intimacy,
romantic love, or consummate love to develop.
 3. Empty Love

 Empty love is characterized by commitment without passion

or intimacy. 

4. Fatuous Love
 
 In this type of love, commitment and passion are present while
intimacy or liking is absent.
 Fatuous love is typified by a whirlwind courtship in which
passion motivates a commitment without the stabilizing
influence of intimacy.
 The Triangular Theory of Love
 In the late 1980s psychologist Robert Sternberg
developed the triangular theory of love.
 This theory suggests that people can have varying degrees
of intimacy, passion, and commitment at any one moment
in time.
Intimacy, which involves feelings of closeness,
connectedness, and bondedness
Passion, which involves feelings and desires that lead to
physical attraction, romance, and sexual consummation
Commitment, which involves feelings that lead a person to
remain with someone and move toward shared goals.
 Interpretations of the illustration

1. If passion is the only ingredient present, the feeling is infatuation,

as
in a fling or an affair.

2. Intimacy and commitment without passion show affectionate love.

3. The combination of passion and commitment without intimacy

results in fatuous love.

4. Consummate love is achieved if all three components are present.

 Every individual has the ability and capability to give

love.

 Social relationships will not be good without love.

 Without love, people may become sad and lonely. Love

gives hope and light to people.

 There are various ways of showing love to ourselves and

to others. People who graciously and freely share and give

love, are being loved in return, are happy people.

MODULE VI : Interpersonal Skills

 Interpersonal communication is the process of face-

to-face exchange of thoughts, ideas, feelings and emotions
between two or more people.

 This includes both verbal and nonverbal elements of

personal interaction.
 Examples of Interpersonal Skills

1. Active listening 6. Motivation

2. Teamwork 7. Flexibility
3. Responsibility 8. Patience
4. Dependability 9. Empathy
5. Leadership
 Improving Your Interpersonal Skills
 The ability to get along with others
is a talent that requires "interpersonal" skills

 For some people, it’s a NATURAL TALENT

They get along well with everyone they meet, and they’re
well-respected

 For other people, it’s a talent they MUST DEVELOP

They can learn skills that will help them get along better
with others – in all kinds of relationships: business, family,
friendships, etc.
You’ll be more effective in communicating your thought
and feelings and getting the response you want. Being
effective means learning how to:

EXPRESS your feelings

PRESENT yourself well
GIVE and receive compliments gracefully
SAY “no” when appropriate
RESOLVE problems effectively
 You’ll be happier if you get along well with others. You'll
have:

 MORE SELF-RESPECT When you recognize your

success in dealing with people, you'll also feel good
about yourself

 MORE RESPECT FROM OTHERS They'll appreciate

your directness, honesty and dependability.

 MORE RESPECT FOR OTHERS You’ll recognize and

appreciate their skills and personal qualities
 Tips for Effective Communication

1. Learn to express yourself

2. Learn good listening skills
3. Learn how to respond effectively
4. Learn to be assertive

PARAPHRASING - is summarizing what the speaker has just

said. It’s an extremely helpful tool because it, makes you listen
carefully, lets the speaker know if the message was
communicated correctly, eliminates misunderstanding which
can lead to conflict.
 MODULE VII : PERSONALITY

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. discuss the different dimensions for a concept of humanity;
2. identify and explain the different theories of personality;
3. explain the basic concepts of personality;
4. identify the major factors of personality
 
Reference:
Arcega, Analiza F. & Brawner, Dalisay G. (2018). Understanding The Self,C & E
Publishing, Inc. Quezon City.
 Personality Defined

Personality - word stems from“persona” , Latin word for “mask”

– the enduring or lasting patterns of behavior and
thought (across time and situation).

Personality Types and Traits

A personality type is a discrete category into which a person can be

sorted.

Traits :
Consistency over time
Individual differences in behavior
Stability across situations
A personality trait is an enduring personal characteristic
that underlies a person’s reactions to a variety of situations

Characteristics
Unique qualities (e.g., temperament, physique, and
intelligence)
 Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity

1. Determinism v. Free Choice

 Do we consciously direct our actions, or are they governed by
other forces?

2. Pessimism v. Optimism

 Are we basically good or evil?

 Some theorists’ views of human personality are positive and hopeful,
depicting us as humanitarian, altruistic, and socially conscious.
 3. Causality v. Teleology

Past / Present
Is our personality fixed by early events in our lives, or can be it be affected by
experiences in adulthood?

4. Conscious v. Unconscious
Determinants of Behavior

Equilibrium / Growth
Are we motivated simply to maintain a physiological balance or state of equilibrium,
or does the urge to grow and develop shape our behavior?

Some theorists believe that people are tension-reducing, pleasure seeking animals.

Others consider us to be motivated primarily by the need to grow, to realize our full potential,
and to reach for ever-higher levels of self-actualization and development.
 5. Biological v. Social Influences on Personality

 Nature / Nurture: Are we influenced more by heredity

(nature) or by our environment (nurture)?
 Many theorists assume that personality is shaped by both sets
of forces.
 To some, inheritance is the predominant influence and
environment of minor importance, others hold the opposite
way.

6. Uniqueness v. Similarities

 Is the personality of each human being unique, or are there

broad personality patterns that fit large numbers of persons?
 Theories of Personality
a. Trait Theory
Gordon Allport : Psychology Of The Individual
Raymond Cattell : 16 Personality Factors
Hans Eysenck : : Biologically Based Factor Theory
Mccrae And Costa : Five Factor Trait Theory
 
b. Psychodynamic Theory
Sigmund Freud : Psychoanalysis
Carl Jung : Analytical Psychology
Alfred Adler : Individual Psychology
Karen Horney : Psychoanalytic Social
Erik Erikson : Psychosocial Theory
c. Behavioral Theory
Burrhus Frederic Skinner : Behavioral Analysis

d. Humanistic Theory
Abraham Maslow : Holistic – dynamic
Carl Rogers : Person – centered Theory
Eric Fromm : Humanistic Psychoanalysis

e. Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura : Social Cognitive Theory
Rotter and Mischel : Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Kelly : Psychology of Personal Constructs
 
 
f. Object Relations Theory

Melanie Klein : Object Relations

Margaret Mahler : Security To Autonomy
Heinz Kohut : Development Of The Self
John Bowlby : Separation Anxiety
Mary Ainsworth : Attachment Style
 
 Trait Theory

RAYMOND CATTELL : 16 PERSONALTY

FACTORS
While a graduate student at London University, he was
hired as a research assistant to Charles Spearman, a
mathematician studying the quantification of intelligence.
 
Spearman, a well known name in the field of intellectual
assessment, developed a mathematical formula known as
factor analysis.
Factor Analysis
A statistical technique allows one to take raw data and
determine groupings of data.
 
By developing questionnaires and tests consisting of
personality characteristics, and analyzing data from report
cards of students, evaluations from employees, etc.,
Cattell applied this new statistical technique.

In 1949, he published his findings in an assessment

device known as the 16PF.
 According to Cattell’s research, human personality
traits could be summarized by 16 personality factors
(PF) or main traits.
He described these 16 traits on a continuum. In other
words, everybody has some degree of every trait,
according to Cattell.
The key assessment is determining where on the
continuum as individual falls.
 16 Personality Factors

Warmth Vigilance
Reasoning Abstractedness
Emotional Stability Privateness

Dominance 16 PF Apprehension
Liveliness Openness to
Change
Rule Consciousness Self-Reliance
Social Boldness Perfectionism
Sensitivity Tension