CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1Aims and objectives

The purpose of our project is to design a thermoelectric refrigerator that can produce a cooling
effect on one side and heat sinking on the other side with a DC voltage as input. The entire
thermoelectric refrigerator will be based on the Peltier effect.
The purpose of our project is to use this electricity to directly convert the applied voltage on one
side of the surface of our thermo electric element based on the peltier effect and thermo electric
cooling on the other side.

1.2 Scope
Being a mechanical engineer, they should have an in-depth knowledge of their core academic
courses so that it can help in their future endeavors.
And this report is very much aligned and relevant to our academic courses of study and will
definitely help us in our future placement activities.

1.3 Selection of Topic

In the field of military and medical sciences there are refrigerators used for cooling samples or
specimens for preservation. They include refrigeration units for the storage of blood plasma and
other blood products, as well as vaccines and other medical or pharmaceutical supplies. They
differ from standard refrigerators used in homes or restaurants because they need to be very
clean and completely reliable. However, there is no refrigeration system in terms of transport of
components from one place to another. Due to such a problem, portable refrigeration systems
have to be used.

1.4 Conclusion
The thermoelectric refrigerators designed are working efficiently and the idea behind this project
was to use a DC voltage that creates a temperature difference between the two junctions of the
Peltier plate causing a cooling effect to one side in a few seconds.
 ABSTACT

The purpose of our project is to use this electricity or DC voltage generated from a battery source
or solar panel to convert the DC voltage applied directly to the thermoelectric refrigerator from
the other side to the Peltier effect and the refrigeration effect based on thermo electric cooling .
Such thermoelectric refrigerators are one of the latest advancements in the modern world and its
maximum applications are in transporting small elements / drugs from one place to another. The
main principle of operation of our thermoelectric refrigerators is to produce positive and negative
temperature effects at either of its junctions by supplying the power supply voltage or through
the additional heat available on the plate via solar heat. . This refrigerator has the added
advantage over existing cooling devices and refrigerators in that it is a very fast appliance; This
can produce a cooling effect of up to -8.C in 1-2 seconds. In addition, it is also applied as one of
the best heat sinks for microprocessors of solar refrigerator CPUs and other electrical devices. In
industries, thermoelectric refrigerators are used for storage of medicines and solar-based cooling
devices. In addition, the entire material required for air and water cooling devices is in very large
quantities, including water as a cooler and the tubes and containers used for its circulation. The
use of a highly effective, solar energy efficient and compact Peltier plate-based thermoelectric
refrigerator operating on the thermo-electric effect has been presented as an advantage over older
techniques of cooling.

PERFORMANCE OF THERMOELECTRIC ELEMENTS

Thermoelectric junctions are usually only around 5–10% as efficient as ideal refrigeration, with
40–60% achieved by conventional compression cycle systems. Due to the relatively low
efficiency, thermoelectric cooling is commonly used only in environments where solid state
nature transcends pure efficiency.
Thermoelectric cooler performance is a function of ambient temperature, hot and cold side heat
exchange performance, thermal load, thermo electric module (thermopile) geometry and thermo
electric electrical parameters.
C TER is constructed using two dissimilar semi-conductors, one n-type and the other p-type
(they must be different because they require different electron densities for the effect to work). .
The two semiconductors are located parallel to one end by a parallel cooling plate (usually of
copper or aluminum) and joined at one end. A voltage is applied to the free ends of two different
conducting materials, resulting in the flow of electricity through two semiconductors in series.
The flow of DC current across the junction of two semi-conductors produces a temperature
difference. As a result of the temperature difference, heat is absorbed from the area around the
cooling plate due to peltier cooling, and to the other (heat sink) end of the device.onstruction

TEC inner view

Heat is transported through the cooler by electron transport and released on the opposite ("hot")
side as the electrons move from high to low energy state. When there are two materials
By electrical conductors connected to each other, a new equilibrium of free electrons is
established. Potential migration creates an electric field in each connection. When the current is
subsequently forced through the unit, attempting to maintain a new equilibrium causes electrons
at one connection to absorb energy, while others release energy at the connection. In practice,
several TEC pairs (or pairs), such as described above, are side-by-side connected, and
sandwiched between two ceramic plates in a single TEC unit.

Figure 2: Working of a TEC

The heat pumping capacity of a cooler is proportional to the current in the unit and the number of
pairs.
ADVANTAGES OVER EXISTING COOLING TECHNIQUES

Air cooling, oil cooling, water cooling, etc. are some of the techniques that have been
implemented in commercial transformers to reduce the loss of heating and increase the efficiency
and life of the transformer. Due to some disadvantages of such coolants such as slow effect,
heavy material requirement, large space coverage and cost, thermoelectric effect cooling can be
formulated and used for the same. This basic difference gives solid-state thermoelectric coolers
the following advantages over compressors:

• No moving parts. Therefore they require little or no maintenance. Ideal for cooled parts that
may be sensitive to mechanical vibration.
• No refrigerants, such as potentially harmful CFCs. Hence environmental and safety benefits.
• Enables low-noise operation of cooling fans, providing greater cooling power.
• Suitable for construction in very small sizes. Hence ideal for microelectronics.
• Lightweight.
•long life. MTBF over 100,000 hours (Mean time between failures).
• Control (by voltage / current).
• Small size.
• Fast, dynamic response.
• Enhanced ration between heat sink and target element.
• May provide cooling below ambient temperature
APPLICATIONS OF THERMO ELECTRIC BASED COOLING
TECHNIQUE

Many applications on refrigeration and cooling can be cited on this latest technology. Some
practical implementations of the same are given below:

1. Thermo-electric cooler

2. Increasing the efficiency of various electrical equipment by efficient heat sinking

3. solar-based refrigerator design

4. Thermoelectric A.C.

5. Waste Heat Utilization System Design for Refrigeration

6. For cooling car seats

7. For cool satellites and space craft

8. To make a humidifier

9. For Laser Cooling

10. Car Battery

HEAT SINK & THERMAL PASTE:-

In electronic systems, a heat sink is a passive component that cools an appliance by destroying
heat in the surrounding air. Heat sinks are used to cool electronic devices such as high-power
semiconductor devices, and optoelectronic devices such as high-power lasers and light-emitting
diodes (LEDs). Heat sinks are heat exchangers such as refrigeration and air conditioning
systems, or radiators in an automobile.

A heat sink is designed to increase the surface area in contact with its surrounding cooling fluid
such as air. Approach air velocity, material choice, fin (or other protrusion) design and surface
treatment are some of the factors that affect the thermal performance of a heat sink. Heat sinks
are used to cool a computer central processing unit or graphics processor. Heat sink attachment
method and thermal interface material also affect the final die temperature of the integrated
circuit. Thermal adhesive or thermal grease fills the air gap between the heat sink and the device
to improve its thermal performance. Theoretical, experimental, and numerical methods can be
used to determine the thermal performance of a heat sink.

Basic heat sink heat transfer principle

A heat sink is an object that transfers thermal energy from a high temperature to a low
temperature fluid medium. The fluid medium is often air, but may also be the case with water or
heat exchangers, refrigerants, and oil. If the medium of the fluid is water, a 'heat sink' is often
called a cold plate. In thermodynamics, a heat sink is a reservoir that can absorb arbitrary
amounts of heat without changing the temperature. Practical heat sinks for electronic devices
must have temperatures higher than ambient to transfer heat by convection, radiation, and
conduction. To understand the principle of heat sink, consider Fourier's law of heat conduction.
Fourier's law of heat conduction, simplified in one-dimensional form in the x-direction, implies
that when there is a temperature gradient in the body, the heat will be transferred from the higher
temperature region to the lower temperature region. The rate at which heat is transferred by
conduction.
 , is proportional to the product of the temperature gradient and the cross-sectional area
through which heat is transferred.

Design factors that affect the thermal performance of a heat sink: -

Thermoelectric Peltier cooling system heat sink kit

Thermal resistance

For semiconductor devices used in various consumer and industrial electronics, the idea of
thermal resistance simplifies the selection of heat sinks. The heat flow between the
semiconductor dye and the ambient air is depicted as a series of resistors to the heat flow; The
die has resistance in the case of the device, from the case to the heat sink, and from the heat sink
to the ambient. The sum of these resistances is the total thermal resistance from death to ambush.
Thermal resistance is defined as the temperature increase per unit of power, corresponding to
electrical resistance, and expressed in units of degrees Celsius (C / W) per watt. If the device
dissipation in watts is known, and the total thermal resistance is calculated, an increase in die
temperature above ambient can be calculated.
The idea of thermal resistance of a semiconductor heat sink is an estimate. It does not take into
account the non-uniform distribution of heat on the device or heat sink. It only models a system
in thermal equilibrium, and does not take into account changes in temperature over time. Nor
does it reflect the non-linearity of radiation and convection in relation to temperature rise.
However, manufacturers tabulate specific values of thermal resistance for heat sinks and
semiconductor devices, which allows commercially manufactured heat sinks to be simplified.

The most common heat sink material is aluminum alloy aluminum alloy 1050A has one of the
highest thermal conductivity values at 229 W / m • K, but is mechanically soft. Aluminum alloys
6061 and 6063 are commonly used, with thermal conductivity values of 166 and 201 W / m • K,
respectively. The values depend on the nature of the alloy.

Copper has almost double the conductivity of aluminum, but it is three times as dense and
depends on the market, which is about four to six times more expensive than aluminum.
Aluminum can be extruded, but copper cannot. Copper heat sinks are mechanized and
diagonally. Another method of construction is to solder the wings to the heat sink base.

Diamond is another heat sink material, and its thermal conductivity of 2000 W / m • K is more
than five times that of copper]. Unlike metals, where the heat is handled by electrons, lattice
vibrations are very high thermal conductivity of diamond Is responsible for For thermal
management applications, the excellent thermal conductivity and diffusion of diamonds is an
essential. Nowadays synthetic diamond is used as a sub-mount for high-power integrated circuits
and laser diodes.

Fin efficiency

Fin efficiency is one of the parameters that make a high thermal conductivity material important.
A fin of a heat sink can be considered a flat plate with heat flowing at one end and immersed in
the surrounding fluid as it travels to the other. As heat flows through the fins, the combination of
the thermal resistance of the heat sink impedes the flow and is lost due to heat convection, the
temperature of the fin and, therefore, the heat transfer to the fluid, will decrease from the base of
the fin. the ending. Fin efficiency is defined as the actual heat transferred by the fin, divided by
the heat transfer that is phenothermal (hypothetically the finals have infinite thermal
conductivity). Equations 6 and 7 are applicable for straight wings.
Fin efficiency is enhanced by using fin aspect ratios (making them thicker or shorter), or more
conductive materials (eg copper instead of aluminum).

Another parameter that concerns the thermal conductivity of the heat sink material is spreading
resistance. Diffusion resistance occurs when thermal energy is transferred from a small region to
a large area in a material with finite thermal conductivity. In a heat sink, this means that heat is
not evenly distributed through the heat sink base. The diffusion resistance phenomenon shows
how heat travels from the heat source location and causes a large temperature gradient between
the edges of the heat source and the heat sink. This means that if the heat sources were uniform
at the base of the heat sink then some temperatures would occur at lower temperatures. This non-
uniformity increases the effective thermal resistance of the heat sink.

To reduce the resistance spreading in the base of the heat sink:

Increase base thickness

Choose a different material with better thermal conductivity

Use a vapor chamber or heat pipe in the heat sink base.

A pin-, straight- and flared fin heat sink types

A pin fin heat sink is a heat sink that consists of pins that extend from its base. The pins may be
cylindrical, elliptical or square. A pin is one of the more common heat sink types available on the
market. The second type of heat sink fine arrangement is straight fin. They run the entire length
of the heat sink. The variation on a straight fin heat sink is a cross cut heat sink. A straight fin
heat sink is cut at regular intervals.
In general, the greater the surface area of the heat sink, the better. However, this is not always
true. The concept of a pin fin heat sink is to try to pack as much surface area as possible into a
given volume. Also, it works well in any orientation .. Although the pin fin has a 194 cm2surface
area, while the straight fin has 58 cm2, the temperature difference between the heat sink base and
the ambient air for the pin fin is 50 Is ° C. For straight fins it was 44 ° C or 6 ° C better than the
pin. Pin fin heat sink performance is much better than straight fins when used directly in their
fins, where liquids flow axially along the pins, rather than just across the pins.

Another configuration is the flared fin heat sink; Its wings are not parallel to each other, as
shown in figure 5. Fluffing the wings reduces flow resistance and allows more air to flow
through the heat sink fin channel; Otherwise, more air will bypass the wings. Slanting them
keeps the overall dimensions the same, but provides longer wings

Heat transfer from the heat sink is by convection of the surrounding air, conduction through the
air, and radiation.

Heat transfer by radiation is a function of both the heat sink temperature, and the ambient
temperature that the heat sink alternately coupled. When both these temperatures are on the order
of 0 ° C to 100 ° C, the contribution of radiation compared to convection is generally small, and
this factor is often neglected. In this case, the work of a heat sink operating in natural convection
or forced-flow would not be significantly affected by surface emission.

In situations where convection is low, such as a flat nonwalled panel with low airflow, radiative
cooling may be an important factor. Here surface properties can be an important design factor.
Matte-black colored surfaces will radiate more efficiently than shiny bare metal in the visible
spectrum. A shiny metal surface has less effective emission due to its lower surface area. While
the emission efficiency of a material depends to a large extent on energy (frequency), noble
metals exhibit much lower emission in the NIR spectrum. Emissivity in the visible spectrum is
closely related to color. For most materials, the emission in the visible spectrum is similar to the
emissivity in the infrared spectrum; however there are exceptions, notably certain metal oxides
that are used as "selective surfaces".
In a vacuum or in outer space, there is no convective heat transfer, thus in these environments,
radiation is the only factor governing heat flow between the heat sink and the environment. For a
satellite in space, a 100 °C (373 Kelvin) surface facing the sun will absorb a lot of radiant heat,
since the sun's surface temperature is nearly 6000 Kelvin, whereas the same surface facing deep-
space will radiate a lot of heat, since deep-space has an effective temperature of only a few
Kelvin.

Engineering applications

Processor/Microprocessor cooling

Heat dissipation is an unavoidable by-product of all but micro power electronic devices and
circuits. In general, the temperature of the device or component will depend on the thermal
resistance from the component to the environment, and the heat dissipated by the component. To
ensure that the component temperature does not overheat, a thermal engineer seeks to find an
efficient heat transfer path from the device to the environment. The heat transfer path may be
from the component to a printed circuit board (PCB), to a heat sink, to air flow provided by a
fan, but in all instances, eventually to the environment.

For each interface between two objects in contact with each other, there will be a temperature
drop across the interface. For such composite systems, the temperature drop across the interface
may be appreciable. This temperature change may be attributed to what is known as the thermal
contact resistance.

For very large heat sinks, there is no substitute for the threaded standoff and compression spring
attachment method. A threaded standoff is essentially a hollow metal tube with internal threads.
One end is secured with a screw through a hole in the PCB. The other end accepts a screw which
compresses the spring, completing the assembly. A typical heat sink assembly uses two to four
standoffs, which tends to make this the most costly heat sink attachment .Thermal contact
resistance occurs due to the voids created by surface roughness effects, defects and misalignment
of the interface. The voids present in the interface are filled with air. Heat transfer is therefore
due to conduction across the actual contact area and to conduction (or natural convection) and
radiation across the gaps . If the contact area is small, as it is for rough surfaces, the major
contribution to the resistance is made by the gaps. To decrease the thermal contact resistance, the
surface roughness can be decreased while the interface pressure is increased. However, these
improving methods are not always practical or possible for electronic equipment. Thermal
interface materials (TIM) are a common way to overcome these limitations,

Properly applied thermal interface materials displace the air that is present in the gaps between
the two objects with a material that has a much-higher thermal conductivity. Air has a thermal
conductivity of 0.022 W/m• K, while TIMs have conductivities of 0.3 W/m• K and higher.

When selecting a TIM, care must be taken with the values supplied by the manufacturer. Most
manufacturers give a value for the thermal conductivity of a material. However, the thermal
conductivity does not take into account the interface resistances. Therefore, if a TIM has a high
thermal conductivity, it does not necessarily mean that the interface resistance will be low.

Selection of a TIM is based on three parameters: the interface gap which the TIM must fill, the
contact pressure, and the electrical resistivity of the TIM. The contact pressure is the pressure
applied to the interface between the two materials. The selection does not include the cost of the
material. Electrical resistivity may, or may not, be important, depending upon electrical design
details.
Methods to determine heat sink thermal performance

In general, a heat sink performance is a function of material thermal conductivity, dimensions,

fin type, heat transfer coefficient, air flow rate, and duct size. To determine the thermal
performance of a heat sink, a theoretical model can be made. Alternatively, the thermal
performance can be measured experimentally. Due to the complex nature of the highly 3D flow
in present in applications, numerical methods or computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can also be
used. This section will discuss the aforementioned methods for the determination of the heat sink
thermal performance.
THERMAL PASTE

Heat sinks conduct heat from the processor to the heat sink and then circulate it to the air. The
better the heat transfer between the two surfaces (CPU and heat sink metal) the better the
cooling. Some processors come with heat sinks that stick directly to them, ensuring a good
transfer of heat between the processor and the heat sink.
Heat sinks that are connected by use of clips usually sit on top of the processor. It may feel like it
is securely connected, but there will be a difference between the CPU and the heat sink, and that
difference of air makes them for poor heat transfer, even if it is very small. Air is a worse
conductor of heat than most liquids or solids. To improve the thermal connection between the
processor and the heat sink, a special chemical called heat sink compound must be used. It has a
thin layer spread between the two, which greatly improves the heat transfer and cooling of the
processor.
The heat sink compound is usually a white paste made of zinc oxide in a silicon base. There is
little need for the substance, just enough to fill the gap between the CPU and the heat sink.
Overusing it will not work better, it will simply make a bigger mess when you push the heat sink
on the CPU, a lot like putting too much strawberry jam in your PB&J sandwich. : ^) The use of
this compound is strongly recommended for those who want to cool their processors properly.

THERMAL PASTE

All modern appliances produce enough heat that they require a heat sink. Almost everyone needs
a heat sink with fan. Many heat sinks are already applied in certain types of thermal transfer - a
patch, or a section of semi-solid material, such as chewing-gum, or just a rubber pad for low-
performance units. Most appliances do not produce enough heat that stuff matters to be inserted
between the chip package and the heat sink, as long as the equipment case has decent ventilation
and the ambient temperature is not like a sauna. There must be something between the bus
devices and the heat sink.

The reason there is something is that the two mating surfaces of the processor and the sink are
not flat. They may look flat. They may have mirror polish. But, on a microscopic scale, they look
like a scale model of the Andes. And the mountains on one item do not match the valleys on the
other.

Without a thermal transfer compound, heat sinks everywhere do not intercourse with metal
equipment package materials, a teeny-tiny air gap. Air is a good thermal insulator. By the time
your heat sink looks flat, when you place a ruler on it, there will be a decent amount of actual
contact, but the amount of heat that will actually make it around the air gap can be surprisingly
small. .

Hence, thermal compound. It is basically a lot of oil of minuscule thermally conductive particles
added to it. It does not make direct contact with heat as well, but is much better than air gap.

A popular scene among those of us who have spent more time cleaning thermal grease with our
hands, we want to remember that it is not really much of what kind of thermal grease you would
use Huh. White-white zinc-oxide grease, fancy silver grease, ultra-fancy super-exotic better-
than-stuff-NASA-use grease; They are all the same. As long as you apply the stuff sparingly,
you'll be fine.

I didn't really test it, though. Perhaps the marketing boom was right for the current crop of
foreign super-greases; Perhaps they are actually spectacular compared to plain cheap white
thermal goop. Perhaps fancy greases also have advantages beyond their thermal performance.
PELTEIR AND THEMO-ELECTRIC EFFECT:-

The Peltier effect is a temperature difference created by applying a voltage between two
electrodes connected to a sample of semiconductor material. This phenomenon can be useful
when it is necessary to transfer heat from one medium to another on a small scale. The Peltier
effect is one of three types of thermoelectric effect; The other two are the Seebeck effect and the
Thomson effect.

In a Peltier-effect device, electrodes are usually made of a metal with excellent electrical
conductivity. The semiconductor material between the electrodes forms two junctions between
the dissimilar materials, which, in turn, forms a pair of thermos. The voltage is applied to the
electrode to bind the electric current through the semiconductor, in the direction of the charge
carrier. Thermal energy flows.

Peltier-effect devices are used for thermoelectric cooling in electronic equipment and computers
when more traditional cooling methods are impractical.

The Peltier effect is the presence of heat at an electrified junction of two different metals and is
named after the French physicist Jean-Charles Peltier, who discovered it in 1834. When a current
is created through a material and a junction made of A and B, heat is generated at the upper
junction at T2, and absorbed at the lower junction at T1. The per unit time is equal to the peltier
heat absorbed by the lower junction

Where forAB is the Peltier coefficient for thermocouples made of materials A and B and (A
(theB) is the Peltier coefficient of material A (B). Π varies with the temperature of the material
and its specific composition: P-type silicon usually has But below ~ 550 K there is a positive
Peltier coefficient, but n-type silicon is usually negative.

The Peltier coefficient refers to how much heat per unit charge is carried through a given
substance. Since the charge current must be constant at a junction, the associated temperature

If willA and differentB are different, the flow will develop a discontinuity. Depending on the
magnitude of the current, the heat must accumulate or dissipate at the junction due to a near-zero
deviation, which is required to be applied by the carrier from one equilibrium to another before
the carrier returns to equilibrium. Causes Individual pairs can

Connected in series to increase the effect. Thermoelectric heat pumps exploit this phenomenon,
as do thermoelectric cooling devices found in refrigerators.
The Peltier effect can be used to create a refrigerator that is compact and that has no circulating
liquid or moving parts; Such refrigerators are useful in applications

Where their advantages outweigh the disadvantages of their very low efficiency.

The Peltier effect describes the temperature difference generated by the EMF and the reverse of
the See beck effect. Finally, the Thomson effect is related to the reversible thermal gradient and
EMF in a homogeneous conductor.

The Peltier thermo-element is a device that uses the Peltier effect to apply a heat pump. A Peltier
consists of two plates, cold and hot plates. There are many thermo pairs between those plates.
They are all thermo pairs connected together and two wires come out. If a voltage is applied to
those wires, the cold plate will be cold and the hot plate ... hot.

The device is called a heat pump because it neither generates heat nor cools, it simply transfers
heat from one plate to another, and thus cools to another plate. It is also called thermo-electric
cooler or TEC for short.

Because there are many thermocols in the TEC, too much heat is transferred between the plates.
Sometimes it can reach a temperature difference of 80 ° C or more!

Paltier elements are made up of what substance?

Peltier thermo-elements are mainly made of semi conductive materials. This means that they
have P-N contacts. Actually, they have a lot of P-N contacts connected in series. They are
heavily doped, meaning they have special additives that will increase the excess orUsually a
thermoelectric e.m.f. is very small, only a few millionths of a volt. For a copper-iron circuit it is
found to be about 7lV for every degree Centigrade of temperature difference between the
junctions; for antimony and bismuth it is as high as 100 lV per deg C, while for copper and
Constantan (55 per cent copper, 45 per cent nickel), the two metals most often used in practice, it
is 40 lV per deg C of temperature difference.

A pair of dissimilar metals welded together at their junction is called a thermocouple. By

arranging several thermocols in the series, as shown in Fig. 129, e. M. F. Add together to give a
commendable output; This arrangement is known as a thermopile
 figure of Thermopile

Although thermopiles have been constructed to deliver e.m.f.s of a few volts, thermoelectric
effects are rarely used as sources of energy at present. Its main application lies in the
measurement of temperature. A form of hotwire emitter (p. 135) to measure alternating currents
incorporates a thermocouple whose junction is measured indirectly. Thermal e. M Ch. A direct
current is established at the junction that is measured by a moving-coil galvanometer.

In thermo electric, the conductor generates a voltage when subjected to a temperature gradient.
To measure this voltage, one must use a second conductor material that produces a different
voltage under the same temperature gradient. Otherwise, if the same material was used for the
measurement, the voltage generated by the measuring conductor would simply cancel the first
conductor. The voltage difference generated by the two materials can then be measured and
related to the corresponding temperature gradient. Thus it is clear that, based on See beck's
theory, thermocols can only measure temperature differences and require a known reference
temperature to obtain absolute readings.
 THERMOELETRIC ELEMENT

THERMOELECTRIC COOLING

Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the junction of two
different types of materials. A Peltier cooler, heater, or thermoelectric heat pump is a solid-state
active heat pump which transfers heat from one side of the device to the other, with consumption
of electrical energy, depending on the direction of the current. Such an instrument is also called a
Peltier device, Peltier heat pump, solid state refrigerator, or thermoelectric cooler (TEC). The
Peltier device is a heat pump: when direct current runs through it, heat is moved from one side to
the other. Therefore it can be used either for heating or for cooling (refrigeration), although in
practice the main application is cooling. It can also be used as a temperature controller that either
heats or cools. This technology is far less commonly applied to refrigeration than vapor-
compression refrigeration is. The main advantages of a Peltier cooler (compared to a vapor-
compression refrigerator) are its lack of moving parts or circulating liquid, and its small size and
flexible shape (form factor). Its main disadvantage is that it cannot simultaneously have low cost
and high power efficiency. Many researchers and companies are trying to develop Peltier coolers
that are both cheap and efficient. (See Thermoelectric materials.)
A Peltier cooler can also be used as a thermoelectric generator. When operated as a cooler, a
voltage is applied across the device, and as a result, a difference in temperature will build up
between the two sides. When operated as a generator, one side of the device is heated to a
temperature greater then the other side, and as a result, a difference in voltage will build up
between the two sides (the See beck effect). However, a well-designed Peltier cooler will be a
mediocre thermoelectric generator and vice-versa, due to different design and packaging
requirements.

Thermoelectric junctions are generally only around 5–10% as efficient as the

ideal refrigerator (Carnot cycle), compared with 40–60% achieved by conventional compression
cycle systems (reverse Rankine systems using compression/expansion). Due to the relatively low
efficiency, thermoelectric cooling is generally only used in environments where the solid state
nature (no moving parts, maintenance-free, compact size) outweighs pure efficiency.

Peltier (thermoelectric) cooler performance is a function of ambient temperature, hot and cold
side heat exchanger (heat sink) performance, thermal load, Peltier module (thermopile)
geometry, and Peltier electrical parameter.
USES

Peltier devices are commonly used in camping and portable coolers and for cooling electronic
components and small instruments. Some electronic equipment intended for military use in the
field is thermoelectrically cooled. The cooling effect of Peltier heat pumps can also be used to
extract water from the air in dehumidifiers.

Peltier elements are a common component in thermal cyclers, used for the synthesis of DNA by
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a common molecular biological technique which requires the
rapid heating and cooling of the reaction mixture for dnaturation , primer annealing and
enzymatic synthesis cycles.

The effect is used in satellites and spacecraft to counter the effect of direct sunlight on one side
of a craft by dissipating the heat over the cold shaded side, whereupon the heat is dissipated
by thermal radiation into space.

Photon detectors such as CCDs in astronomical telescopes or very high-end digital cameras are
often cooled down with Peltier elements. This reduces dark counts due to thermal noise. A dark
count occurs when a pixel generates an electron because of a thermal fluctuation rather than
because it has received a photon. On digital photos taken at low light these occur as speckles (or
"pixel noise").

Thermoelectric coolers can be used to cool computer components to keep temperatures within
design limits, or to maintain stable functioning when over clocking. However, due to low
efficiency, much more heat is generated than normally, necessitating a very large and noisy fan
or a liquid cooling system. In fiber optic applications, where the wavelength of a laser or a
component is highly dependent on temperature, Peltier coolers are used along with a Thermistor
in a feedback loop to maintain a constant temperature and thereby stabilize the wavelength of the
device. A Peltier cooler with a heat sink or water block can cool a chip to well below ambient
temperature.

Peltier devices are used in recent products that chill beverages. Some products can also reverse
the current to heat the beverage. Products such as the one pictured draw power from
the USB port found on computers. However, these products' ability to heat and cool is limited, as
the USB 2.0 standard guarantees only 500 m A of current (900 m A in the USB 3.0 standard).
DC BRUSHLESS FAN

Figure: Brushless DC Fan 12 V

Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as electronically

commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) aresynchronous motors that are powered by a DC
electric source via an integrated inverter/switching power supply, which produces an AC electric
signal to drive the motor (AC, alternating current, does not imply a sinusoidal waveform but
rather a bi-directional current with no restriction on waveform); additional sensors and
electronics control the inverter output amplitude and waveform (and therefore percent of DC bus
usage/efficiency) and frequency (i.e. rotor speed).

The motor part of a brushless motor is often a permanent magnet synchronous motor, but can
also be a switched reluctance motor, orinduction motor.

Brushless motors may be described as stepper motors; however, the term stepper motor tends to
be used for motors that are designed specifically to be operated in a mode where they are
frequently stopped with the rotor in a defined angular position. This page describes more general
brushless motor principles, though there is overlap.

Two key performance parameters of brushless DC motors are the Motor constants Kv and Km
(which are numerically equal in SI units).
BRUSHLESS VS BRUSHED

Brushed DC motors have been in commercial use since 1886. Brushless motors, on the other
hand, did not become commercially viable until 1962.

Brushed DC motors develop a maximum torque when stationary, linearly decreasing as velocity
increases. Some limitations of brushed motors can be overcome by brushless motors, they
include higher efficiency and a lower susceptibility of the commutator assembly to mechanical
wear. These benefits come at the cost of potentially less rugged, more complex, and more
expensive control electronics.

A typical brushless motor has permanent magnets which rotate and a fixed armature, eliminating
problems associated with connecting current to the moving armature. An electronic controller
replaces the brush/commutator assembly of the brushed DC motor, which continually switches
the phase to the windings to keep the motor turning. The controller performs similar timed power
distribution by using a solid-state circuit rather than the brush/commutator system.

Brushless motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors, including more torque per
weight, more torque per watt (increased efficiency), increased reliability, reduced noise, longer
lifetime (no brush and commutator erosion), elimination of ionizing sparks from the commutator,
and overall reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI). With no windings on the rotor, they
are not subjected to centrifugal forces, and because the windings are supported by the housing,
they can be cooled by conduction, requiring no airflow inside the motor for cooling. This in turn
means that the motor's internals can be entirely enclosed and protected from dirt or other foreign
matter.

Brushless motor commutation can be implemented in software using a microcontroller or

computer, or may alternatively be implemented in analogue hardware or digital firmware using
an FPGA. Commutation with electronics instead of brushes allows for greater flexibility and
capabilities not available with brushed DC motors, including speed limiting, "micro stepped"
operation for slow and/or fine motion control, and a holding torque when stationary.

The maximum power that can be applied to a brushless motor is limited almost exclusively by
heat; too much of which weakens the magnets, and may damage the winding's insulation. A
brushless motor's main disadvantage is higher cost, which arises from two issues.
Firstly, brushless motors require complex electronic speed controllers (ESCs) to run. In contrast,
brushed DC motors can be regulated by a comparatively simple controller, such as
a rheostat (variable resistor). However, this reduces efficiency because power is wasted in the
rheostat. Secondly, some practical uses have not been well developed in the commercial sector.
For example, in the radio control (RC) hobby arena, brushless motors are often hand-wound
while brushed motors are usually machine-wound.

Brushless motors are more efficient at converting electricity into mechanical power than brushed
motors. This improvement is largely due to the brushless motor's velocity being determined by
the frequency at which the electricity is switched, not the voltage. Additional gains are due to the
absence of brushes, alleviating loss due to friction. The enhanced efficiency is greatest in the no-
load and low-load region of the motor's performance curve. Under high mechanical loads,
brushless motors and high-quality brushed motors are comparable in efficiency.

Environments and requirements in which manufacturers use brushless-type DC motors include

maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and operation where sparking is hazardous (i.e.
explosive environments) or could affect electronically sensitive equipment.

VARIATIONS IN CONSTRUCTION

Brushless motors can be constructed in several different physical configurations: In the

'conventional' configuration, the permanent magnets are part of the rotor. Three stator windings
surround the rotor. In the outrunner (or external-rotor) configuration, the radial-relationship
between the coils and magnets is reversed; the stator coils form the center (core) of the motor,
while the permanent magnets spin within an overhanging rotor which surrounds the core. The
flat or axial flux type, used where there are space or shape limitations, uses stator and rotor
plates, mounted face to face. Outrunners typically have more poles, set up in triplets to maintain
the three groups of windings, and have a higher torque at low RPMs. In all brushless motors, the
coils are stationary.

There are two common electrical winding configurations; the delta configuration connects three
windings to each other in a triangle-like circuit, and power is applied at each of the connections.
The Wye (Y-shaped) configuration, sometimes called a star winding, connects all of the
windings to a central point and power is applied to the remaining end of each winding.
A motor with windings in delta configuration gives low torque at low speed, but can give higher
top speed. Wye configuration gives high torque at low speed, but not as high top speed.

Although efficiency is greatly affected by the motor's construction, the Wye winding is normally
more efficient. In delta-connected windings, half voltage is applied across the windings adjacent
to the driven lead (compared to the winding directly between the driven leads), increasing
resistive losses. In addition, windings can allow high-frequency parasitic electrical currents to
circulate entirely within the motor. A Wye-connected winding does not contain a closed loop in
which parasitic currents can flow, preventing such losses.

From a controller standpoint, the two styles of windings are treated exactly the same, although
some less expensive controllers are designed to read voltage from the common center of the Wye
winding.

APPLICATIONS

Brushless motors fulfill many functions originally performed by brushed DC motors, but cost
and control complexity prevents brushless motors from replacing brushed motors completely in
the lowest-cost areas. Nevertheless, brushless motors have come to dominate many applications,
particularly devices such as computer hard drives and CD/DVD players. Small cooling fans in
electronic equipment are powered exclusively by brushless motors. They can be found in
cordless power tools where the increased efficiency of the motor leads to longer periods of use
before the battery needs to be charged. Low speed, low power brushless motors are used
in direct-drive turntables for gramophone records.
Transport

High power brushless motors are found in electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles. These motors
are essentially AC synchronous motors with permanent magnet rotors.

The Segway Scooter and Vectrix Maxi-Scooter use brushless technology.

A number of electric bicycles use brushless motors that are sometimes built into the wheel hub
itself, with the stator fixed solidly to the axle and the magnets attached to and rotating with the
wheel.

Heating and ventilations

There is a trend in the HVAC and refrigeration industries to use brushless motors instead of
various types of AC motors. The most significant reason to switch to a brushless motor is the
dramatic reduction in power required to operate them versus a typical AC motor. While shaded-
pole and permanent split capacitor motors once dominated as the fan motor of choice, many fans
are now run using a brushless motor. Some fans use brushless motors also in order to increase
overall system efficiency.

In addition to the brushless motor's higher efficiency, certain HVAC systems (especially those
featuring variable-speed and/or load modulation) use brushless motors because the built-in
microprocessor allows for programmability, better control over airflow, and serial
communication.
Industrial engineering

The application of brushless DC motors within industrial engineering primarily focuses

on manufacturing engineering or industrial automation design. In manufacturing, brushless
motors are primarily used for motion control, positioning or actuation systems.

Brushless motors are ideally suited for manufacturing applications because of their high power
density, good speed-torque characteristics, high efficiency and wide speed ranges and low
maintenance. The most common uses of brushless DC motors in industrial engineering are linear
motors. servomotors, actuators for industrial robots, extruder drive motors and feed drives for
CNC machine tools.

Motion control systems

Brushless motors are commonly used as pump, fan and spindle drives in adjustable or variable
speed applications. They can develop high torque with good speed response. In addition, they
can be easily automated for remote control. Due to their construction, they have good thermal
characteristics and high energy efficiency. To obtain a variable speed response, brushless motors
operate in an electromechanical system that includes an electronic motor controller and a rotor
position feedback sensor.

Brushless dc motors are widely used as servomotors for machine tool servo drives. Servomotors
are used for mechanical displacement, positioning or precision motion control. In the past
DC stepper motors were used as servomotors; however, since they are operate with open loop
control, they typically exhibit torque pulsations.Brushless dc motors are more suitable as
servomotors since their precise motion is based upon a closed loop control system that provides
tightly controlled and stable operation.

Positioning and actuation systems

Brushless motors are used in industrial positioning and actuation applications. For assembly
robots, brushless stepper or servo motors are used to position a part for assembly or a tool for a
manufacturing process, such as welding or painting. Brushless motors can also be used to drive
linear actuators.

Actuators that produce linear motion are called linear motors. The advantage of linear motors is
that they can produce linear motion without the need of a transmission system, such as a ball-
and-lead screw, rack-and-pinion, cam, gears or belts, that would be necessary for rotary motors.
Transmission systems are known to introduce less responsiveness and reduced accuracy. Direct
drive, brushless DC linear motors consist of a slotted stator with magnetic teeth and a moving
actuator, which has permanent magnets and coil windings. To obtain linear motion, a motor
controller excites the coil windings in the actuator causing an interaction of the magnetic fields
resulting in linear motion.

Model engineering

A microprocessor-controlled BLDC motor powering a micro radio-controlled airplane.

This external rotor motor weighs 5 grams, consumes approximately 11 watts and produces thrust
of more than twice the weight of the plane.

Brushless motors are a popular motor choice for model aircraft including helicopters. Their
favorable power-to-weight ratios and large range of available sizes, from under 5 gram to large
motors rated at thousands of watts, have revolutionized the market for electric-powered model
flight, displacing virtually all brushed electric motors. They have also encouraged a growth of
simple, lightweight electric model aircraft, rather than the previous internal combustion
engines powering larger and heavier models. The large power-to-weight ratio of modern
batteries and brushless motors allows models to ascend vertically, rather than climb gradually.
The low noise and lack of mess compared to small glow fuel internal combustion engines that
are used is another reason for their popularity.

Legal restrictions for the use of combustion engine driven model aircraft in some countrieshave
also supported the shift to high-power electric systems.
RESULT
EFFICIENCY OF THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATOR

Currently, Thermoelectric Refrigerator are about 5% efficient. However, advancements in thin-

film and quantum well technologies could increase efficiency up to 15% in the future.

The efficiency of an Thermoelectric Refrigerator is governed by the thermoelectric conversion

efficiency of the materials and the thermal efficiency of the two heat exchangers. The ATEG
efficiency can be expressed as:

ζOV = ζCONV х ζHX х ρ

Where:

ζOV : The overall efficiency of the ATEG

ζCONV : Conversion efficiency of thermoelectric materials

ζHX: Efficiency of the heat exchangers

ρ : The ratio between the heat passed through thermoelectric materials to that passed from the hot
side to the cold side.
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