Republic of the philippines

Carlos Hilado Memorial State College

Talisay City, Negros Occidental

COMPOSITION AND REACTION

OF COMMON FOOD ADDITIVES

Submitted to:

Prof. Ma. Alicia A. Ciocon

Submitted by:

Meryl F. Tabara

BSIT II-C

First Semester, A.Y 2019 - 2020

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ..................................................................... 1
History .................................................................... 2-3
Classification of food additives ................................................................... 4-10
Types of food additives
Major uses of food additives
Principles for using food additives
Common food additives
Effects of food additives
Advantages and Disadvantages of food additives

INTRODUCTION

food additive is any substance added to food. Legally, the term refers to any substance the
intended use which results or may reasonably be expected to result-directly or indirectly-in its
becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food. This definition
includes any substance used in the production, processing, treatment, packaging, transportation
or storage of food. Food additives are also substances added to food to preserve flavor or
enhance its taste and appearance. Food additives can be used directly or indirectly. Direct
additives are those that are intentionally added to foods for a specific purpose while indirect
additives are those to which the food is exposed during processing, packaging, or storing (Boca
Raton and Smoley, 1993). If a substance is added to a food for a specific purpose, it is referred to
as a direct additive. For example, the low-calorie sweetener aspartame, which is used in
beverages, puddings, yoghurt, chewing gum and other foods, is considered a direct additive.
Many direct additives are identified on the ingredient label of foods. Indirect food additives are
those that become part of the food in trace amounts during packaging, storage or handling. For
examples some colourants like erythrosine (red), cantaxanthin (orange) and annatto bixine
(yellow orange) gives an appealing look to foods that attracts consumers to them even though
they don’t add nutrient to the food. Since prehistoric times, chemicals have been added to
foods to perform special functions. Although basic foods contain no additives, as foods are
processed for conversion into a variety of products, an increasing number of additives are
generally used. Technological advances in food processing have increased the variety and use of
these additives. Today, more than 2500 different additives are intentionally added to foods to
produce a desired effect. The use of these additives is a well-accepted practice but is not
without controversy. In this chapter, we explore some of the major benefits and risks of using
additives. In subsequent chapters, each category of additives and some of the benefits and
potential risks are explored in more detail.

HISTORY

Study of every ancient civilization clearly shows that throughout history humans overcame
hunger and disease, not only by harvesting food from a cultivated land but also by processing it
with sophisticated methods. For example, the three most important foods in Ancient Greece-
bread, olive oil, and wine-were all products of complicated processing that transformed
perishable, unpalatable, or hardly edible raw materials into safe, flavorful, nutritious, stable,
and enjoyable foods (Floros, 2004). Historically, there is a strong tradition of adding ingredients
or substances to foods to perform a specific function. The first records of these ‘additives’ can
be traced back to Ancient Egyptian papyri circa 1500 BC, which illustrate the use of spices in
foods to flavor and make them more appealing (Marmion,1991); the Egyptians were also
responsible for improving the bread-making process by adding yeast from brewing beer to allow
the bread to rise (Belderok, 2000). Spices and herbs have been used as food additives since
ancient times, as flavoring agents but also as natural food preservatives. A number of spices
show antimicrobial activity against different types of microorganisms (Marija and Nevena,
2009). Egyptian papyruses showed that coriander and castor oil were useful for medicinal
applications, cosmetics and preservatives through thousands of recipes (Vinatoru, 2001).Color,
in one form or another, has been added to our foods for centuries. It is known that the
Egyptians coloured candy, and wine was coloured as long ago as 400 BC. The earliest record on
the use of natural dyes was found in China, dated 2600 BC. Dyeing was known in the Indus
Valley period as early as 2500 BC. Saffron is mentioned in the Bible and henna was used even
before 2500 BC (Gulrajani, 2001). Use of natural pigments in food is known from Japan in the
shosointext of the Nara period (8th century) which contains references tocolored soybean and
adzuki-bean cakes, so it appears that colored processed foods had been taken at least by people
of some sections. Thus, studies on natural pigments are greatly impulsed by their multiple
functions (Newsome, 1986). The art of coloring spread widely with the advancement of
civilization (Krishnamurthy et al., 2002).Back in the 1800s, food additives were intentionally
used for food adulteration. This practice was widespread due to the centralization of food
processing, decline of personal accountability, birth of analytical chemistry, and inadequate
governmental regulation. The consequence of such uncontrolled tampering of food led to a
serious worldwide problem with concern about food quality rising gradually. In 1920, the
availability of effective methods for food analysis, together with regulatory pressures, started to
reduce the significance of this problem. In the middle of the 20th century, processed food
became an important part of human nutrition, and legal chemical additives became increasingly
prevalent in them, fostering tight regulation, which still remains controversial due to the high
number of studies concerning food additives that produce

conflicting results and different interpretations by governments (Fennema, 1987).

 CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD ADDITIVES

Antimicrobial agents

These prevent spoilage of food bymicroorganisms. These include not only vinegar and salt,
butalso compounds such as calcium propionate and sorbic acid,which are used in products such
as baked foods, salad dressings, cheeses, margarines, and pickled foods (Abdulmumeen et al.,
2012).

Antioxidants
An anti-oxidant is a substance added to fats and fat-containing substances to retard oxidation
and thereby prolong their wholesomeness, palatability, and, sometimes, keeping time. An anti-
oxidant should not contribute an objectionable odour, flavour, or colour, to the fat or to the
food in which it is present. It should be effective in low concentrations, and be fat soluble. Also,
it should not have a harmful physiological effect. Some anti-oxidants used in foods are butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), propyl gallate (PG), and teriarybutyl
hydroquinone (TBHQ), which are all phenolic substances (Dalton, 2002). Thiodipropionic acid
and dilauryl thiodipropionate are also used as food anti-oxidants. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert
Committee on Food Additives has recently considered the Acceptable Daily Intakes (ADls) of
BHA and BHT and set them at 0-0.5 mg/kg body weight for BHA and 0-0.3 mg/kg body weight
for BHT. Naturally occurring substances that act as anti-oxidants are tocopherols. The
tocopherols act as biological anti-oxidants in plant and animal tissues, but they are rarely used
as additives because they are more expensive than synthetic anti-oxidants (Sunitha and Preethi,
2000).

Colouring Agents

These include colour stabilizers, colour fixatives, colour retention agents, etc. They consist of
synthetic colours and those from natural sources. Even though most colours do not add any
nutritive value to foods, without certain colours most consumers will not buy or eat some foods.
Thus, colours are frequently added to restore the natural ones lost in food processing or to give
the preparations the natural colour we expect. A number of natural food colours extracted from
seeds, flowers, insects, and foods, are also used as food additives. One of the best known and
most widespread red pigments is bixin, derived from the seed coat of Bixa orellana, the lipstick
pod plant of South American origin. Bixin is not considered to be carcinogenic. The major use of
this plant on a world-wide basis, however, is for the annatto dye, a yellow to red colouring
material extracted from the orange-red pulp of the seeds. Annatto has been used as colouring
matter in butter, cheese, margarine, and other foods. Another yellow colour, a carotene derived
from carrot, is used in margarine. Saffron has both flavouring and colouring properties and has
been used for colouring foods. Turmeric is a spice that gives the characteristic colour of curries
and some meat products and salad dressings. A natural red colour, cochineal (or carnum)
obtained by extraction from the female insect (Coccus cacti), grape skin extract, and caramel,
the brown colour obtained from burnt sugar, are some natural colours that are used as food
additives. These are intended tomake food more appealing and to provide certain foods witha
colour that humans associate with a particular flavour (e.g) red for cherry, green for lime). Some
examples of food colourants are; erythrosine, carmosine (McCann et al., 2007). Colour additives
are recognized as an important part of many foods we eat (Barrows et al., 2003).

Bleaching agents
These are peroxides, which are used towhiten foods such as wheat flour and cheese (Boca and
Smoley, 1993).

Chelating agents

Chelating agents are not anti-oxidants. They serve as scavengers of metals which catalyze
oxidation. Recommended usage levels for citric acid typically vary between 0.1 and 0.3 per cent
with the appropriate anti-oxidant at levels ranging between 100 and 200 ppm). EDTA is a
chelating agent permitted for use in the food industry as a chemical preservative. Calcium
disodium EDTA and disodium EDTA have been approved for use as food additives by the United
States Food and Drug Administration. The chelating agents are used to prevent discolouration,
flavour changes, andrancidity that might occur during the processing of foods,examples include
citric acid, malic acid, and tartaric acid (Sunitha and Preethi, 2000).Nutrient Supplements:
Nutrient supplements restore values lost in processing or storage, or ensure higher nutritional
value than what nature may have provided. When foods are processed, there may be loss of
some nutrients and additives may be added to restore the original value. For example, to
produce white flour, wheat is milled in such a way as to remove the brown coloured part of the
grain, which is rich in vitamins and minerals. To restore the nutritive value, thiamine, nicotinic
acid, iron and calcium, are added to the flour. Similarly, vitamin C is added to canned citrus fruits
to make up the loss of the vitamin during processing (Sunitha and Preethi, 2000).

Acids

Food acids are added to make flavors “sharper”, and also act as preservatives and antioxidants.
Common food acids include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic
acid.

Preservatives

A preservative is defined as any substance which is capable of inhibiting, retarding, or arresting,

the growth of micro-organisms, of any deterioration of food due to micro-organisms, or of
masking the evidence of any such deterioration. It is estimated that nearly one fifth of the
world’s food is lost by microbial spoilage. Chemical preservatives interfere with the cell
membrane of micro-organisms, their enzymes, or their genetic mechanisms. The compounds
used as preservatives include natural preservatives, such as sugar, salt, acids, etc, as well as
synthetic preservatives. The safe-use period of many foods is greatly extended through the
addition of preservatives, which retard spoilage, preserve flavour and colour and keep oils from
turning rancid. Preservatives protect foods, such as cured meats, from developing dangerous
toxins, such as botulism, a food poisoning illness (Sunitha and Preethi, 2000).

pH Control Agents
These include acids, alkalis and buffers. They not only control the pH of foods but also affect a
number of food properties such as flavor, texture, and cooking qualities. They are also used to
change or otherwise control the acidity and alkalinity of foods (Abdulmumeen et al., 2012).

Anti-caking Agents

Anti-caking agents help prevent particles from adhering to each other and turning into a solid
chunk during damp weather. They help free flowing of salt and other powders. They also help to
keep powders such as milkpowder from caking or sticking.

Leavening Agents

Leavening agents produce light fluffy baked goods. Originally, yeast was used almost exclusively
to leaven baked products. It is still an important leavening agent in bread making. When yeast is
used, ammonium salts are added to dough to provide a ready source of nitrogen for yeast
growth. Phosphate salts (sodium phosphate, calcium phosphate) are added to aid in control of
pH (Abdulmumeen et al., 2012).

Antifoaming agents

Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods (Abdulmumeen et al., 2012).

Bulking agents

Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its
nutritional value (Abdulmumeen et al., 2012).

Colour retention agents

In contrast to colouring agents, colour retention agents are used to preserve a food’s
existingcolour (Abdulmumeen et al., 2012).

Emulsifiers

Emulsifiers are a group of substances used to obtain a stable mixture of liquids that otherwise
would not or would separate quickly. They also stabilize gas-in-liquid and gas –in-solid mixtures.
They are widely used in dairy and confectionery products to disperse tiny globules of an oil or
fatty liquid in water. Emulsifying agents are also added to margarine, salad dressings, and
shortenings. Peanut butter contains up to 10 per cent emulsifiers. Emulsifiers also allowwater
and oil to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as inmayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized
milk (Sunitha and Preethi, 2000).

Flavours and Flavour enhancers

Flavouring additives are the ingredients, both naturally occurring that when added, gives the
characteristic flavour to almost all the foods in our diet. Flavour enhancers are not flavours
themselve but they amplify the flavours of other substance through a synergistic effect. Flavour
and flavour enhancers constitute the largest class of food additives. Natural flavours are
substances, such as spices, herbs, roots, and essential oils, have been used in the past as flavour
additives. The flavours are in short supply and the amount of flavour substances in them is very
tiny. It would take about tonne of many spices to produce 1 g of the flavour substances, and in
some cases only 0.1g can be extracted. Natural food flavours are thus being replaced by
synthetic flavour materials. The agents responsible for flavour are esters, aldehydes, ketones,
alcohols, and ethers. These substances are easily synthesized and can be easily substituted for
natural ones. Typical of the synthetic flavour additives are amyl acetate for banana, methyl
anthranilate for grapes, ethyl butyrate for pineapple, etc. Generally, most synthetic flavours are
mixtures of a number of different substances. For example, one imitation cherry flavour
contains fifteen different esters, alcohols, and aldehydes. One of the best known, most widely
used and somewhat controversial flavour enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG), the
sodium salt of the naturally occurring amino acid glutamic acid which can be produced by the
bacteria Corynebacterium glutanicum. Professor Kikunae Ikeda from the imperial university
isolated glutamic acid as a new taste substance in 1908 from the seaweed Laminaria japonica,
Kombu by aqueous extraction and crystallization and named it “umani” (Lindernann, 2002). He
named this product monosodium glutamate and submitted a patent to produce MSG (Ikeda,
1908). Suzuki brothers started the first commercial production of MSG in 1909 as AjiNo-Moto
meaning “essence to taste” in English (Chiaki, 2009; Yamaguchi, 1998 and Kurihara, 2009). MSG
is now manufactured on a large scale all over the world, and especially in Japan with several
trade names as Ac’cent, AjiNo-Moto and Vetsin. As a flovour and in the right amount, MSG can
enhance other taste-active compounds, improving the overall taste of certain foods. MSG mixes
well with meat, fish, poultry, many vegetable, sauces, soups and marinades. Since MSG mixes
well with many foods, it can also increase the overall preference of certain foods like beef
consommé (Yamaguchi, 1991). MSG is generally recognized as safe. However, it was reported
some time back that MSG injected to young mice resulted in brain damage. Also, some
individuals experience symptoms often comparable to those of heart attack, when served with
food containing large amounts of MSG. The matter has now been thoroughly investigated, and
it has been concluded that there is no risk in its use. However, MSG which was being added to
baby foods is now discontinued, as its benefits to babies are dubious. Flavour enhancers
enhance a food’s existingflavours. They may be extracted from natural sources (through
distillation, solvent extraction, maceration, among other methods) or created artificially
(Sunitha and Preethi, 2000).

Flour Improvers:
These are bleaching and maturing agents; usually, they both bleach and “mature” the flour.
These are important in the flour milling and bread-baking industries. Freshly milled flour has a
yellowish tint and yields weak dough that produces poor bread. Both the colour and baking
properties improve by storing the flour for several months before making bread. Chemical
agents used as flour improvers are oxidizing agents, which may participate in bleaching only, in
both bleaching and dough improvement, or in dough improvement only. The agent that is used
only for flour bleaching is benzoyl peroxide ((C6H5CO)2O2).This does not influence the quality
of dough. Materials used both for bleaching and improving are chlorine gas, (Cl2); chlorine
dioxide, (CIO2); nitrosyl chloride, (NOCI); and nitrogen di and tetra oxides, (NO2 and N2O4).
Oxidizing agents used only for dough improvement are potassium bromate, (KBrO3); potassium
iodate, (KIO3); Calcium iodate, [Ca(IO3)2]; and calcium peroxide, (CaO2) (Sunitha and Preethi,
2000).

Glazing agents

Glazing agents provide a shiny appearance or protective coating to foods (Abdulmumeen et al.,
2012).

Humectants

Humectants are moisture retention agents. Their functions in foods include control of viscosity
and texture, bulking, retention of moisture, reduction of water activity, control of crystallization,
and improvement or retention of softness. They also help improve the rehydration of
dehydrated food and solubilization of flavour compounds. Polyhydroxy alcohols are water
soluble, hygroscopic materials which exhibit moderate viscosities at high concentrations in
water and are used as humectants in foods. Some of them are propylene glycol
(CH3.CHOH.CH2OH), glycerol, and sorbitol and mannitol [CH2OH (CHOH)4CH2OH]. Polyhydric
alcohols are sugar derivatives and most of them, except propylene glycol, occur naturally
(Sunitha and Preethi, 2000).

Tracer gas:

Tracer gas allows for package integrity testing preventing foods from being exposed to
atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life (Abdulmumeen et al., 2012).

Stabilizers and Thickeners:

These compounds function to improve and stabilize the texture of foods, inhibit crystallization
(sugar, ice), stabilize emulsions and foams, reduce the stickiness of icings on baked products,
and encapsulate flavours. Substances used as stabilizers and thickeners are polysaccharides,
such as gum Arabic, carrageenan, agar-agar, alginic acids, starch and its derivatives, carboxy
methylcellulose and pectin. Gelatin is one noncarbohydrate material used extensively for this
purpose. Stabilizers and thickeners are hydrophilic and are dispersed in solution as colloids.
These swell in hot or even cold water and help thicken food. Gravies, pie fillings, cake toppings,
chocolate milk drinks, jellies, puddings and salad dressings, are some among the many foods
that contain stabilizers and thickeners. Thickeners are added to the mixture; increase its
viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties (Czarra, 2009).

Sweeteners

Sweeteners are added to foods for flavouring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep
the food energy (calories) low and they are usually recommended for diabetes mellitus, tooth
decay and diarrhea patients so that the sugar levels in them will not be elevated (Abdulmumeen
et al., 2012). Artificial flavours and flavour enhancers: These are thelargest class of additives; its
function is to make food taste better, or to give them a specific taste. Examples are salt, sugar,
and vanilla, which are used to complement the flavour of certain foods. Synthetic flavouring
agents, such as benzaldehyde for cherry or almond flavour, may be used to simulate natural
flavours. Flavour enhancers, such as monosodium glutamate (MSG) help to intensify the flavour
of other compounds in a food (Sunitha and Preethi, 2000).

Curing Agents

These are additives used to preserve (cure) meats. They give them desirable colours and
flavours, discourage the growth of microorganisms, and prevent toxin formation. Sodium nitrite
has been used for centuries as a preservative and colour stabilizer in meat and fish products.
The nitrite, when added to meat, gets converted to nitric oxide, which combines with myoglobin
to form nitric oxide myoglobin (nitrosyl myoglobin), which is a heat-stable pigment. The curing
also contributes flavour to the meat. In addition, nitrite curing inhibits the growth of Clostridium
and Streptococcus, and also lowers the temperature required to kill Clostridium botulinum
(Abdulmumeen et al., 2012).

Other Additives

There are a number of food additives that provide functions other than those indicated above.
Clarifying agents like bentonite, gelatins, synthetic resins (polyamides and poly vinyl
pyrrolidone) are used to remove haziness or sediments and oxidative deterioration products in
fruit juices, beers and wines. Enzymes are added to bring about desirable changes; rennin for
producing curd and cheese, papain for tenderizing meat, and pectinase for clarifying beverages.
Firming agents like aluminium sulphates and calcium slats are used to keep the tissues of fruits
and vegetables crisp. Freezing agents like liquid nitrogen and dichloro fluoro methane, which
are extremely volatile and rapidly evaporate at ordinary temperatures, are used to chill foods.
Solvents like alcohol, propylene glycol and glycerine are used to dissolve suspended flavours,
colours, and many other ingredients. Packing gases, such as inert gases like Helium, Neon are
added to packets of instant foods to prevent oxidative and many other changes (Sunitha and
Preethi, 2000).

TYPES OF ADDITIVES

Preservatives

There are basically three types of preservatives used in foods: antimicrobials, antioxidants, and
antibrowning agents. These additives are grouped under the category of preservatives in the
INS system. The antimicrobials, with E and INS numbers ranging from 200 to 290, are used to
check or prevent the growth of microorganisms. In addition, the book Antimicrobials in Foods
(Davidson and Branen, 1993) gives a complete treatment of these additives. Antimicrobials play
a major role in extending the shelf-life of numerous snack and convenience foods and have
come into even greater use in recent years as microbial food safety concerns have in creased.
The antioxidants (INS 300–326 and E300–E326), are used to prevent lipid and/or vitamin
oxidation in food products. They are used primarily to prevent autoxidation and subsequent
development of rancidity and off-flavor. They vary from natural substances such as vitamins C
and E to synthetic chemicals such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT). The antioxidants are especially useful in preserving dry and frozen foods
for an extended period of time. Antibrowning agents are chemicals used to prevent both
enzymatic and nonenzymatic browning in food products, especially dried fruits or vegetables.
Vitamin C (E300), citric acid (E330), and sodium sulfite (E221) are the most commonly used
additives in this category. These additives are classified as either antioxidants or preservatives in
the INS system, but retain the same numbers as in the E system without the E.

Nutritional Additives
Nutritional additives have increased in use in recent years as consumers have become more
concerned about and interested in nutrition. Because of this increased interest, this edition
includes four chapters devoted to nutritional additives as well as additives used for special
dietary purposes. Chapter 9 provides detailed coverage of the primary nutritional additives,
vitamins, and minerals, while Chapters 10, 11, and 12 highlight the food additives used for
special dietary purposes. The nutritional additives are not included as a functional class within
the INS or E numbering system, although several of the additives are included under other
functional classes and as expected serve several functions in these products. Vitamins, which as
indicated above are also used in some cases as preservatives, are commonly added to cereals
and cereal products to restore nutrients lost in processing or to enhance the overall nutritive
value of the food. The addition of vitamin D to milk and of B vitamins to bread has been
associated with the prevention of major nutritional deficiencies in the United States. Minerals
such as iron and iodine have also been of extreme value in preventing nutritional deficiencies.
Like vitamins, the primary use of minerals is in cereal products. Amino acids and other
proteinaceous materials are not commonly used in foods. However, lysine is sometimes added
to cereals to enhance protein quality. Proteins or proteinaceous materials such as soya protein
are also sometimes used as nutritional additives, although they are most commonly used as
texturizing agents. Fiber additives have seen increased popularity in recent years with the
increase in consumer interest in dietary fiber. Various cellulose, pectin, and starch derivatives
have been used for this purpose. Recently, naturally derived fiber from apples and other fruits
as well as sugarbeets has been introduced as a fiber additive. Fiber additives are not well
defined and in reality have little or no direct nutritional value, although they do have indirect
nutritional benefits. In some cases, fiber additives also provide improved texture to food
products and are categorized in the INS and E system as bulking agents, thickeners, or
stabilizers. The number of food additives used for special dietary purposes has increased
significantly in recent years with an emphasis on the replacement of fat to reduce calories.
United States food processors use more than 16 billion pounds of fat each year (Anonymous,
1995), and the fat replacement industry grew rapidly in the 1990s, although it appears to have
peaked in recent years, and the growth of this sector has subsided (Sloan, 1997). Fat replacers
include many texturizing agents and, include carbohydrate-, protein-, and fat-based systems.
The increased interest in nutrition has also led to the rapid growth of the functional food or
nutraceutical industry with the development of several additives for the purpose of enhancing
overall health.

Coloring Agents

Most coloring agents are used to improve the overall attractiveness of the food. A number of
natural and synthetic additives are used to color foods. In addition, sodium nitrite is used not
only as an antimicrobial, but also to fix the color of meat by interaction with meat pigments.
The colors are included in the E system as E100–E180 and in the INS as 100–182. As indicated in
the review of coloring agents there has been much controversy regarding their use. Although
synthetic coloring agents continue to be used extensively, there has been significant increased
interest in natural colorants.

Flavoring AgentsFlavoring agents comprise the greatest number of additives used in foods.
There are three major types of flavoring additives: sweeteners, natural and synthetic flavors,
and flavor enhancers. The most commonly used sweeteners are sucrose, glucose, fructose, and
lactose, with sucrose being the most popular. These substances, however, are commonly
classified as foods rather than as additives. The most common additives used as sweeteners are
low calorie or noncaloric sweeteners such as saccharin and

aspartame. These sweeteners, have had a major impact on the development of new foods. In
addition to sweeteners, there are more than 1700 natural and synthetic substances used to
flavor foods. These additives are, in most cases, mixtures of several chemicals and are used to
substitute for natural flavors. In most cases, flavoring agents are the same chemical mixtures
that would naturally provide the flavor. The acidulants, which add a sour taste, often serve other
purposes, including preservation. Flavor enhancers (INS 620–642 and E620–E640) magnify or
modify the flavor of foods and do not contribute any flavor of their own. Flavor enhancers,
which include chemicals such as monosodium glutamate (E621) and various nucleotides (E626–
E635), are often used in Asian foods or in soups to enhance the perception of other tastes.

Texturizing Agents

Although flavoring agents comprise the greatest number of chemicals, texturizing agents are
used in the greatest total quantity. These agents are used to add to or modify the overall texture
or mouthfeel of food products. Emulsifiers and stabilizers are the primary additives in this
category. Phosphates and dough conditioners are other chemicals that play a major role in
modifying food texture. Phosphates are some of the most widely used and serve a number of
functions in foods. Emulsifiers (INS 429–496 and, primarily, E431 and E495) include natural
substances such as lecithin (INS 322 and E322) and mono- and diglycerides as well as several
synthetic derivatives. The primary role of these agents is to allow flavors and oils to be
dispersed throughout a food product. Stabilizers include several natural gums such as
carrageenan as well as natural and modified starches. These additives have been used for
several years to provide the desired texture in products such as ice cream and are now also
finding use in both dry and liquid products. They also are used to prevent evaporation and
deterioration of volatile flavor oils. Phosphates (E338–E343) are often used to modify the
texture of foods containing protein or starch. These chemicals are especially useful in stabilizing
various dairy and meat products. The phosphates apparently react with protein and/or starch
and modify the water-holding capacity of these natural food components. Dough conditioners
such as steroyl-2-lactylate and various humectants such as sodium silicoaluminate are also used
as texturizing agents under very specific conditions.

Miscellaneous Additives

There are numerous other chemicals used in food products for specific yet limited purposes.
Included are various processing aids such as chelating agents, enzymes, and anti-foaming
agents; surface finishing agents; catalysts; and various solvent, lubricants, and propellants.

MAJOR USES OF FOOD ADDITIVES

Preservation

One of the main functions of additives is to preserve food. Without the addition of these
additives, products would spoil at a more accelerated rate than would be expected by the
consumer. In order to achieve "freshness," additives are added to ensure that bread does not
arrive at the grocery store moldy or that milk does not have sour or off-flavors. Preservatives
used to control microbial growth include organic acids and their salts, sulfites, nitrites,
parabens, and others.

Enrichment

Enriching foods with nutrients is another function of food additives. Nutrients are added in
amounts that do not exceed those found in the food before processing. Cereal products are a
prime example of an enriched food to restore the original amount of nutrients prior to
processing. Bread is another example in which the B-complex vitamins of thiamine (B1),
riboflavin (B2) and niacin (B3) are added to ensure proper proportions of these nutrients are
present in the final product.

Color Improvement

The color of food may be natural or artificial. Natural plant pigments - such as carotene,
chlorophyll, and lycopene - help impart hues of orange, green and red, respectively. Without
adding vegetable dye, Cheddar cheese would not have its orange color. Animal pigments,
including myoglobin and heme, exist and serve to incorporate color in products such as meat.
There are many sources of naturally occurring colors, but many are not cost-effective. The use of
artificial colors may be more economical. Synthetic colors generally excel in coloring power,
color uniformity and color stability.

Improvement in Flavor

Flavoring agents are both natural and synthetic compounds to add flavor to food products.
Examples of natural flavors include plant extracts, essential oils, herbs, spices and others. A
variety of synthetic flavor additives are also available. Examples of synthetic flavors include
methyl salicylate and benzaldehyde which give wintergreen and cherry flavoring, respectively.

Altering Texture

Modifying recipes can be a challenging project. Replacing ingredients to reduce fat and calories,
for example, can drastically change the texture, mouth-feel and other sensory properties. The
food manufacturer utilizes countless approved ingredients and chemicals to help modify
texture. A simple compound, such as sucrose or table sugar, can be used in varying
concentrations to achieve a variety of results. Sugar can affect a product based on its
concentration. A dilute sugar solution adds body and mouthfeel to soft drinks, while a higher
concentration will crystallize and add brittleness to hard candies.

Preparation Aid

Some food additives make food processing easier. Chemical defoamers, for example, may be
used to minimize foaming in foods high in fat content. This problem can sometimes be
controlled by making processing changes or by using mechanical defoaming equipment.
 PRINCIPLES FOR USING FOOD ADDITIVES

1. The food additives being used should present no risk to the health of the consumer at the
levels of use.

2. The use of food additives is justified only when such use has an advantage, does not present
a hazard to health of and does not deceive the consumer, as well as serves one or more of the
following technological functions and needs, and only where these objectives cannot be
achieved by other means which are economically and technologically practicable –

a. to preserve the nutritional quality of the food;

b. to provide necessary constituents for foods manufactured for groups of consumers having
special dietary needs;

c. to enhance the keeping quality or stability of a food or to improve its organoleptic properties;

d. to provide aids in the processing, packaging, transport or storage of food, provided that the
additive is not used to disguise the effects of the use of faulty raw materials or of undesirable
(including unhygienic) practices of techniques during the course of any of these activities.

3. All food additives shall be used under conditions of good manufacturing practice (GMP)
which include the following –

a. the quantity of the additive added to food shall be limited to the lowest possible level
necessary to accomplish its desired effect;

b. the quantity of the additive that becomes a component of food as a result of its use in the
manufacturing, processing or packaging of a food and which is not intended to accomplish any
physical, or other technical effect in the food itself, is reduced to the extent reasonably possible;
and

c. the additive is prepared and handled in the same way as a food ingredient.
 COMMON FOOD ADDITIVES

1. Monosodium Glutamate (MSG)

Monosodium glutamate, or MSG, is a common food additive used to intensify and enhance the
flavor of savory dishes. It’s found in a variety of processed foods like frozen dinners, salty snacks
and canned soups. It’s also often added to foods at restaurants and fast food places. MSG has
been a subject of heated controversy since a 1969 study of mice found that large amounts
caused harmful neurological effects and impaired growth and development. However, this
additive is likely to have little to no effect on human brain health as it’s unable to cross the
blood-brain barrier. MSG consumption has also been associated with weight gain and metabolic
syndrome in some observational studies, although other research has found no association.
That being said, some people do have a sensitivity to MSG and may experience symptoms like
headaches, sweating and numbness after eating a large amount. In one study, 61 people who
reported being MSG-sensitive were given either 5 grams of MSG or a placebo. Interestingly, 36%
experienced an adverse reaction to MSG while only 25% reported a reaction to the placebo, so
MSG sensitivity may be a legitimate concern for some people. If you experience any negative
side effects after consuming MSG, it’s best to keep it out of your diet. Otherwise, if you’re able
to tolerate MSG, it can be safely consumed in moderation without the risk of adverse side
effects.

2. Artificial Food Coloring

Artificial food coloring is used to brighten and improve the appearance of everything from
candies to condiments. In recent years, though, there have been many concerns about potential
health effects. Specific food dyes like Blue 1, Red 40, Yellow 5 and Yellow 6 have been associated
with allergic reactions in some people. Additionally, one review reported that artificial food
coloring may promote hyperactivity in children, although another study showed that some
children may be more sensitive than others. Concerns have also been raised about the potential
cancer-causing effects of certain food dyes. Red 3, also known as erythrosine, has been shown
to increase the risk of thyroid tumors in some animal studies, causing it to be replaced by Red
40 in most foods. However, multiple animal studies have found that other food dyes are not
associated with any cancer-causing effects (12Trusted Source, 13Trusted Source). Still, more
research is needed to evaluate the safety and potential health effects of artificial food coloring
for humans. Regardless, food dyes are found primarily in processed foods, which should be
limited in a healthy diet. Always opt for whole foods, which are higher

in important nutrients and naturally free of artificial food coloring.

3. Sodium Nitrite

Frequently found in processed meats, sodium nitrite acts as a preservative to prevent the
growth of bacteria while also adding a salty flavor and reddish-pink color. When exposed to high
heat and in the presence of amino acids, nitrites can turn into nitrosamine, a compound that
can have many negative effects on health. One review showed that a higher intake of nitrites
and nitrosamine was associated with a higher risk of stomach cancer. Many other studies have
found a similar association, reporting that a higher intake of processed meats may be linked to a
higher risk of colorectal, breast and bladder cancer. Other studies suggest that nitrosamine
exposure may also be linked to a higher incidence of type 1 diabetes, although findings are
inconsistent. Still, it’s best to keep your intake of sodium nitrite and processed meats to a
minimum. Try swapping out processed meats like bacon, sausage, hot dogs and ham for
unprocessed meat and healthy sources of protein. Chicken, beef, fish, pork, legumes, nuts, eggs
and tempeh are just a few delicious high-protein foods that you can add to your diet in place of
processed meats.

4. Guar Gum

Guar gum is a long-chain carbohydrate used to thicken and bind foods. It’s widely used in the
food industry and can be found in ice cream, salad dressings, sauces and soups. Guar gum is
high in fiber and has been associated with a multitude of health benefits. For example, one
study showed that it reduced symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome such as bloating and
constipation. A review of three studies also found that people who took guar gum along with a
meal had increased feelings of fullness and ate fewer calories from snacking throughout the day.
Other research suggests that guar gum may also help lower levels of blood sugar and
cholesterol. However, high amounts of guar gum may have adverse effects on health. This is
because it can swell 10 to 20 times its size, potentially causing issues like obstruction of the
esophagus or small intestine. Guar gum may also cause mild symptoms like gas, bloating or
cramps in some people (24Trusted Source). Nevertheless, guar gum is generally considered safe
in moderation. Additionally, the FDA has set strict guidelines on how much guar gum can be
added to foods to minimize the risk of negative side effects.

5. High-Fructose Corn Syrup

High-fructose corn syrup is a sweetener made from corn. It’s frequently found in soda, juice,
candy, breakfast cereals and snack foods. It’s rich in a type of simple sugar called fructose, which
can cause serious health issues when consumed in high amounts. In

particular, high-fructose corn syrup has been linked to weight gain and diabetes. In one study,
32 people consumed a drink sweetened with either glucose or fructose for 10 weeks. By the
end of the study, the fructose-sweetened beverage caused significant increases in belly fat and
blood sugar levels, plus decreased insulin sensitivity compared to the glucose-sweetened
beverage. Test-tube and animal studies have also found that fructose can trigger inflammation
in the cells. Inflammation is believed to play a central role in many chronic conditions, including
heart disease, cancer and diabetes. Additionally, high-fructose corn syrup contributes empty
calories and added sugar to foods without any of the important vitamins and minerals that your
body needs. It’s best to skip sugary snacks and foods that contain high-fructose corn syrup.
Instead, go for whole, unprocessed foods without added sugar, and sweeten them up with
Stevia, yacon syrup or fresh fruit.

6. Artificial Sweeteners

Artificial sweeteners are used in many diet foods and beverages to enhance sweetness while
reducing calorie content. Common types of artificial sweeteners include aspartame, sucralose,
saccharin and acesulfame potassium. Studies show that artificial sweeteners can aid in weight
loss and help manage blood sugar levels. One study found that people who consumed a
supplement containing artificial sweeteners for 10 weeks had a lower intake of calories and
gained less body fat and weight than those consuming regular sugar. Another study showed that
consuming sucralose for three months had no effect on blood sugar control in 128 people with
diabetes. Note that certain types of artificial sweeteners like aspartame may cause headaches in
some people, and studies show that certain individuals may be more sensitive to its effects. Still,
artificial sweeteners are generally considered safe for most people when consumed in
moderation. However, if you experience any negative side effects after using artificial
sweeteners, check ingredients labels carefully and limit your intake.

7. Carrageenan

Derived from red seaweed, carrageenan acts as a thickener, emulsifier and preservative in many
different food products. Common sources of carrageenan include almond milk, cottage cheese,
ice cream, coffee creamers and dairy-free products like vegan cheese. For decades, there have
been concerns about the safety of this common food additive and its potential effects on
health. One animal study showed that exposure to carrageenan increased levels of fasting blood
sugar and glucose intolerance, especially when combined with a high-fat diet. Test-tube and
animal studies have found that carrageenan triggered inflammation, as well. Carrageenan is also
believed to negatively impact digestive health, and may be associated with the formation of
intestinal ulcers

and growth. One small study found that when people in remission from ulcerative colitis took a
supplement containing carrageenan, they experienced an earlier relapse than those who took a
placebo. Unfortunately, current research on the effects of carrageenan is still very limited and
more studies are needed to understand how it may affect people. If you do decide to limit your
intake of carrageenan, there are plenty of resources online that can help you find brands and
products that are carrageenan-free.

8. Sodium Benzoate

Sodium benzoate is a preservative often added to carbonated drinks and acidic foods like salad
dressings, pickles, fruit juices and condiments. It has been generally recognized as safe by the
FDA, but several studies have uncovered potential side effects that should be considered. For
example, one study found that combining sodium benzoate with artificial food coloring
increased hyperactivity in 3-year-old children. Another study showed that a higher intake of
beverages containing sodium benzoate was associated with more symptoms of ADHD in 475
college students. When combined with vitamin C, sodium benzoate can also be converted into a
benzene, a compound that may be associated with cancer development. Carbonated beverages
contain the highest concentration of benzene, and diet or sugar-free beverages are even more
prone to benzene formation. One study analyzing the concentration of benzene in a variety of
foods found cola and cole slaw samples with over 100 ppb of benzene, which is over 20 times
the maximum contaminant level set by the EPA for drinking water. To minimize your intake of
sodium benzoate, check the labels of your food carefully. Avoid foods that contain ingredients
like benzoic acid, benzene or benzoate, especially if combined with a source of vitamin C such as
citric acid or ascorbic acid.

9. Trans Fat

Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat that have undergone hydrogenation, which increases
shelf life and improves the consistency of products. It can be found in many types of processed
foods like baked goods, margarine, microwave popcorn and biscuits. A number of potential
health risks have been associated with trans fat intake, and the FDA even recently decided to
revoke their GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status. In particular, multiple studies have
linked a higher intake of trans fats to a higher risk of heart disease. One study found that eating
foods high in trans fats increased several markers of inflammation, which is one of the major
risk factors for heart disease. Research also shows there may be a connection between trans
fats and diabetes. A large study with 84,941 women even showed that a high intake of trans fat
was associated with a 40% higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Cutting processed foods
out of your diet is the easiest and most effective way to decrease your trans fat

intake. You can also make a few simple switches in your diet, like using butter instead of
margarine and swapping out vegetable oils for olive oil or coconut oil instead.

10. Xanthan Gum

Xanthan gum is a common additive that’s used to thicken and stabilize many types of food such
as salad dressings, soups, syrups and sauces. It’s also sometimes used in gluten-free recipes to
help improve the texture of foods. Xanthan gum has been associated with several health
benefits. One study found that consuming rice with added xanthan gum resulted in lower levels
of blood sugar than consuming rice without it. Another study also found that eating xanthan
gum for six weeks reduced levels of blood sugar and cholesterol, plus increased feelings of
fullness. However, recent research on the potential benefits of xanthan gum is still limited.
Furthermore, consuming large amounts of xanthan gum may also be linked to digestive
problems, such as increased stool output, gas and soft stools. For most people, though, xanthan
gum is generally safe and well tolerated. If you do experience negative symptoms after eating
xanthan gum, it’s best to reduce your intake or consider eliminating it from your diet.

11. Artificial Flavoring

Artificial flavors are chemicals designed to mimic the taste of other ingredients. They can be
used to imitate a variety of different flavors, from popcorn and caramel to fruit and beyond.
Animal studies have found that these synthetic flavors could have some concerning effects on
health. One study found that the red blood cell production in rats was significantly reduced after
they were fed artificial flavorings for seven days. Not only that, certain flavors like chocolate,
biscuit and strawberry were also found to have a toxic effect on their bone marrow cells.
Similarly, another animal study showed that grape, plum and orange synthetic flavorings
inhibited cell division and were toxic to bone marrow cells in mice. However, keep in mind that
these studies used a much more concentrated dose than you might find in food, and further
research is needed to determine how artificial flavoring in the amounts found in foods may
affect humans. In the meantime, if you want to limit your intake of artificial flavoring, check the
ingredients label of your foods. Look for “chocolate” or “cocoa” on the ingredients label rather
than

“chocolate flavoring” or “artificial flavoring.”

12. Yeast Extract

Yeast extract, also called autolyzed yeast extract or hydrolyzed yeast extract, is added to certain
savory foods like cheese, soy sauce and salty snacks to boost the flavor. It’s made by combining
sugar and yeast in a warm environment, then spinning it in a centrifuge and discarding the cell
walls of the yeast. Yeast extract contains glutamate, which is a type of naturally occurring amino
acid found in many foods. Much like monosodium glutamate (MSG), eating foods with
glutamate may cause mild symptoms like headaches, numbness and swelling in people who are
sensitive to its effects. Additionally, yeast extract is relatively high in sodium, with about 400
milligrams in each teaspoon (8 grams). Reducing sodium intake has been shown to help
decrease blood pressure, especially in people who have high blood pressure. However, most
foods only contain a small amount of added yeast extract, so the glutamate and sodium in yeast
extract are unlikely to cause much of a problem for most people. As of 2017, yeast extract is still
recognized as safe by the Food and Drug Administration. If you do experience negative effects,
consider limiting your intake of processed foods with yeast extract and adding more fresh,
whole foods to your diet.

EFFECTS OF FOOD ADDITIVES

Avoiding or minimizing toxins in your diet is an important step toward enhancing your health
and lowering your risk of disease. Foods, amongst other things (cosmetics & medications),
represent a source of these toxins. Effects of food additives may be immediate or may be
harmful in the long run if you have constant exposure. Immediate effects may include
headaches, change in energy level, and alterations in mental concentration, behavior, or
immune response. Long-term effects may increase your risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease
and other degenerative conditions. Although it may seem difficult to change habits and find
substitutes for foods you enjoy, remind yourself that you will be adding to your diet some new
wholesome foods that you will come to enjoy even more. Look for foods that are not packaged
and processed, but enjoy nature’s own bounty of fresh fruits, vegetables, grains, beans, nuts
and seeds. Find foods that resemble what they looked like when they were originally grown.
Some people are sensitive to particular food additives and may have reactions like hives or
diarrhoea. This doesn’t mean that all foods containing additives need to be automatically
treated with suspicion. All foods are made up of chemicals and food additives are not always
‘less safe’ than naturally occuring chemicals. Many of the food additives used by the food
industry also occur naturally within foods that people eat every day. For example, MSG is found
naturally in parmesan cheese, sardines and tomato in significantly greater quantities than the
MSG present as a food additive. People with food allergies and intolerances are also often
sensitive to chemicals found naturally in certain foods, such as nuts or shellfish. Many people
view food additives as a major food threat. However, in terms of health risk, food additives
would come in at the end of the line, after food-borne microorganisms (like salmonella),
inappropriate hygiene and eating habits, environmental contaminants and naturally occurring
toxins.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FOOD ADDITIVES

Food Additive Advantages

Some additives improve or maintain the food's nutritive value. Vitamins A, C, D, E, thiamine,
niacin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, folic acid, calcium carbonate, zinc oxide and iron are often added
to foods such as flour, bread, biscuits, breakfast cereals, pasta, margarine, milk, iodized salt and
gelatin desserts. Instead of vitamin C, you may see ascorbic acid listed. Alpha-tocopherol is
another name for vitamin E, and beta carotene is a source of vitamin A. In addition to providing
nutrients, food additives can help reduce spoilage, improve the appearance of foods and
increase the availability of a variety of foods throughout the year.

Food Additive Disadvantages

Some food additives can potentially cause harmful side effects. For example, butylated
hydroxyanisole, commonly known as BHA, is a preservative used in foods including potato chips,
crackers, beer, baked goods and cereal. It has been classified by the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services as a preservative "reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen."
Sulfites, which are added to baked goods, wine, condiments and snack foods, could cause hives,
nausea, diarrhea and shortness of breath in some people.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Food additives have been used by man since earliest times. Safety of food additives is an
important issue related to food industry, so the use of the additives in food should be controlled
by laws in many countries. For example, in the United states the Congress has entrusted the
Food and Drug Administration with the responsibility to ensure that additives to be used in food
are safe, thus a new food additive must be approved by Food and Drug Administration before it
can be used in food and therefore the food additives that have not been proved safe will then
become food adulterants. At present, there are up to 2500 food additives being used
worldwide. A large number of studies have confirmed that consuming excessive amounts of
synthetic food additives may cause gastrointestinal, respiratory, dermatologic, and neurologic
adverse reactions. There is a current worldwide interest in finding new and safe additves from
natural sources such as plant, animal and microorganisms to enhance and prevent deterioration
of food. Now the demand of probiotic functional foods is growing rapidly due to increased
awareness of consumers about the impact of food on health. Among the many natural
antimicrobials discussed in this review are bacteriocins, it is antimicrobial peptides produced by
a large number of bacteria, including lactic acid bacteria; normally acting against closely related
and some spoilage and disease-causing Gram-positive pathogens. For this reason they are used
in several applications. Nisin is one of the bacteriocins mostly applied in the food industry as
antibotulinic agent in cheese and liquid eggs, sauces and canned foods. This review has
highlighted the key differences between bacteriocins as food preservatives and antibiotics; and
showed that bacteriocins are not only effective, but are also safe for use in the food supply.
Natural dyes, generally supposed to be cheap, non-toxic, renewable and sustainable resource
with minimal environmental impact, have attracted the attention of the scientific community to
use them in a variety of traditional and newly discovered application disciplines. The industry is
now able to produce some microbial pigments for applications in food, pharmaceuticals,
cosmetics and textiles. Pigments producing microbes such as fungi, bacteria and microalgae are
quite common in nature. Among the molecules produced are carotenoids, melanins, flavins,
quinones and more specifically monascins, violacein, phycocyanin or indigo. Red pigments
produced by fungus Monascus purpureus were traditionally used in oriental countries, because
of its potential application as food additives. Not all viruses harm people and therefore the Food
and Drug Administration has approved a mixture of bacteriophages as a food additive to protect
people. The obtained review, show that application of bacteriophages in food production that
has numerous advantages over traditional processes. The current review has shown that
nanotechnology-derived food and health food products are set to grow worldwide and,
moreover, a variety of food ingredients, additives, carriers for nutrients/supplements and food
contact materials is already available in some countries. Nanoparticle incorporation in animal
nutrition studies which can greatly enhance the efficiency of growth and production of livestock
should be conducted at a lower risk to consumers. However, a great amount of research is still
required to support the effectiveness, and mainly the safety of nanotechnology, avoiding any
harm to the livestock, environment and to human beings. Further studies are necessary to
assess the health effects of chronic exposure to nanoparticles. Therefore, do not sell nano-
materials that have not undergone safety assessment. Finally, food technologies will continue to
develop and reduce the need for chemical additives, great number of natural compounds in
nature still remain unknown, the power of natural extracts, and the synergisms with other
compounds represent unlimited sources of new safe food additive.
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