Buku Bab 34 English

CHAPTER 34
COMPOSITES FABRICATION
PROCESSES
Michael G. Bader
School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering
University of Surrey
Guildford, Surrey, UK
1 INTRODUCTION 1038 5.6 Automated Lay-up 1071

5.7 Cure Monitoring Sensors 1072
1.1 Nature of Composites 1038 5.8 Tool Preparation for Curing 1072
1.2 Role of Fiber Architecture on 5.9 Autoclave Operation 1073
Mechanical Properties 1039 5.10 Performance, Productivity, and
Economics 1076
2 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR
PROCESSING 1045 6 OTHER PROCESSING OPTIONS
2.1 Aims and Objectives 1045 FOR PREPREG 1076
2.2 Common Features of
Composite Processing Routes 1046 7 RESIN FILM INFILTRATION 1077
2.3 Design of Reinforcements to 7.1 Basic Principles 1077
Enhance Permeability 1053 7.2 RFI with Autoclave Cure 1077
2.4 Tooling 1054 7.3 RFI with Press or Oven Cure 1078
2.5 Rate of Build 1056 7.4 Other RFI Options 1078
2.6 Economic Implications of
Choice of Feedstock 1057 8 RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING 1078
8.1 Basic Principles 1078
3 CONTACT MOLDING 1058 8.2 Basic Process Details 1080
3.1 Principles 1058 8.3 Low-Pressure, Ambient Cure
3.2 Key Factors and Variations 1059 RTM 1083
3.3 Laminate Design for Contact 8.4 High-Pressure RTM 1084
Molding 1061 8.5 Manufacture of Preforms for
3.4 Some Variations on Basic RTM 1084
Contact Molding Process 1062
3.5 Productivity and Economics 1064 9 FILAMENT WINDING AND
TOW PLACEMENT 1085
4 PRESS MOLDING 1065 9.1 General Concepts 1085
4.1 Basic Process 1065 9.2 Filament Winding 1086
4.2 Reinforcements and Resins for 9.3 Tow Placement 1090
Press Molding 1065
4.3 Ambient Cure Press Molding 1066 10 PULTRUSION 1090
4.4 Elevated Temperature Cure 10.1 Principle 1090
Press Molding 1066 10.2 Reinforcement Options for
Pultrusion 1092
5 AUTOCLAVE PROCESSING OF 10.3 Process Variations 1093
PREPREG 1067 10.4 Summary 1094
5.1 Autoclave 1067
5.2 Prepreg 1068 11 CONTINUOUS LAMINATION 1095
5.3 Tooling 1068
5.4 Cutting the Prepreg 1069 12 SHEET AND BULK MOLDING
5.5 Hand Lay-up 1069 COMPOUNDS 1095
12.1 General Principles 1095
Handbook of Materials Selection, Edited by Myer Kutz

ISBN 0-471-35924-6 䉷 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
1037
1038 COMPOSITES FABRICATION PROCESSES
12.2 Sheet Molding Compounds 1095 15 COMMINGLED

12.3 Molding SMC 1096 THERMOPLASTIC MATRIX
12.4 Bulk Molding Compound 1099 COMPOSITES 1103
15.1 Principle 1103
15.2 Co-woven Fabrics 1104
13 GLASS MAT 15.3 Commingled Tow Materials 1105
THERMOPLASTICS 1099 15.4 Fiber–Powder Combinations 1106
13.1 Principles 1099
13.2 Reinforcements and Matrices 1100
13.3 Processing 1100 16 SRIM OF MONOMER
PRECURSOR
THERMOPLASTICS 1106
14 HIGH-PERFORMANCE
THERMOPLASTIC MATRIX
COMPOSITES 1101 17 INJECTION-MOLDED
14.1 General 1101 SHORT-FIBER-REINFORCED
14.2 Feedstock 1101 THERMOPLASTICS 1107
14.3 Processing Principles 1102 17.1 General 1107
14.4 Autoclave and Press 17.2 Principal Systems 1107
Processing 1102 17.3 Compounding 1107
14.5 Diaphragm Forming 1103 17.4 Injection Molding 1108
14.6 Economic and Performance
Implications 1103
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1110
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nature of Composites
Composite materials (see Chapter 12) are composed of a continuous phase, or
matrix, with a discontinuous reinforcement phase dispersed within the matrix.
The matrix may be polymeric, metallic, or ceramic and the reinforcement may,
likewise, be polymeric, metallic, or ceramic. The discussion in this chapter will,
however, be limited to polymeric matrices and the reinforcements will be glass,
carbon (graphite), or the high modulus textile fibers based on poly-aramids and
polyolefins. The reinforcing phase normally consists of fibers, although some
particulate reinforcement is used. There is a subtle distinction between partic-
ulate composites in which the particles reinforce and filled plastics where the
particles are added for reasons other than stiffness and strength enhancement.
The fibers are typically of the order of 10 ␮m in diameter (about half that of a
human hair), but some are less than 5 ␮m and others up to 150 ␮m. The fibers
may be continuous (i.e., dimensions that could stretch right across a workpiece,
up to several meters), long discontinuous [which are defined here as having an
aspect ratio (length/diameter) greater than 10,000 (length of a few centimeters)],
and short discontinuous, which have an aspect ratio less than 1000 down to 2
(lengths of a few millimeters or less). The fibers may be arranged within the
matrix in various ways, which are described as uniaxial or longitudinal (i.e., all
fibers aligned in one direction), biaxial in plane, multiaxial in plane, random in
plane, and three-dimensional arrays which may be organized (e.g., orthogonal)
or random. The properties of the fibers and their disposition in the matrix control
the mechanical properties of the composite and also profoundly influence the
ways in which they may be processed.
1 INTRODUCTION 1039
1.2 Role of Fiber Architecture on Mechanical Properties

Fiber Properties
The fibers used in composites have been developed to have very high strength,
very high stiffness, or both relative to the polymeric matrix. They mostly also
have low density compared with metals and specific mechanical properties ex-
ceeding those of most metallic alloys. A comparison of some properties of the
principal fibers used as reinforcements with those of typical engineering alloys
is given in Table 1. The specific stiffness (E/ ␳) and specific strengths (␴ / ␳) have
been normalized to those of mild steel. These show that the fibers have a stiffness
advantage over metals of up to 6.5 times and strength advantage of over 100
times in some cases. It should be noted that the properties of a composite will
generally be less than half that of the fiber depending on the proportion of fiber
and fiber architecture. This still results in some composites showing a significant
advantage over metals.
Fiber Architecture
There are two related aspects of fiber architecture; the fiber volume fraction, Vƒ,
and the fiber orientation. A perfectly collimated uniaxial array of fibers may be
packed to a Vƒ of 0.9, i.e., 90% of the volume is filled by fibers. However, the
practical maximum is closer to 0.7. Such an array would result in a composite
with stiffness in the fiber direction of approximately 70% of that of the fibers.
The transverse properties would be much lower and closer to those of the matrix.
On the other hand if the fibers were arranged in a random but planar array, the
maximum achievable Vƒ would be less than 0.3; and, since the fibers are at
random, the stiffness would be uniform in all directions, but only about 10% of
Table 1 Comparative Properties of Reinforcement Fibers and Typical Metal Alloys

E ␴ ␳
Material (GPa) (GPa) (kg / m3) ESR ␴SR
E-glass fiber 70 3.5 2540 1.1 54
(typical)
Aramid fiber 127 2.6 1470 3.4 69
(Kevlar 49)
Polyethylene fiber 100 3.0 970 4.0 121
(Spectra 1000)
High-strength carbon 230 3.6 1800 5.0 78
fiber (T300)
Intermediate modulus 300 5.8 1800 6.5 126
carbon fiber
(T800)
Mild steel 200 0.2 7800 1.0 1.0
(typical)
Alloy steel 200 1.0 7800 1.0 5.0
(typical)
Aluminum alloy 72 0.8 2700 1.0 12
(7000 series)
E, Young’s modulus; ␴, maximum tensile strength; ␳, density; ESR, normalized specific stiffness; ␴SR,
normalized specific strength.
that of the fiber. The mechanical properties are completely dominated by these
two considerations and, thus, control of fiber architecture is a vital consideration
when selecting a processing route.
Fibers for reinforcement are available either as continuous tows or rovings
consisting of parallel, untwisted arrays of 100 to more than 50,000 filaments, or
in various sheet or web forms suitable for making laminates. The most common
sheet formats are random mats, woven or knitted fabrics, braids and nonwoven,
stitch-bonded fabrics. These are discussed briefly in the next section.
Commercial Reinforcement Formats
Tows are bundles of fibers containing from about 100 to more than 10,000 fibers.
These bundles are generally untwisted. Twisted forms are designated yarns, al-
though these terms are often confused. Rovings are formed by combining a
number of tows to form a larger bundle, as shown in Fig. 1. These continuous
bundles are supplied in spools or ‘‘cheeses,’’ often containing up to 100 kg of
fiber. The size of the bundle is usually designated by the mass of a standard
length. The international standard is the tex, which is the mass in grams per
kilometer of yarn. An alternative, still used in the United States, is the denier,
where 1 tex ⫽ 9 deniers. Rovings used for reinforcement typically have linear
masses ranging from 50 to 5000 tex.
Random mats may be manufactured in two ways. The first is formed by
chopping rovings into short lengths, typically 10–75 mm, and letting these fall
freely onto a moving belt. The resulting random planar array of short bundles
is consolidated by application of a binder and passing between rolls. The resul-
tant roll of mat is termed chopped strand mat or CSM. Areal weights of CSM
are generally in the range of 100–2500 g/m2. The second method is to form a
mat by placing random swirls of continuous roving onto a moving belt and then
consolidating in a similar manner to that of CSM. The product is known as
continuous random mat, CRM, or swirl mat. It is produced in similar areal
weights as CSM.
Single filament: Untwisted fiber bundle:

Fiber Tow or Strand
Twisted tow = Yarn Several tows combined:

Fiber Roving
Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of single filaments, tows, and strands and rovings. Note that the
term ‘‘yarn’’ strictly refers to twisted tows but is often used interchangeably.
1 INTRODUCTION 1041
These two products are very widely used in the industry. They allow a max-
imum Vƒ of about 0.3 to be achieved with a random planar fiber orientation
distribution. They are cheap and easy to process. Their molding qualities depend
on the areal weight of the mat and the type of binder employed. The structures
of CSM and CRM are shown schematically in Fig. 2.
Woven fabrics are manufactured using standard textile weaving technology
from fiber rovings and to some extent yarns. Standard fabrics are biaxial, i.e.,
they have weft (fill) and warp rovings set at right angles. Plain weaves, twills,
and satin fabrics are commonly used at areal weights between 200 and 5000
g/m2. Special fabrics include planar triaxial formats, three sets of rovings at
120⬚ to each other, and three-dimensional forms. Two important aspects of wo-
ven materials are the degree of crimp and drapeability. Crimp is the degree to
which the rovings deviate from a linear path as they pass over and under each
other. Crimp is undesirable as it reduces the reinforcement efficiency. Satin
weaves have less crimp than plain weaves, as shown in Figs. 3a and 3b. The
other aspect is drape, which is the degree to which the fabric is able to conform
to contours on the mold. Lightweight cloths and satin weaves generally show
better drape than plain weaves. Any binder incorporated into the reinforcement
will also influence drape. Braid may also be considered as a woven form of
reinforcement. Braid is typically tubular and is formed by counter rotating braid-
ing wheels that carry the roving packages. Braids are usually manufactured with
weaves designed for specific products. They are particularly suited to hollow
tubular forms and many variations in structure are possible. Knitted fabrics are
also manufactured for reinforcement, these may be either flat or tubular as knit-
ted. The general feature is a high degree of crimp and low fiber fraction. How-
ever, it is possible to fill the knitted form with heavy unidirectional rovings
aligned in one or more directions (cf. noncrimp fabrics below), so that the knitted
structure holds together the main reinforcement.
Noncrimp fabrics, as the name implies, have been developed to eliminate the
problem of crimp. Unidirectional arrays of rovings are bonded together by stitch-
ing using a light thread, usually polyester, sometimes aramid. Several layers may
Chopped strand mat - CSM Continuous random mat - CRM

Randomly oriented bundles Random swirls of continuous
of fibers - 25 - 75 mm long fiber tows
Fig. 2 Illustration of the structure of chopped strand mat (CSM) and
continuous random mat (CRM), also termed swirl mat.
Warp
Warp
Weft [Fill]
Weft [Fill] FIVE-HARNESS SATIN WEAVE
PLAIN BALANCED WEAVE
(b) Weft face shown
(a)
Fig. 3 (a) Structure of a balanced plain woven cloth. The warp and fill tows cross in an alter-
nating over and under sequence. (b) A 5-harness satin weave. The fill tows pass under one,
then over four warp tows in a repeated sequence. This results in less crimp and
better drape characteristics than a plain weave.
be bonded together with the fibers aligned differently in each layer. Thus, one
layer of noncrimp fabric is equivalent to up to four, sometimes more, uniaxial
plies. Typical orientations are 0⬚, 90⬚; 0⬚, Ⳳ45⬚, 90⬚; and 0⬚, Ⳳ45⬚. Areal weights
range from about 400 to 3000 g/m2. The rovings in each layer can be very
closely packed so that the fabric results in composites with higher Vƒ than can
be achieved with woven material. It is also possible to incorporate layers of mat,
woven, or core-forming material between the plies. A further possibility is that
the construction of the fabric can be modified by a carefully designed set of
open channels within the layers to increase the permeability allowing faster
molding than with equivalent reinforcements.
Precompounded Reinforcements with Thermosetting Matrices
The reinforcements discussed above are dry, i.e., they contain no resin, apart
from small amounts of binder. The resin matrix has then to be infiltrated into
the reinforcement later in the processing cycle. An alternative is to use a pre-
compounded reinforcement, which contains all the resin necessary for further
processing. The advantages are that the infiltration is effected in a highly con-
trolled manner that guarantees the correct resin fraction and uniform distribution.
The disadvantages are increased cost, restricted shelf life, and more limited proc-
essing possibilities. In the first place only certain thermosetting resin are suitable.
They need to be in soft but not liquid or too sticky state. They need to be fully
formulated, i.e., already contain any necessary curing agents, initiators, or ac-
celerators. This means that the resin must be inherently unstable and will start
to cure as soon as the compound is manufactured. The rate of cure is temperature
dependent, and the resins used are usually formulated to cure at 100–200⬚C in
10–60 min. This then allows them to be stored at much lower temperatures
between manufacture and final processing without unacceptable advance of the
cure. Most commercial systems have a shelf life at room temperature (20⬚C) of
1 INTRODUCTION 1043
at least one month. However, many require them to be stored at subzero tem-
peratures, typically ⫺15⬚C, when they have a storage life of up to one year. This
complicates the logistics of processing and inevitably adds to the costs.
Compounded reinforcements are available as impregnated tows or rovings, as
preimpregnated warp sheet, or prepreg, preimpregnated woven fabrics and mats,
and preimpregnated random fiber compounds such as sheet molding compound
(SMC) and bulk molding compound (BMC). The processing principles are com-
mon. The material contains all the fiber and resin (possibly an excess) for man-
ufacture of the component. After assembly by laying tows or laminating sheet
forms, the material is subjected to heat and pressure. First the resin softens,
allowing consolidation, elimination of trapped gases, and any resin excess, then
the resin cures to form the solid part. In some cases, e.g., prepreg, which is
comprised of continuous fibers, no lateral flow of the fibers can occur. So the
plies have to be precisely tailored to the shape of the part. In other processes,
e.g., SMC, there is considerable flow of both resin and fiber so that complex
shapes including stiffening ribs and other features may be formed from blanks
of simple shapes. Prepreg consists of a uniaxial array of continuous fibers pro-
duced as a continuous roll up to about 2 m in width. The resin is applied to the
web of fiber and the compounded material then consolidated between two rolls
of protective film. One is usually a silicone-coated paper and the other a poly-
olefin film. The finished standard prepreg has an areal density of 100–200 g/
m2 and when cured is designed to have a thickness of 0.125 mm per ply. Thus
8 plies are required to form a laminate 1 mm thick. While this would be in-
convenient for the manufacture of thick structures, it does allow very precise
tailoring of the laminate properties by varying the lay-up sequence. A quasi-
isotropic laminate may be formed by the 8-ply sequence [0⬚, Ⳳ45⬚, 90⬚]s, the
subscript ‘‘s’’ indicating symmetric. Alternative sequences, usually symmetric,
give a different balance of longitudinal, transverse and in-plane shear properties.
Prepreg is also manufactured in thinner formats and also using fine woven fabrics
of plain or satin weave which typically laminate to 0.25 mm/ply.
There has recently been much interest in developing prepreg-like materials
more suitable for manufacturing thick laminates. These are based on combina-
tions of woven and noncrimp fabrics and mats, impregnated with suitable ther-
mosetting resins, usually vinyl-ester or epoxies. Areal densities exceeding 6000
g/m2 have been produced. The same problems of handling and shelf life apply
but, outside the aerospace industry, subzero storage is seldom acceptable and
shelf lives exceeding 3 months are demanded. This limits the range of resin
systems but satisfactory systems are now available. A concern with all precom-
pounded materials is the degree of tack or stickiness. Too little tack means that
lamina do not stay in place as the laminate is laid up. Too much tack renders
the material difficult to handle as it sticks to everything it contacts. Aerospace
prepregs are manufactured to a precisely controlled tack, but even this tends to
lessen as the material approaches the end of its shelf life. A technique recently
introduced for heavier reinforcements is to make a multiple layer material but
to confine the resin impregnation to the central layers, shown in Fig. 4. Such a
material handles like a dry reinforcement, although it tends to be much less
springy; when subjected to heat and pressure, the resin content softens to a low
viscosity and flows uniformly throughout the reinforcement. Developments such
1.
Ply of reinforcement fabric
2.
Coated on one side with pasty resin
3.
Second ply applied to form a sandwich
4.
Partially consolidated so that resin infiltrates part-way

through the two layers of reinforcement
Fig. 4 Sequence of manufacture of a partially impregnated fabric reinforcement.

A layer of pasty resin is sandwiched between two layers of fabric or mat. This produces
a dry material with good handling characteristics and is particularly suitable
for heavier grades of reinforcement.
as this illustrate how the industry is using imaginative techniques to improve

productivity while maintaining quality.
Sheet molding compound (SMC) and bulk molding compound (BMC) are
well-established precompounded materials, which are widely used in the auto-
motive and general engineering industries. SMC is manufactured by impregnat-
ing a continuous thick mat of chopped glass rovings, typically 50–75 mm long,
with a suitable resin, usually an unsaturated polyester or vinyl-ester containing
a large proportion of particulate fillers, such as chalk. The resin is specially
formulated so that it hardens to a thick paste on maturation after the compound-
ing operation. This takes about 72 h. The product is a continuous sheet of resin-
impregnated chopped rovings, typically about 5 mm thick and up to 2 m wide.
It has a dry but pliable consistency with no tack. It may be cut using shears or
a blanking tool. The cut pieces are compressed between hot matched tools. At
first the resin softens allowing the charge to flow to fill the mold; then the resin
cures. The part is ejected hot. The whole process takes from 5 to 20 min, ac-
cording to the size and complexity of the molding. This material and process is
particularly compatible with the production environment in the automobile and
other mass production industries. BMC is of similar formulation but typically
uses shorter fiber bundles, 10–25 mm, and is formed into a rope, ⬃50 mm
diameter. This is used as feedstock for either compression or injection molding.
Once again the parts are ejected hot and the molding cycle can be as short as 1
min. Both materials consist of flow-oriented quasi-random arrays of fiber bundles
and the fillers in the cured resin matrix.
Thermoplastic Matrices
These present a totally different set of processing considerations. Thermoplastics
are processed by a melt–freeze cycle and no chemical curing reactions are in-
volved. The materials are always solids at ambient temperature, and common
2 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR PROCESSING 1045
systems melt at temperatures ranging from 150 to 400⬚C. The main processing
problem with thermoplastics is that their viscosity in the molten state is orders
of magnitude higher than that of the common thermoset systems prior to curing.
There are a few thermoplastics, e.g., polyamides 6, 11, and 12, that can be
processed by in situ polymerization of monomer precursors and are exceptions
to this generalization. Preimpregnated tow and sheet materials comparable with
prepreg and SMC can be prepared, but they are rigid and boardlike below their
melting point. They are processed by preheating and then pressing or stamping
between cold tools. In general thermoplastic-based systems are limited to some-
what lower Vƒ than comparable thermoset composites. An alternative strategy is
to prepare commingled products by combining reinforcement fibers with ther-
moplastic fibers by spinning or weaving together. An extended discussion of
these products will be found in Section 15.
Mechanical Properties of Laminates and Moldings

As indicated earlier, the mechanical properties of a composite are controlled by
the proportion of fiber, Vƒ, and the overall fiber architecture or fiber orientation
distribution. Fully uniaxial laminates have the highest stiffness and strength in
the fiber direction but are relatively weak in the transverse direction and in shear.
They are seldom used because they can split parallel and between the fibers.
Most practical laminates therefore contain a proportion of their fibers in different
directions. A balanced woven fabric has about 50% of its fiber in each of two
directions mutually at right angles. A quasi-isotropic laminate has 25% of its
fibers in each of the four directions 0⬚, 90⬚, and Ⳳ45⬚. In each of these cases
the laminate will be less anisotropic than the uniaxial but the actual stiffness
and strength will be lower. A lower fiber fraction will reduce the stiffness and
strength in all of these directions. A random in-plane distribution, such as results
with the use of CSM, gives uniform properties in all in-plane directions but at
a level of less than a third that of a uniaxial array. This must be factored by the
fact that the Vƒ will be no more than 0.3 compared with a possible 0.7 for the
uniaxial. It is useful to calculate an orientation constant, C0, for each type of
reinforcement; this is 1 for uniaxial, 0.5 for the balanced biaxial fabric, and 0.3
for random in-plane. This may then be multiplied by the actual Vƒ to give a
reinforcement efficiency factor, ␩R. Table 2 indicates the reinforcement potential
for a number of common forms of reinforcement calculated for an E-glass/epoxy
resin system. Emax is the Young’s modulus in the stiffest direction and Gmax is
the in-plane shear modulus, both in units of GPa. Note that the maximum achiev-
able Vƒ decreases as the format becomes more random and also that the inclusion
of the Ⳳ45 orientation enhances the shear modulus. As Vƒ decreases, the values
for E and G converge toward those of the resin. The symbols RTM and RFI are
for resin transfer molding and resin film infusion, respectively.
2 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR PROCESSING

2.1 Aims and Objectives
The aim in selecting a processing route is to manufacture the part to meet all
the specified objectives at the required production rate and at the lowest possible
cost. Selection of a processing route certainly includes selection of appropriate
Table 2 Implications of Choice of Reinforcement Format for E-glass / Epoxy Resin

Vƒ Emax Gmax
Reinforcement Format max C0 ␩R (GPa) (GPa) Applicable Processes
Uniaxial tow 0⬚ 0.80 1.00 0.80 56 5.0 Tow placement, filament
wind, pultrusion
UD prepreg 0⬚ 0.65 1.00 0.65 47 5.0 Autoclave, RFI
Biaxial prepreg 0⬚, 90⬚ 0.60 0.50 0.30 22 5.0 Autoclave, RFI
Quasi-isotropic prepeg 0⬚, Ⳳ45⬚, 90⬚ 0.60 0.33 0.18 13 8.0 Autoclave, RFI
Balanced woven 0⬚, 90⬚ 0.50 0.50 0.25 18 4.1 RFI, RTM, contact mold
Isotropic woven 0⬚, 90⬚; Ⳳ45⬚ 0.50 0.33 0.16 12 7.0 RFI, RTM, contact mold
Noncrimp fabric 0⬚, 90⬚; Ⳳ45⬚ 0.55 0.33 0.18 13 7.5 RFI, RTM, contact mold
Orthogonal 3D x, y, z 0.40 0.33 0.13 9.4 4.0 RTM
CSM Random 2D 0.30 0.33 0.10 7.2 3.5 RFI, RTM, contact mold
CRM Random 2D 0.20 0.33 0.07 5.0 3.0 RFI, RTM, contact mold
Short fiber Random 3D 0.15 0.12 0.02 3.4 3.0 Injection mold
Unfilled epoxy resin 0.3 2.5
feedstock and may also involve selection of the basic material system, e.g.,
E-glass/polyester or carbon/epoxy.
2.2 Common Features of Composite Processing Routes

Infiltration
The reinforcing fibers are initially produced as spools of continuous roving. This
may be treated with a size and/or binder but is otherwise dry. During the proc-
essing operations, it must be fully infiltrated with the matrix resin. This may be
accomplished either by some precompounding operation or during the final
molding process. Infiltration of a porous medium by a liquid has been exten-
sively studied and a simple relationship proposed by Darcy is widely used:
S ⌬p
q⫽ (1)
␩ ⌬L
The rate of infiltration, q ,is proportional to the permeability, S, and the driving
pressure gradient, ⌬p/ ⌬L, and inversely proportional to the viscosity of the me-
dium, ␩. Thus, increasing the applied pressure or the permeability will assist
infiltration while increasing viscosity will hinder. Viscosity may usually be de-
creased by raising the temperature, but this leads to faster cure in thermosets
and ultimately to degradation in thermoplastics. It is necessary to establish a
processing window where the temperature and pressure are controlled to allow
complete infiltration to be effected before gelation or degradation of the matrix
resin. The length L over which infiltration must occur is basically determined
by the geometry of the part. However, the effective infiltration path can be altered
by multiple gating and also in rather more subtle ways by design of the rein-
forcement.
The permeability, S, is determined by the reinforcement architecture and may

be modeled using the Carman Kozeny relationship:
r 2ƒ (1 ⫺ Vƒ)3
S⫽ (2)
4kV 2ƒ
Here the permeability of a uniform array (of fibers) is given by the square of
the fiber radius, a function of Vƒ, and the Kozeny constant, k. It can be seen that
the permeability will be lower when the fibers are of smaller radius. The effect
of Vƒ is very severe, and the permeability decreases by a factor of about 6 for
a Vƒ increase from 0.6 to 0.7. The Kozeny constant is a measure of tortuosity:
In a uniform uniaxial array of cylindrical fibers (Fig 5a), k for flow parallel to
the fibers is some 20 times lower than that for flow normal to the fibers. This
PARALLEL FLOW:
Fluid flows smoothly between
the fibres. Rate proportional
to square of diameter.
TRANSVERSE FLOW:
Path is tortuous - Rate
only ≈1/20 of that for
parallel flow.
(a)
100
10
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
AXIAL FLOW
1
0.1
TRANSVERSE FLOW
0.01
0.001
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
(b) FIBER VOLUME FRACTION
Fig. 5 (a) This depicts flow parallel and normal to a uniaxial array of fibers. The tortuous flow
1
in the normal direction results in a flowrate only ⬇–– 1 0 of that in the parallel direction under simi-
lar conditions. (b) Relative permeabilities in the axial (parallel) and transverse (normal) directions
of uniaxial fiber arrays is plotted against fiber fraction, Vƒ. Note that the transverse flowrate is
1
only ––
2 0 of that in the axial direction. There is a reduction of permeability by a factor of approxi-
mately 100 for an increase in Vƒ from 0.3 to 0.7.
effect and that of Vƒ are further illustrated in Fig. 5b, which shows that per-
meability is reduced by a factor of 10 for an increase in Vƒ from 0.4 to 0.6.
These two relationships allow some simple generalizations to be stated:
(i) Permeability will be higher for a coarser fiber array.

(ii) Permeability is much higher in the fiber direction than at right angles.
(iii) Permeability decreases sharply as Vƒ is increased.
Unfortunately small-diameter fibers at high Vƒ tend to give composites with

better mechanical properties, so it is necessary to balance the aims of achieving
high mechanical properties against the requirements of ease of processing. For-
tunately there are a number of ways in which the effective permeability may be
increased without undue performance penalty. These are discussed in a later
section.
Consolidation
This is the process whereby the thickness of the section is reduced to the design
value and porosity and other defects eliminated. When dry or impregnated plies
(or tows) are laid up to form a laminate, the initial lay-up (pack) will be signif-
icantly thicker than ultimately required. This is due to the difficulty in obtaining
perfect contact, to entrapment of air, and sometimes due to an excess of resin
that is often deliberately incorporated. The application of pressure and/or heating
to the pack will cause it to consolidate. Ideally, any entrapped air or other
volatiles will also be eliminated together with any excess resin. Provision for
removal of resin and volatiles may be made by venting the tooling, by the use
of absorbent bleeder fabrics, and/or by the use of vacuum. The consolidation
process requires that resin flows, usually in the thickness direction of the pack.
The process may be partially affected by a preconsolidation operation (debulk-
ing) prior to the main processing operation or as part of the main process.
The principles of consolidation of a simple laminate, with a bleed ply, are
illustrated in Fig 6. Once again the process requires a sufficient time for the flow
processes to occur and this will be affected by the applied pressure and the
temperature. Where preconsolidation is used, care must be taken not to advance
the cure of thermoset systems too far so as to compromise satisfactory final
consolidation and cure.
Effects of Applied Pressure
Examination of the Darcy relationship (Eq. 1) indicates that the rate of infiltra-
tion may be increased by increasing the pressure gradient forcing infiltration.
While this is true, there are some limitations and implications that must be
discussed. First, much composite molding is carried out using simple tooling,
usually also composite, and a vacuum bag. This limits the pressure that may be
applied to less than one atmosphere (⬇1 bar). Higher pressures may be applied
if an autoclave is employed, typically up to 5 bars. The limitation here is the
pressure capacity of the autoclave vessel, which may be 3 m in diameter. Higher
pressures may be exerted by press, but it should be noted that to apply a pressure
of only 10 bars, which is approximately 1 MPa, a closing force of 100 ton䡠f is
Absorbent bleeder pack

Resin permeable membrane
Resin flow
Mold surface
Consolidated plies
Prepreg plies
containing excess resin Excess resin
absorbed into bleeder
Fig. 6 Process of consolidation involves flow in the thickness direction of the laminate.
If a bleeder ply is used, excess resin flows through a resin-permeable release ply and
is absorbed in the porous bleeder.
required for each 1 m2 projected area of the molding. One implication of using
higher pressures is that the tooling needs to be made more robust. This means
use of steel tools, at a cost of at least five times that of the simple composite
tooling. A further problem is that the application of high compressing pressures
to the reinforcement before it is infiltrated, will tend to consolidate it, increase
the Vƒ, and decrease the permeability, so that there is no gain in infiltration rate.
Cure of Thermosetting Resins
Thermosetting resins are cured by a chemical process that is enhanced by raising
the temperature. The detailed chemistry of this process will not be discussed,
but the basic behavior is common to all systems. The resins are usually supplied
in liquid form, typically with the consistency of a light lubricating oil. There
are usually at least two components, which must be mixed in precise proportions
prior to processing. One component is normally the resin and the other may be
designated curing agents, initiators, accelerators, or catalysts. (The term catalyst
is, however, often used loosely in the industry when the ingredients are not
technically catalysts!) Once mixed they are fully formulated and the chemical
process leading to cure is initiated. Resins may be formulated to cure at ambient
temperature (e.g., 15–25⬚C) or at elevated temperatures (typically 50–250⬚C)
and over time intervals from a few seconds to several hours, even days. Some
systems, notably the unsaturated polyester resins, are more versatile in this con-
text than others.
The curing reaction results in the development of a dense network of chemical
bonds between the original polymer molecules. On the completion of cure the
resin is solid, cannot be melted, and cannot be dissolved in solvents without
degradation. Most of the thermosets used in composites cure to hard rigid solids,
but it is possible to formulate systems to yield softer or even elastomeric prod-
ucts. The cure process occurs in several stages. First there is often an incubation
period when there is little observable change. Then the viscosity is observed to
increase, and heat arising from the reaction(s) will be evolved. This usually
results in a rise in temperature, referred to as the cure exotherm. A consequence

of this temperature rise is that the viscosity of the resin will be decreased, which
assists the processes of infiltration and consolidation. The next stage is gelation:
At this point the resin ceases to be liquid and transforms to a solid, initially it
is rubbery but then becomes progressively harder. The evolution of heat is gen-
erally most intense during the period around gelation. As the cure proceeds the
exotherm becomes weaker and the resin becomes fully hardened or vitrified.
Raising the initial cure temperature by heating will accelerate the cure process.
Gelation will occur sooner and the exotherm will be more intense. Care must
be exercised to ensure that the exothermic heat does not lead to the resin/
laminate becoming excessively hot so that degradation occurs. This is often
observed as burnt regions in the thicker sections of a molding where heat transfer
out of the laminate is less favorable. In extreme cases the molding can com-
pletely disintegrate, or even explode, as a result of excess exotherm! It is for-
tunate that the reinforcement, which does not participate in the reactions, acts
to some degree as an internal heat sink.
Three temperature, viscosity and cure profiles for a laminate cured at different
temperatures are shown in Figs. 7a, 7b, and 7c. Note how the time to gelation
is reduced by raising the cure temperature. For reasons of productivity it is
generally desirable to cure as fast as possible, provided excessive exotherm can
be controlled. However, it is also necessary that the resin is at low viscosity for
a sufficient time interval to allow any infiltration or consolidation processes to
be completed. This may be achieved by balancing the cure temperature profile
and the consolidation pressure.
Processing Thermoplastic Matrix Systems
Thermoplastics, with the exception of the monomer polymerization systems, are
not cured but are processed through melt–freeze cycles. Thermoplastics are ei-
ther amorphous or semicrystalline, with degrees of crystallinity of up to about
75%. On heating to above the melting temperature, Tm, amorphous polymers
soften over a range of temperatures while the semicrystalline materials melt more
sharply and generally to melts of lower viscosity. Overheating leads to degra-
dation, discoloration, and loss of properties. On cooling back through the freez-
ing temperature, the amorphous materials become gradually more rigid, but the
semicrystalline polymers freeze more sharply and recrystallize. The extent of
crystallinity is dependent on the rate of cooling through the critical region. Fast
cooling leads to a fine substructure but lower overall crystallinity, while slow
cooling has the converse effect. In most cases optimum mechanical performance
of the composite requires that the crystallite size and degree of crystallinity be
controlled. It is therefore necessary to exercise control over cooling rates when
processing thermoplastic systems. A further property of amorphous thermoplas-
tics is the glass transition temperature, Tg. This transition occurs below the
melting point and at T ⬍ Tg the polymer behaves as a glass. It is hard, often
brittle, and does not creep significantly under load. At T ⬎ Tg the polymer is
rubbery and much softer, extendible, and creeps under load. The temperature Tg
effectively defines the upper service temperature for amorphous thermoplastics.
In the case of the semicrystalline thermoplastics only the amorphous portion is
affected by Tg, so the effect is less severe. Semicrystalline polymers therefore
have higher useful service temperatures and in the temperature interval between
1.2
1.0
420K = 147°C
DEGREE OF CURE
0.8 400K = 127°C
0.6
0.4 380K = 107°C

GEL POINT
GEL POINT
0.2
GEL POINT
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
(a) TIME - min
1.2 0.010
400K = 127°C 0.009

1.0
MAX RATE OF HEAT 0.008
EVOLUTION
RATE OF EXOTHERM
0.007
DEGREE OF CURE
0.8
0.006
0.6 0.005
0.004
0.4
0.003
ARBITRARY UNITS
0.002
0.2
0.001
0.0 0.000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
(b) TIME - min
Fig. 7 These figures illustrate the cure characteristics of a typical thermosetting resin, e.g., an
epoxy. (a) Shows the cure profile at three different curing temperatures. The degree of cure is
plotted against time of cure. The cure rate is much faster at the higher temperatures. A temper-
ature increase of only 20⬚C, from 107⬚C to 127⬚C, reduces the gel time from 250 min to just
over 100 min. (b) Cure profile at 127⬚C is shown together with the rate of exotherm. This peaks
soon after gelation. The exotherm rate is higher at higher cure temperatures (not shown). (c)
Resin viscosity profiles for the same resin at the three temperatures is shown. The viscosity in-
creases sharply after the gel point and this defines the workable range, or process window.
Tg and Tm are often quite tough. The high melt viscosity of thermoplastics means
that processes dependent on infiltration cannot be used. Most systems are, there-
fore, precompounded or co-mingled.
Heat Transfer
It will have become apparent from the preceding discussion that most processing
operations involve heat flow, to manage heating, cooling, or to control exotherm
or crystallinity. Polymer resins are generally poor thermal conductors and are
500
450
420K = 147°C
400 400K = 127°C
350
VISCOSITY - Pa s
300
250
200
PROCESS
WINDOW @ 400K
150 380K = 107oC
RESIN WORKABLE UP TO THIS
VISCOSITY
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
(c) TIME - min
Fig. 7 (Continued )
sensitive to overheating. Unimpregnated fiber arrays are also very poor conduc-
tors, although some fibers themselves are quite good. The materials used for
tooling may also be poor conductors. This applies particularly to composite
tooling, which is very widely used, also to plaster and concrete. The problem is
often increased by the use of vacuum bags, porous breathers, and bleed plies
over the laminate on the tool. Metal tooling is the exception, but this is only
generally used for the higher production rate processes. It follows that consid-
erable care is needed to manage the heat input and output during processing and
that the time required for heat transfer is a significant and sometimes critical
part of most processing operations. Problems may be minimized by avoidance
of thick sections and by the incorporation of internal heating or cooling into
mold tools.
Flow Processes during Molding
In all processes some flow of resin will occur, but the flow or movement of the
reinforcement warrants further consideration. At one extreme there are processes
that involve vertical consolidation only with no relative movement of the rein-
forcement in other directions. The other extreme is when molding with a com-
pound, such as BMC, where the whole charge, resin plus fiber, flows in all
directions to fill the mold. In reinforcements incorporating straight continuous
fibers, no movement can occur in the fiber direction. Any significant movement
normal to the fibers will result in splitting if there is extension or wrinkling if
there is compression. On the other hand limited shear deformation is possible.
If there is biaxial continuous reinforcement, as in a woven cloth, no stretch can
be accommodated in either direction, compression will result in wrinkling but
again some shear movement is possible.
Reinforcements containing discontinuous fibers, however, are free to flow to
a much greater extent. Sheet molding compound, with chopped roving reinforce-
ment, will flow in three dimensions and allow features such as ribs and bosses
to be molded without deliberate placement of reinforcement at these features.

Continuous random mat will also flow but to a lesser degree. Clearly it is im-
portant to select reinforcement appropriate to the degree of flow necessary to
form the part. See the comment in the following section concerning thermo-
plastic matrix systems.
Drape
This is related to flow but is concerned with the extent to which a reinforcement
will comply to a complex molding surface. A uniaxial prepreg can only be
successfully draped on single curvature surfaces. Double curvature requires ex-
tension or contraction in the lateral direction leading to splits or wrinkles. Double
curvature panels can, however, be formed by use of narrow tapes with small
gaps or overlaps accommodating the misfit. Biaxial continuous fiber reinforce-
ment, in principle, suffers from a similar limitation but can, in fact, accommodate
some draping by tow slippage and shear. Satin and twill weaves have signifi-
cantly better drape characteristics than plain weaves and lighter fabrics drape
more efficiently than heavy. Random mats drape very well, but this is affected
by the type of binder used. A strong binder will prevent effective drape. If the
binder is resin soluble, draping can be effected after the resin has been applied.
With CSM there is a possibility of tearing if the binder is too weak. This leads
to depletion of reinforcement in the torn areas. Continuous strand mat is resistant
to tearing, it drapes well but cannot flow as much as CSM. Both CSM and CRM
are used in precompounded thermoplastic sheet systems. They cannot flow in
any way until the matrix has been melted, but then behavior is similar to that
in thermosets.
2.3 Design of Reinforcements to Enhance Permeability
Following from the discussion of infiltration in Section 2.2, it would appear that
the objectives of obtaining high mechanical properties by maximizing Vƒ and
benefiting from high permeability are mutually exclusive. Tightly packed arrays
of small-diameter fibers are highly impermeable, especially in the directions
normal to the fiber axes. The effect of Vƒ on permeability is shown in Fig. 5b
for axial and transverse infiltration. The time to infiltrate a 250-mm-long uniform
array of 10-␮m-diameter fibers, at a Vƒ of 0.5, under a pressure of 2 bars with
a resin of 0.1 Pa/s is calculated to be in excess of 200 h, i.e., practically im-
possible! However if the fibers are arranged as tightly packed tows, of 1 mm
diameter and packed with a Vƒ of 0.7 within the tows, and the tows then packed
with a packing factor of 0.7, to give an overall Vƒ of 0.49 (⬇0.5), as shown in
Fig. 8, under similar conditions the infiltration time of the array is about 5 s.
Furthermore the transverse infiltration of the tows takes only a further 15 s
because the distance to infiltrate is only about 0.5 mm (half the tow diameter),
so that complete infiltration takes about 20 s. This is a much more realistic
prospect. The key to high permeability with high volume fraction is to provide
a network of relatively large passages through the reinforcement, between tows,
or simply by leaving some gaps between tows. The resin can then quickly in-
filtrate through these large passages by axial macroinfiltration, and then infiltrate
the tows by transverse microinfiltration. These infiltration passages may be in-
corporated into the reinforcement during the weaving operation.
d
MACRO FLOW:
Longitudinal flow between
fibre bundles.
MICRO FLOW:
Transverse flow into
fibre bundles.
d
Much slower but distance
only bundle diameter.
Fig. 8 Illustrates the principles of macro- and microflow in an array of fiber bundles. This is the
normal structure of fiber composites. Flow is fast through the relatively large channels between
the bundles. Final infiltration is accomplished by microflow in the transverse direction into the
tightly packed fiber bundle. This is much slower but the infiltration distance is very short.
Another method of speeding up infiltration is to incorporate layers of open

reinforcement, such as CSM, between layers of heavier material such as woven
roving or noncrimp fabric. The distributor ply allows the whole area of the
molding to be infiltrated so that the heavy reinforcement only has to be infiltrated
through its thickness direction. Again the key is to minimize the distance through
which tightly packed fibers need to be infiltrated. This principle is further ex-
ploited in the SCRIMP and RFI processes discussed in later sections.
2.4 Tooling
Most composite laminates are of shell form, often with additional detail such as
stiffening ribs, bosses, and cutouts. These forms may be molded using single-
sided tools of either male or female form. The choice is usually governed by
the geometry of the piece, the logistics of the laminating process, and which
side constitutes the prime surface where dimensions and surface finish need to
be controlled. Ribs or bosses may be incorporated either by cutting these features
into the tool face or, more usually, by building up on the back surface using
additional tool pieces where necessary. Simple one-sided tools may be fabricated
using composites by taking an impression off a master form, usually termed the
plug. The basic impression is a thin shell that is then backed up with stiffeners
and supporting structure to render it sufficiently robust to withstand the chosen
molding process. The mold materials may be E-glass with unsaturated polyester,
vinyl ester or epoxy resin matrices, or carbon fiber with epoxy backed up with
timber or metallic supporting structures. The advantage of carbon fiber is its
greater stiffness, better thermal conductivity, and, most significant, much lower
coefficient of thermal expansion. This facilitates molding to closely specified
dimensions and is particularly relevant when the molding is also carbon fiber
reinforced. In contact molding, laminates are built up on the mold surface and
simply hand consolidated without application of additional pressure. Alterna-
tively the mold may be vacuum bagged so that one atmosphere of consolidating
pressure may be used. In some instances single-sided tooling may be press
consolidated using an elastomeric counter tool, but note that a more robust sup-
porting structure may be necessary. Single-sided tooling is widely used, with a
vacuum bag for autoclave cure. Some of these options are illustrated in Figs. 9–
11. Double-sided or matched tooling may also be fabricated using composites.
This is again usually used in a press, and therefore size and consolidating pres-
sure will be determined by the equipment available.
Composite tooling is suitable for short to medium production runs. Typically
a tool may be used to mold up to 100 parts before needing extensive reworking.
This figure can, however, vary very widely depending on the complexity of the
molding and the consolidating and cure conditions. Where long runs are re-
quired, the options are multiple tools or metallic tooling. Metallic tools are
inevitably much more costly than composite, but they are more robust and more
durable. A serious problem is the mismatch in thermal expansion between the
composite part and the tool, which causes difficulty in establishing dimensional
control. The options for metal tooling are cast-zinc alloy, cast or fabricated
aluminum alloy, cast iron, fabricated steel, and Invar. The choice depends on the
part size and complexity, surface finish requirements, and thermal expansion
considerations. Invar has the great advantage of virtually zero thermal expansion
over typical molding temperature ranges (20–150⬚C). It is an alloy of nickel and
iron and may be fabricated using standard steel practices, the cost is much higher
than that of steel. Metal tooling is generally necessary for all high-pressure
Prime surface
1. Master form - “Plug” 2. CFRP shell laminated onto plug
4. Completed female half-tool 3. Back-up structure added
Fig. 9 Composite tool may be manufactured by laminating a CFRP shell onto a master form
or plug. This is then backed-up by a suitable structure to provide the necessary robustness for
subsequent molding operations.
Female mold Part laminated into female mold
Optional vacuum bag
Part laminated onto male mold

Principle of two-part closed mold
Fig. 10 There are several options for contact molding composite laminates. Single-sided tool-
ing of either male or female form may be used, in conjunction with vacuum bag consolidation,
if required. Enhanced shape definition and surface finish may be obtained by using
two-part tooling, normally set in a press.
(⬎10 bars) and high-temperature (⬎200⬚C) molding processes including SMC

and BMC.
It is difficult to provide any reliable estimate of tooling cost without detailed
information of the size, complexity, and molding conditions. However, the cost
of a simple one-sided composite tool is in the region of $5000–$10,000 for a
tool of 1-m2 plan area. Matched tools would cost 2–12 –3 times as much, and
metallic tooling 5–10 times. These are substantial costs and contribute signifi-
cantly to the cost of the product.
2.5 Rate of Build
The rate at which a part can be laid up is a vital aspect of productivity for all
laminated composite structures. This is determined by the method of lay-up and
Soft elastomeric counter tool
1. Laminate on male tool 2. Press closed - compressed

elastomer consolidates laminate
during cure
Fig. 11 Pressure consolidation may be effected by use of single-sided tooling with an elasto-
meric counter tool setup in a press. For parts of moderate curvature and draw a simple block
of elastomer may suffice. More deeply formed shapes will require the counter tool
to be shaped. The elastomer tool is normally a much less costly option than
conventional matched tooling.
the areal density of the reinforcements. Most construction is still hand laid and
therefore the choice of reinforcement is the most important factor. The labor
costs of laminating tend to be one of the critical cost factors, and this is strongly
influenced by the number of plies that need to be laid. To maximize the build
rate and to minimize lay-up costs, a heavy reinforcement is preferable, but in-
filtration, consolidation, and drape may be compromised if the reinforcement is
too heavy. In the case of thinner laminates the specified configuration may re-
quire several plies to be laid at different orientations. Thus, if a quasi-isotropic
laminate is specified, there must be a minimum of 8 plies of uniaxial reinforce-
ment (e.g., prepreg) in the configuration [0⬚, 90⬚, Ⳳ45⬚]s or four plies of balanced
woven fabric in the sequence [0⬚ /90⬚, Ⳳ45⬚, Ⳳ45⬚, 0⬚ /90⬚]. This leads to a
minimum thickness of 1 mm if standard uniaxial or woven prepreg is used. A
heavier reinforcement such as a woven glass fabric of 1250 g/m2 would give a
molded thickness of 1 mm for one layer, but the only configurations would be
0⬚ /90⬚ or Ⳳ45⬚. Alternatively two plies of a four-layer [0⬚, 90⬚, Ⳳ45⬚] noncrimp
fabric of 625 g/m2 would produce a 1-mm quasi-isotropic laminate. If drape
were a problem, then a lighter-weight satin weave fabric, e.g., eight plies of 160
g/m2, might be the better choice. For thicker laminates, where drape require-
ments are less severe, heavier reinforcements may be considered.
In the aerospace industry it is common to design complex laminates incor-
porating several thickness changes, cutouts, and other features. These must all
be implemented while maintaining the basic configuration, balance, and sym-
metry of the laminate. This leads to the choice of thin uniaxial or woven prepreg,
even for laminates that are very thick in their thickest regions. Laminates of
over 20-mm thickness containing 160 plies are typically specified. This imposes
a very considerable cost penalty in comparison with a simpler laminate made
up from heavier reinforcements. The enhanced performance must be balanced
against this cost penalty. There is currently considerable effort within the aero-
space industry to develop manufacturing technologies that reduce processing
costs, especially labor, while maintaining acceptable levels of performance.
An alternative approach is to use automated lay-up. This generally implies
use of computer-controlled tow or tape laying equipment. For laying tape the
machinery consists of a moving gantry with a tape laying head with 4–6 axis
positional control. This is controlled by software linked to a computer-aided
design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) package to lay down a series of strips
of tape to comply with the specified lay-up and part geometry. This equipment
is suitable for making flat or shallow curvature panels, which may be sometimes
subsequently further shaped. The equipment is costly but once set up, completely
automatic. Quality and reproducibility are very good, but production rate is not
always much higher than for hand lamination. This is due to the use of quite
narrow tape, 50–600 mm, and a laying speed of only 1–5 m/s. The economics
are generally more advantageous for the manufacture of large panels, e.g., ⬎2
m length, where manual positioning of large sheets of reinforcement is difficult.
2.6 Economic Implications of Choice of Feedstock
A wide range of feedstock options are available; these range from the raw fiber
tows in spool form, through the range of woven and nonwoven sheet materials,
to the precompounded materials such as prepreg and SMC. There is an added
cost associated with every operation performed on the fiber to convert it into
Table 3 Typical Costs of Basic Fiber Rovings (2000)

Typical Price Approximate Annual
Weight Range World Production
Fibre Type (tex) (US$ / kg) (ton)
E-glass roving 1,200 2–5 4 million
Aramid roving (yarn) 300 10–20 10,000
(e.g., Kevlar 49)
High-strength carbon 900 5–20 18,000
(e.g., T-300)
Intermediate modulus carbon 350 100–200 ⬍2,000 (estimated)
(e.g., T-800)
the feedstock of choice, and this must be offset against possible savings in the
downstream processing operations. If dry reinforcement is used, then the matrix
resin must be separately acquired and downstream processes must involve infil-
tration of the reinforcement. The alternative would be to purchase preimpreg-
nated feedstock, such as prepreg, at a cost premium and then eliminate the need
for infiltration downstream. Similar arguments may be used for the use of mul-
tilayer noncrimp fabrics in place of simple cloth or mat. In this case the lay-up
process would be simplified at the cost of using more expensive feedstock.
Typical costs of some of the more widely used feedstock materials are sum-
marized in Tables 3 and 4. These values should be used with caution as actual
prices vary widely according to availability, demand, the exact specification of
the material, and, of course, the quantity to be purchased. The likely availability
is indicated by the annual production figures. Thus E-glass is a commodity
material and is readily available in all formats, but intermediate modulus carbon
must often be specially ordered. The values quoted in Table 4 are based on
actual quotations, obtained in 1998 and adjusted for inflation. Close analysis
reveals several anomalies, but these are due to market forces at the time of
quotation.
3 CONTACT MOLDING
3.1 Principles
Contact molding is the original process used for the manufacture of composite
laminates; it is still very widely used and there are many modifications and
Table 4 Typical Costs of Converted Fiber Reinforcements—US$ / kg (2000)

Reinforcement Aramid Carbon Carbon
Format E-glass (Kevlar 49) (T-300) (T-800)
Fiber roving 3.75 15 15 120
Chopped strand mat 5.0 N / Ab N/A N/A
Woven fabric 24 43 44 108
Noncrimp fabric 38 63 65 147
Uniaxial preprega 65 95 135 220
Sheet molding compounda 7.0 N/A N/A N/A
a
These formats include the resin.
b
N / A, not usually available in this format.
3 CONTACT MOLDING 1059
derivatives of the basic process. A single-sided tool is used, and this may be of
either male or female form. The lamination surface of the mold is usually smooth
and glossy, it is treated with suitable release agents to prevent adhesion of
the laminate. These release agents are typically waxes and either silicone or
poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE) suspensions. In the basic process, a layer of
sheet reinforcement is laid on, or in, the mold, and then liquid resin is applied
by brush or spray. The resin is worked by hand using brush or roller so that a
uniform spread of resin and full impregnation, wetting out, of the reinforcement
is achieved. A second layer of reinforcement may then be applied and resin
worked into that layer as before, and so on, until the required number of plies
have been laid. If a smooth glossy and/or colored surface is required, it is usual
to brush or spray a gel coat consisting of a layer of a thixotropic resin with
filler and/or pigment on to the prepared mold surface, and to allow it to gel
before the first layer of reinforcement is applied. The most usual choice of resin
is an unsaturated polyester (UPE). This is of a syrupy consistency and is for-
mulated to cure at shop temperature, e.g., 15–25⬚C. When the resin is fully
cured, the part may be removed from the mold, the mold prepared for another
molding, and the process repeated.
3.2 Key Factors and Variations

Choice of Resin
Unsaturated polyester resins are very versatile, many variants are available, and
their processing characteristics may be further modified at the point of molding
by variation of the choice and proportions of initiator and accelerator added to
the basic resin. The initial choice of resin involves its chemical formulation,
viscosity, basic cure characteristics, and fire and smoke characteristics. The main
resin types are ortho-phthallic, iso-phthallic, tere-phthallic, and bisphenol-based
resins. The ortho-phthallic resins are economic general-purpose materials; iso-
phthallic and tere-phthallic are premium grades offering superior performance
especially in wet environments. Bisphenol resins are used for superior resistance
to a number of chemical environments. Detailed recommendations are available
from the suppliers. Most resins can be supplied with fire-retardant additives to
improve their behavior when exposed to fire hazard. Fillers and pigments may
also be incorporated in the resin to provide self-coloring and also to improve
the surface smoothness, especially if the part is to be subsequently painted. It is
generally considered that solid fillers and pigments impair the resistance of the
resin to environmental hazards, so that unfilled and unpigmented systems are
preferred when the component is destined to be exposed to water or chemical
hazards, e.g., the underwater areas of yachts and motor boats. Viscosity is an
important factor. Low viscosity improves the rate of wetting out and infiltration
but can lead to resin run-off from vertical molding surfaces. A consistency sim-
ilar to that of a medium lubricating oil is a common compromise, and there are
often additions to promote thixotropy; this property allows the resin to thin when
worked, e.g., with a brush or roller, but to thicken again when the working
operation ceases. This allows good wetting out and reduces run-off. Alternative
resin systems include the vinyl-ester and epoxy resins. The former may be pro-
cessed in essentially the same way as the UPE resin and offer superior properties
under some service conditions. The epoxy resins are considerably more costly
than UPE, they are superior for higher temperature operation, and while widely
used, they are not often processed by contact molding.
Resin Formulation
The resins are formulated by blending an initiator and often an accelerator with
the basic resin. The initiator (often designated catalyst in the industry although
most are not strictly chemical catalysts) is always added just before processing.
The accelerator is often added to the resin by the supplier but may also be added
at the point of processing. Accelerators and initiators must never be mixed di-
rectly owing to the risk of a violent chemical reaction or explosion. The accel-
erator is first thoroughly mixed into the resin, and then the initiator may be
added and also thoroughly mixed. The combination of resin, accelerator, and
initiator set the cure temperature range, the cure rate, the pot or shelf life, the
gel time, and the cure time. Unsaturated polyester resins can be formulated to
cure in times varying from less than 1 minute to over 24 h. The formulation
must ensure that the resin remains workable, i.e., liquid and not too high a
viscosity, for as long as it takes to lay and wet-out at least one layer of the
reinforcement. In the case of small moldings, which might be completely laid
up in an hour or two, it is common to formulate the resin to remain workable
through the whole laminating process, but for large moldings the laminating
operation may extend over several days and the resin is allowed to gel after each
layer has been applied. However, it is imperative that not too long a period
elapse before further layers are applied, otherwise bonding may be inadequate.
Typically, a period of up to a week is permitted. At the end of the resin working
period gelation occurs quite suddenly. The resin ceases to be liquid and, although
still quite soft for a period, any attempt to work it would result in resin fracture.
Once the laminate is complete, it is generally desirable that the resin cures in
as short a time as possible. The molding may then be removed from the tool,
demolded, and the tool may then be reused. Typically if gelation takes place
after 1 h, then demolding will be possible after about 5 h.
Cure Temperature and Cure Time
Unsaturated polyester resins with no added accelerator need to be cured at el-
evated temperatures in the range of 70–160⬚C. The exact temperature of cure in
this range is determined by the choice of initiator, several of which will be
recommended by the resin supplier. They have storage lives of upward of 1 year
in a dark cool environment. The addition of an accelerator is required for cure
at shop temperature, when satisfactory cure may be affected at temperatures
above 15⬚C, although 20–25⬚C is usually considered more satisfactory. Increas-
ing the proportion of initiator results in a faster cure. UPE resins can be cured
in less than 1 min, even at 20⬚C, or the cure extended to several hours. An
alternative strategy is to formulate the resin to cure at an elevated temperature,
e.g., 50–120⬚C. This will ensure a very long working life at shop temperature.
After the lay-up is completed, the molding must be heated to its cure tempera-
ture, and cure can be much faster than would be achieved with a low-temperature
cure. Heating may be by placing the tool in an air-circulation oven, by radiant
heaters, or by blown hot air. The need to ensure adequate working life has
already been discussed; the other critical consideration is exotherm (see also
discussion of cure of thermosetting resins above). The amount of heat released
during cure is approximately the same for most UPE resins, so the rate of heat
evolution will be a function of cure rate. Faster cure will result in a higher rise
in temperature. This will also be affected by the thickness of the molding and
by heat transfer from the laminate to the mold and the environment. Fast cures
can often be tolerated in thin laminates but in thick sections would result in
unacceptable temperatures being reached. It should be noted that exothermic
heating occurs even in cold (i.e., shop temperature) cured systems. The temper-
ature of a molding will typically be observed to rise to 50–80⬚C. The cure is
actually accelerated by this temperature rise, and thin laminates will take longer
to cure than thicker ones where the exotherm effect is more severe. In practice
the proportions of accelerator and initiator should be adjusted for each type of
molding to optimize working time, curing time, and hence productivity.
Styrene Emissions
Unsaturated polyester resins are formulated with a proportion of styrene or other
vinyl monomer that is used to control the resin viscosity and provide the basis
for the addition cure. Styrene is highly volatile, and inflammable, and the vapor
is known to constitute a health hazard. Hence the permitted levels of styrene in
the working environment are strictly regulated by the health authorities. Details
vary according to location, but there will always be a requirement to provide
sufficient ventilation and regulate the release of styrene vapor into the atmo-
sphere. Lamination of UPE resins onto open molds obviously constitutes an
extreme hazard. Resins are available with film-forming additives that help limit
emissions, but there is a movement to adopt alternative processes that reduce
potential exposure.
3.3 Laminate Design for Contact Molding
The contact molding process is extremely versatile. The size of moldings varies
from less than 1 kg up to more than 500 tons, and many features can be incor-
porated into the molding. It is suitable for production runs from single parts up
to several hundred but is basically a low production rate process and is dependent
on a high labor content. Quality is also strongly dependent on the expertise of
the labor employed.
The cheapest reinforcement is chopped strand E-glass mat. It is of low Vƒ but
high permeability and has good drape characteristics. It is therefore very widely
used for production of commodity moldings. Its disadvantage is that the me-
chanical properties are only modest, and it is therefore not ideal where structural
mass is an important consideration. It is available in a range of areal densities,
generally from about 100 to 5000 g/m2 and may be treated with different pro-
portions and types of binder. Resin-soluble binders allow the mat to wet-out and
drape very easily once the resin is applied, while insoluble binders stabilize the
mat through the wet-out process. The choice of weight and binder depends on
the complexity of the molding. Superior mechanical properties are obtained if
woven or noncrimp fabrics are selected or by the use of aramid or carbon re-
inforcements. These are, of course, more costly and also less permeable. This
renders them more difficult to wet-out and extends the lamination time, reducing
productivity. An excellent general compromise is to alternate layers of CSM or

CRM with woven or noncrimp fabric. The random mats help distribute the resin
and speed up the laminating process while the woven materials enhance the
mechanical properties. Some typical lamination strategies are illustrated in Figs.
12–14. Mechanical properties, especially bending and/or torsional stiffness can
also be enhanced by designed-in features such as ribs, hollow or cored stiffeners,
and cored sandwich sections. Metal or timber inserts for local stiffening or for
subsequent attachments may also be easily incorporated. Some of these possi-
bilities are illustrated in Fig. 15.
3.4 Some Variations on Basic Contact Molding Process
Vacuum Bagging
When the lamination process is complete the laminate is covered with a flexible
bagging film, usually a polyamide or elastomer. This is sealed around its pe-
riphery to the mold and the space between tool and bag is connected to a vacuum
system. This applies a consolidating pressure of up to 1 atm (⬇1 bar) to the
laminate, assisting consolidation, improving surface finish on the back surface,
and reducing styrene emissions. It is advantageous to place a porous breather
blanket between the surface of the molding and the vacuum bag (Fig. 12c) to
ensure that the vacuum is evenly distributed over the surface and that any wrin-
kles forming in the bag material are not impressed on the surface of the part.
Prewetting Out Reinforcement
When manufacturing large moldings, it is often convenient to prewet the rein-
forcement before laying on the mold. This may be accomplished by passing a
V
B
M
a. Simple lay-up c. Vacuum bag and breather to

improve consolidation
WF
Br
CSM Mp
b. Alternate plies of CSM and

woven fabric - assists wet out
d. As (c.) but with additional bleeder

V - Vacuum bag
B - Breather ply
ply to control resin content
M - Membrane permeable to gas
Br - Bleeder ply
Mp- Membrane permeable to resin
Fig. 12 Alternative strategies for lay-up of contact molded laminates. (a) Simple lay-up of simi-
lar plies, mat or fabric. (b) Plies of chopped strand mat (CSM) are alternated with woven fabric.
The woven fabric has a much higher fiber density and continuous fibers and thus gives higher
stiffness and strength than mat. The mat is more permeable and assists wet out of the fabric.
(c) Breather and vacuum bag are applied to provide better consolidation. (d ) Further bleeder
layer has been incorporated to absorb excess resin. This helps control the resin content.
5-Plies of Chopped Strand Mat
Chopped Strand Mat

Alternated with Woven Fabric
Fig. 13 Further illustration of the use of alternate plies of mat and fabric.
roll of reinforcement, typically 1–2 m wide, through a trough of liquid resin

and then passing it through one or more pairs of rolls, which ensure uniform
impregnation and control the final resin contact. The wetted reinforcement is
then laid into or onto the mold and cut to length as required. This speeds up
the process and is more convenient than handling large sheets of reinforcement.
The hull moldings of larger vessels are laid this way. Rolls of woven roving are
8-Plies of uniaxial fabric stacked to give a balanced,

symmetric & isotropic lay-up
[0,90,⫾45]␴
4-Plies of biaxial woven fabric

give a similar lay-up
Fig. 14 Uniaxial reinforcement, such as prepreg, must normally be laid up in a balanced, and
symmetric sequence. This requires eight plies to give an isotropic laminate. If balanced woven
reinforcement is used a similar effect may be realized with just four plies.
Hat stiffener formed over foam core

Conventional blade ribs require
complex tooling
Sandwich panels using end-grain Panels stiffened by corrugations

balsa wood, honeycomb or foam cores
Fig. 15 Laminates may be effectively stiffened in a number of ways. Conventional blade stiff-
eners are effective but require more complex tooling. A simple method is to laminate extra ma-
terial over foam or timber former to form a hat section. Sandwich sections are very efficient and
can be formed using end-grain balsa wood, aluminum, or aramid honeycomb and foam cores.
Corrugations may be incorporated into the tooling to provide stiffening and more complex
double and triple layers are a further possibility.
laid from gunwale down to the keel and back up to the opposite gunwale. The
layers are consolidated by hand or mechanical rolling. The largest hulls manu-
factured this way are some 85 m long and weigh upward of 250 tons.
Spray-up
The contact molding operation can be further mechanized by use of the spray-
up process. The basis of this is a spray head from which liquid resin and chopped
rovings are sprayed simultaneously onto the mold surface. Continuous fiber rov-
ings are fed into the spray head, which is equipped with a cutting device that
cuts them to lengths of 25–75 mm; a jet of compressed air directs the chopped
fragments onto the mold. Resin and initiator or curing agent are also fed sepa-
rately into the spray head, where they are blended in the correct proportions and
sprayed so that they wet out the chopped rovings on the mold surface. The resin/
fiber layer on the mold must then be consolidated by rolling. The spray head
may be directed by hand or further automated by use of a robotic manipulator.
It is convenient to program such robots by having them replicate the actions of
an expert sprayer. This is a cheap, flexible, and effective programming technique.
The principal disadvantages of the system are that only random layers can be
deposited and that styrene emissions are very high. To combat the emission
problem, hand spraying must be conducted in adequately ventilated booths, but
robotic spraying could be carried out in completely sealed environments. The
random layer limitation may be partially overcome by interrupting the spray
process and laying intermediate layers of woven fabric and applying the resin
by spray, followed by a further layer of the chopped material.
3.5 Productivity and Economics
The contact molding process is attractive because it is very versatile, cheap
tooling can be used, and production runs as low as that of a single molding may
4 PRESS MOLDING 1065
be viable. Quality is dependent on the skill of the labor force and the process
is slow. It is eminently suitable for the production of very large moldings, where
long runs are unlikely. For smaller moldings there are few circumstances where
more than one part may be manufactured from a single tool set in a working
day. Ordinary composite tooling, under favorable manufacturing circumstances,
may be sufficiently durable to produce 100 parts before the tool requires exten-
sive rework or replacement. A run of 1000 parts per year would thus require
about five tool sets in constant operation and would consume at least 10 tools
per annum. A labor force sufficient to handle this volume of work would also
be required. This means that where larger production runs are envisaged alter-
native processes that are more reliable, in terms of quality, and less dependent
on high labor content must be sought.
4 PRESS MOLDING
4.1 Basic Process
The principle of press molding is that a pair of matched tools and a press are
used to apply pressure during consolidation and cure. Within this scenario there
are several variants depending on the size of the molding, the pressure used,
and the cure temperature. The advantage of matched tooling is that the mold
cavity is more precisely defined, section thickness is more accurately controlled,
and a high surface finish may be imparted on all surfaces of the molding. The
pressures used to consolidate the part vary considerably according to the pro-
jected area of the mold, and the tooling must be designed to be sufficiently
robust. If low pressures, ⬍5 bars, are used, then composite tooling with solid
support structure, e.g., cast-filled resin or concrete, may be adequate. At higher
pressures metal tooling is needed. Aluminum or zinc may be adequate for mod-
erate temperatures and cure temperatures, but steel will be required at the higher
end of the pressure/temperature spectrum. It should be noted that a more precise
control of dimensions and surface finish, as well as more durable tooling is
achieved if steel tooling is used. Molding surfaces may be further hard coated,
e.g., hard chromium plated, to enhance surface finish and durability.
4.2 Reinforcements and Resins for Press Molding

All conventional dry and preimpregnated reinforcements may be used in press
molding. However, it is highly desirable to minimize lay-up time in the press
because this would restrict productivity while the equipment remained idle. For
this reason it is common to preform the reinforcement so that a single entity
may be placed in the mold. The simplest preforms are made by spraying chopped
fibers with a small proportion of binder onto a perforated former on a vacuum
box. The loose preform may be briefly consolidated by vacuum bag or by an
auxiliary pressing operation at low pressure and moderate temperature, usually
⬍100⬚C. Fabrics may be tailored to size and preconsolidated in a similar way.
Again a small proportion of binder is necessary, and this may be incorporated
in the fabric at the point of manufacture or applied as a spray or dry powder.
In either case the preform is simply placed in the open mold, and the molding
operation is then initiated.
Either ambient temperature or elevated temperature cure resins may be used.

The characteristics required of the resin depend on the chosen method of infil-
tration. The resin may be preimpregnated into the reinforcement either before,
during, or after preform manufacture. Alternatively the resin may be placed in
the mold with the preform as a liquid or sometimes as a film or sheet. A further
possibility is that the resin is injected into the closed mold; this is resin transfer
molding (RTM) and is discussed in a later section. Any of the common ther-
mosetting resins may be used; UPE and vinyl-ester systems are the most com-
mon. To minimize the molding time, a fast curing system is desirable, subject
to full infiltration and control of the exotherm during cure.
Press molding is widely used with precompounded reinforcements such as
prepreg, sheet and bulk molding compounds (SMC, BMC), and also with ther-
moplastic matrix systems, e.g., glass-mat/thermoplastic (GMT), these are dis-
cussed in later sections.
4.3 Ambient Cure Press Molding
In this version of the process low pressures and unheated tooling is used with
a very fast curing resin formulation. A typical sequence of operations is that the
preform is loaded into the open mold, a carefully metered quantity of the resin,
which must be of low viscosity and have been just mixed with the initiator, is
poured or sprayed into the mold. The mold is then closed and the consolidating
pressure applied. This forces the liquid resin to completely infiltrate the preform.
Vents are often provided to allow a little excess resin to escape, but the process
depends on the hydrostatic pressure generated in the resin to effect the infiltra-
tion. The mold remains closed and under pressure until the resin is sufficiently
cured. This may take anywhere from 2 to 20 min depending of size and com-
plexity of the molding. The fast curing resin generates a considerable exotherm,
so that the molding is heated, often to more than 100⬚C, during the cure process.
When the cure is judged to be adequate, the press is opened and the (hot) part
is removed. The next preform may then be inserted and the process repeated.
The attraction of this process is that the capital investment of press and tooling
is relatively low and the production rate quite fast. Simple composite tooling is
adequate for short runs. Surface finish may be enhanced by using a quick gelling
sprayed gel coat. The process is not generally suitable for large moldings, e.g.,
⬎2 m2 projected area, and control of dimensions and porosity is relatively poor.
It is very suitable for moderate runs of commodity items where high mechanical
performance is not a requirement.
4.4 Elevated Temperature Cure Press Molding
In this case metal tooling incorporating internal heaters must be used and, gen-
erally, more substantial presses and higher consolidating pressures are used. The
cure temperatures are typically 80–160⬚C for UPE and vinyl ester (VE) systems
and up to 250⬚C for epoxy and some high-temperature resins. The general pro-
cedure is similar to that described above for ambient cure. However, there is
much more flexibility as a fast curing (at ambient temperature) resin is not
necessary. Resins are formulated to cure in 2–20 min at the relevant cure tem-
peratures. They then have reasonably long pot lives at shop temperature. Pre-
forms are again preferred and the resin applied as liquid or film. The press is
5 AUTOCLAVE PROCESSING OF PREPREG 1067
closed, and, as the resin is heated, it first becomes less viscous so that infiltration
is accelerated. The application of pressure is often programmed during this pe-
riod, typically a few minutes. When the charge has been heated and the full
pressure applied, the resin is allowed to cure. Again, consideration must be given
to dissipation of the heat generated during cure, but generally conduction to the
metal tooling is quite effective in preventing hot spots and burning. Surface
finish may, again, be enhanced by use of a gel coat, and a further option is to
slightly open the mold after gelation of the main charge and to inject a further
quantity of pigmented resin between the workpiece and the mold wall, sufficient
to form a surface layer 0.5–1.0 mm thick. The pressure is then reapplied while
this injected gel coat is cured. At the completion of the cure, the press is opened
and the hot part is ejected. Average times for the complete cycle are 10–20 min.
This is much faster than can be achieved with contact molding, and there is the
additional benefit of closer tolerances, better surface finish, and better quality
control. The negative aspects are higher investment in tooling and equipment
and size limited to the sizes of the available presses, e.g., 2 ⫻ 1 m plan form.
5 AUTOCLAVE PROCESSING OF PREPREG
5.1 Autoclave
An autoclave, shown schematically in Fig. 16, is a pressure vessel capable of
being internally pressurized with a gas, which can also be independently heated.
This is in contrast to medical autoclaves, which are usually steam operated.
Modern industrial autoclaves are often very large, commonly up to 3 m internal
diameter and 4–6 m in length. They are pressurized with nitrogen gas typically
to pressures of up to 5 bars. The use of nitrogen, rather than air, avoids any
chance of combustion of hot resin or other flammable materials. The contained
gas is mechanically circulated and may be heated to temperatures of up to 400⬚C,
although ⬇200⬚C is a more common upper limit. There are sometimes also
Temperature & cure Nitrogen pressure line

monitoring connections
Opening door
Gas circulation fan Vacuum manifold

Heaters
Laminates on tooling
Fig. 16 Industrial autoclaves vary in size from less than 1 m diameter to more than 4 m, and
in some cases more than 10 m in length. They are substantial pressure vessels. The interior is
pressurized with nitrogen and may be heated, typically up to 250⬚C. A vacuum manifold and
monitoring connections are provided to attach to the individual tools.
means for cooling the interior. The autoclave with its associated pressurization,
heating and control equipment constitutes a considerable capital investment, typ-
ically in excess of $1 million. This has a significant influence on the cost of
autoclave processed parts. It also occupies a lot of factory space. For these
reasons autoclave processing is mainly used for the manufacture of premium
products in high-performance composites.
5.2 Prepreg
Prepreg is the common name for preimpregnated warp sheet: It was briefly
described in Section 1.2. It consists of a uniaxial array of fiber tows or roving,
formed by butting up a large number of individual tow ends (i.e., fiber from
many spools). The web thus formed may be from 300 mm (tape) to 2000 mm
or more, (broadgoods) wide. It is supported on a carrier film, usually silicone-
treated kraft paper, which has been precoated with a layer of resin. A second
layer of film, also coated in resin, is applied to form a sandwich, which is passed
between a number of heated rolls and then, often, through chilled rolls. This
thoroughly impregnates the fiber web and produces a uniform material. The
objective is to incorporate exactly the correct proportion of resin into the prepreg,
e.g., to form a composite with Vƒ ⫽ 0.6. Sometimes a small excess of resin is
incorporated so that some may be bled off during cure, but modern practice is
not to bleed (see subsequent discussion) but to use so-called net resin materials.
Standard prepreg is manufactured to be 0.125 mm (⬇10 mils) thick after proc-
essing. Alternative thinner prepreg is sometimes available, mainly for space ap-
plications and a woven form with a thickness of 0.25 mm per ply is becoming
very popular. Prepregs are manufactured from several grades of carbon fiber,
aramid, E-glass, S2-glass, silica (‘‘quartz’’), and some ceramic fibers. Carbon
and aramid are the most widely used. The resin used in prepreg is formulated
to be pasty at shop temperature with a controlled degree of tack (stickiness).
This allows the sheets to be accurately tailored and then placed, by hand or
machine. Too much tack renders it very difficult to handle (it sticks to every-
thing!). Too little tack makes it more difficult to locate on the tool. The prepreg
is cured by heating, and pressure is used to effect consolidation (see Section
2.2). The prepreg is supplied in continuous rolls, typically 600–1000 mm wide
and up to 100 m long. It is usually necessary that the prepreg be stored in a
cold room (⬍ ⫺15⬚C) to maximize storage life.
5.3 Tooling
The most common form of tooling is to use single-sided molds with vacuum
bag consolidation. The tools are usually made from composites, with low-
temperature carbon fiber/epoxy being very popular. These tools are relatively
cheap, robust, and have thermal expansion characteristics that match that of
carbon fiber composites. Since the process is very widely used in the aerospace
industry, where one side of the molding will be the aerodynamic surface, it is
common practice to define this shape at the mold surface. Features such as
stiffeners and ribs are then built up on the inside surface of the molding using
auxiliary mold fixtures. These can become very complex but allow for the man-
ufacture of large intricate moldings, which confer the benefits of parts consoli-
dation.
5.4 Cutting the Prepreg

Prepreg may be hand or machine cut. The latter is adopted for all but the smallest
operations. The prepreg rolls must first be withdrawn from cold storage and
allowed to equilibrate to shop temperature. This may take up to 24 h. The roll
must not be removed from its protective bag or unrolled while it is cold, oth-
erwise moisture may condense from the atmosphere onto the cold prepreg. This
would lead to water absorption and processing problems, e.g., porosity. Cutting
should be carried out in a clean room with temperature and humidity controlled
[20⬚C and 50% relative humidity (RH) is common]. For hand cutting shears, a
Stanley knife, or a cutting wheel may be used. It is usual to make templates for
each ply from card, plastic, or sheet metal to provide a cutting guide. Each
template must also indicate the fiber orientation (e.g., 0⬚, 90⬚, Ⳳ45⬚) so that the
template may be correctly positioned on the roll of prepreg. When the width of
the part exceeds the width of the prepreg, it may be necessary to cut several
pieces to make up a single ply. Many moldings are of varying thickness. This
involves ply drops, which are preferably located toward the center thickness so
that there are no steps on the outside surfaces. It will be apparent that the
logistics of laying up a complex laminate of, say, 48 plies, with a specified
configuration, (e.g., the quasi-isotropic [0⬚, 90⬚, Ⳳ45⬚]s), will be quite complex.
Each ply will require a drawing, part number, and template. The plies must then
be cut from the roll of prepreg, with due regard to minimizing wastage; each
ply must be identified and then stacked to form a kit of plies in the correct order
for the lay-up operation. If necessary positional index marks must be placed on
the cover film of each ply to facilitate precise positioning. These are the argu-
ments for using an automated cutting system.
The automatic prepreg cutter consists of a flat bed, typically 2 m wide by 10
m long. The prepreg sheets are unrolled along the bed, butting two or more
together if a wider strip is required and, sometimes, more than one layer. They
are retained in place by suction from under the bed. The cutter head is mounted
on a gantry that moves along the bed in the length direction and may also
traverse in the width and vertical directions. The cutting method may be a re-
ciprocating knife, ultrasonic knife, or water jet. The cutting operation is con-
trolled by a computer that is linked to the CAD system. Thus, each ply is defined
in the software, so neither drawings or templates are required. The software also
incorporates a nesting program that adjusts the cutting sequence to minimize
waste. The software and the machines have been developed from those used in
the garment industry. A small automatic prepreg cutter is shown in Fig. 17. The
cutting operation is initiated and the cutter automatically cuts all the plies defined
on the bed. There is also a printing head that numbers each piece and can print
index marks that are used to facilitate precise lay-up. At the end of the run the
cut plies are gathered and collated, either by hand or by a robotic device that
automatically collects and collates the plies into kits ready for lay-up. Although
the cost of such equipment is high, the benefits in terms of precise cutting, speed,
elimination of hand operations, waste minimization, and improved quality as-
surance are very considerable.
5.5 Hand Lay-up
The tool is prepared and a release agent and/or release film applied across the
molding surfaces. The prepreg kit is delivered to the lay-up location. At this
Fig. 17 View of a small automatic prepreg cutting machine. This shows how the plies have
been positioned to minimize wastage. (Photograph by courtesy of the Eastman Machine Co.,
Rochester, NY, Model M9000)
stage each piece of prepreg is still protected by the plastic or paper film on each
side. The pieces are taken in the correct sequence, the protective film removed
from the mold-face side, and the piece carefully positioned on the tool. Once
its correct location is confirmed, It may then be partly consolidated by use of
hand, brush, or roller. Special care is taken to avoid any wrinkling or pockets
of entrapped air. (The tack allows the ply to be repositioned, if necessary, before
consolidation but not once it has been pressed down.) The outer protective film
may then be removed and the next ply positioned. A typical lay-up sequence is
depicted in Fig. 18. It is usually necessary to further consolidate, or debulk, after
0° +45° -45° 90°
Balanced, symmetric,
Quasi-isotropic [0, ± 45,90]s
laminate formed from 8 prepreg plies
Fig. 18 Illustration of the necessary prepreg ply shapes showing fiber orientations
for laying up a quasi-isotropic laminate.
every 12, or so, plies have been laid. This is done by placing a vacuum bag over
the mold, evacuating and usually warming to 50–70⬚C for a period of the order
of 60 min, using an oven or radiant heaters. This softens the resin and allows
the pack to consolidate under the pressure exerted across the bag. The next set
of plies may then be placed until the lay-up is complete.
In the case of smaller moldings the prepreg pieces may be handled quite
easily and positioned by eye. If larger pieces, ⬎2 m, are to be placed, some
form of mechanical assistance may be required. Manipulators with suction pads,
which operate on the back cover film, are convenient. For precision placement
index marks must be printed on the back-cover film and a computer-controlled
laser projector, set above the lay-up location, used to project reference spots, a
red spot, or cross onto the back of the laminate. Each ply is lined up with these
reference spots and may be precisely located. The back-cover film is then re-
moved and the computer set for the next ply.
5.6 Automated Lay-up
This is more difficult to accomplish than automated cutting and collating. In fact
no fast, reliable method has yet been developed for laying precut plies onto the
mold. The only system is the automatic tape laying machine. This may be based
on a flat bed, e.g., 10 m ⫻ 2 m, with moving gantry and a tape laying head
with 3–5 independent axes of motion. Prepreg tape, 50–600 mm wide, is dis-
pensed into the moving head where it is unrolled, the end trimmed, the backing
foil removed, and the tape laid onto the mold surface and rolled down to partially
consolidate. The most sophisticated tape laying machines can lay the tape onto
a complex tool or mandrel that is independently manipulated. This provides a
great deal of flexibility in the shapes and lay-ups that can be handled. A pho-
tograph of one of these machines laying an aircraft fuselage component is shown
in Fig. 19. Instead of complete plies the layers are formed by rows of tape,
oriented according to the requirements of the specified configuration. There is
minimal waste, just the portion lost when the tape ends are trimmed to fit the
Fig. 19 Large tape laying machine. Both the tape laying head and the tooling are manipulated
to form a large aircraft fuselage component. (Photograph of the Viper tape layer
courtesy of Cincinnati Machine Co., OH)
ply perimeter. Tape laying allows conformation to surfaces with a higher degree
of double curvature than sheet reinforcements because small displacements may
be accommodated between the strips of tape, allowing small gaps or slight over-
lap. A representation of a tape-laid ply is shown in Fig. 20. An alternative
strategy is to use a separate machine to prepare the tape. This cuts the tape to
the required lengths, trims the ends to the correct angles, and discards the waste.
The prepared lengths of tape are transferred to a dispensing cartridge that is
loaded into the tape laying machine. This eliminates the need for the laying head
to trim the tape and is therefore faster. It also eliminates problems due to faulty
end trim and the possibility of the small waste offcuts being transferred to the
molding. The tape preparation equipment does not need the complex motions
of the laying head and is, thus, cheaper and faster. While tape laying machines
are automatic and require little manual intervention, they are not fast. Laying
speeds are only about 1 m/s, not allowing for turnaround time at the end of
each traverse. This is a consequence of the inertia due to the mass and size of
the moving parts. Tape laying machines are large and again represent a consid-
erable capital investment. Although initially troublesome, the equipment is now
well developed and reliable and is considered to be more economic than hand
lay-up for moderate runs of large moldings. Nevertheless automated cutting cou-
pled with hand lay-up is still the most common practice.
5.7 Cure Monitoring Sensors
Temperature and cure monitoring sensors are commonly incorporated into all
larger moldings or a proportion of smaller parts. These consist of fine wire
thermocouples and/or proprietary cure sensors. These are smart chips that mea-
sure the changes in dielectric properties of the resin and can be used to assess
the progress of the cure. They may be incorporated into parts of the molding
that will be eventually discarded, but they are so small that they are unlikely to
compromise the performance of the component.
5.8 Tool Preparation for Curing
When the lay-up process is complete and the molding has been sufficiently
debulked, the mold must be finally prepared for cure in the autoclave. There are
several variants adopted by different operators. The most common is: The pe-
45° ply formed by tape laying
Fig. 20 Single flat 45⬚ ply as laid up by an automated tape laying machine. The ends of each
strip of tape must be accurately trimmed to the profile of the ply.
riphery of the molding is sealed to prevent in-plane resin bleed. This is often
done by fixing a self-adhesive cork dam to the tool face, around the edge of the
part. A semipermeable release membrane is then placed over the part. This is
most usually a fine woven glass fabric that has been coated in PTFE (Teflon).
This will allow liquid resin and gases to pass through but will not stick to the
cured part. It also imparts a fine woven texture to the back surface of the mold-
ing. A layer of porous material is then placed on top. This may be woven glass
fabric, glass or polyester mat, or even blotting paper. It serves to absorb any
excess resin bled from the curing laminate. The thickness of this bleeder layer
is adjusted according to the quantity of resin to be bled. In many current oper-
ations, zero bleed or net resin systems are used, in these cases the bleeder may
be omitted altogether and an impervious release membrane used. However, many
consider it desirable to use some bleed. On top of the bleeder is placed a further
perforated film, usually polyester or PTFE, which allows gas, but not resin, to
pass. There is then a further layer of porous fabric, usually a polyester felt,
termed the breather. This maintains a continuous gas-permeable layer over the
molding. The final layer is the vacuum bag, a polyamide (nylon) or elastomeric
film, which is sealed to the mold surface, outside the cork dam. This arrangement
is depicted in Fig. 21. A vacuum connection is made, either through the bagging
film or through the mold, so that a vacuum may be applied to the breather ply.
When this is done, atmospheric pressure will act on the vacuum bag and press
the pack onto the molding surface. The continuity within the breather and the
permeable membranes allows gases and volatiles to be extracted from the entire
pack under the bag. The vacuum is maintained while the mold is moved into
the autoclave, when the autoclave vacuum system is attached.
5.9 Autoclave Operation
The autoclave is loaded with as many molds as it will accommodate. This might
be just a single large piece, e.g., a major wing component, or several smaller
Vacuum bag Vacuum connection

sealed to Breather ply
Gas permeable membrane
tool face
Cork peripheral dam Resin permeable membrane
Stack of prepreg plies Bleeder ply Tooling
Fig. 21 Typical arrangement of prepreg laminate and auxiliary materials for autoclave molding.
The perimeter of the laminate is sealed with a cork dam that prevents outward resin flow. A
bleeder ply is set above a resin-permeable release membrane to absorb excess resin. The
breather ply ensures a continuous open passage for the vacuum application. The whole assem-
bly is covered with a vacuum bag sealed to the tool face. The vacuum connection is shown
through the bag, but an alternative is to connect through the tooling.
panels. Each is connected to the vacuum system and temperature and cure sen-
sors connected to the central monitoring point. The autoclave may then be closed
and the cure cycle initiated. There are three controllable inputs to the cure cycle:
vacuum, pressure, and temperature. A typical cycle is depicted in Fig. 22 and
will now be described and discussed.
The autoclave is flushed out with nitrogen, to eliminate air, and may then be
pressurized. The cycle commences with the vacuum line operating and the au-
toclave at ambient temperature and pressure. The heating cycle is started. As
the resin is warmed, it softens allowing further consolidation to occur under the
pressure induced by the vacuum. Eventually the resin becomes quite fluid and
consolidation can be completed. At this stage the internal pressure is usually
increased and the vacuum lines opened to atmospheric pressure. The consoli-
dation is maintained by the difference between atmospheric pressure and the
pressure inside the autoclave. The reason for this is that with the vacuum applied,
the absolute pressure inside the molding is that of the vacuum. The autoclave
pressure is carried by solid-to-solid contact between the reinforcement fibers,
with the liquid resin effectively floating in the interfiber spaces. Any gas or vapor
porosity, effectively a bubble in the resin, will tend to dilate under these con-
ditions. By opening the space under the vacuum bag to atmospheric pressure,
this porosity will contract. A further alternative is to pressurize both the auto-
clave and the space enclosed under the bag, always maintaining a higher pressure
in the autoclave body, so as to maintain consolidation. This positive pressure
reduces pores more effectively and can even eliminate porosity by forcing air
and volatiles into solution in the liquid resin. It should be noted that the concept
450
HOLD
430
410
SECOND HEATING RAMP
390 DWELL
370 COOL DOWN

TEMP - K
350
INITIAL HEATING RAMP
330
310
290
270 VACUUM PRESSURE FULL PRESSURE APPLIED

APPLIED RAMP
250
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
TIME - min
Fig. 22 Typical temperature profile for a prepreg cure cycle. The initial heat-up rate is con-
trolled, typically 5–10 K / min. The vacuum under the bag is normally maintained during heat-up.
A dwell is incorporated to assist temperature equalization in the laminate and to extend the pro-
cess window. The vacuum system is typically vented to atmosphere at this time and the con-
solidating pressure applied in the autoclave. When consolidation is completed, the temperature
is raised to the cure temperature. When cure is complete, the autoclave is allowed to cool
down to ambient temperature, with the pressure still applied. Finally the pressure is reduced so
that the autoclave may be opened and the parts removed.
of sucking away volatiles with the vacuum is flawed, as it would be virtually

impossible for a bubble to pass through the tightly packed prepreg fibers and
hence out through the bleeder and breather plies to the vacuum pump.
The point at which the autoclave pressure is applied can be critical. If the
resin is very fluid, too much may be squeezed out of the laminate. However, in
most systems the opposite problem dominates. This is to ensure complete con-
solidation and elimination of porosity before the resin gels. This can be exac-
erbated by the fact that the prepreg temperature will not be uniform. The outside
is heated first while the interior remains cooler. Likewise the viscosity will be
lower in the hotter regions, until the cure advances and the viscosity rises sharply
to the gel point. The problem is to create a processing window where the resin
is sufficiently fluid to allow consolidation to proceed to completion. This may
be accomplished by introducing dwell intervals in the heating cycle, as shown
in Fig. 22. The dwell or hold allows the temperatures to equilibrate in the mold-
ing and can be used to control the time at which gelation occurs. Another con-
sideration is the cure exotherm, which can result in local overheating, even in
quite thin laminates, e.g., 10 mm. This is because heat flow into and out of the
laminate is very inefficient due to the insulating characteristics of the bleeder
and breather plies in particular. A viscosity and cure profile is shown superim-
posed on the heating cycle in Fig. 23. Note that initially the resin viscosity drops
as the laminate heats up. The dwell serves to extend the time that the resin
remains at low viscosity, allowing consolidation and elimination of porosity to
proceed. When the temperature is ramped up to the final cure temperature, the
resin gels and viscosity increases sharply. At this stage the exotherm is most
intense and local overheating can result. The heating rate must be controlled to
prevent this overheating and, if necessary, a further temperature dwell is intro-
duced. The processing window is the interval when the viscosity lies below an
arbitrary level where effective consolidation will occur at the pressure employed.
500 10
9
VISCOSITY
450 ARBITRARY UNITS
TEMPERATURE 8
CYCLE
7
TEMPERATURE - K
400
6
350 DEGREE OF CURE x 10 5
4
300
3
PROCESSING WINDOW
2
250
1
200 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
TIME - min
Fig. 23 Shows the cure and viscosity profiles for a typical epoxy system under the cure cycle
described in Fig. 20. Note how the period of low viscosity is extended by incorporation
of the initial dwell at 400 K.
Once the resin is sufficiently cured, the heaters are switched off and the autoclave
cooled down to ambient with the pressure maintained. When sufficiently cool,
the pressure is reduced, the interior of the autoclave flushed with air, the doors
opened, and the molds removed. The whole process is likely to have extended
over 12–24 h. It will be clear that it is no simple matter to set the cure cycle.
It should also be appreciated that the cost of materials, labor, and other added-
value items making up an autoclave load is very high, so that faulty treatment
must be strenuously avoided. For this reason it is common practice to use com-
puter simulation packages, similar to that used to produce Fig. 23, to optimize
the cycle, having regard to the possible different thicknesses of the components
being processed in the same run.
5.10 Performance, Productivity, and Economics

Autoclave processed prepreg is acknowledged to offer the best mechanical per-
formance (stiffness and strength) of all composites systems. This is because a
high Vƒ is achieved, with precise control of fiber architecture, good dimensional
control, and high molding quality. The process is also very versatile in the variety
of component forms that may be produced, and it is often possible to gain from
parts consolidation, with consequent savings in assembly and inspection costs.
The downside is that the feedstock is the most expensive format for all fiber
types, capital equipment and/or labor costs are high, and the process cycle is
very time consuming. It would be very difficult to achieve a production rate of
more than 125 parts/annum from a single tool set, i.e., one part every two
working days. In the context of the aerospace industry, this may be acceptable
but this is less likely to be the case in other industries. Even within the aerospace
industry, there is intense pressure to develop more cost-effective techniques that
maintain structural efficiency and quality at acceptable levels. Foremost among
the contenders are RTM and resin film infiltration (RFI) and also some possi-
bilities with thermoplastics matrices. These are all discussed in subsequent sec-
tions.
6 OTHER PROCESSING OPTIONS FOR PREPREG

Although prepreg is mainly processed in the autoclave, there are some other
options. One of the most straightforward is to use a vacuum bag, as in the
autoclave process, but to cure in an oven or by application of radiant heat to the
mold. A number of low-temperature curing resin systems are available, allowing
cure at temperatures as low as 60⬚C. These systems are also widely used for the
manufacture of tooling for autoclave and other processes. Another option, useful
for very large moldings, e.g., hull moldings for yachts, is to construct a tem-
porary enclosure around the mold, from tarpaulin or plastic sheet and heat with
hot-air blowers. Prepreg may also be used alone or with other reinforcements
for contact molding or press molding. Simple moderately curved shapes may be
hot press molded using an elastomeric counter tool. For nearly flat panels a
simple block of elastomer (e.g., a soft rubber) may be used, while for more
complex shapes a tailored counter tool is used. These may be manufactured
from castable polyurethane compounds.
7 RESIN FILM INFILTRATION 1077
7 RESIN FILM INFILTRATION

7.1 Basic Principles
The principle of resin film infiltration (RFI) has been used for many years, but
the nomenclature RFI is comparatively recent. The concept is to use a dry re-
inforcement and to interleave it with resin, nominally in the form of a thin film.
Under pressure and heat the resin viscosity is reduced so that it infiltrates through
the reinforcement and ultimately cures. Processing conditions must be set so that
the resin completely infiltrates the reinforcement and porosity is eliminated. The
principle is illustrated in Fig. 24. Clearly more densely woven and thicker re-
inforcements will be less permeable and require a longer process window. The
resin systems also need to be selected to give an adequate window of low vis-
cosity before gelation. The advantages of this technique is that the dry reinforce-
ments are a much cheaper feedstock than prepreg, the resin film may be
accurately placed to ensure the correct fiber/resin proportion, and the infiltration
distance is very short, just the thickness of a single layer of the reinforcement.
This may be compared with the situation in resin transfer molding (RTM) where
the infiltration lengths may be of the order of 1 m (Section 8).
7.2 RFI with Autoclave Cure
The tooling and general setup are similar to that used for prepreg. The reinforce-
ment is typically lightweight woven or noncrimp fabric, usually of 200–600 g/
m2. The layers of reinforcement are laid on the mold and interlayered with the
resin film. This is usually supplied on a paper backing similar to that used for
prepreg. This is dispensed to give the required final Vƒ. Not all resin systems
Vacuum bag
Resin film
Dry reinforcement
Consolidating pressure
1. Alternate plies of reinforcement

and resin film
2. Fully consolidated reinforcement
Thick resin tile
1a. Resin tile under stack of reinforcement

Fig. 24 An illustration of the principle of resin film infiltration (RFI). In 1 the reinforcement plies
are alternated with resin film. With this arrangement the infiltration distance is only the thickness
of a ply. The alternative system, 1a, uses a thicker resin layer (tile) placed under the whole lami-
nate. The flow distance in this case is the whole thickness of the laminate. This system may be
satisfactory for thinner laminates and when the resin melt viscosity is sufficiently low.
Resin tile may be a more economic form than resin film.
are suitable for the production of film, and in some cases thin cast slabs of resin
(tiles) are used. The completed lay-up is covered with release membrane,
breather, and vacuum bag and processed in essentially the same manner as pre-
preg. The economic advantages over prepreg stem from the use of the cheaper
fabric feedstock. The build rate is also faster than for prepreg due to the higher
areal density of the fabrics used. The resin cost is high due to the need to
manufacture it in film or tile form. The overall Vƒ achieved is likely to be
somewhat lower than with prepreg, and there is some loss of flexibility in de-
signing the laminate configuration. This results in slightly lower structural effi-
ciency, but this is usually more than compensated by the lower cost. Productivity
may be marginally better than with prepreg because of the faster build rate.
7.3 RFI with Press or Oven Cure
Instead of the autoclave the molding may be cured by vacuum bagging and oven
cure. Clearly this does not allow as much consolidation pressure as in the au-
toclave, but very satisfactory results may be obtained with some resin/reinforce-
ment combinations. Radiant or hot-air heating may also be used. Parts of simple
shape and moderate size may also be hot press cured using two part matched
tools or elastomer counter tools. There are considerable economic advantages
with these methods compared with the autoclave process, although there is
sometimes some performance loss due to lower Vƒ and higher porosity levels.
Productivity can be significantly higher due to the elimination of the lengthy
autoclave process.
7.4 Other RFI Options
The term RFI implies the use of a resin film, but this option is relatively expen-
sive. A viable alternative is to apply the resin, as a liquid, by spraying onto each
layer of reinforcement as it is placed on the tooling. The resin may be briefly
preheated to lower its viscosity for spraying. It will then thicken as it is cooled
by contact with the cold reinforcement. A novel development has been the in-
troduction of semiimpregnated reinforcements. These materials consist of two
layers of dry reinforcement with a layer of pasty resin sandwiched in between
(see Fig. 4). This material has a number of advantages. It is dry to handle and
may be easily cut to shape and placed in the mold. It also has a unique dead
handling characteristic. It is much less springy than normal dry reinforcements,
and, when draped over details on the tooling it tends to hold its shape. This
facilitates lay-up. It can be manufactured from all conventional forms of rein-
forcement, random mat, woven cloth, and noncrimp fabric, and the additional
cost is quite modest. It is manufactured in areal densities of up to 5000 g/m2,
which allow fast build rates, in E-glass fabrics. In combination with low-
temperature cure resins, it is a very attractive for the manufacture of large mold-
ings, using a vacuum bag with radiant or hot-air heating. This method has been
used for the production of wind turbine blades of over 25 m length.
8 RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING
8.1 Basic Principles
Resin transfer molding (RTM) is a relatively new term for a process that has
been used in various forms for many years and under various names. Essentially
8 RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING 1079
it involves infiltration of dry reinforcement in a closed mold. The variants depend

on the type of tooling, the method for inducing the resin to infiltrate, and the
resin cure temperature. The following are the main variants:
RIM Reaction injection molding

RRIM Reinforced reaction injection molding
SRIM Structural reaction injection molding
RTM Resin transfer molding
VARI Vacuum-assisted resin injection
VARTM Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding
SCRIMP Seeman composites infusion molding process
Some of these are discussed in detail in this and later sections. There follows a
brief description of each.
1. RIM. This term is generally used for moldings manufactured by injecting,

at high pressure, a reactive blend of precursor chemicals that rapidly cure. The
classic system uses polyurethane chemistry and approximately equal proportions
of an isocyanate and a polyol are reacted to form a polyurethane. The resin is
not reinforced, so this is not a composite. The cured polyurethane may be for-
mulated to be hard and rigid, a flexible elastomer, or either rigid or flexible
foam. Cure time is of the order of 1 min and molds are unheated, but there is
some heating due to the cure exotherm. Alternative resins may be based on
polyester or polyamide chemistry, but these not widely used. While RIM is not
a composite system, similar chemistry and process principles may be used for
composites manufacture.
2. RRIM. This is a reinforced version of RIM. The same polyurethane chem-
istry is used but very short chopped, or milled, glass fibers are dispersed in the
polyol component. The molding procedure is similar to that for RIM, but the
cured material will be reinforced with the glass fibers. The fibers must be very
short so that they can be pumped through the injection system, and for similar
reasons the fiber loading must be quite low. Fibers cannot be dispersed in the
isocyanate component because they initiate chemical reactions that would reduce
the pot life of the isocyanate and interfere with the cure process. The total Vƒ
in the final molding is likely to be less than 0.15, and this, combined with the
very short length, means that the degree of property enhancement is low. How-
ever, the reinforcement is sufficient to improve the dimensional stability of the
moldings and is most useful for soft components: e.g., automobile interior mold-
ings and front-end moldings designed to protect pedestrians in the event of
collision.
3. SRIM. This a true RTM process. Similar urethane technology is used but
dry reinforcement is placed in the mold and, after mold closure, the resin is
injected. It infiltrates the reinforcement and cures in about 1 min. A schematic
of the basic principle is shown in Fig. 25. This process is widely used for the
manufacture of automobile and truck dashboards. The resin formulation is de-
signed to provide some protection to the occupants in case of accident. Rigid
1. Preform placed in mold 2. Mold closed resin injected

Fig. 25 Illustrates the principle of both SRIM and RTM. The dry reinforcement, usually as a
preform, is placed in the open mold. The mold is then closed and the liquid resin injected into
the cavity to fully infiltrate the reinforcement. The difference between the two processes is that
in SRIM a rapidly injected polyurethane resin curing in 1–2 min is normally used. In RTM, con-
ventional UPE and epoxy resins with substantially longer processing times are used.
resin formulations may also be used. The reinforcement is most often a fairly
open random chopped strand. This provides high permeability so that the resin
may be rapidly injected. If the permeability is too low, pressure gradients may
build and distort the reinforcement. Fiber loadings of 0.1–0.25 are common, and
this provides a useful level of property enhancement, especially dimensional
stability at slightly elevated temperatures.
4. RTM. This is similar in principle to SRIM. The reinforcement is preplaced
in the mold and the resin injected after mold closure. In RTM a much higher
Vƒ may be achieved and consequently the lower permeability of the reinforce-
ment means that much slower infiltration over a longer period is the rule. Lower
pressures allow for use of less robust and cheaper tooling. Cure times are seldom
less than 20 min and often extend to several hours. Variants involve the type of
tooling, infiltration pressure, and cure temperature. These are discussed at length
below.
5. VARI. Has been used for many years. It is simply RTM in which a vac-
uum is applied to the cavity so that the resin is forced into the mold by atmos-
pheric pressure. Preevacuating the cavity helps prevent air being entrapped in
the molding, a hazard when only a positive pressure is applied.
6. VARTM. This is a more recent nomenclature for VARI; it is identical. It
is probably a reinvention.
7. SCRIMP. This is also a recent term for a essentially well-established
variant of RTM. SCRIMP is a patented proprietary process, but some aspects of
the principle are used in other nonproprietary processes. This uses a single-sided
tool with a vacuum bag. A vacuum drawn between the bag and the tool induces
resin flow into the reinforcement by atmospheric pressure. The novelty of the
SCRIMP process is the use of a sacrificial mesh, illustrated in Fig. 26, between
the lay-up and the bag. This acts as a permeable feeder ply, allowing resin to
flow rapidly over the entire area of the molding and then to flow transversely
through the thickness of the reinforcement to complete the infiltration. Earlier
practice was to incorporate layers of CSM on top of or between layers of denser
reinforcement to accomplish similar ends.
8.2 Basic Process Details
The principal variables of the process are the type of tooling, the method of
resin transfer, and the cure temperature. There is also the question of size and
Resin injected
Permeable
through vacuum bag
distributor
membrane Vacuum lines
Vacuum bag
Bag sealed
to mold
Fig. 26 In the SCRIMP process, a single-sided tool is used and a permeable distributor
membrane is incorporated. The membrane allows the resin to flow rapidly over the entire sur-
face of the molding, so that the infiltration distance is only the laminate thickness.
This results in much faster infiltration than conventional RTM and is especially suited
to moldings of large surface area.
required production rate. RTM is used for manufacture of parts ranging in weight
from less than 1 kg to over 1 ton and this has a profound effect on the type of
tooling that is viable and to both transfer pressure and cure temperature. An
important feature of the process is that the mold is sealed and consequently
vapor emissions are much reduced compared with contact molding.
Tooling may be composite or metallic. Most large molds are composite,
smaller tools may be composite for short runs but metal for long runs. If high
pressure or hot cure is used, it is generally necessary to use metal tooling.
Conversely high pressure is not appropriate for very large parts due to the need
for very robust tooling.
Most RTM is carried out with matched tooling in which the cavity is precisely
defined. In the case of large molds the two halves may be bolted or clamped
together for the molding operation. Smaller molds may be mechanically opened
and closed, e.g., in a press. The SCRIMP process and variants use one-sided
tooling sealed with a vacuum bag. This is much cheaper than matched tooling
but does not result in a fair surface on both sides of the molding. Furthermore,
pressure infiltration is not an option, only vacuum may be used. This can lead
to higher levels of porosity than if pressure is used. It can be difficult to effi-
ciently infiltrate moldings of high surface area, which are made up from high
Vƒ reinforcements, owing to the combination of long infiltration paths and low
in-plane permeability. This problem is overcome in the SCRIMP process by
using a high-permeability mesh ply, under the vacuum bag covering the whole
molding area. A permeable peel ply is placed between this mesh and the top
plies of the lay-up. This may be a layer of PTFE-treated glass cloth, similar to
that used under the resin bleed ply in autoclave molding. The resin infiltrates
rapidly through the mesh and then passes through the peel ply and into the lay-
up. Although the permeability of these layers may be quite low, the infiltration
path is very short, just the thickness of the molding, so that complete infiltration
is attained in a reasonable time. After cure the peel ply and mesh are stripped
from the surface of the molding and discarded.
The transfer of resin into the tool may be assisted by vacuum, gravity, or
positive pressure or a combination of these. Vacuum is simple to engineer, and,
provided the tooling is sufficiently robust, there need be no problems due to
mold distortion. The resin is forced into the mold by atmospheric pressure.
Preevacuating the mold before opening the resin port removes most of the air
and vapor from the mold interior and helps prevent noninfiltrated areas. It is
often necessary to restrict the flow of resin to prevent racetracking. Streams of
resin flow through the mold sealing off pockets of reinforcement that then never
fill (Fig. 27). The general strategy is to admit the resin at the bottom of the mold
and to vent around the upper periphery. The riser tubes lead through resin traps
to a vacuum manifold. If the resin flow is correctly throttled, the mold fills
uniformly from the bottom, and filling is indicated by the appearance of resin
in the transparent risers. These are then shut off, pinched, to stop further resin
flow and prevent resin getting into the vacuum system. Further assistance may
be provided by arranging a positive head of resin above the inlet port and also
above the highest point of the mold so that there is gravity assistance. Low-
pressure assistance may be arranged by use of a pressure pot, where the resin
container is subjected to an overpressure of gas, usually nitrogen, at pressures
of up to about 5 bars. This may be used in conjunction with preevacuation, but
once all the risers have been pinched off a positive hydrostatic pressure is gen-
erated within the mold cavity. This ensures complete filling and will reduce
porosity by collapsing bubbles and forcing vapors into solution in the resin.
Higher pressures may be achieved by the use of a positive displacement resin
pump. Pressures of up to 10 bars are commonly used. The pump generates a
constant flowrate and the pressure does not build up until the mold is full. Again
preevacuation is beneficial.
The next consideration is cure temperature. Ambient curing systems are
widely used, and these must be formulated so that the resin viscosity remains
Uninfiltrated pocket
Resin injection gate
Fig. 27 Uncontrolled flow in RTM processes can lead to the formation of unwetted pockets as
illustrated in this schematic. These may be avoided by proper positioning of the inlet gates
and by control of the flowrate.
sufficiently low, typically ⬍100 Pa/s, for the time interval necessary for full
infiltration to occur. The consequence of this is that gel time will normally need
to be at least double the infiltration time and that the time to demoulding will
be of the order of 5 times the infiltration time. The cure process may be speeded
up by the application of heat after the mold has been filled. Small molds may
be placed in an oven and large molds may be heated by radiant heaters or blown
hot air. With composite tooling the maximum cure temperature is unlikely to be
much more than 100⬚C. If metal tools are used and buried heaters are used, the
molds may be heated directly to higher cure temperatures, typically 120–180⬚C.
Electric cartridge heaters, circulating hot oil, and steam heating can be success-
fully used for mold heating. In general with thermoset resins the parts may be
ejected hot. To avoid having to cool the molds between cycles, it is advantageous
to keep them continuously at the cure temperature. The reinforcement is placed
into the hot, open mold, and after closure the resin is injected. The danger with
this system, especially if there are long flow paths, is that the resin should gel
before infiltration is complete. A further strategy is to preheat the resin to a
temperature lower than the cure temperature, e.g., 50–70⬚C. This lowers its vis-
cosity allowing faster infiltration. Clearly great care must be exercised to for-
mulate the resin and control the temperatures so that full infiltration is ensured
and cure is achieved in the shortest reasonable time, so that productivity is
maximized.
8.3 Low-Pressure, Ambient Cure RTM
This is the longest established version of the process. In most cases two-part
matched tooling is used. For short runs composite molds are used, but the sup-
porting structure needs to be more robust than for ordinary contact molding.
According to the size and complexity of the part, the reinforcement is either laid
directly into the mold or a preform is separately made up and simply placed in
the open mold. The mold is then closed and the resin infiltrated into the rein-
forcement. There are several strategies for resin infiltration: The attraction of the
system is that very large moldings can be economically made this way with
relatively cheap and simple tooling. Using matched tools means that dimensions,
especially thickness, is more precisely defined and all surfaces are fair. A gel
coat may be used to enhance surface finish, or color, if required in the same
way as with contact molding. In large moldings, e.g., the hull of a 10-m sailing
yacht, the reinforcement is laid in the mold. This may take several days. A
variety of inserts, such as foamed sheet to form sandwich sections or timber
pads for reinforcing mounting points, may be incorporated into the reinforce-
ment. Pressure infiltration is not usually an option with large moldings but a
combination of preevacuation with gravity-assisted infiltration, i.e., maintaining
a hydrostatic head of resin, can be used.
For smaller moldings it is common to use preforms, as this reduces the length
of time that the molds are being prepared. Composite tooling is adequate for
short runs, but metal is preferred for larger numbers of moldings. The tools may
be mounted in a press, which facilitates opening and closing and also enables
the injection system to be permanently connected. Higher pressures may be used
and, since resin flow paths will be much shorter, infiltration time will be faster,
so that faster curing resins may be used with, consequently faster, mold turn-
around time. A combination of low pressure, 1–5 bars, with vacuum is typical.
When positive pressure is used, the risers over the vent ports may be closed
once the resin has infiltrated, so that a positive hydrostatic pressure is generated
in the cavity. This ensures complete filling and reduces porosity by collapsing
air or vapor bubbles.
8.4 High-Pressure RTM

This is applicable to fairly small components, area ⬍2 m2. In this case metal
tooling is used and hot cure is normal. The molds are normally operated in a
press, facilitating opening and closing and providing the means to hold the tool
closed against the injection pressure. Pressures of 5–10 bars are common, and
the mold cavity is preevacuated. Preforms are the preferred form of reinforce-
ment when cycle times of ⬇15 min are possible with small components.
8.5 Manufacture of Preforms for RTM

Many laminating processes may be speeded up by the use of preforms. This
enables the whole lay-up process to be completed before the mold is loaded.
Effectively preform manufacture and molding can be carried out concurrently.
This can often double the rate of production from a molding station.
The main objectives in preform manufacture are to assemble the necessary
layers of reinforcement and then to consolidate them sufficiently so that they
may be placed in the tooling. The problem is excessive bulk, which might ob-
struct mold closure. The consolidation is effected by precompressing and the
use of binders, which may be heat set. The choice of type and proportion of
binder is vital for successful preform manufacture. Many reinforcements are
available already treated with a suitable binder system. In other cases it may be
necessary to apply binder during preform manufacture, usually by spray or as a
powder. The binders may consist of a similar resin to that used for the matrix
or either a thermoset or thermoplastic that is compatible with the system being
used. The binders are either B-staged thermosets (solid or pasty at ambient
temperature) or thermoplastics with softening temperatures of about 100⬚C.
When the reinforcement is preheated and then compressed and allowed to cool
under pressure, the binders melt and then freeze, stabilizing the preform in the
compressed state. The sequence of operations is to lay up the required reinforce-
ments in an auxiliary half mold. This is then heated by radiant heaters, blown
hot air, or sometimes microwave to soften the binder, before being compressed,
either using a vacuum bag or between cooled shaped tooling. The principle for
building up details using this technique is shown in Fig. 28.
Simple random preforms are manufactured by blowing chopped strand onto
a mesh shape on a vacuum box. This is similar to the spray-up process described
in Section 3. When the preform is of the required thickness (the weight is usually
checked), it is consolidated as described above. The periphery may also be
trimmed after consolidation. The finished preforms are sufficiently robust to be
handled with care. They are delivered to the molding station for final processing.
More complex preforms may be constructed from random mat, woven, and
noncrimp fabrics and from braided or knitted materials. In some cases it is
necessary to heat set individual plies before they are assembled on the preform
(e.g., to form stiffening ribs—Fig. 28). Such preforms may require several hours
9 FILAMENT WINDING AND TOW PLACEMENT 1085
Angle sections formed by bending

strips of fabric containing a
thermosoftening binder
Flat reinforcement and preformed angle sections assembled

to form a stiffening rib. Heat tacked into place.
Fig. 28 Complex detail may be built into a preform by using thermoformable reinforcements.
These incorporate a thermoplastic binder so that they may be heat-set before assembly to form
the preform. This is illustrated by a blade stiffener built up from thermoformed tapes.
of hand work to manufacture and a sufficient number of parallel preform man-

ufacture cells must be set up to match the molding rate of the final tool.
Another strategy is to use an auxiliary tool (or a number of such tools) on
which the preform is assembled and preconsolidated. The whole auxiliary tool
complete with preform may then be loaded into the main tool. Effectively the
auxiliary tool is a thin shell that accurately matches the bottom half of the main
tooling. It needs to be much less robust than the main tooling, just sufficient to
allow it to be handled between the preform assembly cell and the molding
station. It is a much more economical option than having duplicate molds. The
auxiliary shells may be composite or even formed sheet metal. They may be
regarded as disposable, being used to produce a short run of moldings before
being replaced, while the wear and tear on the main tool is reduced and its
useful life extended. A schematic layout using auxiliary tooling is illustrated in
Fig. 29.
9 FILAMENT WINDING AND TOW PLACEMENT
9.1 General Concepts
These are two related processing concepts in which continuous fiber roving is
directly formed into a component. This is attractive because continuous roving
is usually the cheapest format of the reinforcement fiber, as there is no down-
stream process cost after fiber manufacture. The basic principle is that dry fiber
rovings are impregnated with resin and laid down on a tool or former in the
required sequence to generate the desired reinforcement configuration. The use
of single rovings facilitates impregnation by the matrix resin and also the con-
tinuous uniaxial fiber arrangement gives the possibility of achieving very high
fiber fraction in the final product; Vƒ ⫽ 0.8 is typical. The rovings are maintained
very straight and in a precise lay-up. All these features contribute to the reali-
zation of excellent mechanical properties and structural efficiency. Both pro-
Preform
Insert
1. Preform loaded into transferrable 2. Preform and insert placed in mold

insert
4. Cured part demolded 3. Mold closed - resin injected

insert recycled.
Fig. 29 Productivity in the RTM process may be enhanced by use of a system of transferable
mold inserts. These are auxiliary tools, usually thin sheet metal construction. The preforms are
built up on these inserts, which are finally placed into the RTM molds. Several inserts may be
rotated, so that preform assembly and demolding may be carried out concurrently with molding.
cesses utilize fully automatic techniques that are usually computer controlled.
Labor requirements are low but the rate of build also tends to be quite low.
9.2 Filament Winding
The principle here is that the fiber roving is laid onto a rotating mandrel by a
dispensing head, which may simply reciprocate or execute more complex mo-
tion. In the simplest version a cylindrical mandrel is rotated and the dispensing
head traverses forward and backward parallel to the axis of the mandrel. This
results in a simple structure laid at angles of ⫹␪ and ⫺␪ to the mandrel axis
(Fig. 30). This produces a tubular structure. The angle of the lay-up is controlled
by the relative speeds of the rotation and the traverse, and it is convenient to
wind at angles from near 90⬚, the hoop direction, to about 25⬚. Clearly it is not
easy to wind close to the axial direction with this arrangement, but alternative
machine configurations allow this to be done, e.g., the race track winder (Fig.
31). A number of other configurations are also possible so that virtually any
desired configuration can be attained on axisymmetric shapes. By incorporating
extra degrees of freedom in the winding head, nonaxisymmetric shapes may also
be wound. However, the main output of commercial filament winders are cylin-
drical tubes and pressure vessels. In the case of tubes there is a transition region
at each end when the traverse reverses. This is a ring of thicker section where
the angle changes from ⫹␪ to ⫺␪ and vice versa. This is usually trimmed off.
For pressure vessels a cylindrical section blends into hemispherical ends. This
enables the winding to be carried over the end as the traverse changes direction.
This provides an ideal fiber configuration for pressure applications. The cylin-
Fiber supply creel Rotating mandrel
Resin bath
Showing winding a simple

⫾⍜ array onto cylindrical
mandrel
Fiber feed
Traversing feeder head
Fig. 30 Basic filament winding process. Impregnated fiber tows are wound onto a rotating
mandrel. Control of rotation and traverse speeds determines the angle of wind. A Ⳳ␪ pattern is
built up as the traverse direction is alternated. This results in a basket weave structure.
drical portion is wound at Ⳳ55⬚, which gives twice the strength in the hoop
direction compared with the axial, an ideal balance. The fibers are wound uni-
formly in all directions over the hemispherical ends giving isotropic properties.
An alternative is to wind a spherical vessel. To wind hollow pressure vessels it
is necessary to devise a means of removing the mandrel. Various techniques
have been adopted: inflatable mandrels, plaster and salt mandrels, which are
leached out with hot water after the part has been cured, and expanded polysty-
rene, which can be collapsed by heating or use of hydrocarbon solvents.
Filament winding is ideally suited to the manufacture of axisymmetric hollow
shapes, but, as indicated above, some nonaxisymmetric shapes can also be
formed. There are some restrictions. The winding path needs to comply quite
“Racetrack”
Mandrel rotates about its axis
1. Roving dispenser circulates around racetrack whilst

mandrel rotates slowly for near axial winding.
2. Dispenser reciprocates and mandrel rotates faster for

angle or hoop winding
Fig. 31 Setup illustrated in Fig. 30 is not suitable for laying tow oriented closer than about 20⬚
to the mandrel axis. Zero winding angles may be laid with a race-track machine. This is suitable
for axial, hoop, and angled windings according to the relative speeds of the
race-track dispenser and the mandrel rotation.
closely to a geodesic path (great circle path) on the curved surface, otherwise
the winding tension will lead to lateral slippage of the wound rovings. Friction
may allow some small deviations from the ideal path. Another restriction is that
it is generally not possible to wind into concave surfaces. These restrictions do
not apply to winding thermoplastic matrix systems, which are effectively welded
into place as laid (see Section 9.3).
Filament winding usually uses continuous dry rovings that are impregnated
with resin by passing through a trough of liquid resin immediately prior to
deposition. The resin content is controlled by the resin viscosity and by passing
the wet tow through a calibrated eye, which squeezes out any excess resin. This
is a simple and effective technique. After winding, the resin is allowed to cure
either at room temperature or at elevated temperature. An oven or radiant heater
may be used. It is sometimes desirable to rotate the mandrel during cure to
prevent any excess resin running to the bottom of the winding.
As the roving is laid down on the mandrel, it will be in the form of a flat
ribbon, and to obtain a uniform winding it is necessary that complete coverage
be obtained with a integral number of ribbons, without overlap or gaps. It is
common practice to combine several rovings to form a wider ribbon. This ribbon
is then wound as an open helix along the length of the mandrel. The next run
will be in the reverse direction and will consist of a helix of opposite angle. It
must be arranged that the width of the tape, w, is related to the circumference
of the mandrel, ␲d, so that nw/sin ␪ ⫽ ␲d (Figs. 32 and 33). The number of
double runs necessary for complete coverage is then equal to n. It is also nec-
essary that the start point for each run be positioned so that each ribbon is
perfectly butted to its neighbors. The ribbon width must be chosen so that a
logical sequence of positions may be realized. For instance if n ⫽ 7, there must
be 7 start points around the circumference at each end of the mandrel. The
sequence for winding may then be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; 1, 3, 5, 7, 2, 4, 6; or 1, 4,
7, 3, 6, 2, 5. Each of these results in a slightly different variation of the basket
weave structure that characterizes filament winding.
Filament winding may also be carried out using preimpregnated tows or with
prepreg tape. It is also possible to wind fibers preimpregnated with thermoplastic
resins. In this case local heat is applied to melt the thermoplastic, and pressure
x = w / cos ␪
y = w / sin ␪ ␪ Winding
angle
w - ribbon width
Fig. 32 Illustrates the concept of ribbon width. The ribbon is normally built up by laying
several impregnated tows simultaneously. The axial and hoop coverage are then
simple functions of the winding angle.
a a a
1. Single pass produces an open helix
a b c d e f a a
2. Ribbon width must be arranged so that an integral
number of passes produces a complete cover -
6 in this illustration.
Fig. 33 Illustrates how a full cover is achieved by laying a number of ribbons successively so
that they each butt up to each other. The ribbon width and the start position for each pass
must be carefully synchronized to achieve this effect.
is applied to consolidate at the point of application (Fig. 34). This is essentially

welding the tape or roving into position as it is laid.
Tubular components are widely used for transport of fluids at moderate pres-
sures and also for drive shafts. In the latter case the configuration is modified.
Layers at Ⳳ45⬚ are used to carry torsion loads, and others at 0o for bending.
Machinery for simple filament winding is relatively inexpensive, it can be op-
erated automatically with manual attention only necessary to change mandrels
when a winding run is completed. The range of sizes is wide, varying from less
than 10 mm diameter up to more than 3 m. Lengths are limited by the length
of mandrel that can be supported without undue sag. Machines have been de-
Thermoplastic impregnated
fiber tow
Cold
compaction
roller Hot gas jets
Melt zone
Rotating winding
mandrel
Fig. 34 Thermoplastics impregnated tows may be filament wound by thermally welding them
into place at the point of application. The principle is illustrated in the figure. This technique can
also be adapted for tow placement technologies.
veloped, with reciprocating mandrels and in situ cure, that allow for the manu-
facture of continuous piping.
9.3 Tow Placement

Tow placement technology is a variant of filament winding where impregnated
tows (rovings) are precisely placed onto the mold surface using a robotic tow
placement head. The basic technique is to place the tows into/onto a stationary
mold, which may be flat or have complex curvatures. Further part shape possi-
bilities may be generated by moving the mold as well as the placement head. A
standard tow placement machine is similar in many respects to a tape laying
machine with the placement head operating from a gantry moving over a flat
bed on which the tool is mounted. Other machines are essentially robots that
bear the tow placement head and can be manipulated with 3–7 degrees of free-
dom according to the complexity of the surfaces to be generated.
The tow or roving is normally fed dry into the placement head, where it is
impregnated with resin prior to being placed in position. Pressure is applied at
the point of placement to bond the laid tow to the previously laid layers or to
the mold surface if it is the first layer. The alternative is to use preimpregnated
tow, which is supplied in spools and stored at low temperature, like prepreg. It
is also important that the impregnated tow have a degree of tack, so that it
remains in place once laid. One strategy is to warm the impregnated tow im-
mediately prior to placement; this softens the resin. After placement it cools, the
resin viscosity increases sharply, and it will be effectively stuck in place. This
strategy is also the basis for tow placement using preimpregnated thermoplastic
matrix tows. In thermoset systems the completed laminates are then cured using
conventional autoclave or vacuum bag and oven cure technologies.
Tow placement is a more versatile technique in terms of shapes that may be
generated than either filament winding or tape laying. There is no requirement
that the placement head follow a geodesic path or that the path needs to be
straight. Tows can be effectively laid into concave surfaces. The normal strategy
is to lay the tows in layers to build up the required laminate configuration. The
tows are cut at the end of each traverse and the head reset for the next run. The
limitations of tow placement are the high acquisition costs of the placement
equipment and a relatively low rate of production. The maximum placement
speed is currently of the order of 1 m/s. If the tow weight were 2500 tex, a
heavy tow, this translates to a placement rate of about 9 kg/h. This does not
allow for inevitable losses due to the need to manipulate the head each time a
run is completed. In spite of these disadvantages, tow placement is seen as one
of the more cost-effective techniques for laying up high-performance structures
for aerospace and similarly performance-dominated applications.
10 PULTRUSION
10.1 Principle
This is a versatile process for the manufacture of prismatic sections. In this
respect it differs from most composites technology in that a semifinished product
rather than a component is manufactured. The concept is very simple; continuous
reinforcement is impregnated with liquid resin and then drawn through a long,
10 PULTRUSION 1091
Heated pultrusion die

Fiber supply
creels Cured section
Resin bath pulled from die
Pultrusion speed 0.1 - 5 m/min

Max. die dimension ~1.5 m
Fig. 35 In the basic pultrusion process, resin impregnated tows are pulled through a heated
die, from which they emerge as fully cured solid sections.
heated, shaped die. During its passage through the die, the resin is cured and a
solid section emerges. The continuous emerging section is then cut off into
convenient lengths for transportation and conversion into the finished product.
Slender sections may be coiled so that very long lengths can be manufactured.
This principle is illustrated in Figs. 35 and 36. The traction to pull the material
through the die is applied to the emerging cured section, either a caterpillar or
more usually a pair of reciprocating pullers are used. These are operated by a
chain drive in a manner analogous to ‘‘hand-over-hand’’ pulling a rope. One
puller is clamped to the pultrusion and engages in the drive chain. It pulls the
product for a short distance, e.g., 1–2 m, while the second puller is returned to
its start position. Then the second puller is engaged and the first released and
returned. The pullers are easily adapted to different pultruded profiles by simply
Cut-off saw
Pultrusion die
Pair of reciprocating pullers

Impregnated
reinforcement from
resin bath
Cooled inlet section
Water outlet
Dry
reinforcement Water inlet Caterpillar puller
Resin injected
into die entry
Fig. 36 Two alternative techniques for pulling pultruded sections are illustrated. The reciprocat-
ing puller is more easily adapted to different section shapes and is generally the more versatile.
Also illustrated is the alternative resin injection technology, where resin is injected
into a cooled entry section of the die, rather than the reinforcement being impregnated
by passing through a bath of resin.
changing the shaped clamping pads. Caterpillar traction is suitable for handling
flat products but is generally not as versatile as the reciprocating system. The
reinforcement may be impregnated by passing it through a bath of resin, as with
filament winding, or by injecting resin into the entry portion of the die. These
points are all illustrated in Figs. 35–38.
Solid and hollow sections may be manufactured and virtually any external
profile that can be contained in a window approximately 2 ⫻ 1 m. Pultrusion
speeds are quite low, seldom more than 2–3 m/min. The speed is dictated by
the length of the die and the necessary cure time, which is temperature depen-
dent. In practice die temperature and pulling rate are adjusted so that the section
is sufficiently cured when it emerges from the die. The process may be speeded
up by preheating the charge as it enters the die or by partly curing in the die
and then postcuring. There are shape restrictions, which are discussed below.
There are also several options in choice of reinforcement and some possibilities
for making curved sections and accommodating section changes along the length
of the product. There is considerable interest in pultruding composites with ther-
moplastic matrices. In this case the reinforcement must either be preimpregnated
or consist of one of the commingled forms, the resin in the form of fibers or
strips of tape, interspersed with the reinforcement fibers. The charge must be
heated to melt the matrix before or during entry into the first section of the die,
which is hot. The charge then passes through a hot consolidation stage and
finally through a cooled exit stage so that the matrix has solidified by the exit
point. This is a developing technology and is not yet standard practice.
10.2 Reinforcement Options for Pultrusion
The basic requirement is that the reinforcement is continuous or at least in
sufficiently long lengths that batches may be joined to maintain the continuous
operation of the pultruder. The most obvious feedstocks are continuous rovings.
The logistics of the process warrant some consideration. Individual packages
(cheeses) of roving are generally supplied in weights of up to ⬇25 kg. For a
typical roving density of 2500 tex, this translates to a continuous length of 10
km, sufficient to keep the process running for about 100 h. One E-glass roving
of 2500 tex corresponds to approximately 1 mm2 cross-sectional area when
molded. Thus, to pultrude a hollow section 100 mm2 and of 3 mm wall thickness,
i.e., cross-sectional area of approximately 1200 mm2, 1200 individual roving
packages, or creels, would need to be set up to feed into the die. Setting up the
machine is therefore a significant logistical exercise. But, having set up the
process, 10 km of the section could be manufactured in a single campaign, with
very little supervision being required beyond maintaining the flow of resin and
disposing of the product. One problem with using just roving as feedstock is
that the product is composed entirely of uniaxial fibers. This may be acceptable
for a limited range of products but some cross reinforcement is usually required.
Alternative forms of feedstock are tapes of any of the standard sheet forms
of reinforcements. Chopped strand and continuous random mats are widely used
together with woven and braided fabrics. These are invariably prepared as rolls
of tape, trimmed to widths to suit the part being manufactured. These may be
folded as they enter the die to form angle, channel, Tee and H sections, ribbed
tubes, and a wide range of special sections, as illustrated in Fig. 37. Typical
cross sections for pultruded products are shown in Fig. 38. Pultrusions may be
10 PULTRUSION 1093
Core formed Three strips of

from uniaxial fabric tape form
tows outer layers of
Tee section
Fig. 37 Pultruded sections may be assembled from a variety of tow and tape reinforcements.
This is illustrated for a Tee section formed from uniaxial tows in the core and three fabric tapes.
These could be of either woven fabric or random mat.
manufactured in a similar range shapes as extrusions in aluminum alloys, and

they are designed, in as far as is possible, so that they merely need to be cut to
length to form the final component. The main principle for design of a section
is to avoid having a wide range of thicknesses in a section, as this leads to
difficulties in achieving uniform cure. Wall thicknesses of less than 1 mm are
generally avoided, and simple profiles on the inside of hollow sections are pre-
ferred.
10.3 Process Variations
As noted in Section 10.1, for thermoset matrices the speed of the process is
dictated by the need to adequately cure the resin by the time the product exits
the die. Higher speeds may be achieved by operating the die at higher temper-
Rods, strips & tubes
Complex hollow sections
Angles, tees, channels

Fig. 38 Selection of section shapes suitable for pultrusion. The hollow sections are formed
using a blind mandrel. There is no requirement for draft (taper) on the flanges of Tees and
angle sections and corners can be quite sharp.
atures or by use of longer dies, so that the residence time is adequate to ensure
cure. In practice these options are of limited use as the cure profile of most
resins becomes unmanageable, due to excessive exotherm, if a temperature
higher than the normal range cure temperatures is used. Also in longer dies the
friction is greater and the pull traction needs to be higher. Heat transfer from
the hot die to the charge is inefficient due to the low thermal conductivity of
the charge. So, it is advantageous to preheat the charge, i.e., resin and reinforce-
ment, at the point of entry into the die. This can be effected by microwave or
dielectric heating according to the characteristics of the resin and reinforcement.
Vinyl-ester and UPE resins can be heated by both methods, glass reinforcement
is inert and does not interfere, but carbon is an electrical conductor and may
interfere with these processes. Induction heating has been used with carbon but
is not established practice because the vast majority of commercial pultrusions
are made with glass reinforcement. Preheating must be done before the charge
enters the metal die.
Most pultrusions consist of simple prismatic sections produced from passage
through a single die. However, the linear nature of the pultrusion process makes
it adaptable to multistage processing. For example, a tubular section could be
formed from uniaxial glass rovings, then overwrapped using a pair of winding
wheels to produce a Ⳳ␪ outer layer, before passing through the curing die (Fig.
39). It is also possible to produce curved pultruded sections by using a recip-
rocating die in the form of an arc of a circle. A related process, termed Pul-
forming, allows for the manufacture of parts with nonuniform cross section, by
replacing the die by a series of clamshell molds carried by a pair of caterpillar
conveyers.
10.4 Summary
Pultrusion is a versatile process and, although limited to the production of fairly
simple cross-section prismatic shapes, it can be highly cost effective. It is most
suited to the production of long runs of standardized sections. The capital costs
Blind mandrel to form hollow core of tube
Resin injection
pultrusion die
Pair of braiding wheels

winding RH & LH angled
layers
Resin injection
Unidirectional
tows Tubular section
pultrusion
Fig. 39 Further possibilities are to filament wind, using braiding wheels, onto core sections
formed from uniaxial or fabric reinforcements. The linear nature of the process allows for any
number of operations before the section enters the die.
12 SHEET AND BULK MOLDING COMPOUNDS 1095
of equipment and tooling are relatively modest and the equipment, once set up,
will run with minimal supervision. A number of construction systems have been
developed that are based on the use of pultruded sections, often assembled by
interlocking. These are widely used for the construction of corrosion-resistant
industrial walkways, and one system has been developed for construction of
bridges and associated structures.
11 CONTINUOUS LAMINATION
This is a specialized operation for the production of flat and profiled sheet ma-
terials, mainly transparent or translucent panels for the construction industry.
Rolls of reinforcement, usually CSM or CRM, are fed through a series of rolls
where liquid resin is incorporated. The impregnated material then passes through
a curing section, which is typically a heated double-belt press. The material is
cured during passage through the press, and the continuous section is cut to the
required lengths by a flying saw or shears. If transparent sheeting is required,
careful control of the choice of resin and reinforcement, especially the choice
of binder on the reinforcement, is necessary, so that refractive indices of the
glass and cured resin match and the porosity content is low. There is a danger
that weathering in service results in disbonding of the resin/glass interfaces,
which then reveal the fiber bundles and lower the transparency.
12 SHEET AND BULK MOLDING COMPOUNDS

12.1 General Principles
Sheet molding compound (SMC) and bulk molding compound (BMC) [also
dough molding compound (DMC) in Europe] are both precompounded rein-
forcements intended for fast processing by compression, transfer, and injection
molding. As its name implies, SMC is supplied in sheet form; usually in the
form of rolls, typically 1–2 m wide and about 5 mm thick. Bulk molding com-
pound is similar in constitution but supplied in bulk form, usually as a thick
‘‘rope,’’ 20–50 mm diameter. The compounds consist of reinforcing fibers, al-
most always E-glass, and usually random discontinuous, fillers, and the resin,
which is usually either UPE or vinyl-ester. The resins are specially formulated
with a thickening agent so that they thicken to a stiff pasty consistency over a
period of maturation of about 72 h after the initial compounding operation. This
renders the compounds dry, nonsticky, and easy to handle. The SMC has a
leathery consistency and may be cut with shears or blanked into shapes.
The compounds are cured by the application of heat and pressure. Initially
the heat softens the resin so that the compound may be consolidated and molded
into the die cavity by the applied pressure. The continued heating cures the
resin. The whole process cycle may be completed in 2–20 min according to the
section thickness and precise formulation.
12.2 Sheet Molding Compounds

Standard SMC consists of chopped strand E-glass blended with resin and fillers
supplied in continuous rolls. It is manufactured on a continuous belt. A lower
cover film is coated with the liquid resin/filler blend, glass rovings are then
chopped to lengths of 20–75 mm, and allowed to settle on the moving belt; a
second top cover film, also resin coated, is positioned on top of the first and the
whole sandwich passed through a set of kneading rolls that homogenize the
mixture. On exit from the machine the strip is coiled into rolls of convenient
size and stored in the maturation room. Before maturation the resin would be
liquid and the compound soft and sticky. After maturation the resin is pasty and
nonsticky. The material is typically 1–2 m wide and upward of 5 mm thick.
There are a number of variants of the basic SMC, also called SMC-R, for
random. A standard formulation is 35 wt % E-glass, 40 wt % filler and 25 wt %
resin (Fig. 40a): This allows a very good surface finish to be achieved but lacks
stiffness and strength due to the low glass content (35 wt % ⬇ 18 vol % ⫺ Vƒ
⬇ 0.18). Higher mechanical properties are realized by using 65 wt % glass and
no filler (Fig. 40b), but the surface finish is inferior. The fillers are mostly fine
chalk powders, often wollastonite, and other processing aids such as soaps, lu-
bricants, and low profile additives are also included. The low profile additives
are waxes or low-melting-point thermoplastics that migrate to the surface during
cure and improve the surface finish. Instead of chopped strand, continuous strips
of CRM may be fed into the SMC machine, again with the choice of high glass/
no filler, or low glass/high filler. The CRM conveys some molding and property
characteristics, which will be discussed further. Another option is to manufacture
the compound from woven fabric. The final alternative is to make the SMC by
winding continuous rovings and apply the resin onto a large-diameter drum,
giving a near uniaxial lay-up (e.g., Ⳳ5⬚). This is a batch process. When the
required thickness is achieved, a top-cover film is applied and the sheet cut
across to remove it from the drum. Sheets of up to 10 m long by 2 m wide may
be produced this way. The material was originally developed for the manufacture
of vehicle leaf springs, where a near uniaxial lay-up and high Vƒ is required.
For all SMC materials the most common resin systems are the unsaturated poly-
esters and vinyl-esters. Only these materials allow for the convenient maturation
thickening process. Vinyl-ester resins give somewhat better performance and are
considered premium materials. Epoxy resins are rarely used in SMCs.
12.3 Molding SMC
All the SMC materials discussed are compression molded in heated metal tool-
ing, typically at 120–180⬚C. The main differences result in the differing flow
potential of the different formulations. SMCs made with chopped strand flow
extensively when molded, more so when the fiber loading is lower and the glass
chopped into shorter lengths. It is normal practice to promote flow by loading
pieces of SMC onto the open tool so as to cover only about 50% of the projected
area of the mold. There is no attempt to tailor the pieces to the shape of the
part, but an optimum pattern must be determined and the charge accurately
weighed, to ensure efficient and reproducible mold filling. When the mold is
closed, initially under light pressure, the resin in the charge softens and as the
pressure is increased the charge flows to fill the mold cavity (Fig. 41). Quite
detailed features such as ribs and bosses may be formed, but there is some
danger that the resin will bleed through the reinforcement, so that the remote
details of the molding may contain insufficient reinforcement (Fig. 42). This
tendency is controlled by varying the fill pattern and modifying the pressure
cycle.
12 SHEET AND BULK MOLDING COMPOUNDS 1097
70
60
50
PERCENTAGE
40
30
20
10
0
GLASS FIBER FILLER RESIN
STANDARD S.M.C.
(a)
70
60
50
PERCENTAGE
40
30
20
10
0
GLASS FIBER FILLER RESIN
HIGH STRENGTH S.M.C.
(b)
Fig. 40 Two alternative SMC formulations are illustrated in the two bar charts. (a) Standard
SMC incorporating 35 wt % of random chopped E-glass fiber bundles, with 40 wt % of filler
(chalk) and 25 wt % resin. This gives good surface finish but only moderate stiffness. (b) This
alternative formulation contains 65 wt % of chopped glass with 35 wt % of resin. It molds less
readily to complex shapes and has an inferior surface finish, but much greater stiffness and
strength. It is widely used for hidden structural parts.
Charge placed in open, hot mold Mold closed, pressure applied

to cover ≈ 50% projected area Charge flows to extremities of cavity
Part ejected hot when cure complete
2 - 20 min.
Fig. 41 When molding SMC the charge is placed so that it covers about 50% of the projected
area of the mold face. As the mold is closed, under pressure, the charge is heated, the resin
softens, and is forced to flow to fill the mold cavity.
Materials with higher fiber content and those manufactured with continuous
random mat will not flow as extensively as the standard SMC. It is necessary
to tailor the charge more carefully to ensure good molding performance. It is
especially important, when using the high fiber content materials that adequate
fiber content is realized in all parts of the molding, as these materials are chosen
on account of their mechanical performance. An advantage of the CRM rein-
forcement is that the reinforcement will not tear during flow, leaving fiber-
denuded zones. This can be a problem with discontinuous strand materials.
SMCs made with woven materials and the uniaxial material described above
cannot flow to any significant extent in-plane; they must, therefore, be carefully
tailored to the shape of the part, and features such as molded ribs are not a
possibility. One compromise is to charge the mold with a mixture of woven and
random feedstock, e.g., to stiffen a panel while still being able to mold some
out-of-plane features. These are highly cost-effective materials and much inge-
nuity is exercised to exploit their engineering potential.
Once the charge is heated and full pressure applied to the press, curing occurs
quite rapidly. According to the size, wall thickness, and complexity of the mold-
Direction of flow
SECTION OF SMC MOLDING

WITH STIFFENING RIBS
Less reinforcement penetrates

to extremities
Fig. 42 When forming parts incorporating features such as blade stiffeners, there is a ten-
dency for less reinforcement to flow into these extremities. This can result in weak regions.
The problem is countered by careful placement of the charge and by control of the
molding parameters—especially the mold closing speed.
13 GLASS MAT THERMOPLASTICS 1099
ing, cycle times as low as 2 min may be achieved. A cycle time of 10–20 min
is more common so that 15,000–30,000 parts/year may be produced from a
single press working on a 24-h, 3-shift day. The parts are ejected from the mold
while hot. The tools may therefore be operated at constant temperature through-
out a molding campaign. This is compatible with the needs of the automobile
industry, although much slower that metal pressing. However, assembly and
finishing costs are likely to be much less when SMC is used.
12.4 Bulk Molding Compound

This is a similar formulation to SMC except that the compound is normally
prepared in a ribbon mixer. The reinforcement is always chopped strand, usually
rather shorter than that used in SMC, e.g., 5–20 mm. Standard formulations are
typically ⬇35 wt % glass, ⬇35 wt % filler and the remainder resin. Fillers and
processing aids are similar to those used with SMC. The material is extruded as
a rough cylinder, matured, and then packed in bags or bulk containers to await
final processing.
For compression molding the procedure is similar to SMC. A weighed piece
of BMC is placed in the open mold and the molding cycle initiated. BMC is
generally used for smaller parts than SMC, so faster processing is the norm.
BMC may also be processed by injection molding, which is becoming the
dominant process. Specially developed machines are used, which resemble those
used for thermoplastics in some respects. The basis of the machine is a screw
pump, which both rotates and reciprocates. The charge is fed into the feed end
of the screw by a mechanical stuffer, as the BMC cannot be gravity fed. The
charge is transported forward by the screw through the barrel, which is heated
to a temperature of usually 60–100⬚C, by means of a water or steam jacket. This
is sufficient to soften the resin in the BMC but not to initiate cure. A reservoir
of plasticized material is built up in front of the screw, which retracts under
controlled backpressure to accommodate the forward flow of BMC. The screw
is then driven forward to inject the accumulated charge into the hot mold. Pres-
sure is maintained while the charge cures, typically 1–5 min. The rate-limiting
step is usually the time needed to heat the charge from barrel temperature to
cure temperature and for the cure to be completed. This may be speeded up by
using a very fast injection rate. This heats the charge by the work of shear
induced in the charge and eliminates the heat-up time. Injection molding of BMC
requires high pressures and a very robust molding machine and tooling, which
are more costly than the thermoplastics equivalents. Production can be com-
pletely automatic and very high production rates achieved. Fine detail can be
incorporated into the designs and the technique is widely utilized in the auto-
motive and domestic appliance industries, where BMC parts often replace parts
traditionally fabricated from metal castings.
13 GLASS MAT THERMOPLASTICS

13.1 Principles
Thermoplastics are always solids at room temperature, therefore, processing
methods must be adapted to accommodate the necessary melt–freeze cycle.
Glass mat thermoplastics (GMTs) are the thermoplastics equivalent of SMC.
They are preimpregnated materials in sheet form. The processing cycle consists
of heating the feedstock to above the melting point of the thermoplastic matrix
and then stamping or pressing the hot material between cold tools. The hot
compound flows to fill the mold cavity and then cools rapidly in contact with
the cold tool faces, and the melt solidifies. Process cycles can be as short as
30 s.
13.2 Reinforcements and Matrices
In principle any sheet form reinforcement may be used. The terminology GMT
implies glass fiber mat reinforcement, and this is the standard commercial prod-
uct, but it is possible to use both aramid and carbon fibers, either alone or
hybridized with glass. Likewise formats other than mat, such as uniaxial (i.e.,
similar to prepreg) or woven, may be used. The standard commercial materials
are mostly based on the use of continuous random E-glass mat, CRM, although
some use chopped strand. This choice is driven by economics and optimization
of the flow process when the material is stamped. The matrices in commercial
materials are either polypropylene (PP) or a polyamide (PA), usually PA 6, 11,
or 12. Other thermoplastics have been used and uniaxial and woven materials
using PEEK (poly-ether-ether-ketone) and other aromatic thermoplastics are
manufactured for high-performance applications. They are discussed in the fol-
lowing section. The choice of PP and PA is based on their relatively low melt
temperatures, their melt rheology, and performance. Molten thermoplastics are
very viscous and to ensure adequate flow, the fiber fraction and filler loadings
are lower than for typical SMCs. This inevitably means that the mechanical
properties, especially stiffness, will also be lower. This is compensated by greater
toughness, better environmental performance under some conditions, faster proc-
essing, and potential recyclability.
13.3 Processing
The feedstock is most often supplied a sheets, 0.5–2 m wide, 1–2 m long, and
typically 5–10 mm thick. They have been manufactured by rolling a stack of
alternate layers of glass mat and polymer film through heated rolls. The glass
mat is not usually completely impregnated. Blanks of a suitable size are cut
from the sheets. It is not common practice to tailor the blanks to the molding,
but simply to cut a set of blanks, ensuring that the total weight of the charge is
correct.
The cut blanks are then heated, usually in a belt feed, tunnel oven, heated by
circulating hot air, or by radiant heaters. The heating process must be carefully
controlled because the material has low thermal conductivity and too fierce an
application of heat could lead to local degradation at hot spots. When the blanks
emerge from the oven, the matrix is completely melted. There is often consid-
erable exfoliation, and the 5-mm-thick blanks swell up to 20 mm thick, or more.
Although the matrix is molten, the blanks may still be handled as the glass mat
holds everything together. This is one reason why CRM is preferred. The hot
blanks are then placed onto the bottom surface of the molding tool in a prede-
termined pattern (cf. SMC). In this condition the exfoliated blanks do not chill
excessively. The press is then closed and the charge is squeezed between the
tool faces, forcing the material to consolidate and flow to the extremities
of the mold cavity. Quite high degrees of draw are possible. Once consolidated
14 HIGH-PERFORMANCE THERMOPLASTIC MATRIX COMPOSITES 1101
the charge is rapidly chilled by contact with the cold tooling, and the tool may
be opened and the part ejected. The process is illustrated schematically in Fig.
43. The speed of mold closure is critical. It must be sufficiently fast that flow
to the tool extremities occurs before the charge is chilled below the freezing
point of the matrix, hence the use of the term stamping rather than pressing.
The speed of the process renders it particularly attractive for mass production
industries. Fine detail may be incorporated into the moldings, so that a single
GMT part can replace an assembly of pressed metal. In general the surface finish
is not as good as low-profile SMC and inadequate where a ‘‘Class A’’ finish is
required, e.g., external panels for automobiles.
14 HIGH-PERFORMANCE THERMOPLASTIC MATRIX COMPOSITES
14.1 General
The development of the high-performance aromatic thermoplastics such as
PEEK PES (poly-ether-sulfone), and PPS (poly-phenylene-sulfide) provides ma-
terials with mechanical and elevated temperature properties that can compete
with epoxy resins for composites matrices. There are potential processing ad-
vantages, and it has been demonstrated that carbon fiber combined with these
matrices provides composites with superior toughness and resistance to some
environmental hazards. There has, therefore, been a period of intensive devel-
opment of these high-performance thermoplastic based materials for aerospace
and similar applications.
14.2 Feedstock
In conformity with aerospace practice, which is built around use of prepreg, the
thermoplastic systems are produced as prepreg-like impregnated tape, as fine
Hot GMT blanks ready

GMT blanks for stamping
Tunnel oven Transfer to press
Stamped GMT part
Stamping press with cold, matched dies
Fig. 43 Glass mat thermoplastic (GMT) forming process is illustrated. Cut blanks of thermo-
plastic impregnated glass mat are heated by passing through a tunnel oven. The hot blanks are
then stamped between hot dies. This forms the part and chills the material making
for a fast process cycle.
woven impregnated tape, and as impregnated tow. The normal reinforcement is

carbon fiber as it is not generally cost effective to use lower performance fibers
with such expensive matrices. The only exceptions would be where specific
physical properties, such as radar transparency, were required.
The tape materials are produced in thicknesses comparable with that of con-
ventional prepreg, e.g., 0.125–0.25 mm, much thinner than GMT. Impregnated
tow is typically a single tow of 6000 or 10,000 carbon fibers. The sheets are
stiff and boardlike at room temperature and cannot be draped at all without
heating. The tows may be coiled.
14.3 Processing Principles
The principles for processing high-performance thermoplastic composites are
similar to those for GMT. The material must be heated to a temperature that
melts the matrix; it can then be shaped and must be chilled in the formed shape
to freeze the matrix. There are, however, a number of additional considerations.
First, the continuous fiber, high Vƒ, feedstock material will not flow to any
extent when molded. Its drape possibilities are similar to those of prepreg, except
that the thermoplastic form must be heated before it can be draped at all. A
second consideration is that the melting points of some of the matrices approach
400⬚C, so that any tooling that needs to be heated to the melt temperature must
be steel. Other materials can be used where the hot feedstock is stamped between
cold dies. A third point is that some of the thermoplastics are semicrystalline,
e.g., PEEK, and their properties are strongly sensitive to the degree of crystal-
linity. This means that the cooling rate from the melt temperature to below the
crystallization temperature must be controlled. Finally, when using high-
performance materials, very close control of Vƒ, fiber architecture, and dimen-
sions is required so that optimum performance is achieved. These factors
combine to make processing a more complex operation. The simple preheat and
cold stamp process used for GMT is sometimes adequate but, in general, these
prepreg-like feedstocks require a more extended period for consolidation while
hot.
14.4 Autoclave and Press Processing
Panels of moderate single curvature and low complexity may be molded using
either an autoclave or a press. The thin sheets of feedstock are cut to the required
profile and stacked in sequence, as for prepreg. The difference is that the material
has no tack to retain each ply in position. This may be accomplished by thermal
tacking. A soldering iron or similar implement is used to spot weld the sheets
together as they are laid. When the laminate has been completed, it is placed
on the tool and covered with a vacuum membrane. Owing to the high processing
temperature, this may need to be a high-temperature stable polymer or elastomer,
or even aluminum foil. The assembly is then subjected to vacuum and placed
in the autoclave. The temperature and pressure may then be raised so that the
matrix melts, typically in the range 250–400⬚C, and the pressure consolidates
the laminate. This process can take longer than for thermoset systems due to
the higher viscosity of the molten thermoplastic. Once consolidation has been
completed, the whole assembly must be cooled, under pressure, until the matrix
has solidified. Furthermore the cooling rate must be controlled through the crit-
15 COMMINGLED THERMOPLASTIC MATRIX COMPOSITES 1103
ical crystallization region. This may entail incorporation of water cooling in the
tooling. The autoclave may then be opened and the parts demolded. This is
clearly a rather time-consuming procedure.
An alternative method is to use a press tool with means of heating and cool-
ing. The tooling may be either single-sided, working against an elastomer
counter tool, or double-sided matched tooling. The choice depends on part com-
plexity and process temperature. The lay-up procedure is similar to that de-
scribed above, the laminate is then placed into the tooling, which is heated, and
pressure is applied in a controlled manner. The full pressure and temperature
are held while consolidation is effected and then cooled down under pressure.
In favorable cases the stacked laminate may be preheated in an oven, the hot
laminated transferred to hot tooling, pressed, and consolidated. The press is then
opened and the hot part transferred to another set of cold tooling in a separate
press, where pressure is applied while the part cools. Auxiliary tooling can be
used to facilitate the transfer from the hot to the cold press tools. This method
is much faster as it is not necessary to heat and cool the molds during each
cycle. It is also more thermally efficient. The disadvantage is that two sets of
tools are required, although the cold tools do not need to be made from high-
temperature stable materials.
14.5 Diaphragm Forming
Diaphragm molding is a variation of the vacuum forming process used for simple
thermoplastics. The stacked laminate is held between a pair of deformable dia-
phragms, and then, after heating, formed into a single-sided tool by vacuum,
gas pressure, or a combination of these. The diaphragm materials need to be
stable at the processing temperature but the shaped tool remains cool. Dia-
phragms may be high-temperature stable polymer or elastomer films, suitable
for short service at temperatures of up to about 300⬚C or superplastic aluminum
alloy for higher temperatures. The process is reasonably fast but the cost of the
disposable diaphragms is a significant added cost.
14.6 Economic and Performance Implications
There has been much speculation, over the past 20 years, that high-performance
thermoplastics matrix composites could challenge the dominant position held by
carbon/epoxy thermoset systems. This has not happened! The initial prospect
of fast, cheap processing proved to be something of a myth and material costs
have remained high. The ease of processing of the low Vƒ GMT systems does
not apply with high Vƒ, continuous uniaxial fiber laminates, which are probably
even more difficult to process than the thermosets. There are applications where
thermoplastics systems are more cost effective, mainly for less complex shapes,
and it is undisputed that the thermoplastic matrix composites offer a combination
of stiffness and toughness that cannot easily be matched with thermoset systems.
The two classes now operate side by side with thermosets the senior partner.
15 COMMINGLED THERMOPLASTIC MATRIX COMPOSITES
15.1 Principle
Several strategies have been developed to deliver thermoplastic matrix compos-
ites feedstock in a more drapable format than the prepreg-like materials dis-
cussed in the previous section. This is accomplished by the combination of the

reinforcement fibers with the matrix in a thin foil, tape, fiber, or powdered form.
These materials may be supplied as mingled tows or in sheet formats. When the
material is subjected to heat and pressure, the thermoplastic component melts
and is infiltrated into the reinforcement by the action of the pressure. The key
to the viability of these materials is that the infiltration distances are very short,
due to the finely aggregated state of the feedstock. There are three main types
of product in this category, co-woven fabrics, co-mingled (also known as com-
mingled) tows, which may in turn be woven into fabrics, and fiber/powder com-
binations in tow form, again with the possibility of being woven.
15.2 Co-woven Fabrics
These are simply fabrics woven from a combination of tows of reinforcement
fibers and tows of thermoplastics fibers. A prerequisite is that the matrix material
is available or can be drawn into a suitable fibrous form. This is no problem
with a range of commodity thermoplastics that are used as textiles. These include
polypropylene, several types of polyamide (nylon), and polyesters. Some of the
higher performance thermoplastics, e.g., PEEK, may also be drawn into fibers,
but as there is no established mass market for textiles in these materials costs
are likely to be much higher. It is also possible, but not extensively practiced,
to use ribbons of thermoplastics tape rather than tows for the thermoplastic
component. The two materials are combined in proportions corresponding to the
required final Vƒ. The most usual arrangement is simply to alternate the tows of
both warp and weft (fill) between the two materials, shown in Fig. 44. The linear
densities of the tows are chosen to give the correct proportions of reinforcement
to matrix. The resulting product is a highly drapable fabric. It may be handled
in the same manner as any other reinforcement fabric. These materials have no
natural tack but may be retained in position during lamination by spot welding
using a soldering iron or similar device or by use of spots of a compatible
Biaxial co-woven fabric Uniaxial co-woven fabric
Thermoplastic fibres
Reinforcement fibres
Fig. 44 Co-woven fabrics are woven from a combination of tows of reinforcement
(e.g., E-glass or carbon fiber) and tows of thermoplastic fibers (e.g., polypropylene or
polyamide). Various uniaxial and biaxial reinforcement geometries are possible.
On hot pressing the thermoplastic component melts and flows to form the matrix.
15 COMMINGLED THERMOPLASTIC MATRIX COMPOSITES 1105
adhesive. Once assembled, the laminate is consolidated by heat and pressure.

This may be carried out in an autoclave with vacuum bag, in which case the
mold/laminate assembly must be cooled to freeze the matrix before demolding.
The alternative is to heat the laminate separately, e.g., in an oven, and then press
between cold tools. The problem is to ensure that full infiltration is affected.
The problem with co-woven fabric is that the amount by which it must be
consolidated is greater than with conventional preimpregnated materials, because
the interstices between the fibers, both reinforcement and matrix fibers, and
between the woven tows are open, i.e., filled with air. This space, typically 30%,
must be eliminated to achieve a pore-free laminate. Another factor is that the
mean infiltration distance is of the order of one tow width, e.g., ⬇1 mm, while
this is quite short, a significant time interval is necessary for the very viscous
liquid thermoplastic to fully infiltrate the tow. For this reason there has been
intensive development of the co-mingled fiber systems discussed below.
15.3 Commingled Tow Materials
In these materials reinforcement fibers are combined with thermoplastics fila-
ments within a single tow (Fig. 45). The result is a textilelike tow that may be
woven or placed directly. The advantage of this system is that infiltration dis-
tances are only of the order of the filament diameter—a few microns. The most
successful commercial system is a combination of E-glass and polypropylene
fibers, marketed under the name Twintex by the French company Vetrotex. This
material is available in a variety of woven fabrics that are easily draped and in
favorable circumstances may be processed by preheating the preform and press-
ing between cold dies. More complex shapes and thicker sections may require
hot pressing followed by transfer to cold tools for chilling. It is also possible to
filament wind or to use tow placement techniques where the tow and the work-
piece are heated locally at the point of application of the tow, so that it is
Reinforcement fiber
Commingled tow
Thermoplastic fiber
Fig. 45 Commingled tows are formed from an intimate, one-to-one, combination of reinforcing
fibers and textile fibers. These materials are now available commercially. They may be woven
into fabrics or used directly in tow placement technologies. Their main advantage over co-
woven materials is that the flow path is much shorter and processing therefore much faster.
progressively welded into position. This technique holds great promise for the
future but has yet to be perfected as a viable commercial process. The commin-
gled tows may also be used as feedstock for pultruding. Again, this is a devel-
oping technology of considerable promise but is currently not competitive with
thermoset-based pultruding.
The commingling principle is also being developed using other thermoplastics
as the matrix. There would appear to be considerable potential in the use of
polyamide fibers, especially PA11 or PA12, which have melting points of about
200⬚C and low melt viscosity. These matrices in combination with carbon fibers
offer better mechanical properties and elevated temperature performance than
the E-glass/polypropylene materials at a cost that is attractive for automotive
and similar applications. There has also been development using high-
performance aromatic thermoplastics such as PEEK with carbon reinforcement.
Such materials are intrinsically much more expensive and need to be processed
at temperatures of about 400⬚C and are only of interest where high performance
is essential. However, the development of the commercial commingled systems
means that an installed plant could be used for processing the more exotic com-
binations in the future. Overall this is a technology with great potential.
15.4 Fiber–Powder Combinations
Another technique, which has enjoyed some commercial success, is to combine
reinforcement fibers with thermoplastic polymer powders in a towlike material.
The reinforcing fibers are passed through a fluidized bed or a slurry of suspended
polymer powder. The fiber bundles are teased open, using gas or liquid jets so
that powder is entrapped between the fibers. The whole bundle is then encap-
sulated in a thin-walled tube of the polymer formed by wrapping a tape of
polymer foil around the bundle. The tape is then welded using a hot gas jet or
an ultrasonic welding device. The resultant product is a flexible tube containing
the reinforcement fibers and the entrapped powder particles. On heating and
pressing, both the foil tube and the powder particles are melted and flow to
infiltrate the fibers and form the matrix of the composite. This material may also
be woven, although not as conveniently as the commingled fibers, and may also
be used as tow placement, filament winding, and pultrusion feedstock.
16 SRIM OF MONOMER PRECURSOR THERMOPLASTICS
In general, one of the key attractions of thermoplastics composites is that there
are no chemical reactions during the final processing stages. There is, however,
a small group of materials that may be processed by in situ polymerization of
monomeric precursors to produce thermoplastic matrices. These are mainly the
polyamides, which are polymerized by ring-opening chemistry. These are no-
tably PA11 and PA12. The monomers, also known as lactams, are liquids of
very low, waterlike, viscosity. They are quite unstable, and addition of small
proportions of an initiator or catalyst will induce a rapid molecular ring opening
followed by addition polymerization, forming the thermoplastic. The reactions
are very fast and may be completed in periods of less than one minute. The
process is, thus, eminently suitable for use in a SRIM-type process, where dry
preforms of the reinforcement are placed in the mold, and the liquid precursor
is then injected. The equipment is basically similar to that used for conventional
17 INJECTION-MOLDED SHORT-FIBER-REINFORCED THERMOPLASTICS 1107
RIM or SRIM, but a mixing head of different design is needed as only a small
proportion of initiator/catalyst must be mixed with the monomer. This is the
critical operation. Provision must also be made to prevent overheating due to
the reaction exotherm. The very low viscosity of the monomer ensures rapid and
complete infiltration, and the rapid polymerization allows fast cycling. This is a
very specialized technology applicable only to this one class of polymer, at least
at the present time. Carbon fibers are particularly well suited for this process as
a strong interface bond is formed with the polyamide. This combination provides
considerable potential for mass production of higher performance components.
17 INJECTION-MOLDED SHORT-FIBER-REINFORCED
THERMOPLASTICS
17.1 General
Short-fiber-reinforced thermoplastics (SFRTPs), are often classified as reinforced
plastics rather than composites, but since they are one of the most important
groups of commodity materials, it is useful to include them in the present dis-
cussion. The total quantity of SFRTPs manufactured each year is comparable
with that of the basic E-glass/unsaturated polyester GRP materials. Together
they account for more than 80% of the composites market. They are injection-
moldable materials consisting of thermoplastics matrices with discontinuous fi-
bers, normally in the length range of 10 mm down to ⬍0.1 mm. The fibers are
much shorter than those in the other composites systems discussed in the pre-
vious sections. The fiber loading is also lower than in most other composites,
rarely more than Vƒ ⬇ 0.2, although the fiber content is often expressed as a
weight percentage. Thus, a polyamide with 30 wt % of E-glass would have an
equivalent Vƒ of about 0.18. The very short fibers and low fiber loading are
necessary to allow the compounds to be easily injection molded and to achieve
a good surface finish. Somewhat better mechanical properties may be realized
at the expense of surface finish if longer fibers are used at higher loadings.
SFRTPs are often formulated with particulate fillers, e.g., talc or chalk, and
sometimes rubber additives as well as the fibers to obtain the optimum balance
of properties and cost.
17.2 Principal Systems

Fiber-reinforced grades of most of the commodity and engineering thermoplas-
tics are offered by the polymer suppliers and compounders. The most important
commercial systems are those based on polypropylene, the polyamides, the ac-
etal resins (Delrin), and the thermoplastic polyester family. In all of these ma-
terials the principal fiber used is E-glass. Glass-reinforced grades of the higher
performance thermoplastics such as polyphenylene sulfide and PEEK are also
offered, and carbon fiber is also used with polyamides and the higher perform-
ance materials.
17.3 Compounding
Short-fiber-reinforced thermoplastics are invariably precompounded. There are
two principal methods. In the first either continuous fiber rovings or rovings
precut into short lengths (e.g., 10 mm) are fed into a screw extruder through
which the plasticized polymer is also transported. The fiber and polymer are
vigorously mixed as the blend passes through the screw and are finally extruded
through a spaghetti die, and the extrudate cut into short pellets. The fibers are
broken into short lengths during this process. The output is cylindrical granules,
typically 4 mm diameter and length. The granules contain a semirandom array
of very short fibers, typically less than 1 mm long. These granules are used as
feedstock for the injection-molding process.
In the alternative process, continuous fiber rovings are impregnated with the
polymer, either in a specially adapted extruder with a cross-head die or by a
variant of the pultrusion process. The output is a continuous rod of about 4 mm
diameter. These rods are then chopped to lengths of about 10 mm, and this
material used as feedstock for the injection molders. The distinction between the
two compounding processes is that, in the former, the granules contain very
short fibers, while in the latter the fibers are the full length of the pellets. Further
fiber breakage occurs during injection molding, but the moldings made with the
long-fiber granules will contain fibers of much greater average length. This in-
duces superior stiffness, strength, and toughness, but surface finish may be
poorer. A schematic of the structure of both types of molding pellet are shown
in Fig. 46.
17.4 Injection Molding
Modern injection-molding machines are built around screw plasticizers that can
be rotated and reciprocated. The charge of compounded granules is gravity fed
from a conical hopper into the feed section of the screw. From here the charge
is carried forward by the action of the rotating screw. The charge passes down
the heated barrel, where it is melted and subjected to a strong mixing action,
which homogenizes the melt. The plasticized melt builds up at the end of the
4 - 5 mm
Standard fiber-reinforced
thermoplastic molding pellet:
Random very short fibers.
≈ 10 mm
Long-fiber molding
pellet.
Fibers aligned and
full length of pellet
Fig. 46 Illustration of two types of injection-molding pellet for short-fiber-reinforced thermo-

plastics. The standard pellet is formed by extruding a compounded mixture of polymer and fi-
ber. It contains very short fibers in a random orientation distribution. The long-fiber pellet is
made by a cross-head extruder or a variation on the pultrusion principle. The fibers are oriented
along the full length of the pellet that are typically cut into 10 mm lengths.
17 INJECTION-MOLDED SHORT-FIBER-REINFORCED THERMOPLASTICS 1109
screw, against a closed discharge valve. The screw is forced back in the barrel
by the pressure built up against the valve. When sufficient charge has been
accumulated, the screw rotation is stopped, the valve is opened, and the screw
thrust forward by a hydraulic ram, which injects the charge into the mold. The
mold is relatively cool and the pressure is maintained (the dwell) until the ma-
terial in the gate has frozen. At this point screw rotation is restarted and the
next charge prepared. Meanwhile when the material in the mold has cooled
sufficiently, the mold may be opened and the part ejected. The whole cycle is
completed in times ranging from as little as 10 s to a few minutes. The critical
rate determining factor is usually the length of time required for the charge
to cool in the mold prior to ejection. This will be longer for larger moldings
and thicker sections where heat transfer through the mold is less efficient. A
schematic of the essential parts of an injection-molding machine is shown in
Fig. 47.
The operation of the machine must be carefully controlled to assure that the
specified mechanical properties are obtained, that the surface finish is acceptable,
and that the optimum production rate is achieved. The main controls are the
barrel and mold temperatures, the screw backpressure, the injection pressure and
rate, and the dwell time. A higher barrel temperature will increase the maximum
plasticization rate, usually expressed in kilograms/hour. Too high a temperature
may lead to degradation of the polymer. A lower mold temperature will speed
up the cooling cycle but often leads to poor surface finish. Better surface finish
usually entails a compromise, and mold temperatures are typically held at 40–
100⬚C with polypropylene and polyamides. This increases cooling time and,
hence, the total cycle time. The screw backpressure regulates the pressure in the
melt reservoir prior to injection. A higher backpressure gives more thorough
mixing but also breaks the fibers into shorter lengths. This compromises
mechanical properties but tends to improve surface finish. Faster injection rates
result in better mold filling due to the shear thinning (pseudoplastic) behavior
Feed hopper for reinforced

thermoplastics pellets Mold opening &
closing mechanism
Heated barrel
Water cooled
Screw rotation and matched dies
reciprocation mechanisms Screw
Nozzle with shut-off

valve
Ejected part
Fig. 47 Schematic of an injection-molding machine for reinforced thermoplastics. The pellets

are charged into the hopper, from which they are gravity fed into the entry section of a screw
pump. The charge is carried forward and melted in the heated barrel, while the screw retracts
under the pressure of the melted charge at its tip. When sufficient charge has accumulated,
the screw is forced forward and the nozzle valve opened allowing the molten charge
to be injected into the cold mold.
of polymer melts, where apparent viscosity decreases with increased shear rate.
There is also adiabatic heating, where the injected charge is heated through the
shear work performed during injection. Overheating can lead to burning and
degradation. Finally, higher pressure maintained during the dwell period tends
to compensate for the shrinkage that occurs as the polymer freezes. In this way
a sharper impression of the mold and better control of dimensions is ensured.
When molding SFRTPs, the principal concerns are to control the fiber length
distribution and the fiber orientation distribution to ensure that optimum per-
formance is obtained. The fiber length distribution is affected mainly by the
choice of feedstock, long or short fiber, and the backpressure and injection rate
settings. The orientation distribution is flow dominated. Convergent flow leads
to fiber orientation in the flow direction, while divergent flow has the opposite
effect. The flow pattern is mainly determined by the geometry of the part and
the placing of the injection point(s) or gate(s). Comprehensive suites of software
(e.g., Moldflo) are available that allow the flow in the mold to be visualized so
that optimum gate placement may be determined at the tool design stage.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Recommendations for further reading are listed below under the principal section
headings used in this chapter.
Basic Principles for Processing
Bader, M. G., and C. Lekakou, Processing for Laminated Structures, in Composites Engineering
Handbook, P. K. Mallick (Ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997, pp. 371–480.
Gutowski, T. G. (Ed.), Advanced Composites Manufacturing, Wiley, New York, 1997.
Kelly, A., and S. T. Mileiko (Eds.), Fabrication of Composites, Vol. 4, Handbook of Composites, A.
Kelly and Yu N. Rabotnov (Eds.), Elsevier Science, Amsterdam and New York, 1983.
Manson, J-A. E., M. D. Wakeman, and N. Bernet, Composite Processing and Manufacturing—An
Overview, in Comprehensive Composite Materials, A. Kelly and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R.
Talreja and J-A. E. Manson (Eds.), Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK, 2000, pp. 577–608.
Contact Molding
Cripps, D., T. J. Searle, and J. Summerscales, ‘‘Open Mold Techniques for Thermoset Composites,’’
in Comprehensive Composite Materials, A. Kelly and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R. Talreja and
J-A. E. Manson (Eds.), Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK, 2000, pp. 737–761.
Autoclave Processing of Prepreg

Seferis, J. C., R. W. Hillermeier, and F. U. Buehler, ‘‘Prepregging and Autoclaving of Thermoset
Composites,’’ in Comprehensive Composite Materials, A. Kelly and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2,
R. Talreja and J-A. E. Manson (Eds.), Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK, 2000, pp. 701–736.
Resin Film Infiltration (RFI)

Cripps D., T. J. Searle, and J. Summerscales, ‘‘Open Mold Techniques for Thermoset Composites,’’
in Comprehensive Composite Materials, A. Kelly and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R. Talreja and
J-A. E. Manson (Eds.), Elsevier Science, Oxford UK, 2000, pp. 737–761.
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)

Advani, S. G., and E. M. Sozer, ‘‘Liquid Molding of Thermoset Composites,’’ in Comprehensive
Composite Materials, A. Kelly and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R. Talreja and J-A. E. Manson
(Eds.), Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK, 2000, pp. 807–844.
Rudd, C. D., A. C. Long, K. N. Kendall, and C. G. E. Mangin, Liquid Molding Technologies,
Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, England, 1997.
Verpoest, I., ‘‘Composite Preforming Techniques,’’ in Comprehensive Composite Materials, A. Kelly
and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R. Talreja and J-A. E. Manson (Eds.), Elsevier Science, Oxford,
UK, 2000, pp. 623–669.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1111
Filament Winding and Tow Placement and Pultrusion

Peters, S. T., and Yu M. Tarnopol’skii, ‘‘Filament Winding,’’ in Composites Engineering Handbook,
P. K. Mallick (Ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997, pp. 515–540.
Sohl, C., ‘‘Continuous Molding of Thermoset Composites,’’ in Comprehensive Composite Materials,
A. Kelly and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R. Talreja and J-A. E. Manson (Eds.), Elsevier Science,
Oxford, UK, 2000, pp. 845–852.
Sumerak, J. E., ‘‘The Pultrusion Process for Continuous Automated Manufacture of Engineered Com-
posite Profiles,’’ in Composites Engineering Handbook, P. K. Mallick (Ed.), Marcel Dekker, New
York, 1997, pp. 549–578.
Press Molding and Sheet and Bulk Molding Compounds

Revellino, M., L. Saggese, and E. Gaiero, ‘‘Compression Molding of SMCs,’’ in Comprehensive
Composite Materials, A. Kelly and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R. Talreja and J-A. E. Manson
(Eds.), Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK, 2000, pp. 763–805.
Glass Mat Thermoplastics (GMT)

Wakeman, M. D., and C. D. Rudd, ‘‘Compression Molding of Thermoplastic Composites,’’ in Com-
prehensive Composite Materials, A. Kelly, and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R. Talreja, and
J-A. E. Manson (Eds.), Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK, 2000, pp. 915–963.
Thermoplastic Matrix Composites

Gibson, A. G., ‘‘Continuous Molding of Thermoplastic Composites,’’ in Comprehensive Composite
Materials, A. Kelly and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R. Talreja, and J-A. E. Manson (Eds.), Elsevier
Science, Oxford, UK, 2000, pp. 979–998.
SRIM of Monomer Precursor Thermoplastics

Bourban P-E., ‘‘Liquid Molding of Thermoplastic Composites,’’ in Comprehensive Composite Ma-
terials, A. Kelly and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R. Talreja, and J-A. E. Manson (Eds.), Elsevier
Science, Oxford, UK, 2000, pp. 965–977.
Injection-Molded Short-Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics

Bader, M. G., and A. R. Hill, ‘‘Short Fiber Composites,’’ in Materials Science & Technology, R. W.
Cahn, P. Haasen, and E. J. Kramer (Eds.), Vol. 13, T. W. Chou (Ed.), VCH, New York, 1993,
pp. 291–338.
Brooks, R., ‘‘Injection Molding Based Techniques,’’ in Comprehensive Composite Materials, A. Kelly,
and C. Zweben (Eds.), Vol. 2, R. Talreja, and J-A. E. Manson (Eds.), Elsevier Science, Oxford,
UK, 2000, pp. 999–1028.

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CHAPTER 34

1 INTRODUCTION 1038 5.6 Automated Lay-up 1071

Handbook of Materials Selection, Edited by Myer Kutz

12.2 Sheet Molding Compounds 1095 15 COMMINGLED

1.2 Role of Fiber Architecture on Mechanical Properties

Table 1 Comparative Properties of Reinforcement Fibers and Typical Metal Alloys

Single filament: Untwisted fiber bundle:

Twisted tow = Yarn Several tows combined:

Chopped strand mat - CSM Continuous random mat - CRM

Second ply applied to form a sandwich

Partially consolidated so that resin infiltrates part-way

Fig. 4 Sequence of manufacture of a partially impregnated fabric reinforcement.

as this illustrate how the industry is using imaginative techniques to improve

Mechanical Properties of Laminates and Moldings

2 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR PROCESSING

Table 2 Implications of Choice of Reinforcement Format for E-glass / Epoxy Resin

2.2 Common Features of Composite Processing Routes

The permeability, S, is determined by the reinforcement architecture and may

(i) Permeability will be higher for a coarser fiber array.

Unfortunately small-diameter fibers at high Vƒ tend to give composites with

Absorbent bleeder pack

results in a rise in temperature, referred to as the cure exotherm. A consequence

0.8 400K = 127°C

0.4 380K = 107°C

400K = 127°C 0.009

400 400K = 127°C

to be molded without deliberate placement of reinforcement at these features.

Another method of speeding up infiltration is to incorporate layers of open

1. Master form - “Plug” 2. CFRP shell laminated onto plug

4. Completed female half-tool 3. Back-up structure added

Female mold Part laminated into female mold

Optional vacuum bag

Part laminated onto male mold

(⬎10 bars) and high-temperature (⬎200⬚C) molding processes including SMC

Soft elastomeric counter tool

1. Laminate on male tool 2. Press closed - compressed

Table 3 Typical Costs of Basic Fiber Rovings (2000)

Table 4 Typical Costs of Converted Fiber Reinforcements—US$ / kg (2000)

3.2 Key Factors and Variations

productivity. An excellent general compromise is to alternate layers of CSM or

a. Simple lay-up c. Vacuum bag and breather to

b. Alternate plies of CSM and

d. As (c.) but with additional bleeder

5-Plies of Chopped Strand Mat

Chopped Strand Mat

roll of reinforcement, typically 1–2 m wide, through a trough of liquid resin

8-Plies of uniaxial fabric stacked to give a balanced,

4-Plies of biaxial woven fabric

Hat stiffener formed over foam core

Sandwich panels using end-grain Panels stiffened by corrugations

4.2 Reinforcements and Resins for Press Molding

Either ambient temperature or elevated temperature cure resins may be used.

Temperature & cure Nitrogen pressure line

Gas circulation fan Vacuum manifold

5.4 Cutting the Prepreg

0° +45° -45° 90°

45° ply formed by tape laying

Vacuum bag Vacuum connection

Cork peripheral dam Resin permeable membrane

Stack of prepreg plies Bleeder ply Tooling

370 COOL DOWN

270 VACUUM PRESSURE FULL PRESSURE APPLIED

of sucking away volatiles with the vacuum is flawed, as it would be virtually