MENC: The National Association for Music Education

Major Approaches to Music Education: An Account of Method

Author(s): Patricia K. Shehan
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Music Educators Journal, Vol. 72, No. 6, Major Approaches to Music Education (Feb.,
1986), pp. 26-31
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of MENC: The National Association for Music Education
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3401273 .
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 MAJOR
AP
TO MUSIC
ANo
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EdwinE. Gordon Emile Jaques-Dalcroze:

here is a-method to this sometime

by Patricia K
So"
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miadnIess-Icalled music.. education.
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say 'instruction
,eaggiMITprahe from preschool
-o;

through posteollege has fostered

the years fridically, the "infallible method"
surfaces.to assure the struggling teacher that,--
onceea series of suiggestions are applied, learn-
ing occurs and teachers become successful. Of
the numerouis-intstructional approaches em-
ployed in the elementary music classroom to-
day, some are famtiliarand, couched in tradi-
tions, have stood the test of time and experi-
ence, while others have developed- more_

26 MEJ/February'86

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PROACHES
EDUCATION

eaching style
in music
classes today
is strongly influenced
by the learning
theories and practices
of several prominent
music educators
CarlOrf Shinichi Suzuki.
MEMEMEMENFAM

recently through changes in societal values,

philosophies, and patterns of living. Some
teachers hold steadfastly to a single method,
while others call themselves "eclectic" in their
merging of several techniques to convey even a
single aspect of music. Should teachers adopt
the philosophy in its entirety or should they
adapt aspects to suit the situation? Despite the
creative variations of music teaching and learn-
ing, proponents of the myriad of approaches Photographof Daicrozecourtesyof Edith
Wax and Sydell Roth, MostlyMovement
agree upon a common goal of music education:, Ltd.,Lenox,Massachusetts.
the development of musicality. The manner in
which "musicality"is defined provides for the PatriciaK Shehanis assistantprofessorof
musiceducationat Washington University,
variety of methods employed.- St.Louis.

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 ... ............
...
...
MAJOR APPROACHESTO
MUSIC EDUCATION .......
.. .......
. .....
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......
Music methods of old music instruction throughout the riences through performance for
Educational philosophers have ages. Seven centuries after Guido, school music instruction:"Thepu-
for centuries championed learning John Curwen popularized in En- pil knows not because his teacher
through direct experience as the gland a system in which the hand or anyoneelse has told him,andnot
most effective avenuefor conceptu- assumed shapes and positions for because he had learned from a
al understandingand for furthering each pitch in the scale. Songs, me- book, but because he has heard
independent learning behavior in lodic dictation, and pitch discrimi- tones produced by others.... and
children.Music education methods nationwere taughtthroughthe con- had himself also produced them."'
have naturallyreinforcedparticipa- tinuation of aural and kinesthetic The Pestalozzian philosophy con-
tory experiences that demand an interplay. tributedsignificantlyto the growth
active student role for the maxi- The earliest movement in Ameri- and refinementof music education
mum developmentof cognitive and can music education can be traced methods suitable for the public
affective responses. While second- to the eighteenth-centurysinging school music curriculum. Such
ary school music programs focus school, where the ultimate aim of teaching techniques as the sequen-
on advancedvocal and instrumen- instructionwas to supply the fron- tial presentation of concepts from
tal performance skills, elementary tier church choirs with a supply of the simple to the complex, the re-
general music classes feature the musicallyliterate singers trainedin peated study of lesson material
development of an understanding voice production.Whilethe classes through incessant exercise and
of music through creative experi- included master demonstrations, drill,and animateddeliveryof infor-
ences with its component parts. singinglectures, and theory lessons mation by teachers were practiced
The key to effective instructionand on the rudimentsof music, the ma- by adherents to the Pestalozzian
consequent musicianshipat all lev- jor route to literacy was through method. Most importantly,the em-
els is the involvementof childrenin performance. Tune books guided phasis on extensive sensory experi-
the music-makingprocess. Didactic the singingmasters in the introduc- ences and learning-by-doingwas a
methods that convey information tory chapters on scales, staff nota- guidepost to music learning for
throughteacher lectures are out of tion, and rhythmicvalues of notes, manyyears to come.
place and seldom applicableto the but, in the end, an oral imitation The progressiveeducationmove-
elementary or secondary music methodwas employedto teach mu- ment in the twentieth century lent
class. As music has been called a sic. Line-by-line,the young singers furthersupport to the growingbe-
form of nonverbalcommunication, would echo their master's melo- lief that exploratory experiences
so must the learning initially pro- dies. A sense of rhythmwas estab- were vital to learning.John Dewey
ceed through the musical experi- lished throughthe beating of time, advocatedthe discoverymethod,in
ence rather than through descrip- where the singer methodically which students utilized problem-
tive labels and lectures. struck the surface of a lectern or solving skills rather than mere
From the earliest days of record- church pew to maintainthe tempo memorization of information
ed history, music instruction has and individual note values. Once throughformalexercises. The artis-
endeavoredto activate the student. again, musical understandingpro- tic creativityof childrenblossomed
Aristotle'sideas on curriculumand ceeded throughperformance. forth in special programs through
methods declared that children Eighteenth-century educational the middleof this century,and was
should be taught music in such a reformplaced learningin a natural heralded as demonstrative of the
way that they became performers perspective, where children were "child-centered"thrust in educa-
and, consequently,more criticallis- providedwith unrestrictedyet nur- tion. Ideally, the interests of the
teners. For the Greeks, listening turing environmentsfor their indi- children determined the curricu-
alone was an insufficientmeans of vidual intellectual development. lum, and the practice of fixing a
music instruction. The eleventh- French philosopher Jean-Jacques curriculumwithout full knowledge
century Benedictine monk Guido Rousseau proclaimed that the of studentabilitiesand interestsfell
d'Arezzo introduced a successful learningof songs should be derived into disuse. New methods empha-
music method for his choirboys from play and that music learning sized student-active and teacher-
that guaranteed proficient sight- should be experimental rather than passive behaviors in an effort to
singing ability and literacy within a theoretical in nature. The nine- accommodate individual intellectu-
month's time. His "Guidonian teenth-century Spencerian view al and artistic pursuits flexibly. Mu-
Hand" was perhaps the earliest use was similar, in that children were sic education in the schools be-
of hand signals, where students told very little by teachers, and in- came a viable curriculum offering,
touched the fingers and palm of stead were given ample opportuni- as public attitude turned toward the
their hand to represent the scale ties to explore and experience their acceptance of music for its own
tones as they were chanted. Al- prepared learning environments. merits instead of its earlier position
though music literacy implied the- The educational theories of Jo- as a complement to general studies
ory and analysis in the middle ages, hann Heinrich Pestalozzi influ- and good citizenship.
Guido's teaching techniques acti- enced the founding of public school
vated his young students by offer- music. As the father of music edu-
ing them a kinesthetic approach to cation, Lowell Mason echoed his 1. LowellMason,Asaph or the ChoirBook(1861).
Swiss contemporary in advocating Cited in James A. Keene, A Historyof Music
deciphering notation. The "helping Educationin the United States, Hanover,N.H.:
hand" technique was prominent in the importance of pragmatic expe- Universityof New EnglandPress, 1982, 104.

28 This content downloaded on Thu, 14 Feb 2013 01:19:19 AM

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Methods in our time
Teaching style in music classes
today is strongly influenced by the
learning theories and practices of
several prominent music educators:
Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Carl Orff,
Shinichi Suzuki, Zoltin Koddly, and
Edwin Gordon. Their various na-
tional backgrounds parallel the in-
ternationalism of music, and the
universalism of music learning is
clearly evident in the similarities
among their practices. Although
they were separated by time and
distance, each developed philoso-
phies and teaching techniques that
focus on the introduction of music
concepts and qualities at the ele-
mentary level, which can be applied
to the refinement of musical skills
and sensitivity through high school.
The Europeans--Dalcroze, Orff,
and Kodily-were closest geo-
graphically, historically, and per-
haps pedagogically, developing in-
structional strategies and curricu-
lum plans that often overlap and
traditionally converge in the ele-
mentary music classroom. Suzuki's
contributions to instrumental
teaching and early childhood edu-
cation are widely known, and the
Japanese philosophical views were
skillfully adapted to American ele-
mentary school music practices.
The early research of Gordon in the
psychology of music learning led to
the development of a prescribed
learning sequence for beginning
musicians in American schools.
Each of these approaches to music
learning has directed the course of
contemporary music education for
children, whether employed exclu-
sively and adhered to in its tradi-
tional form or combined with as-
sorted materials and techniques
and adapted to individual situa-
tions. Because they are outgrowths
of the same mission of music for
children, the five methods employ a
number of similar techniques. The
logic of good teaching surfaces re-
peatedly in the various methods
and reinforces the salient aspects
of music and the learning process.
Rhythmic movement and dance
came into prominence at the turn of
the century, but it was through the
system of Dalcroze eurythmics that
movement, improvisation, and sol-
f~ge were integrated into music
education. Dalcroze determined
. mommommosomm
that musicianship could be devel-
oped without the initial rigidity of
intellectual analysis. "First the in-
stinct, and then the analysis" was
the maxim. If students were capa-
ble of moving rhythmically, then a
transfer to the accurate perform-
ance of musical rhythms seemed
likely. Movement became not an
end but rather a means of develop-
ing a sensitivity to rhythm, phras-
ing, melody, and form. Dalcroze
maintained that the body was con-
nected by a complex network of
muscles and nerves to the brain and
that training physical responses to
music was the most direct ap-
proach to rhythmic response and
musical understanding. Nearly a
century later, researchers in neurol-
ogy and psychology continue to re-
veal evidence of the mind-body
link, lending support to the signifi-
cance of the Dalcroze techniques of
ear-training through the kinesthetic
approach.
The impact of Orff on elementary
music education practices in the
United States is considerable. Al-
though the approach is rich in a
variety of musical experiences, the
prevalence of special-model Orff
xylophones of wood and metal are
the clearest testimony to its popu-
lar appeal. Carl Orff acknowledged
his awareness of the Dalcroze prin-
ciples when he developed his
"Schulwerk," an experiential form
of music learning through creative
play. From his perspective, music is
inseparable from movement and
speech, and all were initially de-
rived from childhood experiences.
Through speech-rhythms and
chants, songs, and spontaneous and
structured movement, children dis-
cover and demonstrate musical
concepts. While rhythm was the
starting point, the ultimate aim of
Orff techniques is the development
of creative musicianship as dis-
played in the ability to improvise.
The Suzuki method exploded
onto the American scene just twen-
ty-five years ago, and the basic te-
nets of listening, performance tech-
nique, and motivation have re-
mained intact ever since. As with
Orff, the name Suzuki conjures im-
ages of special instruments-this
time pint-sized violins. The estab-
lishment of his Talent Education
declared the Suzuki goal as a nur-
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Ems
turing of natural musical ability.
Individualized instruction through
private lessons, parental involve-
ment in lessons and practice, the
optimal early age for beginning in-
struction, and the concept of rote-
before-note learning are basic to
the traditional Suzuki approach.
The "Mother Tongue Method" rec-
ognizes repeated hearings of the
music to be learned as the most
important facet in music learning,
in much the way that young chil-
dren learn speech. Modifications to
suit group lessons in school set-
tings and applications of the tech-
niques to various instruments have
not altered the method; the essence
of Suzuki's vision is preserved in
the extensive series of materials
and teaching techniques.
When Koddly observed the poor
quality of musicianship and the ex-
tent of music illiteracy among the
people in his native Hungary, he
launched a powerful campaign to
elevate the standards of music edu-
cation. A systematic method was
designed for the school curriculum,
which stipulated four to six weekly
periods of music from kindergarten
through secondary levels and a se-
quence of musical experiences that
progressed from rhythm training
through singing to instrumental les-
sons. The Hungarian music pro-
gram emphasized music reading
and writing from an early age,
through sight-singing and dictation.
American-style Kodaly education
retains the use of pentatonic folk
songs, the sol-fa approach to sight-
reading with its hand signs, a rhyth-
mic system of mnemonic syllables,
and an emphasis on unaccompa-
nied song. Koddly's conception of a
national music education method
has transcended geographical
boundaries, and the techniques sur-
vive intact or in part in many Ameri-
can classrooms today.
The development of music apti-
tude, or individual potential to learn
music, is a lifelong interest of Gor-
don. Following the design and vali-
dation of his Music Aptitude Profile
and Primary Measures of Music Au-
diation, Gordon studied the results
of his longitudinal research into
music content and learning se-
quence at the elementary school
level. The result has been a system
of music learning that adheres to
MEJ/February '86 29

MAJOR APPROACHES TO
MUSIC EDUCATION
the sound-before-sight principle.
According to Gordon, the key to
learning is through "audiation," and
this hearing with understanding is
achieved through aural experience
with a collection of tonal and rhyth-
mic patterns before notation is in-
troduced. The ability to distinguish
music patterns in terms of tonality
and meter prepares the way for
music reading. From basic discrimi-
nation to improvisation to theoreti-
cal understanding, the Gordon ap-
proach provides the materials and
structure for successful basic gen-
eral music and instrumental pro-
grams.
Learning theory and research
An emphasis on the evaluation of
learning behavior has brought vari-
ous music education practices un-
der the scrutiny of researchers in
recent years. Interest in perception
and cognition, the development of
psychomotor skills, and affective
response has generated questions
concerning the effectiveness and ef-
ficient use of music methods and
techniques in the classroom. In
nearly all of the empirical studies
reviewed, the major elementary
music methods have fared well;
their stated purposes are achieved
in the classroom. Likewise, the as-
sociation of teaching techniques
with psychological theories is clear-
ly evident. Knowingly or not, the
logic of curriculum content and or-
der of presentation suggested by
the five innovators of these philo-
sophical approaches is confirmed
in learning theory.
B. F. Skinner's research in animal
behavior provided a transfer to hu-
man learning response. His theory
of operant conditioning is a rein-
forcement theory based on the
premise that reinforced behavior is
likely to recur and increase in fre-
quency. Any good teaching moti-
vates the student through positive
feedback for appropriate learning
behavior. The elementary music
methods contain built-in reinforce-
ment, in that successful music-mak-
ing experiences are at the very core
of the content. To produce musical
sounds instantly on the Suzuki vio-
lin or to listen and move freely to
the rhythms in a Dalcroze experi-
ence is to know immediate reward.
Children enjoy experiences in
30 MEJ/February'86 This content downloaded on Thu, 14 Feb 2013 01:19:19 AM
..
songs, rhythms, movements, instru-
mental performance, and improvi-
sation, so that learning through the
various methods occurs under fa-
vorable and reinforcing conditions.
Orff developed his techniques after
observing the musical behaviors of
children in free play, intending that
learning should develop from the
natural, the physical, and the famil-
iar. Skinner's adherents would ap-
prove of the inherent reward and
ultimate aim of the elementary
techniques: independent musician-
ship.
Among the major features of Je-
rome Bruner's theory of instruction
is the emphasis on the age-appro-
priate presentational mode, such
that the teaching of concepts must
be structured to suit the develop-
ment level of the student. The de-
velopers of the Manhattanville Mu-
sic Curriculum Project in 1970 stud-
ied Bruner's theory, and observed
the three distinct learning modes in
the design of a school music pro-
gram: the enactive (action), the
iconic (visual), and the symbolic
(words or notation). The five meth-
ods initiate music learning in the
enactive mode and proceed to the
symbolic only after extensive musi-
cal experiences. The fundamental
elements of melody, rhythm, form,
and texture are presented early,
with expansion and elaboration
coming later as the child matures.
Thus, Bruner's spiral curriculum is
inherent in or applicable to the vari-
ous approaches.
The developmental theory of
Jean Piaget is widely recognized as
applicable to the music learning of
children from infancy through ado-
lescence. The intellectual develop-
ment of students is a consideration
in the choice of appropriate teach-
ing techniques to ensure musical
understanding, and Piagetian the-
ory implies concrete musical expe-
riences at the elementary level.
Children learn best through oppor-
tunities for active participation in
performing and moving to music.
The portrayal of rhythms using pop-
sicle sticks spaced across the floor
and form through colored shapes
are examples of concrete experi-
ences through the iconic mode as
suggested by both Bruner and Pia-
get. The matter of conservation, or
the ability to recognize a song de-
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spite its alteration in mode or me-
ter, may be a cognitive, stage-de-
pendent hurdle crossed in due time
despite the extent of musical train-
ing. However, the elementary ap-
proaches provide an extensive au-
ral vocabulary of musical patterns,
the development of coordinated
movements for performance, and a
strong start on the formation of
positive attitudes toward a diversity
of musical styles.
The humanistic psychology of
Carl Rogers is supportive of the
child-centered educational process.
The teacher's role is that of facilita-
tor, so that the student can confront
the content directly in a participa-
tory fashion. Rogers's experience is
in therapeutic counseling, but the
implication for music education is
clear: the student must "face the
music." He or she must develop
self-evaluation, creativity, and inde-
pendence in music-making, but not
before the foundations are laid. Mu-
sic learning can be self-initiated and
oriented toward discovery in sever-
al of the elementary approaches,
most notably through Orff experi-
ences. Still, the significance of the
teacher in setting the scene and
providing the structure are vital to
exploratory experiences in creat-
ing, singing, chanting, and moving
to music, and to the musical under-
standing that emerges.
Robert Gagne viewed learning as
a progression of simple to complex
behaviors and established them in a
hierarchy of tasks. From the primi-
tive Pavlovian behavior of uncondi-
tioned and conditioned responses,
Gagne specified increasingly com-
plex tasks at such levels as dis-
crimination learning and problem
solving. The careful ordering of
tasks that Gagne professed as criti-
cal to effective instruction is espe-
cially apparent in the Koddilycurric-
ulum and the Gordon sequence and
taxonomies of patterns. From sim-
ple song games and nursery rhymes
to part-songs and instrumental per-
formance, the Kodaly plan pro-
gresses through stages as mastery
occurs. Likewise, Gordon's rhythm
patterns move from simple duple to
unusual unpaired meters of fives
and sevens, and tonal patterns be-
gin with fifths and triad relation-
ships and proceed to modulatory
and cadential figures in major, mi-

nor, and modal arrangements.
While the eventual aim of each
method is music literacy, the early
experiential stages provide for the
internalization of sound patterns.
Gagne's hierarchy of learning can
be applied to music instruction at
any level; its greatest contribution
is apparent in the logical ordering
of material. Any number of tech-
niques-Suzuki's imitation, Gor-
don's preliminary patterns, Orff's
speech-rhythms, Dalcroze's move-
ment, and Kodily's sol-fa-can be
combined in sequence toward a giv-
en goal in what may truly be called
a teacher's "personal method."
From theory to practice
The transfer of learning theory to
daily practice is the true test of a
teaching technique. Several re-
search efforts have compared the
relative effects of various methods
on the development of musical
skills and understanding. Annabelle
Joseph designed a year-long Dal-
croze eurythmics program for kin-
dergarten children that incorporat-
ed ear-training, rhythmic and free
movement, rhythm games, and im-
provisation.2 When compared to
children with traditional music in-
struction, the Dalcroze group was
superior in the ability to recognize
familiar rhythm patterns in unfamil-
iar music and in the use of tonal
and rhythm patterns in an improvi-
sation activity on bells. Sue
Crumplernoted a positive influence
on melodic discrimination ability of
first-grade children following a six-
week period of instruction based
on Dalcroze eurythmics.3 The con-
trol group's emphasis during the
instruction on melodic units and
textbook songs did not result in a
similar increased competence.
Margaret Siemens observed the
results of a year's training in Orff on
the achievement and attitude of
fifth grade students in music.4
2 AnnabelleJoseph, "ADalcrozeEurythmicsAp-
proachto MusicLearningin Kindergarten through
RhythmicMovement,Ear-Training and Improvisa-
tion." DissertationAbstracts International.44,
1983, 420 A.
3 Sue E Crumpler. "TheEffectof DalcrozeEuryth-
mics on the MelodicMusicalGrowthof FirstGrade
Students'Dissertation Abstracts International,
3.
1983. 2587 A.
4 MargaretT Siemens, 'A Comparisonof Orff
and TraditionalInstructionalMethods in Music,
Journalof Researchin MusicEducation17, no 3,
Fall1969, 272-85
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While the students trained through
a traditional method of singing and
listening performed better in two
measures of music achievement,
the Orff group showed a more fa-
vorable attitude toward music.
Techniques of both the Orff and
were combined
Kodaly approaches
by Muriel Bebeau in a speech cue
method of rhythm-reading instruc-
tion.5 A separate spoken cue having
similar duration to an actual note or
rest, such as "wa-ter-me-lon" (for
whole note) or "half-note" (half
note), was permanently paired to
the symbol, and kinesthetic move-
ment was also employed. Evidence
from two separate experiments
with third-grade children favored
the combined Orff and Koddly
method to the traditional rhythmic
counting.
The development of rhythm read-
ing skills was the focus of an ex-
periment by Mary Palmer, who
studied the effects of Mary Helen
Richards's Koddly-based system
and the Gordon method on mea-
sures of musical aptitude and
rhythm reading achievement.6 After
the five-month instructional period,
findings revealed that Gordon's ap-
proach showed a slight advantage
over Richards's method. The enthu-
siastic response of fourth-grade stu-
dents to both methods led to the
conclusion that either approach
could be successfully applied at the
elementary level. James Stockton
utilized the Gordon rhythm sylla-
bles in a twelve-week approach to
the development of meter discrimi-
nation among non-music majors at
the college level.7 A control class
followed the score while listening
to examples of rhythm patterns and
meters in a series of orchestral
masterworks. On a meter-identifi-
cation test, students trained in the
Gordon syllables showed a greater
level of understanding than those
5 MurielJ Bebeau. "Effectsof Traditionaland
SimplifiedMethods of Rhythm-ReadingInstruc-
tion,"Journalof Research in MusicEducation30.
no 2. Summer1982, 107-19
6 MaryPalmer, "RelativeEffectivenessof Two
Approachesto Rhythm-Reading for FourthGrade
Students, Journalof Research in Music Educa-
tion24 no.3, Fall1976. 110-18.
7 James L Stockton,"AnExperimentalStudyof
Two Approaches to the Development of Aural
MeterDiscrimination among Studentsin a College
Introductory Class DissertationAbstracts Inter-
national,43. 1983. 718 A.
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taught to read and listen to rhythms
in recorded examples. Thus, the
application of an elementary meth-
od to initial stages of instruction at
any level may be feasible.
Although the Suzuki method orig-
inated as an individual approach,
Theodore Brunson tested its use
with a class of fourth-grade begin-
ning violinists and found its appli-
cation to group settings successful
in attaining a level of performance
competence.8 High student interest
was maintained, and the lack of
dropouts from the program was
noted. Ruth Keraus compared the
performance skills of privately
taught Suzuki students with those
taught in a Suzuki class.9 Following
a forty-two-week treatment, a panel
of judges observed no differences
among students in performance
technique, lending further support
to the adaptation of the Suzuki
method to school music settings.
In a continuing effort to improve
the music education of students in
beginning stages, there is a need for
the review of teaching techniques
that motivate student learning be-
haviors. Musicianship is historically
achieved through a sequence of ex-
periences that actively engages stu-
dents in the music-making process.
The five approaches of Dalcroze,
Orff, Suzuki, Koddly, and Gordon
continue that tradition by providing
creative avenues for the develop-
ment of music understanding and
performance skills. There are no
universally acceptable methods in
music, but rather a variety of adap-
tations as diversified as the skills
and interests of the multitude of
music specialists. The "infallible
method" may be a conglomerate of
various practices, based in learning
theory and classroom-tested for its
effectiveness. The method ultimate-
ly practiced by the teacher matters
not, so long as it is compatible with
the students and draws forth from
children the sensitivity to respond
intelligently to music. 1!
8 Theodore R Brunson, "AnAdaptationof the
Suzuki-Kendall ViolinMethodfor Heterogeneous
Stringed InstrumentClasses." DissertationAb-
30, 1970, 3967
stracts International,
9 Ruth K
Keraus.
"An Achievement Study of
Privateand Class SuzukiViolinInstruction Dis-
33, 1973. 809 A
sertationAbstractsInternational.
MEJ/February'86 31