CONSUMER CHEMISTRY 2nd QUARTER REVIEWER

Credits: Dynielle Randy T. Tato

FOOD CHEMISTRY – The study of chemical processes and interaction between all biological
and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances includes such items as meat,
poultry, lettuce, beer, and milk as examples.
Definition: “Food chemistry is the science that deals with the composition, structure,
physicochemical properties, and properties of food and the changes it undergoes during
processing and storage.”
Definition: “Food chemistry is the science that interprets the molecular composition of food, its
raw materials, and intermediates. It involves understanding the changes that occur during food
processing and storage – in terms of the chemical and physical characteristics of the food
components.”
Ultimately, the goal of food chemistry is to provide scientific insights that support the production
of high-quality, safe, and nutritious food products while promoting innovation and sustainability
in the food industry
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FOODS
1.) MOISTURE CONTENT
- the amount of water in the food.
- an important test done in the food industry since it may affect spoilage rates, texture,
palatability and product cost.
High moisture content is likely to increase spoilage rates due to higher chemical and microbial
activity. Lack of water can cause such textures as, hardness, crumbliness, and gumminess where
they are not desired, or may provide improved palate-enhancing textures such as tenderness,
softness and smoothness. Foods with higher moisture content are more costly to transport, hence
they may increase product cost.
2.) pH (POTENTIAL HYDROGEN) - It represents the relative basicity or acidity of a substance
to other substances based on the amount of hydrogen present in the solution. Its value ranges
from 1 to 14.
Examples:
Mayonnaise, ketchup, other sauces are acidic
3.) ACIDITY - the percentage of acids present in the food. While pH provide you with
information on the relative amounts of acids present, taking the acidity of a food material will
tell you exactly how much acid is present. Acidity is caused by the presence of acidic compounds
in food.
Examples of Acids in Food:
1. Citric acid in citrus fruits
2. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in broccoli and green peppers
3. Lactic acid in yogurt
4. Malic acid in apples
5. Acetic acid in vinegar
6. Tartaric acid in grapes
7. Phosphoric acid in carbonated soda
4). FLAVOR COMPOUNDS OR ODORANTS - are the volatile chemical components that
enable you to get more enjoyment while eating. As you chew your food, flavors escape and enter
your nasal cavity where they are detected by olfactory nerves which transfer the data to the brain
for interpretation.
Examples:
1. Menthol in peppermint
2. Cinnamaldehyde in cinnamon
3. Citral in lemon grass
4. Vanillin in vanilla
5. Limonene in citrus
Foul smelling odorants:
1. Methanethiol: Smells like rotting cabbage smell
2. Hydrogen sulfide: Smells like rotten eggs
3. Putrescine: Smells like rotten meat
5.) PIGMENTS - are the compounds in food that gives them their color.
Examples:
1. Anthocyanins: Gives red cabbage and black beans their red and dark color respectively
2. Carotenoids: Gives carrots, mangoes and cantaloupes their yellow color
3. Curcumins: Gives tumeric its yellow color
4. Carmine: Gives a red color to processed foods
5. Myoglobin: Gives meat its red color
6.) ENZYMES - are proteins that speed up the rate of chemical reactions.
- In food they are responsible for countless biochemical reactions including growth, maturity and
decay. As enzymatic activity increases, foods tend to decay and spoil faster.
1. Therefore food processing activities such as cooking, freezing, and acidification (adding
acid) are essential in controlling their activity.
1. Amylase: Used to convert starch to glucose in bread to give it a softer texture and
improved moisture retention.
2. Glucose isomerase: Used to convert glucose to fructose in the production of corn
syrup.
3. Pectinase: Added to juice pulp to soften it and aid in juice extraction.
4. Papain (from the latex of the green papaya), and bromelain (from pineapple root):
Used to tenderize meat.
Enzymatic activity is mainly driven by the following factors:
1. Enzyme concentration: How much enzyme if present.
2. Substrate concentration: How much material (substrate) the enzyme has available to
breakdown.
3. Temperature: If the temperature is too low, enzymes will slow down their activity, and
they may be denatured and deactivated if the temperature gets too high.
4. pH: A pH that is too high or too low will denature enzymes and stop activity.
PRESERVATIVES
The term “preservatives” refers to the functional name for a variety of natural or synthetic
compounds that help slow or prevent bacterial growth in a wide range of products, including
foods, medicines and personal care products.
Food preservatives are natural or synthetic chemicals that are added to foods or pharmaceuticals
to retard spoilage, whether from microbial growth, or undesirable chemical changes. Food
preservatives help maintain the freshness and shelf life of such food products because, without
them, they would spoil quickly due to exposure to air, moisture, bacteria, or mold. Either natural
or synthetic substances may be added to avoid or delay these problems.
HISTORY OF PRESERVATIVES:
Even before recorded history, ancient cultures around the globe accidentally discovered and
purposefully invented techniques to preserve foods, including cooling, freezing, boiling, drying,
salting, smoking, pickling, and sugaring. The earliest preservation method was drying and
smoking.
PREHISTORIC ERA:
Drying and Smoking: The earliest methods of food preservation likely involved drying and
smoking. Prehistoric humans would dry meats and fish in the sun and use smoke to prevent
spoilage.
Smoking helps remove moisture from the surface of the food. The combination of heat and
smoke creates a drying effect, which inhibits the growth of spoilage-causing microorganisms.
Phenols, creosote, and other chemicals present in the smoke have preservative effects, helping to
inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi on the surface of the food.
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS:
Fermentation: Ancient civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, used
fermentation to preserve food. This process involves the growth of beneficial microorganisms
that produce acids or alcohol, preventing the growth of harmful bacteria.
MIDDLE AGES:
Salting: Salting was a widely used method during the Middle Ages. Meat and fish were
preserved by covering them in salt, which drew out moisture and inhibited the growth of
spoilage-causing microorganisms.
RENAISSANCE:
Canning (1700s): Nicolas Appert, a French chef, is often credited with developing the first
successful method of canning in the early 19 th century. He preserved food in glass jars by sealing
them with cork and wax.
19th CENTURY:
Pasteurization (1860s): Louis Pasteur’s discoveries in microbiology led to the development of
pasteurization, a process of heating liquids (such as milk or wine) to kill harmful bacteria and
extend shelf life.
Canning Evolution: Tin cans replaced glass jars for canning in the early 19 th century. The
development of the canning process continued to evolve with advancements in technology.
20th CENTURY:
Refrigeration: The widespread use of refrigeration in the early 20 th century revolutionized food
preservation. Cold storage prevented the growth of microorganisms and slowed down chemical
reactions that lead to food spoilage.
Freezing: The commercial application of freezing as a preservation method became feasible with
the development of efficient refrigeration technology.
MID-20th CENTURY:
Vacuum Packaging: Vacuum packaging, which removes air from the packaging to slow down the
oxidation and deterioration of food, became popular in the mid-20th century.
LATE 20th CENTURY TO PRESENT:
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP): This method involves adjusting the mix of gases within
a package to slow down the oxidation and spoilage of food.
High-Pressure Processing (HPP): HPP uses high pressure to kill bacteria, yeasts, molds, and
parasites, extending the shelf life of food without the need for heat.
Radiation: Ionizing radiation is sometimes used to kill bacteria and parasites in food, inhibiting
spoilage.
HISTORY OF USING CHEMICALS IN FOOD PRESERVATION
Salt:
Ancient Times: Salt has been used for centuries as a primary preservative for meats and fish. It
works by drawing out moisture, thereby inhibiting the growth of spoilage-causing
microorganisms.
Sugar:
Ancient Times: Similar to salt, sugar has been employed as a preservative, especially for fruits.
The high concentration of sugar creates an environment where bacteria and fungi cannot thrive.
Vinegar:
Ancient Times: Vinegar, which is acetic acid, has been used for pickling and preserving
vegetables, fruits, and even meats. The acidity of vinegar creates an inhospitable environment for
many microorganisms.

Alcohol:
Ancient Times: Alcohol, in the form of wine or spirits, has been used for preserving fruits and
other food items. The alcohol content inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi.
Spices and Herbs:
Ancient Times: Various spices and herbs, such as cloves, cinnamon, and coriander, were used not
only for flavor but also for their antimicrobial properties, helping to preserve food.
Sulfur Dioxide:
Ancient Rome: Sulfur dioxide was used by the ancient Romans to preserve wine and prevent it
from turning into vinegar. This practice continued through the Middle Ages.
Benzoic Acid and Sorbic Acid:
19th Century: In the 19th century, chemists began isolating and using specific chemicals like
benzoic acid and sorbic acid as preservatives. These acids were effective against certain
microorganisms and were used in various food products.
Salicylic Acid:
Late 19th Century: Salicylic acid was introduced as a preservative, particularly in the preservation
of fruits and vegetables.
Formaldehyde:
Early 20th Century: Formaldehyde was used as a food preservative in the early 20th century.
Chemical Preservatives (Mid-20th Century Onward):
Nitrates and Nitrites: These chemicals have been used in curing meats, providing color and
preventing the growth of bacteria, while also contributing to flavor.
BHA and BHT: Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) are
synthetic antioxidants used to prevent the oxidation of fats and oils in foods.
IMPORTANCE OF FOOD PRESERVATIVES
1. Maintaining consistency and texture of foods
2. Improve or retaining nutritional properties
3. Delaying spoilage
4. Enhance flavors, textures, and color

SALT
-the first natural ‘chemical’ preservative added to foods and has been used extensively in the
preservation of fish, meat and vegetables ever since.
Action of salt
Salt acts as a preservative by inhibiting microbial growth. Salt acts by drawing water out of the
cells of foods and bacteria through a process known as OSMOSIS. Reducing the amount of
water available to bacteria inhibits or slows bacterial growth and reproduction. High
concentrations of salt can also rupture bacterial cells due to differences in pressure between the
outside and inside of the microorganism.
Salt is also effective in protecting foods against moulds and yeast- it prevents the fermentation of
yeast and the growth of molds by reducing water supply.
HOW SALT IS USED TO PRESERVE FOODS
Vegetables are generally preserved by pickling them in a salt and water solution (brine), while
meat may be rubbed with salt and dry cured or may be injected with a salt solution.
SUGAR
Sugar is what’s known as a hygroscopic, meaning it binds water molecules very easily.
By acting as a humectant (maintaining and stabilizing the water content in foods) sugar helps to
prevent or slow the growth of bacteria, molds and yeast in food like jam and preserves. It helps
to prolong the shelf life of many foods on our supermarket shelves and is used extensively in
home-based food preserving because of its preserving characteristics.
MECHANISM OF ACTION
1. Osmotic Pressure: Sugar has the ability to reduce the water activity in foods. Water
activity is a measure of the water content that is available for microbial growth and
chemical reactions.
2. Dehydration: Sugar acts as a dehydrating agent. In high concentrations, sugar can draw
water out of microorganisms through osmosis.
3. Inhibition of Enzymatic Browning: Enzymatic browning is a natural process that occurs
when fruits and vegetables are cut or bruised, leading to the production of compounds
like melanin.
4. Formation of Syrups: In some preservation methods, sugar is used to create thick syrups.
These syrups can act as a barrier, preventing the growth of microorganisms by limiting
their access to oxygen and nutrients.
5. Antimicrobial Properties: In addition to its osmotic effects, some sugars also possess
direct antimicrobial properties. For example, certain sugars like honey contain natural
compounds that can inhibit the growth of bacteria.
ALCOHOL
-Alcohol is a natural preservative, it does not only inhibits bacterial growth but actively kills
bacteria, yeast and fungus in high enough doses.
-Ethanol is a natural preservative that is effective at inhibiting the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and
molds. It is often used in the preservation of fruits, vegetables, and other food products to extend
their shelf life.
MECHANISM OF ACTION
 1. Dehydration: Alcohol has a dehydrating effect on microorganisms, including bacteria and
yeast. When food is exposed to alcohol, it can draw water out of the cells of these
microorganisms, disrupting their metabolic processes and preventing their growth and
reproduction.
2. Protein Denaturation: Ethanol can denature proteins, which means it alters their structure.
This can be detrimental to the function of proteins in microorganisms, rendering them
inactive.
3. Disruption of Cell Membranes: Alcohol can disrupt the lipid membranes of
microorganisms. Cell membranes are crucial for maintaining the integrity and function of
microbial cells.
4. Interference with Enzymes: Ethanol can interfere with the activity of enzymes, which are
essential for various metabolic processes in microorganisms. By inhibiting enzyme
function, alcohol disrupts the normal biochemical pathways within cells, hindering the
microorganisms’ ability to survive and multiply.
5. pH Adjustment: Alcohol, depending on its concentration, can also contribute to the
acidity of a food product. The lowered pH can create an environment that is less
favorable for the growth of spoilage microorganisms and pathogens.
6. Antioxidant Properties: Alcohol, especially in the form of certain spirits like wine and
beer, may possess antioxidant properties. This can help slow down the oxidation of fats
and other components in food, extending its shelf life.
VINEGAR
Vinegar is an aqueous solution of acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings.
Vinegar typically contains from 5% to 8% acetic acid by volume. Vinegar is a combination of
acetic acid and water made by a two-step fermentation process. Liquid from food plant ferments
into alcohol. The alcohol is then exposed to oxygen and the acetic acid bacteria Acetobacter to
ferment again over weeks or months, forming vinegar.
MECHANISM OF ACTION
1. Acidification: The primary component of vinegar, acetic acid, acts as a preservative by
reducing the pH of the food. The lower pH creates an acidic environment that inhibits the
growth of many spoilage-causing microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi.
2. Denaturation of Proteins: Acetic acid can denature proteins, including those in the cells of
microorganisms. This disrupts the structure and function of proteins, leading to the death
of the microorganisms.
3. Inhibition of Enzymatic Browning: The acidity of vinegar can inhibit the activity of
enzymes involved in browning, helping to preserve the color and quality of the food.
4. Osmotic Effect: The high osmotic pressure created by the presence of acetic acid and
other solutes in vinegar can also contribute to the preservation of certain foods. This
 osmotic effect can draw water out of microorganisms, making it more difficult for them
to survive and reproduce.
5. Antimicrobial Properties: Acetic acid itself has antimicrobial properties, and its presence
in vinegar helps to inhibit the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and molds.
SPICES
Spices have been used historically not only for flavoring food but also for their preservative
properties. Many spices possess antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, which can help inhibit
the growth of spoilage microorganisms and slow down the oxidation of fats in food.
Cinnamon: Cinnamon contains compounds like cinnamaldehyde, which have antimicrobial
properties. It has been used to preserve food, particularly in ancient times.
Cloves: Cloves have antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, mainly due to the presence of
eugenol-it is a major component of clove essential oil, and exhibits antibacterial, analgesic and
antioxidant properties. . They are often used to preserve meats and pickles.
Garlic: Garlic has been used for its antimicrobial properties and can help inhibit the growth of
bacteria. It is commonly used in pickling and preserving.
Turmeric: Curcumin, the active compound in turmeric, has antimicrobial and antioxidant
properties. Turmeric has been used in traditional medicine and as a food preservative in some
cultures.
Oregano: Oregano contains compounds like carvacrol and thymol, which have antimicrobial
properties. Oregano oil, in particular, is known for its ability to inhibit the growth of bacteria and
fungi.
Rosemary: Rosemary contains rosmarinic acid and other compounds with antioxidant properties.
It has been used to preserve meats and prevent oxidation.
Thyme: Thyme contains thymol, which has strong antimicrobial properties. Thyme has been
used to preserve meats and in pickling.
Mustard: Mustard seeds and mustard oil have antimicrobial properties due to compounds like
allyl isothiocyanate. Mustard has been used in pickling and preserving.
EDIBLE OIL
The use of edible oil restrains the spoilage of pickles as bacteria are not able to survive in such
an environment. Vegetables, fruits, fish, and meat are commonly preserved by using edible oil.
Edible oils can be used as preservatives in certain food applications due to their ability to create a
protective barrier against oxygen, moisture, and other external factors that can lead to food
spoilage.
EXAMPLES OF EDIBLE OIL
 1. OLIVE OIL- has anti-oxidant property.
2. COCONUT OIL- has antimicrobial property because of the presence of lauric acid.
3. SUNFLOWER OIL- has Vitamin E which is an antioxidant.
4. SESAME OIL- contains antioxidant.
5. CORN OIL- also rich in Vitamin E.

MECHANISM OF ACTION
1. Oxygen Barrier: Edible oils form a layer that acts as a barrier against oxygen, which
helps prevent oxidation and the rancidity of fats and oils in food products.
2. Moisture Barrier: The hydrophobic nature of edible oils can create a barrier against
moisture, reducing the likelihood of microbial growth and spoilage.
3. Antimicrobial Properties: Some edible oils, such as coconut oil and olive oil, possess
natural antimicrobial properties due to the presence of compounds like lauric acid and
oleuropein. These properties can help inhibit the growth of bacteria, fungi, and other
microorganisms in food.
HONEY
Generally honey has a content of 80–85% carbohydrates, 15–17% water, 0.3% proteins, 0.2%
ashes and minor quantities of amino-acids, phenols, pigments and vitamins. Because of its
supersaturation and low water content (15-17%), honey is viscous.
Honey isn’t a perishable product. As long as it’s stored in an air-tight container and isn’t exposed
to excess moisture, it will be safe to consume for decades or more. Honey is inherently hostile to
microbes and bacteria. Honey is a very low-moisture sugar with an acidic pH, yielding an
environment in which bacteria literally cannot thrive.
MECHANISM OF ACTION
1. Low Water Activity: Honey has low water activity, meaning it contains very little free
water. Microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, and molds require water for their growth
and reproduction.
2. High Sugar Content: Honey is composed mainly of sugars, predominantly glucose and
fructose. The high sugar concentration creates an osmotic effect, drawing water out of
microorganisms and inhibiting their growth.
3. Acidity: Honey is naturally acidic, with a pH ranging from 3.2 to 4.5. The acidic
environment is unfavorable for the growth of many bacteria and molds, contributing to
the preservation of food.
4. Phytochemicals and Antioxidants: Honey contains various phytochemicals and
antioxidants that have been shown to have antimicrobial properties.
 5. Hydrogen Peroxide Production: Bees add an enzyme called glucose oxidase to honey
during the nectar-to-honey conversion process. This enzyme gradually releases hydrogen
peroxide, a natural antimicrobial compound, when honey comes into contact with
moisture. This can further inhibit the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms.
1. SYNTHETIC OR CLASS II PRESERVATIVES:

Class II preservatives are obtained by chemical derivation of compounds. Sorbates, benzoates,

propionates and sulfites are used broadly class II preservative in fruit processing.

Benzoic Acid and its Salts (Sodium Benzoate, Potassium Benzoate)

Mechanism of Action: Disrupts the microbial cell membrane and inhibits the growth of yeast and
molds.
Examples of Food Products: Soft drinks, fruit juices, pickles, and acidic foods.
Sorbic Acid and its Salts (Potassium Sorbate):
Mechanism of Action: Inhibits the growth of yeast and molds by interfering with their cellular
metabolism.
Examples of Food Products: Cheese, wine, baked goods, and dried fruits.
Propionic Acid and its Salts (Calcium Propionate):
Mechanism of Action: Inhibits the growth of molds and some bacteria by interfering with their
metabolic processes.
Examples of Food Products: Bread, bakery products, and processed cheese.
Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfites:
Mechanism of Action: Acts as an antimicrobial and antioxidant by releasing sulfur dioxide gas,
which inhibits the growth of microorganisms and prevents browning in some fruits.
Examples of Food Products: Dried fruits, wine, beer, and some processed meats.
Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) and Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT):
Mechanism of Action: Antioxidants that prevent the oxidation of fats and oils in food, thereby
delaying rancidity.
Examples of Food Products: Snack foods, breakfast cereals, and processed meats.
Parabens (Methylparaben, Ethylparaben, Propylparaben):
Mechanism of Action: Inhibit the growth of bacteria and molds by disrupting their cell
membrane and interfering with their DNA synthesis.
Examples of Food Products: Sauces, salad dressings, and confectionery items.
Natamycin:
Mechanism of Action: Antifungal agent that inhibits the growth of molds.
Examples of Food Products: Cheese, cured meats, and some fermented dairy products.

ARTIFICIAL SWEETENING AGENTS

-Artificial sweetening agents are chemicals that sweeten food. However, unlike natural
sweeteners, they do not add calories to our body.
-An artificial sweetener or a sweetening agent is a sugar substitute, known as a food additive,
which provides you with a sweet taste similar to that of sugar. However, it contains significantly
less food energy as compared to the sugar-based sweeteners, which makes it a zero-calorie or a
low-calorie sweetener.
-Artificial sweeteners can be derived through diifferent plant extracts or when they are processed
by chemical synthesis. Artificial sweeteners are many times sweeter when compared to regular
sugar and hence they are also sometimes known as intense sweeteners.

For the proper functioning of the sweetening agent, it must be soluble in water and should
readily bind to the receptor molecule which is present on our tongue surface. The receptor is
connected to a G- protein. Whenever the sweetening agent binds to the receptor, the G- protein
starts to dissociate, which helps to activate a nearby enzyme. As a result, it tends to trigger a
sequence of events wherein the signals get transmitted to and then are interpreted by our brain.
This interaction between the sweetener and the receptor is responsible for the sweetness that the
artificial sweetening agent has.
Sweeteners Authorized as Food Additives in the U.S.
 Aspartame (Neutrosweet, Equal, Sugar Twin)
 Acesulfame Potassium (Ace-K)- (Sweet One, Sunett)
 Sucralose (Splenda)
 Neotame (Newtame)
 Advantame
 Saccharin (Sweet N Low, Nectasweet)
ASPARTAME
Chemical Structure: Aspartame is a dipeptide composed of two amino acids, phenylalanine and
aspartic acid, linked by a methyl ester group.
Sweetness Mechanism: When consumed, aspartame is broken down into its constituent amino
acids and methanol. The sweet taste comes from the free aspartic acid and phenylalanine, which
stimulate sweetness receptors on the tongue.
SUCRALOSE
Chemical Structure: Sucralose is a chlorinated derivative of sucrose (table sugar). Three chlorine
atoms replace three hydroxyl groups on the sucrose molecule.
Sweetness Mechanism: The chlorination of sucrose enhances its sweetness and stability, making
it much sweeter than sucrose. Unlike aspartame, sucralose is not metabolized by the body and is
excreted unchanged.
SACCHARIN
Chemical Structure: Saccharin is a sulfonamide, and its chemical structure is derived from
benzoic acid.
Sweetness Mechanism: Saccharin activates the sweet taste receptors on the tongue. It is not
metabolized by the body and is excreted unchanged.
STEVIA (Steviol Glycosides)
Chemical Structure: Steviol glycosides are natural compounds derived from the leaves of the
Stevia rebaudiana plant. The main components are Stevioside and rebaudioside A.
Sweetness Mechanism: Steviol glycosides stimulate sweetness receptors on the tongue. Despite
being many times sweeter than sucrose, they are not metabolized by the body and are excreted
unchanged.
ACESULFAME POTASSIUM (Ace-K)
Chemical Structure: Acesulfame potassium is a potassium salt containing the cyclic molecule 6-
methyl-1,2,3-oxathiazine-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide.
Sweetness Mechanism: It is not metabolized by the body and is excreted unchanged. Acesulfame
Potassium enhances sweetness by directly activating sweet taste receptors.
ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS:
Low or Zero Calories: Artificial sweeteners are often used as sugar substitutes because they
provide sweetness without the added calories associated with sugar. This can be beneficial for
individuals looking to manage their weight or reduce calorie intake.
Diabetes Management: Artificial sweeteners do not significantly affect blood sugar levels,
making them suitable for people with diabetes who need to control their glucose intake. They can
be included in a diabetic diet as a sugar alternative.
Dental Health: Unlike sugar, artificial sweeteners generally do not contribute to tooth decay.
They don’t provide a food source for bacteria in the mouth that produce acid, which can lead to
cavities.
Suitable for Low-Carb Diets: Many artificial sweeteners do not contain carbohydrates, making
them suitable for individuals following low-carbohydrate or ketogenic diets.
Stability in Cooking and Baking: Some artificial sweeteners, such as sucralose and acesulfame
potassium, are heat-stable, making them suitable for cooking and baking without losing
sweetness.
DISADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS
Taste and Aftertaste: Some people find that artificial sweeteners have a distinct taste or an
aftertaste that they find unpleasant. This can vary depending on the type of sweetener and the
individual’s taste preferences.
Metabolic Responses: While artificial sweeteners themselves are generally considered safe, there
is ongoing research on their potential impact on metabolic responses and the gut microbiota.
Some studies suggest that they may influence glucose metabolism and appetite regulation.
Individual Sensitivities: Some individuals may be sensitive or allergic to certain artificial
sweeteners, experiencing adverse reactions such as headaches or digestive issues.
Aspartame is one of the most studied food additives in the human food supply. FDA scientists do
not have safety concerns when aspartame is used under the approved conditions. The sweetener
is approved in many countries. Regulatory and scientific authorities, such as Health Canada and
the European Food Safety Authority have evaluated aspartame and also consider it safe at current
permitted use levels.

ANTIOXIDANTS
• Antioxidants are man-made or natural substances that may prevent or delay some types of cell
damage. Antioxidants are found in many foods, including fruits and vegetables.
• Antioxidants are molecules that inhibit or neutralize the damaging effects of free radicals in the
body.
• Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit oxidation, a chemical reaction that can produce free
radicals.
• A free radical is a highly reactive and unstable molecule that possesses one or more unpaired
electrons in its outer shell. Electrons prefer to exist in pairs, and when a molecule has an
unpaired electron, it becomes chemically reactive as it seeks to pair its unpaired electron with
another electron. This quest for stability can lead to a chain reaction of electron “stealing” from
other molecules, causing a cascade of damage.
Free radicals can be generated in the body through various processes, including normal
metabolic reactions, exposure to environmental factors such as pollution or radiation, and during
immune responses. Common types of free radicals include reactive oxygen species (ROS) and
reactive nitrogen species (RNS). While the body uses free radicals in certain physiological
processes, such as the immune system’s defense against pathogens, an imbalance or excessive
production of free radicals can lead to oxidative stress.
When free radicals snatch electrons from other molecules, it creates a chain reaction. The
molecule that loses an electron becomes a free radical itself, leading to a domino effect. This
process can damage various cellular components, including proteins, lipids (fats), and DNA.
Oxidative stress is associated with damage to cellular components like proteins, lipids, and DNA,
and it is implicated in the development of various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases,
neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer.
HOW DO ANTIOXIDANTS WORK?
An antioxidant is a molecule stable enough to donate an electron to a rampaging free radical and
neutralize it, thus reducing its capacity to damage. These antioxidants delay or inhibit cellular
damage mainly through their free radical scavenging property. These low-molecular-weight
antioxidants can safely interact with free radicals and terminate the chain reaction before vital
molecules are damaged.
1. Donation of Electrons: Free radicals are unstable molecules with unpaired electrons.
Antioxidants can donate electrons to neutralize these free radicals, stabilizing them and
preventing further damage.
2. Free Radical Scavenging: Antioxidants act as scavengers, seeking out and neutralizing
free radicals in the body. They can break the chain reaction of free radical damage by
donating electrons without becoming unstable themselves.
3. Enzyme Inhibition: Some antioxidants work by inhibiting the activity of enzymes that
contribute to the production of free radicals. For example, the enzyme
superoxidedismutase helps convert superoxide radicals into less harmful substances.
4. Metal Ion Chelation: Certain antioxidants can bind to metal ions that contribute to the
generation of free radicals. By chelating these ions, antioxidants prevent them from
participating in reactions that generate more free radicals.
Some of such antioxidants, including glutathione, ubiquinol, and uric acid, are produced during
normal metabolism in the body. Other lighter antioxidants are found in the diet. Although there
are several enzymes system within the body that scavenge free radicals, the principle
micronutrient (vitamins) antioxidants are vitamin E (α-tocopherol), vitamin C (ascorbic acid),
and B-carotene.
COMMON ANTIOXIDANTS
1. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid):
Mechanism: Vitamin C is a water-soluble antioxidant that scavenges free radicals, neutralizing
them and preventing oxidative damage. It also regenerates other antioxidants, such as vitamin E,
enhancing their effectiveness.
Can be found in green leafy vegetables, citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, grapefruits), strawberries,
kiwi, bell peppers, broccoli, tomatoes).
2. Vitamin E (Tocopherols and Tocotrienols):
Mechanism: Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes from oxidative
damage. It acts by donating electrons to free radicals, thereby stabilizing them and preventing
further damage to cells.
Can be found in nuts (almonds, hazelnuts, sunflower seeds), Seeds (sunflower seeds, pumpkin
seeds), spinach, broccoli)
Vegetable oils (sunflower oil, wheat germ oil).
3. Beta-Carotene:
Mechanism: Beta-carotene is a precursor to vitamin A and acts as a scavenger of reactive oxygen
species (ROS). It helps protect cells from oxidative stress by neutralizing free radicals.
Can be found in sunflower seeds, fish (tuna, halibut, sardines), poultry (chicken, turkey), whole
grains (brown rice, oats), carrots, spinach, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, squash.
4. Glutathione:
Mechanism: Glutathione is a powerful intracellular antioxidant that is involved in detoxification
and protection against oxidative stress. It works by donating electrons to neutralize free radicals
and can regenerate other antioxidants like vitamins C and E.
Can be found in Avocado, Spinach, Asparagus, Garlic, brussels sprouts.

5. Zinc:
Mechanism: Zinc is an essential trace element that supports the activity of various antioxidant
enzymes. It helps to maintain the structural integrity of proteins an DNA, preventing damage
from oxidative stress.
Can be found in Oysters, Beef, Lamb, Chickpeas, Lentils.
6. Coenzyme Q10 (Ubiquinone):
Mechanism: Coenzyme Q10 is involved in the electron transport chain of cellular respiration and
acts as an antioxidant by neutralizing free radicals and supporting mitochondrial function.
Can be found in Fatty fish (salmon, mackerel), Organ meats (heart, liver), Whole grains,
Spinach, Broccoli.
7. Polyphenols (e.g., Resveratrol, Quercetin, Flavonoids):
Mechanism: Polyphenols are plant-derived compounds with antioxidant properties. They can
neutralize free radicals, modulate cell signaling pathways, and have anti-inflammatory effects.
Can be found in Red grapes (resveratrol), Green tea (catechins), Apples (quercetin), Citrus fruits
(flavonoids), Berries (anthocyanins), Dark chocolate (in moderation).
8. Lipoic Acid:
Mechanism: Lipoic acid is a potent antioxidant that can regenerate other antioxidants like
vitamins C and E. It also has anti-inflammatory properties and plays a role in energy metabolism.
Can be found in Spinach, Broccoli, Red meat (especially organ meats), Tomatoes, Brussels
sprouts.
9. Melatonin:
Mechanism: Melatonin, known for its role in regulating sleep-wake cycles, also has antioxidant
properties. It scavenges free radicals and enhances the activity of other antioxidants.
Can be found in Milk, Cherries, Tomatoes, Grapes, Strawberries, Walnuts.

CHEMISTRY OF CHANGES OCCURING IN FOOD DURING PROCESSING, STORAGE,

AND CONSUMPTION
I. Major causes of food deterioration include the following:
1. Growth and activities of micro-organisms, principally bacteria, yeasts and molds;
2. Activities of natural food enzymes;
3. Insects, parasites and rodents;
4. Temperature, both heat and cold;
 5. Moisture and dryness;
6. Air and in particular oxygen;
7. Light;
8. Time.
II. CHANGES INVOLVED DURING PROCESSING OF
FOODS
1. Maillard Browning:
Description: Maillard browning is a reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars that
occurs at elevated temperatures. It is responsible for the brown color and characteristic flavors in
cooked foods.
Example: Roasting coffee beans involves Maillard browning, leading to the development of the
distinct aroma and flavor of coffee.
2. Caramelization:
Description: Caramelization is the breakdown of sugars at high temperatures, resulting in the
formation of a brownish color and a rich, sweet flavor.
Example: The production of caramel candies involves heating sugar to high temperatures,
causing caramelization and creating the characteristic sweet taste and brown color.
3. Enzymatic Reactions:
Description: Enzymes present in raw foods can catalyze various reactions, leading to changes in
color, flavor, and texture.
Example: The enzymatic browning of fruits, such as apples turning brown when sliced due to the
activity of polyphenol oxidase.
4. Lipid Oxidation:
Description: Lipid oxidation is a chemical reaction that occurs when fats and oils react with
oxygen, leading to the development of off-flavors and the degradation of nutritional quality.
Example: Rancidity in nuts and seeds due to the oxidation of unsaturated fats, resulting in a stale
or unpleasant taste.
5. Fermentation:
Description: Fermentation is a metabolic process where microorganisms, such as bacteria or
yeast, convert sugars into other compounds like alcohol or organic acids.
Example: The fermentation of milk to produce yogurt, where bacteria convert lactose into lactic
acid, giving yogurt its characteristic tangy flavor and thick texture.
6. Hydrolysis of Proteins and Starches:
Description: Hydrolysis involves breaking down complex molecules like proteins and starches
into simpler components through the addition of water.
Example: Cooking pasta involves the hydrolysis of starches in the pasta, turning them from a
rigid structure to a softer, palatable texture.
7. Addition of Preservatives:
Description: Preservatives are added to food to prevent spoilage and inhibit microbial growth.
Example: The addition of citric acid to fruit juices acts as a preservative, inhibiting the growth of
bacteria and extending the shelf life of the product.
III. CHANGES OCCURING DURING STORAGE OF FOODS
The chemistry of changes occurring during the storage of foods involves various reactions and
processes that can affect the quality, safety, and nutritional content of the food. These changes
can be influenced by factors such as temperature, humidity, light, oxygen exposure, and the
specific composition of the food. Here are some key aspects of the chemistry of food storage:
Oxidation:
Lipid Oxidation: Fats and oils in food are susceptible to oxidation, leading to the development of
off-flavors and rancidity. Oxygen, light, and heat can accelerate lipid oxidation. Antioxidants,
such as vitamin E and C, are often added to foods to mitigate oxidative reactions.

Maillard Browning:
The Maillard reaction is a complex series of reactions between amino acids and reducing sugars
that occur during heating. It gives foods a brown color and contributes to the development of
flavors in various baked and processed foods. While the Maillard reaction is desirable in some
cases, it can also result in the degradation of certain nutrients.
Enzymatic Reactions:
Enzymes naturally present in foods can remain active during storage and lead to changes in
texture, color, and flavor. For example, enzymatic browning caused by polyphenol oxidase in
fruits and vegetables can affect their appearance.
Microbial Activity:
Microorganisms, such as bacteria, mold, and yeast, can grow on food during storage, causing
spoilage. Some microorganisms also produce enzymes that break down food components,
leading to changes in texture and flavor. Proper storage conditions, including temperature control
and packaging, are essential to inhibit microbial growth.
Protein Denaturation:
Proteins can undergo denaturation, a process in which their structure is altered, affecting the
texture and functionality of the food. Heat, mechanical processing, and pH changes are common
factors contributing to protein denaturation.
Hydrolysis Reactions:
Hydrolysis involves the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones through the addition
of water. For example, starches can be hydrolyzed into sugars, affecting the sweetness and
texture of foods. This process is often controlled during food processing and storage to maintain
the desired product characteristics.
Nutrient Degradation:
Certain nutrients, such as vitamins, can be sensitive to factors like light and oxygen, leading to
their degradation over time. This can result in a reduction in the nutritional quality of stored
foods.

IV. CHANGES OCCURING DURING FOOD CONSUMPTION

The chemistry of changes during food consumption involves a series of complex processes that
occur in the body to break down food into nutrients, absorb them, and utilize them for energy and
other bodily functions. Here’s a simplified overview of the key stages in the chemistry of
changes during food consumption:
1. Digestion:
Mechanical Breakdown: Chewing breaks down food into smaller particles, increasing its surface
area.
Chemical Breakdown: Enzymes, such as amylase in saliva, start breaking down carbohydrates.
Stomach acid and digestive enzymes further break down proteins and fats.
2. Absorption:
Small Intestine: Most nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine. Enzymes from the
pancreas continue the breakdown of nutrients into simpler forms (e.g., peptides to amino acids,
disaccharides to monosaccharides).
Nutrient Transport: Nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream through the small intestine’s
walls and transported to various tissues and organs.
3. Metabolism:
Carbohydrate Metabolism: Monosaccharides like glucose are used for energy or stored as
glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Protein Metabolism: Amino acids are used for protein synthesis, energy production, or converted
to glucose.
Fat Metabolism: Fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol, used for energy or stored as
triglycerides in adipose tissue.
4. Energy Production:
Cellular Respiration: Glucose is oxidized in cells through processes like glycolysis and the citric
acid cycle, producing ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the cell’s primary energy source.
5. Waste Elimination:
Urea Formation: Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver, forming urea, which is excreted
in urine.
Excretion: Unabsorbed and undigested materials are eliminated as feces.
6. Regulation of Blood Sugar:
Insulin and Glucagon: The pancreas secretes insulin to lower blood sugar levels by promoting
glucose uptake in cells and storage as glycogen. Glucagon increases blood sugar levels by
promoting glycogen breakdown.
7. Nutrient Storage:
Glycogenesis: Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Lipogenesis: Excess energy is stored as fat in adipose tissue.
8. Vitamin and Mineral Utilization:
Cofactor Roles: Many vitamins and minerals act as cofactors for enzymes, playing crucial roles
in various metabolic pathways.