Porous Asphalt Clogging Performance Under Swedish Conditions

DEGREE PROJECT IN DEPARTMENT OF
CIVIL AND ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING , SECOND LEVEL

STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2015
Porous Asphalt Clogging

Performance Under
Swedish Conditions
FUAD AHMED
KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Porous Asphalt Clogging Performance
Under Swedish Conditions
Fuad Ahmed
February 2015
TRITA-BKN. Master Thesis 404, Department of Civil and
Architectural Engineering 2015
ISSN 1103-4297
ISRN KTH/BKN/EX440SE

c Fuad Ahmed 2015
Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering
Division of Highway and Railway Engineering
Stockholm, Sweden, 2015
Abstract
Porous asphalt has gradually gained a lot of popularity in the past ten years for
its ability to reduce trac noise, especially noise generated between tire and road
surface. The acoustical absorption properties are mainly due to the pore structure
and the texture of the mixture. However, the percentage of these pores decrease
during the lifetime. The main reason is that dirt and organic material get stuck in
the air void structure and eventually cause clogging. In Nordic countries, particles
from the road which get released due to the use of spiked tires accelerate clogging. To
minimize wear and tear of these roads, larger aggregates are used. But, larger stone
size diminishes the noise absorption ability of the mixture. Another reason that
is attributed to void reduction is post-compaction. The fact that these mixtures
damage prematurely and need more maintenance than conventional pavements is
the main reason for its limited use.
Given these problem, it is therefore important to understand how clogging can be

minimized and/or reverted via operational maintenance actions. Dierent types
of cleaning vehicles have been used previously to restore porosity. Unfortunately,
these cleaning attempts have led to ambiguities and the eect of cleaning is widely
debated. A method to look inside and to measure this eect is needed.
This thesis has compared nine eld core samples of porous asphalt from E4 Huskvarna,
with the aim to conduct an in depth analysis of the air voids distribution before and
after cleaning with a particular cleaning method. For this, the Skanska maintenance
vehicle was selected, named VägRen which is claimed to be optimized for porous
asphalt under Nordic conditions has been used to clean a 100 m section. Cores were
drilled before and after cleaning. The samples were scanned with high resolution
X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanner in order to capture the entire morphol-
R was used to characterise the
ogy. The digital image analysis program, AvizoFire
3D internal structure of air voids. Porosity evaluation as a function of depth of
the asphalt layers has been studied to analyze the void distribution and cleaning
eectiveness of the dirt with the investigated method.
The results show that: (i) No visible damage induced by VägRen could be detected.
(ii) Skanska's maintenance vehicles increased the air voids in the entire cleaned core
and connected air voids increased by 83 %. The knowledge generated from this
study can assist in the broader understanding of eectively utilizing porous asphalt
under Nordic Conditions, though more research will be needed for conclusive results
on the general eectiveness of the cleaning method and the eect of the life time of
the pavement.
iii
Keywords: Air voids: Clogging: Noise: Porous asphalt: X-ray: Mainte-
nance
iv
Sammanfattning
Intresset för att använda bullerreducerande beläggningar har gradvis ökat de senaste
tio åren på grund av dess förmåga att reducera trakbuller och i synnerhet det
buller som genereras mellan däck och vägbana. Den bullerreducerande förmågan
beror främst på beläggningens textur samt porstruktur. Dessutom minskar den
procentuella andelen hålrum med tiden, det är främst partiklar och vägdamm som
fastnar i porstrukturen och medverkar till igensättning av hålrummen. Denna igen-
sättning accelereras i de nordiska länderna på grund av frekvent användande av
dubbdäck. För att minska dubbdäcksslitaget används ofta beläggningar med större
maximal stenstorlek, dessa större stenar genererar dock mer trakbuller. En annan
faktor som kan bidra till minskat hålrum är relaterat till efterpackning av beläggnin-
gen. Faktum att dessa typer av asfalt försämras i förtid och kräver mer underhåll
generellt motverkar en bredare användning av bullerreducerande beläggningar.
Ovannämnda problem belyser vikten att förstå till vilken grad igensättningspro-
cessen av beläggningens porstruktur kan minimeras samt återställas med riktade
underhållsåtgärder. För att förbättra den akustiska livslängden har olika typer av
rengöringsutrustningar testats. Utvärderingen från dessa tester har inte varit enty-
diga, vilket har lett till att eekterna av rengöring har ifrågasatts. Det nns således
ett behov av att kunna utvärdera porstrukturen före och efter rengöring.
Föreliggande avhandling har jämfört nio borrkärnor från en bullerreducerande beläg-

gning från E4 utanför Huskvarna, med syftet att utföra en djupanalys av borrkärnor-
nas porstruktur. Skanskas egenutvecklade underhållsfordon, VägRen (VR), opti-
merad för nordiska förhållanden användes för att rengöra en sträcka på ca 100 m
av E4:an. Borrkärnorna togs före och efter rengöringen. Provkropparna analyser-
ades med en högupplöst röntgen datortomograf (CT) skanner för att framställa hela
morfologin. Bilderna erhållna från datortomogran bearbetades till 3D med bild-
R . Porositeten som funktion av beläggningsdjup har
analysprogrammet, AvizoFire
studerats för att analysera eeketen av den valda rengöringsmetoden.
Resultaten visar att: (i) Inga synliga skador på den rengjorda sträckan, orsakade av
VägRen. (ii) Skanskas rengöringsfordon återställde en del av hålrummet på samtliga
nivåer för de tvättade provkropparna. Andel sammanhängande porer ökade med 83
%. Kunskap erhållen från denna studie kan bidra till en djupare förståelse om
mer optimal användande av bullerreducerande beläggningar under nordiskt klimat.
Dock behövs det mer forskning för att fastställa eektiviteten av rengöringsmetoden
och hur den påverkar livslängen.
v
Nyckelord: Hålrum: Igensättning: buller: Bullerreducerande beläggning:
Tomogra: Rengöring
vi
Acknowledgement
Nin tuur leh siduu u seexdo isagaa yaqaan. A humpback person knows best how
he/she sleeps (we can always wonder how that person sleeps). In other words,
everyone knows best how to solve their tasks.
Somali proverb
The research presented in thesis has been carried out in the nal semester of my
ve year study in KTH Royal Institute of Technology Department of Civil and
Architectural Engineering and Skanska Sverige AB, Civil Engineering Stockholm.
I would like to thank three important groups of people, without whom this thesis
would not have been possible: my KTH professors, Skanska group and my family.
The preparation of M.Sc. thesis is to some extent like preparation of an asphalt
mixture. A M.Sc. thesis is a mixture of many components that are contributed
by dierent people. My work has been made possible by many people who have
contributed tirelessly and this thesis cannot be complete without appreciating their
eort to equip me with tools to straighten my humpback.
First and foremost I would like to thank Assoc. Prof. Nicole Kringos for her excellent
guidance, inspiration and support. Thank you, for your motivation and for giving
me the opportunity to work as your student. I would like to thank Asst. Prof. Denis
Jelagin, for his supervision on the analysis part of this work. Dr. Alvaro Guarin's
assist for scanning the samples is acknowledged. My grateful thanks also extends to
Mr. Ibrahim Onifade whose work in image analysis inspired me in crossing many
hurdles during this work. I have beneted greatly from his advice and guidance.
Secondly, I owe enormous gratitude to Johannes Lidström, District manager at

Skanska who initiated the project and Dr. Roger Nilsson, Skanska who supervised
this thesis. Thank you, for the valuable discussions and the enormous eort you put
into these discussions. I also thank Roger for appreciating my research strengths
and patiently encouraging me to improve in my developing areas and it is a great
honour to be entrusted with one of the crown jewels of Skanska. I would like to
extent my gratitude to Hans Rackner, Skanska and Gustav Petersson, Svevia for
giving me the opportunity to organize the coring team. Dr. Ulf Sandberg's, VTI
noise measurements is valuable for this research and I am greatly thankful. To this
list, I would also like add to all my colleagues for providing a very nice atmosphere
and their patience during the nalization of the report.
Finally, I would like to thank all my siblings, my foster family Bernt, Vivianne
and Sandra Nordström for their unconditional support and encouragement during
vii
the tough teen years up to date. Asha Timajilic, Ahmed Egal and their children's
support is highly valued. I would nally like to thank Skanska 21 who funded
the research and Maryam Zarrin, Project manager Skanska who gave me a great
welcoming to the company.
Stockholm, February 2015

Fuad Ahmed
viii
Dedication
This work is dedicated to my Mother Nadhifa Xaji Farah whose patience, love,
prayers and unequivocal support enabled me to complete this work. My most heart-
felt thanks goes to you Hooyo. The report is also dedicated to the memory of my
late father Mohamed Timajilic Aden- Illaahay ha u naxariisto Aabe whose words of
wisdom still echo in my head, I love and miss you dad.
ix
Contents
Summary iii
Sammanfattning v
Preface vii
Dedication ix
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Organization of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Literature Review 11
2.1 Putting Porous Asphalt into perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.1 Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.2 Air Voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.3 Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.4 Bitumen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Single Layer Porous Asphalt (SLPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Double layer Porous Asphalt (DLPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Clogging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
xi
2.6 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6.1 Rejuvenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6.2 High-pressured vacuum cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6.3 Winter maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7 Correlation between noise absorption and pore structure . . . . . . . 32
2.8 Noise measurement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.8.1 Statistical Pass-by Method (SPB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.8.2 Close Proximity method (CPX) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3 International Relevance 41
3.1 International Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.1 Danish Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.2 The Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.1.3 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2.1 Wear Due to studded tire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2.2 Situation in Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4 Site Description 53
4.1 Skanska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Silent Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2.1 Specic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.2 Material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3 Previous objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3.1 Previous cleaning attempt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.4 Skanska's Maintenance Vehicle 'VägRen' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.5 E4 Huskvarna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.5.1 Noise measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.5.2 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.6 Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
xii
4.7 Drill Core Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5 X-Ray CT scan and Image Analysis 69

5.1 X-ray Computed Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.2 CT-Scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3 Digital Image Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3.1 Image Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6 Results and Analysis 79

6.1 Vacuum Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.2 Analysis of Air Void Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2.1 Porosity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.3 Clogging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.4 Noise measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7 Comments and conclusions 89

7.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.2 Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Bibliography 93
A Porosity with depth 101
Appendix 101
A.1 Air voids Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
xiii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
With trac and with roads, noise is generated. For years, especially with the ur-
banization engineers have been trying to shield living conditions from trac noise.
People who are exposed to high noise levels experience sleeping disturbance, discom-
fort, impaired cognitive performance, cardiovascular disease, stroke etc. [1] . The
EU Environmental Noise Directive (2002/49/EC) is the main instrument to identify
noise pollution levels and to trigger necessary action both at Member state and EU
level, it has estimated that around 80 million people suer from noise levels that are
above the acceptable limit. An additional of 170 million live in areas where noise
levels cause serious annoyance during daytime and the majority of the noise can be
attributed to trac noise [2]. In Sweden, two million people are exposed to trac
noise emissions that are higher than 55 dB from [3]. There have been certain ways,
which have been developed to mitigate these negative outcomes at source . One of
them is to erect noise barriers near dwellings and the other one is paving with porous
asphalt 'noise absorbing asphalt'. The former requires additional space around the
pavement, which can be challenging in the urban areas, see gure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Dierent types of noise barriers [4]
This thesis is investigating the latter, by analyzing the air void structure of porous
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
asphalt. Porous asphalt is the most feasible alternative in reducing trac noise
(e.g. [2] [4] [5] [6]). The high proportion pores in porous asphalt is the biggest
physical dierence to conventional asphalt. These pores allow for a surface texture
creation which promotes reduction of noise emission up to 10 dB(A) and adequate
permeability [7] [8]. Countries exposed to large amount of rainfall throughout the
year use porous asphalt as a wearing course for its adequate permeability, whereas
others pursue porous asphalt for its noise reduction ability. For that reason dierent
mixture designs have been developed to achieve the required pavement performances
and that why same material has dierent appellations.
Some other benets that can be ascribed to porous asphalt are reduction in splash
and spray, improvement in skid resistance due to the rough macro-texture, rut-
resistance etc. Despite these benets, there are challenges associated with porous
asphalt that need to be dealt with. Dirt and detritus from the environment and
material ripped o from the surface by studded tires get stuck in the air void struc-
ture. This mechanism diminishes the aspired qualities and eventually cause clogging.
Other environmental impact that contributes to the matter is the particles created
by the use of studded tires [9]. In order to preserve acoustical and permeable bene-
ts, the air voids must stay interlinked and clean.
It has also been reported that suction forces produced by high speed vehicles ushes
debris and dirt from the void structure which consequently delays clogging of the
surface, thus it only occurs in the wheel path. This mechanism is questionable in
Sweden due to the amount of ne particles produced by the wear and tear produced
by studded tires and size of the aggregates. In an eort to prolong the eect of clog-
ging, regular and scheduled maintenance is demanded. Previous Swedish cleaning
attempts have led to ambiguities, where dierent results have been achieved: clean-
ing has either led to reduced noise levels, have lacked eect or even increased noise
levels in some cases [6]. The cleaning issue is highly debated in Sweden whether
cleaning is eective or if the whole surface should be replaced. This forms the
motivation of the present study.
Skanska is one of the leading companies that early invested in implementing porous
asphalt under Nordic conditions and has been involved in two major projects (SIL-
VIA and SILENCE) to improve the knowledge of low noise pavements. Skanska
developed in the interim its own concept called silent asphalt in 2003 [2]. In an
eort to mitigate noise absorption Skanska has also developed its own cleaning ve-
hicle called VägRen in 2010 which have been used in maintenance operations. The
principle of the machine is based on high pressure water and vacuum suction. The
eectiveness and the potential increase of surface life-time to the mixture that this
machine may induce are currently unknown. Previous studies have visualized the
limitation of capturing air void distribution on traditional laboratory and eld meth-
ods [4] [8].
Given awareness of the problem, it is therefore important to understand how clogging

is related to reduced noise absorption and how this can be prevented and or reverted
via maintenance actions. In order to unearth the roots of clogging, eld core samples
of double-layer porous asphalt concrete DPAC from 2011 and 2014 of E4 Huskvarna
2
1.1. INTRODUCTION
were drilled and sent to KTH Royal institute of Technology, Division of Highway and
Railway Engineering for testing and analysis. For this, X-ray computed Tomography
which conducts three dimension reconstructions of the specimen was performed. It is
considered to be promising technique in revealing the complex mechanical behavior
of asphalt [10]. From the computational analysis connectivity and distribution of air
voids will identify location of clogging and the eciency of cleaning using VägRen.
This will further allow increase in knowledge in behavior of implementing porous
asphalt in Nordic climates. Consequently by reducing noise emissions at source,
improved acoustical environment will be created for people living near the roads.
3
1.2 Aim
The overall aim of this thesis is to increase the knowledge in implementing porous
asphalt under Nordic condition and custom operation and maintenance. This thesis
analyses the air void structure of porous asphalt, by detecting at what depth clogging
occurs and be able to access if VägRen helps achieving a long-term solution for noise
levels reduction on porous road surfaces under Nordic conditions. To achieve these
aims, the following objectives and methods are utilized.
• Objective 1: To employ an X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning

R to capture the entire
combined with image processing software AvizoFire
structure of a core sample and to quantify porosity. The software will allow
for capturing and visualizing the air voids and their interconnectivity rate
separated from aggregates and mastic.
• Objective 2: To compare core samples from E4 Huskvarna that have been

in service and maintained, from the same trial sections by assessing air voids
distribution with depth. This allows the identication of the presence of clog-
ging/compaction in porous asphalt.
• Objective 3: To examine if the high-pressure vacuum cleaning induced any

change of the surface other than cleaning the void structure.
4
1.3. METHODOLOGY
1.3 Methodology
This thesis is establishing a phenomenological study procedure for assessing noise

reduction of a given road surface. Based on the research, a methodology has been
planned bound to restriction with regards of the aims. The cleaning eect on porous
asphalt will be evaluated by obtaining the detail internal structure on core samples
for further analysis. Determination of air voids phase distribution with depth is the
second step of the workow developed by Onifade [11], which will also be imple-
mented in this study. In order to meet the objectives, a literature study on how
noise is generated between pavement and vehicle interaction is carried out. Figure
1.2 illustrate a ow chart of the total methodology that was chosen to analyse the
air void structure of porous asphalt.
Figure 1.2: Flow chart over the methodology.
The hypothesis of the thesis is that air voids change over time, part of it could be
through trac compaction and the other part through clogging. The latter means
dirt and detritus in the air voids cause clogging where noise absorption and perme-
ability retrogrades while compaction in this case means additional trac compaction
where void volume is reduced. To measure porosity, nine porous core samples were
drilled between the wheel path and collected over a period of time 2011 June and
(2014, June before and after cleaning). By measuring the open structure of the core
samples, we will be able to determine how much of the pores are cleaned.
The method is obtaining core samples from E4 Huskvarna before and after cleaning,
5
after-core samples were drilled immediately after cleaning in order to exclude addi-
tional trac compaction and to prevent new detritus entering the void structure.
From the X-Ray CT scan, we expect distinguish air voids from aggregates and mas-
tic through the obtained image slices. The image processing is based on 3D-data
obtained from the X-Ray CT and the result of the image analysis requires accurate
interpretation regarding the underlying hypothesis which is also the most challeng-
ing area of the thesis. This will allow us to get information about the amount of
air voids distribution, their connectivity and the location of clogging. Erosion ef-
fects can also be determined through thinning of the lm. However, erosion might
contribute to less clogging. The analysis part is divided in the following stages:
1. 3D visualization of the air voids. From here we can compare the air voids
structure and their distribution. If the biggest air void in the 3D image does
not go through the slices then clogging could be the reason for samples before
cleaning.
2. Plotting vertical air void distribution with depth will simplify the analysis on
each section
We collected other substantial information of the surface material such as mix de-
sign, aggregate size, pore structure, air voids distribution. Noise measurements
were conducted after cleaning of the surface by The Swedish National Road and
Transport Research Institute (VTI) and Technical University of Gdansk (TUG).
The results will verify the primary objectives and aims of the thesis by giving valu-
able information about the present status of the low noise pavements and to clarify
the eectiveness of VägRen VR in the cleaning procedure. Figure 1.3 simplies
the hypothesis by showing the relationship between time, noise absorption, damage
and maintenance. It is assumed that noise absorption increases when the surface is
cleaned and can be veried by controlling that amount of air voids and their distri-
bution. Damage is dened in gure 1.3 as clogging, raveling and technical acoustical
(clogging). Visual inspection was also carried out before and after cleaning both to
locate the initial bore holes of t1 and to verify if any change of the surface had
occurred after cleaning. Judgment will be made based on photos.
6
1.3. METHODOLOGY
Figure 1.3: Hypotheses.
t0 ∼ β
t0 = x air voids
t1 = x1 air voids
t2 = x2 air voids after cleaning
x1 = f (x1 ,compaction,clogging,erosion)
β =interconnectivity
7
1.4 Limitation
Within the context of this thesis, it is important to consider porous asphalt as a

noise abatement solution economically and its structural contribution should fulll
same demands as conventional pavements. The lack of original core samples t0 limits
compaction evaluation. The phenomenological study on cores and the analysis only
represents cores extracted from lane 1 Northbound, E4 Huskvarna. Hence it should
be noted that the results are only valid for the section investigated with respect to
trac, climate and pavement conditions. There are other types of low noise surfaces
used in Sweden that are not studied in this report such as NCC, Poroelastisk and
Peab, Swedrain.
The amount of moisture (vertical and lateral) damage and mastic damage that
exist in a exible pavement are also present is the studied road. Moisture damage is
dened as loss of strength and durability in asphalt mixture, it is clear that moisture
damage is usually not limited to one mechanism but is the result of combination of
process. Porous asphalt is more sensitive than other type of surface due to the large
portion air voids which are designed to serve as drainage system of the pavement.
However, this same ability has a negative impact on the material characteristics
of the mastic. The existence of water creates loss of adhesion between aggregate
and bitumen (stripping) and the amount of water that ows through the connected
air voids of the asphalt wearing surface, gure 1.4. Beside adhesion, additional
failure such as unfavorable change in the surface texture (raveling: losing of the
stones at the top) and desorption of the outer layer that are direct contact with the
atmosphere will be washed away.
Figure 1.4: Moisture penetration into the asphalt mix [12].
8
1.5. ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS
1.5 Organization of the Thesis
• Chapter 2 Literature review
In this chapter porous asphalt will be conceptualized, the inuence of the

containing material will be given followed by permeability, clogging and
maintenance of these types of surfaces. The chapter will sum up with
explaining how noise is generated, noise absorption measurements, and
correlations between noise absorption and pore-structure. Finalized by
noise measurement methods .
• Chapter 3 International Relevance
An overview of what has been achieved in countries that implements

porous asphalt widely (Denmark, the Netherlands and Japan ) will be
presented. Swedish condition of implementing porous asphalt will be
explained and the eect of studded tires.
• Chapter 4 Skanska Test Sites and Materials
This chapter presents a brief description of Skanska's concept of low noise

pavement and previous laid objects. E4 Huskvarna will be presented,
relevant information about the road such ADT, weather, noise measure-
ments etc. Previous projects will be explained, nalized by Core sample
preparation.
• Chapter 5 X-Ray Computer Tomography and Image Analysis
A description of the scanning and the numerical analyses procedure of

the drilled core samples will be given in this chapter.
• Chapter 6 Results
In this chapter the results of the analysis will be presented.
• Chapter 7 Conclusion and Recommendation
Based from the results conclusions will be presented and future studies.
9
Chapter 2
Literature Review
This chapter is the results of the literature review and is based on published research
results, experience and guidelines on porous asphalt. The aim of this section is to
provide the important terms and concepts regarding porous asphalt. It starts by
scrutinizing porous asphalt by conceptualization of the involving materials and their
properties, aggregates, air-voids and mastic (binder and nes). This chapter will
further present noise correlation between noise absorption and pore structure and
nally the two commonly used noise measurement methods (SPB and CPX) will be
described. It was noticed in the literature review that depending on the aim and
location in which porous asphalt is used. Following appellations are used:
• Low-noise road surface
• Low-noise surface
• Noise-reducing road surface
• Quiet surface
• Silent roads
• Quiet pavement
• Open graded friction course OGFC
• Permeable friction course
• Pervious asphalt
11
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Putting Porous Asphalt into perspective
Porous asphalt is the result of advanced technology in pavement design and oers
numerous of solutions such as noise reduction and permeability. It is used in the
top layers and has usually air void content of 20 % or greater [13]. The rst porous
asphalt mixes used took place in United States around 1930s, the mix involved
experiments with plant mix seal to improve performance relative to seal coat or chip
seal on the roads with high trac volume [14]. In the course of time the term Open-
Graded Friction Course (OGFC) and permeable friction course (PFC) emerged. The
former is conventionally a layer of asphalt that incorporates a skeleton of uniform
aggregate size with minimum nes and 12-16% voids content. The latter is mainly
implemented for the purpose of stricter storm-water management [15]. Around that
period many states around US started placing plant mix seal to improve the overall
frictional resistance [2]. The primary motivations were safety, fast drainage of water
from the surface, and enhancement in visibility with OGFC. In the interim noise
aspect of OGFC was not widely motivated. OGFC helped preserve local ecosystem
by reducing the amount of pollutant and chemicals such as grease and oil from
vehicle by ltering the storm-water as it passes through the system [5].
The initial premature failures counted for the rst generation on OGFC were mainly
related to moisture and temperature such as raveling, stripping, construction dicul-
ties and oxidation [16]. Stripping occurs when the adhesive bond between aggregates
and bitumen is weakened. Additionally, seasonal problems were noticed in colder
climates [17].
In Europe, porous asphalt also known as pervious asphalt is a step-up of the rst
generation OGFC and was developed by the United Kingdom's Transport Research
Laboratory (TRL) in the late 1950s. The rst application was on airport runways
2
and on public roads [2]. Large applications of more than 25 km are found on Italy,
Spain, Netherlands, and France. Beside the dierences in air voids between the
European and American concept, OGFC has a thickness of 25 mm and a discon-
tinuity of 2/7 (x/y: contain fractions between x and y), whereas European porous
asphalt consists of 40-50 mm and a discontinuity of (2/7 or 2/10). The surface of
the European concept was also optimized to reduce aquaplaning, spray and splash
during periods of heavy rainfall. In contemporary acoustical benets were noticed
and the trend of applying porous asphalt for its noise absorption amplied around
Europe [2]
.
Figure 2.1 shows the relationship between noise levels and various surface types. O
course the activity on the surface, weather condition and also surrounding objects
are important factors in the conclusion. Porous asphalt consists mainly of course
aggregates, binder (petroleum rest product), sand and ller. In order to achieve a
porous friction course and the aspired qualities in performance, their spatial distri-
bution is essential and has major impact in performance. There is also a European
standard for reference CEN product (EN 13108-7) method which member countries
should adopt mixes in accordance to the specication.
12
2.1. PUTTING POROUS ASPHALT INTO PERSPECTIVE
Figure 2.1: Porous asphalt 68 to 78 dB(A) [2].
The physical characteristics that determine the acoustical performance of porous as-
phalt are mega-texture, permeability and sound absorption coecient (e.g [18] [19]
[20] [2]). The latter is associated with noise propagation emitted by various sources.
Surface texture, porosity, thickness and number of layer are the factors that can
aect optimization of porous surface. Figure 2.2 shows an overview of the involv-
ing material and their relationship to noise generation mechanism. Environmental
eects and vehicle types also aect the noise generation mechanism. The following
subsection will describe these parameters in detail.
Figure 2.2: Tire road noise overview noise generation
13
Various setbacks have been reported over the years in implementing porous asphalt
(e.g.[20] [14] [23] [24] [25]). The recurrent ones are: The exposed binder leads to
rapid aging of the binder due to oxidation, stripping of the binder from the aggregate
during service, reduction in mechanical strength, loss of permeability and clogging
of the pores by dirt and detritus from the environment and studded tires (especially
in Sweden). The latter hinders its functionality. In addition to clogging raveling is
also observed, diculties in conducting repair, unfavorable frictional properties at
low speeds and unknown durability [2]. Other shortcomings that are emphasized by
Graf and Simond [26] are in winter conditions porous asphalt is prone to coverage
by ice which aggravates winter maintenance, poor skid resistance (e.g. longer stop
distance), wear and tear caused by studded tires and weather. There are mainly two
types of application of porous asphalt single-layer porous asphalt and double-layer
porous asphalt. In the European concept, the aggregate size varies for each coun-
try due to weather condition and the use of e.g. studded tires. But it contains in
overall larger course aggregates, less ne aggregates, higher air-voids and polymer
modied asphalt and/or ber [17]. There are signicant dierences between conven-
tional asphalt and porous asphalt. Figure 2.3 and table 2.1 show the characteristic
dierences between a convention and porous asphalt
Figure 2.3: Conventional vs Porous[27].
14
Table 2.1: Porous asphalt mix design in Europe
Material Parameter Characteristic value
Void content > 20%
Thickness 20-50 mm
Max.aggregate size 6-20 mm
Aggregate > 2mm 80-85%
Binder(pure or modied) 4-7%
2.1.1 Aggregates
The aspired salience texture (mega-texture) and the high required porosity is achieved
by the shape and the orientation of the aggregates in the mixture. A large propor-
tion of road trac noise is generated by tire/road interaction and therefore, the
aggregates formulation is of major importance in noise propagation [28]. This vital
ingredient in the mixture constitutes of 70-85% by the weight of the hot-mix asphalt
HMA and determines also the strength characteristics [29]. Beside contributing to
the spacing between the stone one stone contact, it is important for aggregates to
have a good long term aggregate crushing resistance with enough packed structure
[30] [31].
In general, aggregates are dened as materials derived from natural rocks or by-
products from the manufacturing process and are divided into primary-and sec-
ondary aggregates. Quarried hard (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) rocks
are primary rocks and are referred to as crushed rocks while secondary aggregates
referred to recycled aggregates. However, within the European standard, mineral
waste is included in the denition of natural rock and aggregates derived from in-
dustrial process are dened as manufactured aggregates [30]. In order to achieve
desired texture across the surface, aggregates must go through a gradation (particle
size distribution) shown in gure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Particle size distribution [2].
15
Gradation is the particle size distribution, it allows for particle arrangement that
inuences permanent deformation in the asphalt mixture and is determined in terms
of the percentage passing each of the sieves. Gradations are specied to ensure ac-
ceptable pavement performance and is the most inuential aggregate characteristics
in determining how the material will perform in service and helps determine every
important property such as stiness, stability, durability, permeability, etc. [29] [32].
The aggregates are further classied in terms of size, ne and coarse. This gradation
is the most inuential aggregate characteristics in determining how the material will
perform in service and helps determine every important property such as stiness,
stability, durability, permeability, etc. [29]. The shape of the aggregates and surface
texture contributes to stability together with the underlying layers [33].
Since aggregates must be optimized for local conditions, the use of studded tires in
Nordic countries causes surface damages and requires maximum abrasion value of
the aggregates. Whereas, the aggregates in countries like Belgium and Netherlands
must be characterized by high polished stone value [6]. An important feature that
aggregate durability and maximum stone size contribute to is the production of
wear particles which exceeds with increased trac and studded tires. Unlike noise-
pollution, particle emissions decreases with stone size [28]. There are requirement
for maximal abrasion value in the Nordic countries where studded tires are used see
section 3.3. In order to yield higher air voids, porous asphalt mixes have strongly
gap-graded aggregate gradation. Aggregates with cubic shape and homogeneous
orientation create the most eective surface in noise reduction, see gure 2.5
Figure 2.5: Cubic aggregates shaped [34]
The irregularities of pavement surface from the horizontal plane are known as surface
texture. These are further classied into microtexture, macrotexture, megatexture
and unevenness (roughness). Figure 2.6 shows dierent wavelengths of the each
textures spectrum.
16
Figure 2.6: Dierent wavelengths with corresponding surface texture [34]
Microtexture refers to surface irregularities with wavelengths of less than 0.5 mm and
vertical amplitudes of less than 0.2 mm. The microtexture region is associated with
the small-scale roughness of stones. According to Alauddin [35] good microstructure
is achieved by coarse aggregates with hard and angular ne particles and/or harsh
ne aggregates. This region is further responsible for the adhesion component of
friction between tire and road surface. The wavelengths for macrotexture range from
0.5 mm to 50 mm and vertical amplitude ranges from 0.1 mm to 20 mm with one-
third octave bands including the range 0.63 mm to 500 mm of center wavelength.
As shown in the gure below macro texture helps the surface disperse water by
providing drainage channel.
A general goal in designing noise reducing pavements is to achieve very smooth

macrotexture. In order to prevent air-pumping the surface must be provided with,
deep macrotexture with minimum texture depth of 0.5 mm consisting of random
closely packed homogeneous array of small and medium size aggregates (maximum
10 mm) [15].
The spectrum of megatexture texture ranges from 0.5 m to 50 mm corresponding

to texture wavelengths with one-third-octave bands including the range 63 mm to
500 mm of center wavelengths. Megatexture is materialized as discontinuities on the
pavement surface such as potholes, which is a harmful eect for both friction and
noise [15].
17
2.1.2 Air Voids

Air voids are crucial in all asphalt mixes; in Porous asphalt the internal air void
structure plays an important role beside the mentioned properties, air voids allow
for additional compaction under trac and help create spaces to which small amount
of asphalt can ow when the surface is laid. It is known that the durability of an
asphalt pavement is a function of the air void content [36].
Corer et al. [37] mentions that the percent air voids is used as the basis for selecting
the asphalt binder content. For conventional asphalt used in Sweden, ABS 16 has a
normal air void distribution of 3-5% [38]. Their distribution depends on aggregates
gradation, volumetric properties of the mixture and level of compaction. Over time
additional trac compaction reduces the air voids. There is a European standard
procedure [EN 12697-8] to calculate air void content (Vm ) and the air void content
is dened as volume of air voids as percentage of the total volume of the specimen
[39]. Equation 2.1 shows the calculation used for the procedure.
ρm · ρb
Vm = · 100% (2.1)
ρm
where:
V m = air voids content of the mixture
ρm = maximum density of the mixture [kg/m3 ]
ρb = bulk density of the specimen [kg/m3 ]
High amount of air voids lead to increased raveling, cracking and moisture damage
of the pavement and is often caused by compaction problems. The high amount
of voids indicate also tendency of interconnectivity that allow water and air to ow
through. While, low air voids content is often caused by a mixing problem and could
exhibit stability problems [40]. The air voids can also be increased or decreased by
controlling the amount of material passing through the required sieve size mixture.
The amount of air void in porous asphalt is suggested by Nielsen et al. [41] that a
fundamental characteristic is high volumes of open and interlinked voids, 20-28 %
at the time of laying which provides water circulation and the absorption of surface
noise. This amount can further be adjusted by lowering or raising the binder content.
However, distinct mechanical behavior has shown in specimens with the same total
volume but with dierent distribution of air voids [41].
Nilsson et al. [2] and Jacobson [43] recommend that air voids distribution in porous
asphalt is to range between 20-25%. According to Sandberg [6] if the air voids are
increased from 25-30% a greater noise reduction of 1-2 dB can be achieved. Thus,
this would create problems in stainability and raveling. Too much air void reduces
compressive strength of asphalt mixture [44].
18
2.1.3 Connectivity
The connected air voids in porous asphalt are extremely important in terms of noise
reduction and permeability. These air voids are result of the stone-to-stone contact
of the aggregates achieved while the surface is laid and compacted. This feature is
the major causes for noise reduction. Porous pavement has a negative texture due
to the stone-on-stone contact which helps create open, but narrow spaces and pores
between the chippings [45].
Ellebjer and Bendsten [46] described the combination of the built-in voids and the
thickness of a porous pavement inuence the noise generated by air displacement
mechanism. The high the percentage voids that exist and the thicker the pavement
is, the greater is its ability to enhance high connectivity.
Lefebvre [8] illustrated the interconnectivity and classication of the air voids in
porous asphalt and their importance in eectively removing water and enhancing
noise absorption. Figure 2.7 together with table 2.2 show dierent types of exist-
ing air voids. From the surface voids 'a' and b1 appear alike, but in reality b1 is
semi-eective (not interconnected) and therefore the porous surface loses its noise
absorption and permeability. Voids b2 and d are isolated and have no connection
with the borders and are therefore impermeable. This characterization of the void
structure is vital; it helps identify modes of moisture transport and moisture damage
[47]. This limitation of capturing these air voids enforces for micro-structural level
analysis of the specimens and to visualize their interconnectivity.
Figure 2.7: Air voids classication [8]
An important conclusion from a research conducted by the Minnesota Department

of Transportation where the cooling eect of storm water that passes through the
porous layers showed, air voids act as a thermal layer providing warmer temperature
in cooler climate conditions and contrariwise [22].
19
Table 2.2: Inuence of Air Void Classication on Permeability and Noise [8]
2.1.4 Bitumen
Bitumen is adhesive and waterproong material derived from crude petroleum which
acts as a glue to hold the aggregate composite together. It is extracted by remov-
ing the lighter fractions from heavy crude oil during the rening process and a very
viscous almost solid at ambient temperatures is the end result [48]. Similar to the ag-
gregates, bitumen also varies with their inherently complex and plays an important
role in performance on roads. Only certain crude oil contains bitumen of good qual-
ity road construction. Extensive studies have been carried out in understanding the
microstructural complex of bitumen. Approximately 80 % of the principles aect-
ing bitumen aggregate/adhesion are controlled during production and construction
[49][50].
The binder quantity in the mixture needs to be accurately determined in the lab-
oratory and precisely controlled at plant. The content for a particular mixture is
established by the mix design [51]. Besides coating the aggregate, the bitumen's
functions are to bind the aggregate particles together and to provide a bond with
the existing surface, see gure 2.8. As previously mentioned the binder in porous
surface is more exposed to the atmosphere which, can lead to rapid aging (oxi-
dation) and deterioration of the pavement under trac loading in comparison to
conventional. Aging is caused by oxidative aging which is an irreversible process,
where oxygen from the environment has to defuse physically into the binder before
it chemically reacts with the binder components resulting in hardening [25].
20
Figure 2.8: Mastic aggregate interface surface characteristics [12].
This rapid aging can be prevented by increasing the binder content, but consequently
new deance will be created if the binder exceeds a certain level such as obtaining
the appreciated high amount of voids and binder drainage [50]. Temperature and
viscosity are codependent in binder drainage. The higher the temperature is the
lower the viscosity, higher temperature implies naturally more drainage. This phe-
nomenon will make the base impervious [52]. However, this behavior can in turn be
reduced by adding mineral ller (e.g. particles of limestone, hydrated lime, Port-
land cement etc.) or organic bres (rock bres and cellulose bres) [53]. Failure
in the pavement in form of loss of stiening can occur if the amount of ller is not
suciently dispersed in the binder. In additional to aging action of water weakens
the aggregate/bitumen bond and results in stripping.
It is recommended to use polymer modied bitumen (PMB) in porous asphalt [54].

PMB is prepared by mixing thermoplastic polymers in the bitumen and allows
increasing the binder lm thickness around aggregates so that better resistance to
aging is enhanced and improvement of the resistance to moisture damage. Adding
polymer into the bitumen, temperature is susceptibility reduced and contributes to
improvement in the resistance to raveling and enhance strength of asphalt binder
[6].
21
2.2 Single Layer Porous Asphalt (SLPA)
Single layer porous asphalt (SLPA) is a thin wearing course which has been used in
numbers of countries across Europe since 1980s. This is the traditional low noise
surface that was tested for noise purpose in the beginning. Noise reduction of newly
laid single layer porous asphalt varies between 4 to 6 dB compared to reference layer
(ABS 16 in Sweden).
Figure 2.9: Single-layer Porous Asphalt [56].
The low noise properties of SLPA are explicated by Descornet and Goubert [53]. The
use of coarse aggregates conduce to a surface texture with some mega texture which
is far from ideal and its good absorption leads to noise reduction up to 3 dB(A)
at higher speeds. Nevertheless, noise reductions up to 9 dB have been reported.
Sandberg [55] reports that potential noise reduction up to 1-7 dB has been achieved
in relation to dense asphalt concrete (DAC), which diminished with by about 1 dB
per year but faster on low-speed road. Figure 2.9 shows a typical SLPA.
2.3 Double layer Porous Asphalt (DLPA)
The double-layer porous asphalt (DLPA) was developed in the Netherlands in early
1990s and consists of ner grade porous top layer and course graded porous at the
bottom layer shown in gure 2.10. To increase the acoustic eciency, a second
porous layer with smaller chippings is added on top of the rst porous layer with
large chippings [55].
22
2.4. PERMEABILITY
Figure 2.10: Double Layer Porous Asphalt [56].
The upper layer acts as a sieve to stop large particles of detritus to enter the large
air-voids in the lower layer to prevent clogging. DLPA reduce noise along the prop-
agating path to the road side and at the tire/road interface [57]. The spacing should
be wide enough for water to go through but to stop detritus [2]. The grading is
optimized for each condition. According to Sandberg [58] in terms of acoustical
eectiveness of low noise road surfaces, on an overall scale the DLPA is the leading
surface type. The best ones depending on the reference surface in new condition
can reduce noise by 6-9 dB in comparison to conventional surfaces.
2.4 Permeability
Permeability or hydraulic conductivity is a measure of a materials ability to transmit

uids. In porous asphalt, permeability is controlled by air voids and their connec-
tivity in the system and is the rate at which a porous materials ability to transmit
water under a hydraulic gradient. In general moisture is the most dominant mech-
anism that causes damage to asphalt mixtures. As previously mentioned, porous
asphalts ability to drain water away from the surface and to prevent aquaplaning,
were the key characteristics before its acoustical behavior was discovered. Perme-
able pavements work as lters that remove particles from uid [59]. However, this
same ability has a negative eect on the material characteristics of the mastic.
It is also important to point out in parallel to clogging; a rearrangement of the

internal structure may exist under loading and together with moisture and free
water. When the pores are saturated, the fast trac load limits the time for the
water to redistribute itself within the mix and generates the pore pressure away
from the wheel path. This contributes to added mechanical damage and increased
noise levels [12]. Another negative impact that clogging contributes to under Nordic
conditions, it makes the surface more sensitive to frost wedging.
The inltration rate is lost as the pore structure gets clogged and the surface is
subjected to additional trac load. The matter is intensied by the use of studded
tires in cold climate which aggravates the dust released by studs. When designing
porous asphalt, it is important to take into account the thickness of the surface.
23
The interconnected void channels will decrease if the layer thickness increases and
thereby reducing the ow rate which also is linked to noise absorption.
Pei et al. [60] studied the relationship between air voids, strength and permeability
of porous asphalt, through the analysis it was clear that the optimum air void
content is about 19% with aggregates spacing of 6 mm and strength of the structure
decreases if the air voids are higher than 22%.
William et al. [66] published a study where the relationship between permeability
and clogging characteristics of ten porous asphalt mixtures were investigated. In
this study, the researcher team found a strong correlation between permeability
and aggregate gradation of porous asphalt mixtures. A decline in permeability was
discovered as the samples were exposed to clogging material and as the clogging rate
was reduced, permeability reduction was stabilized. Permeability can be measured
both in vertical and horizontal. Equations 2.2 and 2.3 correspond to calculation of
permeability. The requirements and dimensions of the specimen are equal in both
cases:
4 · Qv · I
kv = (2.2)
h · π · D2
Qh · I
kh = (2.3)
(H + P + 0, 5I)(π · D2 )
Where:
kv = Vertical permeability [m/s]
kh = Horizontal permeability [m/s]
I = Thickness of the specimen [m]
Qv = The vertical ow rate [m3 /s]
Qh = Horizontal ow rate [m3 /s]
The horizontal permeability is mainly measured with an instrument comprising of a

vertical cylinder containing water is placed on the surface and the time it takes for the
water to run out is registered (Becker's Tube), shown in gure 2.11. The outow time
provides accurate information about the pavements status due to clogging and is an
indication of the type of the maintenance needed. Leest Van A.J.et al. cited in [50]
used the Becker's tube-method in the Netherlands where newly laid, partly clogged
and completely clogged porous asphalt was measured before and after cleaning.
The results are presented in table 2.3. The relationship between noise reduction
and permeability revealed that lowered permeability of porous surface lessens the
noise reduction eectiveness. A heuristic rule says when the surface is new it takes
7 sec for water to pass through and 200 sec when clogged.
24
2.4. PERMEABILITY
Figure 2.11: Becker's tube [50]
Table 2.3: Shows permeability measurements of porous asphalt in dierent stages

[50]
Degree of clogging Outow time seconds Permeability class
New porous asphalt > 75 High
Partly clogged porous asphalt 30-50 Medium
Clogged porous asphalt < 75 Low
25
2.5 Clogging
It was previously mentioned that porous surface tend to clog by dirt and detritus
which has tendency to spoil those properties that are dependent upon drainage,
porosity and which consequently aect the surfaces acoustical behavior [2]. Figure
2.12 shows a clogged surface, which has lost its function. Many recent studies on
regarding the matter agree on beside porosity decreases with time that clogging is
attributable to the following factors (e.g. [61] [62] [22]):
Figure 2.12: Clogged surface [2].
• Dirt from surrounding of the road are dragged and pressed down in the surface
by the tires.
• Sanding of the roads during winter
• Deterioration of the mastic within the mixture
• Particles produced from break pad
• Material produced by studded tires
Ellebjer and Bendsten [46] published a paper which evaluated drilled cores of porous
asphalt from a test section under Danish condition with help of CT-scan. One of
the conclusions from this study was clogging material is dragged onto the porous
test section by vehicles, thus clogging starts on the run-on areas of the test section
and occurred on the top layers.
Nielsen et al. [63] carried out two acoustical experiments in 1990s with single layer
porous asphalt on urban road (50 km/h) and highway (80 km/h) in Denmark. The
later had noise reduction of 3-4 dB (A) and indicated that clogging is delayed due to
suction forces produced by high-speed vehicles ushed debris from the void structure.
Whereas, for the urban road initial noise reduction of 3 dB (A) disappeared after
two years due to clogging. In addition Nielsen includes that same results have been
observed in other countries.
Nilsson et al. [2] states that tracking and weathering causes the voids in the
surface to become clogged with detritus reducing acoustical absorption, resulting in
26
2.5. CLOGGING
increased noise level. Another important feature that expedites clogging has been
observed in Netherlands and Denmark. Bendsten and Larsen [63] elucidate how tires
can transport clogging agents from adjacent pavement. Sandberg adds, in an eort
to prolong clogging. Tires of vehicles and trucks become muddy when they pass a
construction site and if this construction site is adjacent to porous asphalt. Then
contractors should demand tires somehow cleaned before they drive on the porous
surface. Kevern cited in [64] adds, many sites that have become clogged are due to
large amount of nearby utilized soil running onto the pavement during construction,
hence careful sediment control is needed for any run-on areas to prolong clogging.
Kropp et al. [20] explains the relationship between clogging and absorption is in-
dicated by frequency ranges. Figure 2.13 (right) shows dirt particles accumulate in
beetween the layers of DLPA roads surface, the porosity of the lower layer stays at
the same level but the airow resistance rises dramatically. Therefore, the lower
maximum is shifted to lower frequency and in the mid frequency range, there is
nearly no absorption left. In the right picture dirt is accumulated at the bottom
of the porous layer, the porosity is still preserved whereas the layer thickness is
reduced, hence higher frequencies.
Figure 2.13: Left: particle accumulation between the porous layers. Right: particle
accumulation at the bottom [20].
Bendsten [65] in one of the Danish Road Institutes, DRI technical reports addresses
the analysis and assessment of drilling cores from an urban street in Copenhagen
and highway in the Netherlands. The objective was to study clogging between the
two countries with CT-scan. Cores (right-outer wheel-path, center and left-outer
wheel-path) from each country were obtained, scanned in TU-Delft and sent to DRI
for micro-structural analysis. Clogging was measured from changes between eld
cores (new mixes) and CT scanning data. In an attempt to estimate the degree of
clogging Equation 2.4 was developed, with the denition that the entire pavement
is clogged when the result is equal to one. Dierent results were obtained from
the study. The main conclusion highlighted the uniqueness of CT-scan's ability to
identify best and worst clogging scenario. Bendsten suggested classifying clogging
into three classes: No clogging; uncertain classication; serious clogging.
M astic.vol
Clogging = , (2.4)
M astic.vol + voids
27
2.6 Maintenance
Maintaining porous asphalt is expensive relative to conventional asphalt and is one

of the reasons why these types of asphalt have not received the expected impact.
The deterioration is noticed by increased spray and splash of water during rainy
periods and increased noise measurements or combinations thereof [67]. However,
this process depends on the duration and usage of the road, speed, climate condition
etc. In Nordic countries, wear and tear caused by studded tires is the predominant
factor that causes clogging [6].
Many parameters govern the type of maintenance procedure such as trac, weather,
condition of the surface and the allowed speed (e.g.[6] [2] [24] [7]). As shown in
previous section, clogging starts in the upper surface and it is therefore, important
to initiate any cleaning of the surface before the pores becomes totally clogged.
Hence, porosity will be hard to be recovered if the pores are totally clogged. There
is a self-cleaning eect that occurs in the wheel-path on high speed roads produced
by the vehicle tires [2]. This phenomenon has been observed to occur even more
eectively, when vehicles travel at high-speed during heavy rainfall due to dierent
pore size in the two layers. The top layer with ne-grained aggregates forms a 'sieve
eect' to prevent large particles from reaching the bottom layer, while the coarse-
grained bottom layer strong drainage capability will reduce the risk of clogging
[68][2].
Van Heystraeten and Moraux [69], explains that self-cleaning occurs because of the
pumping and suction of the tires of numerous fast moving vehicles (speeds> 70
km/h). Nilsson et al. [54] adds that the clogging problem is therefore more serious
on low speed lanes. Another problem that is associated with porous asphalt is the
binder exposure to the atmosphere. In the fth framework of the SILVIA project
[2] the authors explain, since the binder is more susceptible to oxidation than other
non-porous asphalt surface, will eventually lead to embrittlement, cracking of the
surface and loss of aggregate. Another challenging aspect is to understand how the
performance of porous asphalt is inuenced by the eect of freeze and thaw action
during winter period. Depending on the purpose of the maintenance, there are in
general three types of maintenance that are in practice. They are Rejuvenator,
cleaning and winter maintenance.
28
2.6. MAINTENANCE
2.6.1 Rejuvenation
The previously mentioned binder setback, premature fatigue and low temperature
cracking can be partly solved through preventive maintenance, use of rejuvenators.
Rejuvenator is a mineral-lled bitumen emulsion of a rened grade of bitumen[70].
The idea is to create new coating through diusion process of the mineral aggregate,
reduce raveling, restore viscosity properties of the harden binder and to prolong the
surface life. The rejuvenation technology consist of spraying the surface with diluted
emulsion that will able to drain via the voids and migrate into the aged bitumen
and eventually activate and restore the exibility of the bitumen, see gure 2.14[54]
[67]. This may sacrice permeability since the liquid may clog the voids. When
rejuvenation is sprayed on to an existing surface, it is eective to a depth of 5 to 10
mm. The following liquids and admixtures can act as rejuvenators [67]:
• A soft bitumen
• A cut-back oil, such as a creosote type liquid or a ux oil,(diesel type liquid)
• Emulsion
• Proprietary liquids
If the binder has reached the end of its eective life time, the whole surface has to
be removed and replaced. There are however some important strings attached to
this process. It is important to ensure that the water system used previously for
drainage is also intact and operating eectively. The road base has to be in good
condition and capable of supporting the new surface [67].
Figure 2.14: Rejuvenation [71]

.
29
2.6.2 High-pressured vacuum cleaning

In order to enhance the full benet of porous roads, inspection and maintenance of
these roads is necessary through their lifetime.There are special maintenance vehicles
developed to extract particles from the air voids. Dierent maintenance attempts
have occurred in numbers of countries. The common de-clogging vehicle principle
envelopes following steps [20]:
1. Surface is sprayed with high pressured water into the air voids (60-68 bar)
with static or rotating valves at the speed of 2-3 km/h.
2. Water mixed with dirt detached from the pores is sucked up.
3. The water is reused after dirt is separated.
Abe, T and Y. Kishi [72] explain how de-clogging is achieved. A water jet and a
water ejection system create cavitation in water held within the pavement structure.
Cavitation occurs when a high-speed water jet is injected into static water resulting
in development of cavitation bubbles. When collapsing, the cavitation bubbles cre-
ate a high pressure that dislodges the clogging material, which will be vacuumed.
The dierence in airow resistance between DLPA adds to the self-cleaning eect
originating from the trac. Finer dirt particles retrain in the upper layer can be
removed by this vacuum cleaning mechanism [54].
Bendsten and Ellebjer [46] distinguished between two cleaning strategies, function
recovery cleaning and function maintenance cleaning. The latter is experienced
in Japan where low and high- air pressure air combined or only air at cleaning
frequencies down to once a week. Whereas, the functional recovery cleaning method
is referred to the existing cleaning technique used in Europe.
The Road and Hydraulic Engineering Institute (DWW) in the Netherlands and
the Danish Road Institute (DRI) produced a paper [23] within the framework of
the Dutch Noise Innovation Program (The IPG program) where cleaning was per-
formed with three dierent contractors (Dura Vermeer steam cleaner, BAM Wegen
Regio Weat and Heijmans). Cores were taken from dierent wheel tracks and the
emergency lane. The main assumption was to verify if cleaning reduces the amount
of mastic and increases the voids content. Cores from a given road sections were
scanned with X-ray before and after cleaning. Results gave the noted observation:
• Dura Vermeer: eective cleaning was found in the lower part of the bottom
layer in the left lane.
• BAM: it was not possible to draw any conclusions since no core samples were
drilled after cleaning.
• Heijmans: A negative eect of cleaning was found in the lower part of the
bottom layer in both wheel track and right lane.
30
2.6. MAINTENANCE
2.6.3 Winter maintenance

The purpose of the winter maintenance is to keep the roads safe, open for public
and to extend the roads life-time. In general porous surface becomes clear of ice
and snow much faster than conventional pavement [73].Winter maintenance is in
general a substantial procedure to prevent ice and bonded snow formation during
cold periods in the winter. The governing winter problems are black ice formation
and extended frozen periods. Porous asphalt requires extra planning, attention and
has due to the high pore volume a reduced heat capacity compared to dense graded
asphalt materials. The dierence in heat capacity eects the time when the surface
gets slippery after night frost and creates an undesired safety situation [24].
Al-Rubaei et al. [59] studied inltration of porous asphalt under Nordic conditions
during winter. The result showed despite substantial frost penetration, inltration
capacity of porous asphalt remained high during winter and could inltrate maxi-
mum runo during snowmelt. According to Nicholls [74] snow tends to settle earlier
and remain longer, also ice forms earlier if the roads are wet. Many studies indicate
that clogging is expedited when sand is used as anti-skid agent, ( eg. [61] [24] [50]
[75] [22]). Salt is recommended instead of sand [76]. Bendsten et al. [41] states that
winter maintenance of Porous Asphalt needs to be performed at the right time and
too much salting can lead to closure due to in-depth ice building-up and if the blade
is not raised high enough, it could damage the surface.
Figure 2.15: Winter maintenance [71]

.
31
2.7 Correlation between noise absorption and pore
structure
Measuring noise with logarithmic scale gives convenient noise levels and is adjusted
to threshold of audibility (0-120) dB, where 0 dB is the hearing limit and 120 dB
is the pain threshold [10]. Sound wave frequencies in the range of (20 20.000) Hz
can be detected by a healthy human ear. A low frequency is less attenuated with
distance and more annoying for human [85]. The same sound pressure level, SPL
but dierent discrete frequencies will have dierent loudness level. For example, a
sound of 60 dB SPL at 2 kHz appears to be much louder than a sound of 60 dB at
100 Hz [10].
Tire noise limits were introduced in 2001 by the European Commission, EC (Di-
rective 2001/43/EC) but did not have any impact. Therefore, a new proposal of
substantial in the tire noise limit was worked out 2012 by Forum of European High-
way Research Laboratories (FEHRL) and European Union Commission [2]. In the
latest (FEHRL, 2012) proposal concluded, tightening tire noise limits would give a
moderate reduction in Sweden of (1-2 dB) [20]. Trac noise is closely related to
the porosity of the surface, there are however many other dierent components that
need to interoperate in order for trac noise to be generated. These components can
be divided into actions on the road surface and actions from vehicles [77]. Actions
on the surface:
• Vehicle type and composition ( trucks, personal cars, motorcycle
• Road and trac ow
• Driving behavior
Noise from the vehicles is primarily originated from sources below:
• Power unit: Contribution from engine, (Propulsion)
• Tire /road: Contribution from the interaction between tire and road inter-
action
• Wind turbulence: Contribution from aerodynamic source
The latter group varies with speed and has dierent impact in the total noise emis-
sion generated by vehicles. Power unit embodies fan, engine and exhaust and trans-
mission. Sangiorgio et al. [34] elucidates with gure 2.16 the dierent mechanisms.
Actions on the surface that eects noise generation are through the characteristics
of the surface texture such as amplitude, orientation, wavelength, the sound absorp-
tion properties and the pavement stiness under the tire/road contact. The stiness
of the rubber has a major impact of the tire noise contribution. Such as the type
32
2.7. CORRELATION BETWEEN NOISE ABSORPTION AND PORE STRUCTURE
of compound, the prole, the size, the tread pattern, the tread voids conguration,
age and wear [34].
Figure 2.16: Sound generation mechanisms (top) and sound amplication mecha-
nisms (bottom) [34]
Ejsmont and Sandberg [19], argue that at low speeds, the power unit commands
the surface noise while at high speeds tire/noise interaction dominates the noise
generation. Kropp et al. [20] adds there is no simple relation revealing which
source is responsible for the measured sound. Beside the known contribution from
each source, Descornet et al. [53] claims water (on road surface) and the micro
texture (very ne texture) may inuence the tire/road, but there is a lack of proper
measurement techniques.
Tighe et al. [35] demonstrated the aforementioned Ejsmont and Sandberg [19] argu-
ment and conrm their argument. Figure 2.17 shows the variation of overall vehicle
noise level under dierent speeds.
Noise contribution from engine dominates the overall noise levels at very low speeds.
But tire/road noise becomes the dominating source in overall as speed increases and
crosses a certain limit (called the crossover speed). Figure 2.17 illustrates further,
that at speeds up to 120 km/h aerodynamic noise contribution is not signicant
exterior buy may be in-vehicle noise and Tire/road noise increases linearly and with
speed. The main sources that govern tire/road noise interaction are the pavement
surface texture, porosity, adhesion and elasticity of the surface [77].
Figure 2.17: Speed dependence of engine and tire/road noise [34]
33
Pratico et al. [15] explains the mechanism behind creation of tire/road noise is
created. Mechanical vibrations are generated through successive impact between tire
tread pattern and pavement surface texture. As the tire rolls along the pavement, air
vibrations that are generated between the road surface and tire grooves is squeezed
out while, some air is trapped and compressed and then sucked back in. This
compression and expansion of air happens > 1000/s, thus generating high frequency
sound.
34
2.8. NOISE MEASUREMENT METHODS
2.8 Noise measurement Methods
Road surface noise measurement is a complex procedure and their measurement in-
volves an understanding of physical attributes since it uctuates constantly. In order
to characterize noise, some simplications have been standardized for measurements
of road vehicle noise. An average energetic level has been dened, called equivalent
sound level Leq (an overall sound level over a certain time period), LDEN for day
time and Lmax maximum sound pressure level during a certain period. A-weighted
sound pressure level, LAmax,m (vehicles are selected such as the maximum sound
pressure level recorded). The noise reduction acquired from any low noise pavement
depends on the reference that is used for each country.
The two types of road measurement that are of importance and widely used are
The Statistical Pass-by method (SPB) and Close Proximity Method (CPX). Their
descriptions are based on [SILVIA 2006 Report] [2] and Sandberg [6]. The common
aspects for these measurements are they compare the measured noise to an existing
reference surface. The length of the road, speed and the surface condition are some
of the key determinant of with method to implement.
2.8.1 Statistical Pass-by Method (SPB)

The SPB method is dened in (ISO 11819-1) and was developed to evaluate the road
surface inuence. This method consists of emulating realistic listening situation by
placing microphones at the measuring distance of 7.5 m from the passing vehicles
at the roadside and the height 1.20 m, see gure 2.18 and table 2.4. To measure
A-weighted sound pressure level, the passing vehicles are ranged into one of three
vehicle categories, each category has its recommended number of vehicles selected
for measurement and speed [78] [57].
35
Figure 2.18: SPB measurement [6]
Table 2.4: Vehicle categories in ISO 11819-1 [6]
Group 1 2 3
Category 2 axel, 4 wheels 2 axel, more than 4 wheels More than 2 axel
Type Passenger cars Light truck busses Heavy trucks
Minimum number of pass 100 50 50
Low speed roads km/h 50 50 50
Medium speed roads km/h 80 70 70
High speed roads km/h 110 85 85
36
Figure 2.19: Typical results obtained in the measurement with SPB method-Scatter
diagram [6]
For each category, noise levels are plotted on a scatter diagram of SPB versus log
(speed) for dierent categories. Figure 2.19 shows a regression line drawn in the
center of the scatter diagram of SPB. The maximal A-weighted sound pressure level
versus the logarithm of speed is calculated. A combination of the calculated LAmax
of the three categories gives an index, which is an overall level of road surface inu-
ence on trac noise. The curves that are aliated with the regression line provide
an indication of the error in the method at certain speed and give a 95% con-
dence interval around the individual category. During measurement performance
the system recognizes the importance of both air and surface temperature inuence
◦
and advocates an air temperature of 20 C. Trac is recorded as it occurs and can
cover the whole range of vehicle recognized. SPB method is representative and a
trustworthy method for standardizing vehicle noise levels [6].
There are some disadvantages associated with SPB-method. The method is valid for
road sections that are at maximum 100m and relatively straight. Diculties have
been reported when measuring is conducted at high trac densities. Douglas et al
[4] states even if the tire diers among same vehicles problem occurs. The test is
time consuming. Despite these shortcomings the Statistical Pass-by Method is used
in many countries [2]
37
2.8.2 Close Proximity method (CPX)

The Close Proximity method (CPX) described in ISO/CD 11819-2 [80] is a Euro-
pean method for measuring noise at or near the tire/road interface. Sound pressure
is measured using microphones located near the road surface [4]. This method con-
sists of taking measurements of four standard tires with dierent grip pattern, which
have been selected to represent tire used on average cars. The tires are mounted and
towed on a special designed vehicle which is covered, in order to isolate background
noise. Microphone are placed between the tire and road, see gure 2.20. The pro-
tective hood is folds down and towed by a normal passenger car at a normal speed.it
is covered in order to isolate background noise [6] [2] [78].
Figure 2.20: CPX trailer [6]
CPX can be used as investigatory or as survey method. The former has best pre-
cision and relies on using all reference tires but, is time consuming. While the
survey method relies on using two of the reference tires and is suited to surveying
long distances of roads [81]. An average A-weighted sound pressure is measured by
combining the results from the dierent tires Close-Proximity Index (CPXI) is cal-
culated based on compression of the road surface. CPX measurement is relatively
easy method to carry out and covers long road distance the tires are allowed to
roll on constant speed [78]. Figure 2.21 shows an overview of the method in which
microphones are placed and table 2.5 shows the mandatory and optional position
of the microphones. This method can also be used to study the homogeneity of the
road surface under a dierent condition and also help plan maintenance [81]. In
order to increase the signal/noise ratio and reduce the eect of weather, the tire
can be enclosed and microphones in a sound insulated hood with sound absorbing
material.
38
Figure 2.21: Microphone position in the CPX method according to ISO/ DIS 11819-2
[6]
Table 2.5: The microphone position in the CPX method [6]
CPX method is less sensitive to environmental conditions, able to operate in all kinds
of trac conditions and can produce data for the entire length of the road that is
being investigated. Since the microphones are placed so close to tire/road contact, all
other sounds will be isolated. The measurement is suitable for urban road surfaces.
However, the fact that the towed tire can only correspond to vehicle, the method
limits to reproduce characteristics of heavy truck tires. Another disadvantage is
since the microphones are placed close to the tire/road, CPX method should not be
used in wet road conditions because the microphones will be hit by water splashes
[6] [81].
39
Chapter 3
International Relevance
This chapter gives an insight on how other countries implement the use of porous
asphalt. Each of the selected countries have carried out extensive experiment in
an attempt to reduce noise levels and contributed to the development of improving
porous asphalt. The use of porous asphalt under Swedish conditions is presented in
this chapter. The role of studded tires on porous asphalt (noise and clogging) will
be discussed.
3.1 International Relevance
Beside drainage ability, the use of porous asphalt has gained popularity in many
parts of the world for its acoustical properties. Some countries have made progress
and have policies that enforce the application of porous asphalt on the entire road
network while for other countries it is just a 'toolbox' used in new road projects and
pavement maintenance [2].
There have been dierences in the aim of using porous asphalt between Europe
and the United States. In Europe porous asphalt is mainly used to benet its
noise-reduction while, in the United States porous asphalt is placed to mainly to
improve permeability. However, lately porous asphalt been used to reduce trac
noise in USA. [14] [82]. One of the reasons why this development has not been
intact is each country has its own standard of paving material mix design, reference
pavement, aggregate size and climate condition. Countries that use studded tires
share also climatologically conditions and maintenance technique. The Danish Road
Directorate and Danish Road Institute (DRI-DKI) produced a report in 2008 that
summarized the dierent attempt in European countries. The report showed the
complexity of achieving required noise reduction levels in dierent countries [24] .
The literature review showed that many acoustical attempts with porous asphalt
have been carried out with good results (e.g. [24] [2] [69] [57]). However, it also
revealed the geographically limitation of studies carried out with x-ray relation to
clogging, thus this study is unique. The Danish Road Institute published several
papers that address the matter (e.g.[65] [62] [83] [23] [46]).
41
CHAPTER 3. INTERNATIONAL RELEVANCE
Masad et al. and Birgisson et al. cited in [84] used X-Ray CT-scan along with
image analysis technique to characterize the statistical distribution of air voids sized
at dierent depths in the asphalt specimen. It was found that air voids follow a
Weibull distribution and about 40 % of the total number of air voids was found to
concentrate at the top third of the sample.
Europe has through SILVIA (Sustainable Road Surface for Trac Noise Control) a
project where porous asphalt was studied as an alternative to reduce trac noise.
Sweden was represented by Skanska and The Swedish national Road and Transport
Research Institute (VTI) [2]. The European standard of porous asphalt is specied
in prEN13108-7 where each state member should adopt mixes according to their
specications. It has shown in the literature review low noise surface material has
dierent name across countries and that noise measurement methods also dier [55].
Nielsen et al. [63] produced a decision support guide ERA-NET ROAD of low noise
pavement funded by the European commission between 2002 and 2007. The project
dealt with procedures and techniques used in ve selected countries (the Nether-
lands, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom). It further included
factors which could inuence the performance of low noise pavements related to sev-
eral aspects such as dierent noise measurement during the lifetime of the pavement.
The overall ascertainment of the study highlighted the need of further research in
maintenance, cleaning, durability repair and rejuvenation of porous asphalt.
3.1.1 Danish Experience

Initial attempt in the use of porous asphalt in Denmark was in 1960s and among the
reason was for its safe driving conditions during rainy seasons [24]. The concept was
abandoned immediately for almost thirty years for the lack of winter maintenance,
low durability which in turn caused an escalation of accidents [31]. With the help
of Dutch expertise and extensive trials, porous asphalt resurgence in Danish road
network. This time for its acoustical behavior [2] [24].
In an experiment of newly laid single layer porous asphalt gave 4 dB noise reduction
compare to dense asphalt. No cleaning attempts were made and the surface lost
its noise reduction due to clogging. This led to double layer porous asphalt DLPA
which is cleaned twice a year by high pressure water spraying and subsequent suction
[63]. Denmark is today one of the leading nations that widely uses porous asphalt
on its road network and has developed noise labeling system called SRS-system,
which is based on CPX-method (see subsection 2.8.2). Policy to use porous asphalt
is in place in Copenhagen, where porous asphalt is used in streets with average
daily trac, ADT exceeding 2000 vehicles and a policy is under development on all
national roads [24]. Denmark has coastal climate and temperatures do not drop as
signicantly as Sweden or Japan, hence no use of studded tires [41].
The mixture design is based on Marshall Specimen that is used to evaluate air void
content. One of the criteria of the maximum binder content evaluation contains
minimum void content to reduce trac noise [85]. The reference pavement used in
42
3.1. INTERNATIONAL RELEVANCE
Denmark is 30 mm thick dense asphalt concrete with maximum aggregate size of 8

mm and the surface structure of this pavement is comparable to that of many other
dense asphalt pavements used on urban roads [6].
Nielsen [46] published a paper that describes how Danish Road Institute DRI devel-
oped drainage system. Ever since the implementation of the double-layer concept,
it was realized the pores can be kept open partly through self-cleaning by rainwater
leading away detritus in the bottom layer and follows the sideway slopes and on
roads without curbstone to run o into a ditch. Figure 3.1 presents the principal
system and the result (the ceramic Keradrain pipes were replaced with concrete,
due to damage). To avoid clogging, porous pavements are cleaned twice annually
(in late April and early December) [24]. The maintenance procedure consists mainly
of high pressure washing and subsequent vacuum suction of water and dirt. The
drainage pipe needs to be cleaned once per year and is done with water at high
pressure pushed through the pipes [46].
Figure 3.1: Left: Danish drainage system [46]
43
3.1.2 The Netherlands

According to Bendsten et al. [63] the rst time porous asphalt was utilized on Dutch
road network was in 1972 and is now the standard surface on motorway. The goal is
in 2016 the entire road network will consist of single layer porous asphalt concrete
(PAC) and DLPA is applied in locations with severe noise prolusion [86].
The Netherlands mix design is similar to mixes used in United States OGFC but
here limestone ller is added during the production process design and the service
life of porous asphalt is 10 years [87]. In order to improve aggregates and asphalt
binder, limestone ller must have hydrated lime content of at least 20 per cent. The
encountered distress in the Netherlands mix on the porous asphalt layer is raveling,
which aects the acoustical benets [8].
Single layer porous asphalt (SLPA) in the Netherlands has 16 mm max chippings
has an initial noise reduction of 3.5-4 dB reducing to 2 dB at an age of 8 years.
The Dutch Double-layer porous asphalt (DLPA) is designed to provide initial noise
reduction of 5-6 dB and reducing to 3 dB after 8 year [2] [6]. Clogging in the
Netherlands occurs mainly in the bottom of the top layer and top of the bottom
layer, i.e. the boundary between the layers creates a kind of soft barrier to the air,
water and dirt that are supposed to be transported through the pavement. This
is a problem particularly for a top layer with 2-6 mm chippings where the ner
material penetrates somewhat down into the bottom layer. This type of DLPA is
therefore not allowed any more on motorways. Clogging is less of a problem where
self-cleaning by trac occurs in wheel tracks on high-speed roads, but is a problem
on the shoulders and on low-speed roads. Thus maintenance is concentrated mainly
on the verges (shoulder of the pavement). Another reason to clean the verges is
also to prevent weeds from growing along it [6]. The type of DLPA most commonly
applied in the Netherlands has the following Data [6]:
• Top layer: 25 mm thick, dominating stone fraction 5-8 mm (87-91 %), only
quarry material is allowed, minimum PSV value of 58, resistance to crushing
LA < 15%, voids content target 20 %. As binders (5.2-6.1 %), dierent types
modied bitumen are used: either PMB's with SBS or EVA or mixes of both,
or rubber-modied bitumen. Fines are 3-11 % and ller is 2-5 % by weight.
• Bottom layer: 45 mm thick, dominating stone fraction 11-16 mm (89-92 %),

quarry material or crushed river gravel are allowed, voids content target 25 %.
As binders (3.8-4.8 %), dierent types are used: sometimes pen grade 70/100
bitumen, sometimes PMB (but no RAP is allowed). Fines are 5-8 % and ller
is 3-4 % by weight
• Fines: crushed sand < 2 mm
• Filler: lime stone ller with hydrated lime, < 0.063 mm
• Note: The addition of hydrated lime (HL) improves the bonding eect be-
tween the bitumen and the mineral aggregate and HL also inuences the bi-
tumen properties in a positive way.
44
3.1.3 Japan
Japan is a dense populated country with limited amount of at land. Porous asphalt
was originally developed for pedestrian roads and has been laid on motorways since
1989 [31]. In contrary to Sweden, Japan has banned the use of studded tire to
simplify maintenance of porous roads, for skid resistance tire chains are used instead.
Roads in big urban areas like Tokyo are completely covered with asphalt or concrete
and land subsidence occurred due to lack of ground water. Therefore, porous asphalt
on the footpath has been expected to drain water into the ground to sustain the
level of groundwater [31].
Single layer porous asphalt presented in table 3.1 is currently used in all Japanese
expressways and other highways in Japan. This is possible because Japan has de-
veloped an ecient low-cost drainage system running alongside the curb. Beside
noise reduction and permeability, porous asphalt in Japan is also used to reduce the
urban heat island eect [6].
The urban heat island eect results in increased local atmospheric and surface tem-
perature in urban areas compared to surrounding rural areas [88] [89]. Due to the
intense summer heat in Japan, conventional pavement does not absorb heat in same
extent as porous asphalt. Depending on the technology used, the use of porous
asphalt in Japan helps systematically abate the heat island eect in big cities may
contribute to a reduction of the heat island eect. It has shown that porous asphalt
◦
can reduce surface temperature with 10 C and gives noise-reducing bonus [88].
Table 3.1: Japanese composition of single layer porous asphalt
Layer Max chipping Thickness Void Binder
Upper layer 5 or 8 mm 20 mm 22 % 5.2
Lower layer 13 mm 30 mm 20% 5.0%
In 1980's Japan was experiencing a large number of serious trac accidents on

Japanese expressway. The majority of accidents were based on drivers losing control
on high speeds in rainy roads and an increase of vehicles. The Japan Highway Public
Corporation (JH), which is now named Nippon Expressway Co.(NEXCO) made
many technical changes with bitumen in order to decrease the number of trac
accidents. The standard penetration grade at that time was 60/80 and was change
to 40/60. This change did not lower the accident rate. It was until porous asphalt
was applied on Japanese road network that a decrease was perceptual. Accident
decreased with 85 %, a histogram of decreasing accident rate is shown in gure 3.2.
Japan has today almost 25 years of experience of using porous asphalt. On low-
speed roads, Japanese pavements have appeared to deteriorate at about 0.25 dB per
years and has developed an ecient low-cost drainage system running alongside the
curb.
45
Figure 3.2: 85% decrease of accident with porous asphalt in one year [88].
Iwata et al. [90] presented in 2002 results of a research conducted by the Japan
Highway Public Corporation on Porous Asphalt. At the time Japan had to construct
11,520 km of expressway, where half of these expressways were planned to pass
through snowy and cold regions with snow fall up to 30 cm or more. Snow and ice
control in Japan generally takes the form of a special mixed solution for removal of
snow. This poses potential problem because this solution can drain into the porous
asphalt layer. Iwata et al provided also following problems associated with porous
asphalt:
• Methods that need to be established:
Snow and ice control
Restoring permeability
Rehabilitation
• The durability of porous asphalt needs to be improved in regions where tire

chains are used.
• Methods for ensuring an impermeable layer below the porous asphalt layer are
needed.
• Ways to reduce costs for porous asphalt are needed.
Japan designates itself when it comes to maintenance of porous asphalt. In a report

authored by Sandberg and Masuyama [91] dierent maintenance vehicles are eval-
uated in Japan. Figure 3.3 shows the results from various cleaning operations and
46
3
the measure is measured in water outow in cm per 15 seconds. Maintenance in
general divided into:
• Functional recovery: the surface is cleaned eectively once or twice a year

at low speed.
• Function maintenance: Dirt is removed partly in each run regularly and

frequently at high speed.
Figure 3.3: Japanese experiments with various cleaning operations [91].
Following conclusions were made from the experiment:
• A short maintenance period enables eective recovery of noise reduction.
• Cleaning at an operation speed up to 20 km/his possible.
• Eective cleaning is achieved at a blowing volume of 100m3/min and a cleaning

speed of 10 km/h are used.
• There is no relationship between the amount of collected dirt and detritus and
the recovery of noise reduction.
• The cleaning of newly laid porous asphalt must occur < 11 months.
• It is better to run (regular operation) one cleaning operation per week than to
rum (multiple operation) ve cleaning operations one day and wait ve weeks
until the next one.
47
3.2 Sweden
Porous asphalt was rst time implemented in Sweden in the middle of 1970s. Sim-
ilar to Denmark, the primary aims were improving trac safety and preventing
aquaplaning followed by noise reduction [2] [19]. Stability performance problems
and resistance problem were noticed very early in the implementation and the main
causes were:
• Oxidation
• Water remaining in the construction
• Low binder content
Porous asphalt is subjected to distinctly more oxidation during the production of

asphalt and the use stage of the pavement compared to ABS 16 (see subsection 2.1.4).
This implicates that the binder hardens (aging) relatively and becomes brittle with
time, incline to crack and tend to ravel [43]. If water does not drain away from
the coating an additional risk is stripping, where the binder will be washed away.
One prerequisite to avoid stripping and damage in coating is for the binder to be
exible, aging resistant and can handle large amount of water without be liable to
be washed away. The origin drainage coating contained far too low bitumen and
could not handle the induced stresses such as moisture, temperature variation and
from studded tires [43].
In order to overcome this stymie polymer modied bitumen PMB, was introduced
and resulted in a mixture that is better equipped to withstand oxidation, acquire
better resistance to rutting, stripping, bleeding, improves adhesion and reduces risk
for minor cracks [43] [92].
According to Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), be-
tween 2003 and 2009, 13 objects were laid of double layer porous asphalt and 22
objects with single layer porous asphalt. The majority of these objects are located
in the big cities shown in gure 3.4 Single- and double layer porous asphalt have
been tested in Sweden from 2003 within the SILVIA project on motorway E18 west
of Stockholm. The contactor was Skanska; initial noise reduction up to 9 dB was
achieved. The top layer of the DLPA was 11 mm, 16 mm for the bottom layer.
This experiment resulted in an indication that with the Swedish climate and high
proportion of studded tires that porous surface is applicable.
48
3.2. SWEDEN
Figure 3.4: Red dots represent double layer and yellow single layer [43].
Another problem that Wågberg [93] mentioned is the continuous deterioration of

the prosperous properties of porous asphalt, material that the studded tires rip o
from the surface were partly to blame for reducing the interconnectivity of the air
voids, thus causing surface to clog. Nonetheless, despite the overall deterioration
porous asphalt was performing better that conventional asphalt, in terms of adhe-
sion, permeability and noise reduction.
Paving under Swedish climatic condition sets higher demands on the material such
as withstanding hard wear and tear of trucks and heavy winter. Further, high stone
content and large stone size are required to enhance durability. However, it is known
that the stone size has a crucial negative impact on noise levels. The larger the stone
size, the more noise it generates [3].
49
3.2.1 Wear Due to studded tire

Adhesion between ballast and bitumen under the inuence of water is an important
factor for asphalt coating. Fine-grained, durable stones with smooth surfaces are
often used to improve the use of studded tires. But this impairs adhesion between
aggregate and bitumen, to overcome this, adhesive is always used in the mixture
[93]. Figure 3.5 shows studs used in Sweden, it is well known that studded tires are
responsible for air-pollution, wear and tear of the road surface, rutting and creation
of dust particles.
There are particles of dierent origin in the road area e.g. particles from surrounding
ground area and industries, but mainly from road trac and from maintenance
(sanding). These particles are generally linked to various forms of discomfort, illness
and premature death and there are no assured lower thresholds concentrations which
eect do not emerge. In particular, the impact of the metal studs increase rolling
noise in porous pavement [2].
Figure 3.5: common studs on a tire [9].
The concentrations of repairable particles are called PM10 (a mass of repairable

particles), range from (PM2.5 - PM10 ) and are regulated under directive 1999/30/EC
and directive 2008/50/EC. These directives provide limitation to ensure cleaner air
in Europe and have been partly introduced in the Sweden legislation in regulation
on environmental quality stands for outdoor air (SFS 2001:527). New regulation
that contains standards for ne particles PM2.5 is to be introduced in 2015. The
limitations of PM10 that cannot be exceeded are:
• 50ρ/m3 as daily average ( 90-percentile of 7 days)
• 20ρ/m3 as an annual average
Gustafsson et al. [9] report studied factors that inuence wear caused by studded
tires are surface material, trac, roads condition and climate. The study claried
the importance of surfacing with durable aggregates (quality of stone used). Stone
50
3.2. SWEDEN
size and stone content has great eect on durability and signicantly increase with
volume. The most wear resistant aggregates for asphalt surfacing are porphyry and
quartzite.
3.2.2 Situation in Sweden

Studded tires have been used in Sweden since the mid-1960s to improve the driver's
condition in controlling the vehicle under winter conditions. In 1999 a law was in-
troduced in Sweden, that winter tires must be used if snow and ice are on roads
st st
between 1 of December and 31 March. This law limits the full benet of porous
asphalt similar to countries in central Europe. The situation in Sweden with respect
to noise reducing pavement is unavoidably linked to the use of studded tires. How-
ever, the need for studded tires in winter is connected to trac safety and is often
seen as a necessary evil [24].
One of the conclusion resulted from a study regarding the role of studded tires in
noise by Kropp et al [20] was, studded tires have a problematic eect upon the noise
situation and if studded tires cannot be banned an alternative should be developed
that does not deteriorate the roads acoustical properties. For this, lightweight dub
were introduced. Among Nordic countries that use studded tires are Norway and
Finland.
Westergren [28] came to a conclusion from a study that road trac contribution
is the dominant parts of these particles in roadside environment from wear and
resuspension of particles created by the interaction between vehicle tires and road
surface during winter months. The majority of wear particle are in size fraction
from ≥ 0,5µm, their production is determined by amount of studded tires on the
road, aggregates durability and stone size and speed of the vehicles. In addition
to the aforementioned statutory limits there are also national interim targets for
particulate matter PM2.5 [93]. They are following:
• 35 ρ/m3 as daily average ( 90-percentile of 35 days allowable exceedance PM10 )

2
25 km
• 20ρ/m3 annual average PM10
• 20ρ/m3 as daily average ( 90-percentile of 35 days allowable exceedance PM2.5 )
• 12ρ/m3 annual average PM2.5
In contrast to noise emission, particle emission increases with decreasing stone size.
The relationship between wear and emission of respirable particle can be calculated
accurately. However, the exact quantitative relationship between PM10 levels along
the road and various factors such as aggregates, maximum stone size, stone content
and vehicle speed is not assured. It is clear among many researchers that wear leads
to increased generation of ner particles (e.g. [9] [20], [93] [94]). Since the adoption
of lightweight dub, wear and tear due to studded tired has been reduced to the
51
third since 1990s. In practice this implies a reduction of the amount of worn away
materials volume and it takes longer time for the coating to clog [93]. Jacobson
stated presented a study that showed that the annual abrasion is 120 000 to 150 000
ton, 5-7% PM10 and even though the number of vehicles with studded tires increase,
the share of studded tires decreased slightly from year to year. See gure 3.6
Figure 3.6: The use of studded tires, between 2007-2012 and for dierent regions in
Sweden from Jan-Mars 2012 [9]
52
Chapter 4
Site Description
This chapter will start with an introduction of Skanska's main asphalt types, followed
by previous laid objects. Background information of the E4 Huskvarna and the
composition of the drill cores procedure will be given. The information of this
chapter is partly based on material gathered from Skanska's own network, FOI-
project [43] and Ulf Sandberg and Piotr Mioduszewski report noise measurements
and background of Huskvarna [45] will be used in this part of the thesis.
4.1 Skanska
Skanska is one of the leading actors in implementing porous asphalt in Sweden's

road network. Through an early investment in noise-reducing surface, Skanska has
created a very broad and a rm knowledge base on the implementation of low noise
pavement. In collaboration with EU-project SILVIA and SILENCE [2] Skanska has
developed its own silent asphalt concept called Tyst Asfalt with the main focus on
noise reduction. Trials with double-porous asphalt were made in 2002-2005. Skanska
has good experience on previously placed objects and are very optimistic about the
future of Silent Asphalt.
Silent asphalt is based on an optimized composition for best performance character-

istics and a comprehensive quality assurance. Skanska's silent asphalts are of three
types TA3, TA6 and TA9. Where the initial at the end is the amount of decibel it
reduces compared to conventional asphalt. These types of asphalt have been origi-
nally designed for their ability to drain water from the road surface, which enhances
safety and visibility. An added advantage is these open structures also appear to
have noise absorption abilities. This latter characteristic is the major reason that
Skanska is interested in these types of asphalts. Silent asphalt is still at an experi-
mental stage in Sweden and Skanska has constructed several road trial sections with
these products.
As previously mentioned noise reduction is a measurement between a reference sur-

face and the existing layer, the eective of noise reduction is unique for each of these
three products. Nevertheless, the reduction is co-dependent on the trac combina-
53
CHAPTER 4. SITE DESCRIPTION
tion, speed, aggregate size and laying process. Given the fact that the main reason
for laying down porous asphalt is its noise absorption, it is of major importance to
understand how long and to what extend this function remains active. Clogging of
the pores due to ne particles and dirt from the road is a major issue which com-
promises the water and noise absorption ability. Figure 4.1 shows the benets that
are achieved in implementing Skanska's product in comparison with noise barrier.
Figure 4.1: Noise Barrier vs Silent Asphalt

.
54
4.2. SILENT ASPHALT
4.2 Silent Asphalt
TA3:is a thin coating that is laid in one layer of (25-30 mm) and provides initial noise
reduction of 3 dB(A). The coating has cubic alloy aggregate, with nominal stone
max of 8-11 mm and air void > 10%. Thus TA3 is also called TA3/8 or TA3/11.
This product is intended for primarily residential street (where the amount of trac
is limited), municipal street/roads but also on the national road network.
The aggregates of TA3 (8-11 mm), are larger due to abrasion from studded in
Sweden than aggregates abroad. The benets that can be ascribed to this prod-
uct are its noise reduction potential, relatively low skid resistance, some anti-spray
properties, ecient light reection, low construction and maintenance costs [6] [58].
Nevertheless, there are some setbacks connected to the product used abroad such
as, limited contribution to bearing capacity (which can be ascribed to TA3 as well),
there open texture are prone to clog by debris, the good noise reduction is however
at the expenses of limited durability under heavy trac load [58]. Nielsen et al [24]
disambiguate that these aggregate size has little or no resistance against wear and
the silent asphalt gets clogged by mineral particles worn from the pavement itself.
Following objects have been laid previously with TA3:
• Ellenborgsvägen, Malmö, 2003
• E18, Upplands-Bro, 2003
• Västerås, 2006
• Lokal väg Tygelsjö, Skåne, 2006
• Skälbyvägen, Jakobsberg, 2007
• E18, Västerås, 2008
TA6: is a coating that is laid as single layer (40-50 mm) and provides initial noise
reduction of 6 dB(A) at maximum, The coating has cubic alloy aggregate with
nominal stone max of (8-16 mm) and air voids 20-25%. TA6 is also referred to as
TA6/8 and TA6/11 and TA6/16. This product is placed in layers and is more durable
than TA9, the large aggregate size contribute to the wear resistance and the expense
of little lower noise reduction. The pore structure allow for good permeability ability
and noise reduction in combination with higher wear resistance. The documented
object that has been laid with TA6 is E18, Upplands Bro-Bålsta, 2003.
TA9: is Skanska's best product, which consists of two-layer (30+50mm) porous

asphalt with stone max (11mm) ne-graded on top which acts as a lter against
clogging of the bottom layer consists of stone max (16 mm) on bottom. The air
voids are 22-25% and 80 mm thickness. This special composition with the double
layer and the optimized aggregates gives excellent noise reduction and improves wear
resistance of the road network. TA9 is similar to what is internationally known as
double layer porous asphalt described in section 2.3
55
Following object have been laid with TA9:
• E18, Upplands Bro-Bålsta 2003 cleaned 2007
• E4 Hallunda 2005
• E4 Huskvarna
TA6 and TA9 have an open-structure and are designed to reduce tire/road noise
and to drain rainwater through the asphalt to the existing drainage system, thus
contributing to increased trac safety. However, TA6 is more durable that TA9. The
special combination of proportion of large aggregates mixed with bers and polymer
modied binder accessorize an open surface texture and open pore structure
4.2.1 Specic properties

As previously mentioned particles accumulate in the layers pore structure resulting
in increased noise levels. TA9 is specially designed for Nordic condition; it oers a
number of positive environmental and health eects such as reduced rolling resis-
tance and reduced spread of particle. However, Nilsson et al.[54] states, the use of
de-clogging machines using water under high pressure to ush out the detritus has
only been party successful.
4.2.2 Material properties

According to Nilsson et al. [54], Skanska uses cubic aggregate shape that provides
large air voids of interconnected pores and improves also resistance. The air void
distribution is mainly above 20 %. Even though the binder represents a minor part
perceptually (4-7%) it governs the behavior to great extent. In order to overcome
the pre-mature aging a polymer modied binder PMB, called Endura D1 is used in
the mixed design.
4.3 Previous ob jects
Skanska in collaboration with the Construction Industry's Organization for Research

and Development SBUF laid objects called 'Functional of noise reducing surface'
between 2009 and 2011. The test sections are presented in table 4.1. 1800 m test
sections with four dierent asphalt surfaces in row were used E18 Bålsta. One of
the sections was surfaced with ABS16 and served as a reference distance. According
to Sandberg [6] the most prosperous TA9 object is RV 260 Gudöbroleden, Tyresö
laid in 2007. Noise measurements conducted in 2009 by The Swedish Road and
Transport Institute, VTI showed 4.7-6.3 dB.
56
4.3. PREVIOUS OBJECTS
Table 4.1: Skanska's primary test sections [73]

2
Paved Test section Type AADT Surface [m ]
2003 E18 -Bålsta/Bro TA9/11 25 000 3200
2005 E4 -Hallunda/Alby TA9/11 90 100 33000
2007 E18 -Järvastaden TA9/11 34 800 14000
2007 Rv 260-Gudöbro TA9/11 11 400 8000
2010 Gåshagaleden TA9/11 7100 8500
4.3.1 Previous cleaning attempt

Maintaining has been at the highest alert since implementing low noise surface. In
the interim of developing Skanska's own maintenance vehicle, Skanska used Swedish
(Disab-Telia AB) Norwegian (Oslo Lufthamn-OsL) and a Dutch (Gebr. Van Doorn)
designed maintenance vehicle shown in gure 4.2. Norway was chosen for the similar-
ity of weather condition and the use of studded tires. The Dutch has long experience
since a large portion of its road network is paved with porous asphalt. These special
vehicles are typically optimized for the maximum stone size of the surface which
is considerably smaller than the ones used in Sweden. The requirements for these
vehicles are:
• High water pressure tend to ush mortar and stones.
• The suction nozzle is against the surface to prevent loss of suction force.
Figure 4.2: a) Disab-Telia AB. b) Gebr. Van Doorn [73]
57
The rst time cleaning of Skanska's product occurred was in August 2006 on test
sections E18 Upplands Bro-Bålsta [6]. The maintenance vehicle used high pressure
water jet-cleaning, by comparing measurements carried out before and after clean-
ing possible eect of cleaning is shown in table 4.2. It appeared from the results
that cleaning was not succeeded. Measurements in October were precarious due to
precipitation, which may have resulted in slightly higher level than if it had been
dry road surface conditions. There are many factors that can be attributed to these
results such as temperature variations during measurements and any moisture in or
on the surface played a vital role. Nilsson [54] estimates that this problem may have
led up to 1 dB elevated noise levels due to some residual moisture in the lower layer.
Table 4.2: Noise measurements E18 Upplands Bro/Bålsta [6]
System Double layer 11+16mm Single layer 16mm
Measurement in Aug 2006
at high temperature before cleaning 100.2 dB(A) 99.1 dB(A)
Correction for high temperature +1.0 dB(A) +1.0 dB(A)
Measurements in Aug 2006 after correction 101.2 dB(A) 101.2 dB(A)
Measurement in Oct after cleaning 101.4 dB(A) 101.8 dB(A)
Cleaning Eect +0,2dB(A) +1,7dB(A)
58
4.4. SKANSKA'S MAINTENANCE VEHICLE 'VÄGREN'
4.4 Skanska's Maintenance Vehicle 'VägRen'
In the course of utilizing Tyst asfalt aimed for Nordic conditions and to ensure quality
guarantee for its clients. Skanska has developed its own patented high pressure
cleaning machine-Vägren (VR) shown in gure 4.3 to 4.5. The machine is towed by
a suction vehicle which is equipped with particle lter for exhaust air.
VR is a unique construction which is equipped with a 2.4 m wide cleaning ramp, it

further consists of 12 high pressured and clean- and suction devices monitored on six
wagons which are individually placed to follow the road prole at 2 km/h speed [73].
Alongside cleaning the air voids, VR allows for separation of oil and heavy metals
from the recycled water and is expected to contribute to increased deep cleaning,
minimize the negative eect associated with low noise surfaces and environmental
eects. Several trial sections have been constructed along Sweden and the equipment
is designed to maintain both internal and external porous asphalt.
Figure 4.3: Skanska's cleaning vehicle Vägren [73].
Figure 4.4: Vägren cleaning a trial section [73].
59
Figure 4.5: Clean and suction vehicle by Clean pipe [73].
4.5 E4 Huskvarna
E4 stands for European road 4 and is the second largest road network in Sweden, it
stretches from Haparanda to Helsingborg and consists of 1 590 km. The road section
connects E4 Jönköping with Huskvarna and is considered to be the most beautiful
road section in Sweden with a scenic view over Lake Vättern and is maintained by
Svevia, see gure 4.6 and 4.7. Svevia double layer porous surface is called 'dubbel-
dränasfalt' which is equivalent to internationally DPLA and Skanska's product TA9.
The mixture consists of 25% average air void, the top layer is composed of stone size
8/11 mm 30 mm thickness and 11/16 mm 50 mm thickness at the bottom layer.
Figure 4.6: E4 Huskvarna 4 lanes [43]
60
4.5. E4 HUSKVARNA
Figure 4.7: Overview trial section [43]
The supplementary facts about E4 Huskvarna are following:
• Length: 3.7 km
• Cross fall: 3%
• Highway: Four trac lane ( K1, K2, K3 and K4)
• Area: 40 000 m2 double layer 11 mm and 16 mm, single layer 11 mm
• Layer thickness single layer: 30 mm
• ADT: 20 000 -30 000 vehicles ( 15 % of the heavy trac, preferably at K1)
• Trac distribution between the four lane:
K1 70%
K2 30%
• Stone material on the upper layer: K1 Rhyolite, K2 Diabase or Rhyolite
• Stone material in the lower layer: Diabase, binder content Endura D1. 5.6%
• Air voids: 25-27 %
61
• Bitumen: Endura D1 PMB with high content of polymer.
Sandberg [6] describes in his state of art report 2012, the at time current status of E4
Huskvarna. Between 1987- 2002, the amount of trac increased from 13 000 to 18
000 vehicles and heavy trac that produces most noise increased with 64 % around
the same period the environmental agency started receiving grievance from residents
living close to the road. This ultimately led to a verdict from the Environmental
Superior Court in 2008, that The Swedish Road Administration to reduce the trac
noise from 70dB (A) to 60dB (A) at latest 31st December 2009. Following steps
were taken to reduce noise:
• Speed reduction from 110 to 90 km/h
• Additional Noise barrier
• Low noise surfacing
Before these steps were carried out, 20 mm of the top layer and the emergency lanes
were removed. Speed reduction did not minimize noise from heavy trucks and even
though additional noise barrier was partly transparent, they were not popular with
the accommodation. 2700 m long lane of low noise surface was laid at temperature
◦
10-15 is C in June 2010 by Svevia and added to the existing surface a double layer
of its low noise asphalt concept'dubbel-dränasfalt'.
4.5.1 Noise measurements

VTI has carried out noise measurements according to the CPX method (ISO / CD
1819-2) years 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 in all lanes and directions. The mea-
surements included several references (ABS 16) with varying age. A tire that is
considered equivalent sound level of passenger car was used during these measure-
ments and a tire corresponding to the noise level of a heavy vehicle, both at speeds
of 70 and 90 km/h. Following results were achieved:
• 2010: Noise reduction is 7-8 dB (A)
• 2011: Noise Reduction 7 dB (A)
• 2012: Noise Reduction 7 dB (A)
• 2013: Noise Reduction 5.5 to 6 dB (A)
62
4.5. E4 HUSKVARNA
4.5.2 Maintenance
Svevia has its own maintenance vehicle which cleaned the surface of E4 Huskvarna
(single layer, double-layer and emergency lane) in June 2011 and 2012 [6]. The
maintenance vehicle was not optimized for porous surface and considered 'regular'.
CPX-method was used for noise measurements twice in June (before) and July after
cleaning attempts 2011 with tires SRTT and AAV4. The following results were
achieved:
Figure 4.8: Svevia's maintenance vehicle [6]
Table 4.3: Noise reduction dB(A) with CPX-method before and after maintenance
[6]
Before,maintenance (June 2011 After,maintenance July 2011

Surface type
SRTT AAV4 SRTT AAV4
Single layer (main lane) 2,8 2,2 2,5 2,3
Single layer (exit lane) 5,2 4,9 4,6 4,8
Double layer (main lane) 7,8 7,5 7,8 7,6
According to Sandberg, maintenance did not give any eect, the observed dierences
in table 4:4 is ascribes to margin of error [6]. This stretches the need of cleaning the
pores with a maintenance vehicle optimized for Nordic conditions and is the main
reason why Skanska's high-pressured vacuum cleaning was suggested to maintain
the surface.
Rejuvenation was tried three times to provide protection against oxidation of the
binder and to reduce raveling. First time the surface was fog sealed was when the
road was three months old (100m trial section), noise measurement showed that
rejuvenation had no eect on noise, however same rejuvenated surface was 0.6 dB
quieter than reference. Table 4.4 shows the previous rejuvenation attempts. It is
clear that sealing of the voids increases noise generated between tire and surface.
63
Table 4.4: Rejuvenation schedule on E4 Huskvarna [6]
Year Rejuvenation Noise loss dB

2010 Fog seal,(3 months old),100m,trial section 0.0
2011 No fog seal 0.6
2012 Fog seal 0.3
2013 September-,entire K1 was Fog seal 2.8 dB right Wheel track
2.4 dB between the Wheel track
0.9 in the fast lane
4.6 Permeability
Drainage performance of E4 Huskvarna has been tested in accordance to SS-EN

12697-40. The principle consist of a parameter is used to determine the time it
takes for 4L of water to dissipate through an annual area of the surfacing of a pave-
ment under known heading condition. The reciprocal outow time is then used to
calculate the degree of clogging. This method is used as a quality control to measure
permeability of asphalt pavements that are designed for permeable purposes. Inl-
tration time gives an indication of pore capacity to drain water from the coating.
The method can be used in the practice to check if the surface meets the standards
of drainage and to conduct visual inspection to detect surface deterioration. The
method is used for a relative assessment of the coating permeability. Figure 4.9
shows results from 2012 and 2013 of Eux-time (left tire track).
Figure 4.9: permeability measurements [73][58].
64
4.6. PERMEABILITY
The achieved results show in general high permeability is achieved at lanes with
dubbeldrän while lanes with steel slag has lower drainage capacity since voids content
is about 5 % lower than other routes. Particularly, sealed sections have signicantly
poorer drainage capacity than those not sealed. The dierence in outow time was
low in measurements conducted between 2012 and 2013 (before cleaning). This low
eux times indicated that the pores are not clogged and have an interconnected
pore system that can dissipate noise and water.
65
4.7 Drill Core Samples
At the spring of 2011 (after the rst winter) cores from E4 Huskvarna were obtained
by portable coring machine. The standard coring method uses water to cool the
drill bit, this create slurry that might interfere with the clogging analysis. To over-
come this, air was used instead to avoid interference with the voids pathways while
minimizing the removal and introduction of clogging materials. The core samples
were shipped to KTH for X-ray CT-scan.
Figure 4.10: Coring of E4 Huskvarna May 2011
A total of 24 asphalt cores (80mm and 100mm height) were obtained from the trial
section. The samples ID are shown in table 4.5 Three specimens (bold) from lane 1
northbound (K1NB) are chosen to be scanned to study void analysis.
Table 4.5: Core samples from Huskvarna 2011
K1 Northbound K2 Northbound K1 Southbound K2 Southbound
1A 7A 3A 5A, 5B
1B 7B 3B 5C, 5D
2A 7C 4A 6A, 6B
2B 7D 4B 6C, 6D
In the summer of 2014 six new core samples were drilled using drilling equipment
mounted in a trailer by Svevia before and after VR cleaned a 100 m long distance
of K1 northbound. The unit was equipped with a source of water to cool the
core during drilling. Six samples were drilled and brought to KTH for analysis by
Skanska. Sample 1B, 2A, 2B together with the six new samples were examined
and analyzed with X-ray Computed Tomography. Figure 4.11 and 4.12 shows an
overview of the coring map of Huskvarna.
66
4.7. DRILL CORE SAMPLES
Figure 4.11: Coring 2014.
Figure 4.12: Layout of Field Coring.
67
Chapter 5
X-Ray CT scan and Image Analysis
This chapter discusses the X-Ray Computer Tomography (CT) equipment employed
to conduct the investigation of the air voids by studying the morphologies of the
extracted core samples. The cores were scanned to acquire the complete 3D internal
structure, for post-processing Avizo is relied upon. The following sections and sub-
sections will give the procedure and the workow developed for this analysis.
5.1 X-ray Computed Tomography
X-ray computed tomography is a non-destructive technique that allows visualizing

the interior of solid object (e.g. metal, stones, concrete, and polymers) by capturing
digital information on their 3D microstructure. The ability to utilize higher energy
X-ray with more penetrative power and to resolve details as small as few tens of
microns in size even when the material consists of high density is one of the major
advantages in using X-Ray Computed tomography in industry (Carlson 2001 cited
in [11]).
Invisible radiation that could penetrate through metals and other materials was
discovered in Germany 1895 by the physician Röntgen, which will later be known
as two-dimensional (2D) X-ray [96]. Godfrey N. Hounseld and Allan M. Cormack
received the Noble price in 1979, for the development of computer-assisted tomog-
raphy [97]. The two discoveries combined developed a revolutionary improvement
resulting in three-dimensional (3D) images called X-Ray Computed Tomography
CT.
Ketcham and Carlson [10] explain, the fundamental principle behind computed to-
mography is to acquire multiple sets of views of an object over a range of angular
orientations. By this means, additional dimensional data are obtained in compari-
son to conventional X-radiography, in which there is only one view. These data are
used to create (2D) images that are referred to as slices and correspond to what
would be seen if the object were sliced along the scan plane. The quality of the
scanned image is a measure of the noise, the low-and high contrast resolution and
the slice thickness [11]). This technique was initially applied in medicine to produce
69
CHAPTER 5. X-RAY CT SCAN AND IMAGE ANALYSIS
cross-sections of the human body. It has however recently found applications outside
of the medical world. The X-ray Computed Tomography's ability to provide (3D)
images of an object without destroying the object in the process allows dierent
disciplines to use this innovation in various purposes. Ketchaman and William used
the X-ray CT in geosciences.
5.2 CT-Scanning
The main objective in this study is to conduct an in depth analysis of air voids
distribution in porous asphalt samples with X-ray CT scan. It is therefore possible
to capture the three main phases: aggregates, bituminous mastic and voids in three
dimensions. In this study, we used the KTH X-View TM X5000 CT- Computed
Tomography X-ray scanner, it is an X-ray imaging system designed for the inspection
of large objects. It can accommodate a variety of part shapes, size, and weight and
has an energy range intensity of 225kV and 450kV.
Figure 5.1: X5000 CT at Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)
The core samples are scanned one at a time by placing them in the X-ray chamber
between the source and detector shown in gure 5.2. The focal spot, the spectrum
of the X-ray energy generated and the X-ray intensity determines the eectiveness
of an X-ray source. The ability of X-ray to dierentiate materials depends on each
materials linear attenuation coecient (µ) [10]. The X-ray intensity directly aects
the signal-to-noise ratio and thus image clarity. Higher intensities improve under-
lying counting statistics, but often require larger focal spots. The size of the focal
spot also partly denes the potential spatial resolution of the CT-system. The en-
ergy spectrum denes the penetrative ability of the X-rays, as well as their expected
relative attenuation when they pass through material of dierent density. Higher-
energy X-rays penetrates more eectively than ones with lower-energy, but are less
70
5.2. CT-SCANNING
sensitive to changes in material density [10] [11].
Figure 5.2: Components of X-ray tomography scanning [10].
• X-ray source
• A collimator
• A rotational specimen manipulator: (allows for the specimen to rotates 3600

to transmit rays from all possible direction)
• A series of detector
The process of analyzing each specimen is shown in air voids in porous asphalt using
X-ray CT and Image analysis is presented in gure 5.3. Drilled core samples are
shown in gures 6.5-5.6 the top layer is composed of stone size (8/11 mm and 30
mm thickness) while the bottom layer has stone size of 11/16 mm and a thickness
of 50 mm and 25% average air void.
Figure 5.3: Workow.
71
Figure 5.4: Samples drilled before cleaning June 2011 K1NB .
Figure 5.5: Samples drilled before cleaning July 2014 K1NB .
Figure 5.6: Samples drilled after cleaning July 2014 K1NB .
72
5.3. DIGITAL IMAGE ANALYSIS
5.3 Digital Image Analysis
Avizo is relied upon in this study for post-processing. In order to achieve the de-
sired results experimentation is required since the tools are based on sophisticated
algorithm they might have variable eect on performance depending on the input
image and control parameters. Dierent procedures are used in image processing
and the selection of the appropriate technique depends on the application. Figure
5.7 shows the workow developed particularly for this study.
Figure 5.7: Workow for image processing.
The imported data from CT-scanning (raw images) shown in gure 5.8 were up-
loaded to identify the mixtures composition, which contains three dierent phases
aggregate air-voids and mastic. The images are sub-sampled by selecting a region
of interest, in this case the entire core. The sub-sample port in Extract subvolume
module denes the number of voxel to be averaged in each dimension; ( x y z) it
computes and applies transformation to align two images and therefore reduces the
size of the images and doubles the voxel size. This step is necessary due to ram
limitation. Table 5.1 shows the increase in voxel. The scanning resolution and voxel
size for each core is shown in table 5.2
73
Figure 5.8: Top and bottom ltered slices images of a sample.
Table 5.1: Extracted sub-volumes
Voxel size before alignment Voxel size before alignment
0.066 0.132
0.061 0.122
Table 5.2: Scanned core samples
Sample ID Cored Year Resolution
1B 2011 66.000 x 66.000 x 66.000
2A 2011 66.000 x 66.000 x 66.000
2B 2011 66.000 x 66.000 x 66.000
1BC 2014 61.000x 61.000 x 61.000
2BC 2014 61.000x 61.000 x 61.000
3BC 2014 61.000x 61.000 x 61.000
S1 CLEAN 2014 61.000 x 61.000 x 61.000
S2 CLEAN 2014 61.000 x 61.000 x 61.000
S3 CLEAN 2014 61.000 x 61.000 x 61.000
74
5.3.1 Image Segmentation

Segmentation means assigning labels to image voxels that identies and separates
materials in a 3D image. Ones the subsample is extracted, the images are viewed
with the standard visualization modules (ortho slice or volume rendering ), see gure
5.9. The slice are then ltered, there are variety of lters that Avizo provides
for dierent purposes to improve an images quality. Filters can be applied for
noise reducing, smoothing, unsharp masking and morphological operations. This
procedure is necessary for segmentation.
Figure 5.9: The total volume.
In this experiment medianlter3D was used, to reduce the amount of noise in the
acquired images and is a simple edge-preserving smoothening lter shown in gure
5.10. The lter works by sorting the pixels covered by a 3x3 mask according to their
grey value.
Figure 5.10: Filtered Image.
Image analysis of porous asphalt relies upon proper segmentation to distinguish

between aggregates, voids and binder [98]. The volume exterior and interior region
is segmented on the basis of the voxel values, this is necessary to separate the object
from the background and is done by grey-level thresholding interactive thresholding.
By achieving a background with same voxel size, holes, bubbles and separating
particles will diminish from the image. The next step is to apply cylindrical equation
in the Arithmetic module and to obtain the total volume and area per slice with
75
the help of material statistics, see equation 5.1. This is essential in computing the
air voids distribution.
(X − Cx ) · (X − Cy ·)(Y − Cy ·)(Y − Cy ) < (r · r) · A(5.1)
Where:
Cx , Cy : The center of the cylinder

r : The radius of the cylinder.
A: Area
The next step is to threshold, Interactive thresholding is connected to the ltered

images to capture the air-voids by isolating transition areas with high gradient
intensities and voxel. The grey intensity levels of air voids are quite distinct from
those of aggregates and mastic. The particular threshold value for each specimen is
analyzed by connecting Range calibration editor to the ltered slices, which denes
phases separated by threshold. This feature greatly simplies the visualization setup
by avoiding the need to adjust intensity ranges and helps nding suitable threshold.
The air voids content was acquired as the ratio between the area of the pixels less
than the intensity threshold for each slide and the depth section area of the specimen.
In this case, the air voids are thresholded which appear red in gure 5.11.
Figure 5.11: Thresholding of air voids.
The red part outside of the slice is considered to be air voids too, in order to extract
the background arithmetic equation is applied again, this time to capture air voids
inside the region of the specimen. Figure 5.12 shows the total air voids.
76
Figure 5.12: Total air voids.
Once the air voids of an entire specimen are separated from stones and mastic, the
verication of interconnectivity is the next part of the analysis. Air voids and cracks
that touch each other can be recognized as a connected void by the software. To
overcome this and to dene the air voids interconnectivity, a Binarisation label is
attached to the segmented air voids, the label image identies each air void and
assigned a unique index and displayed by using a cyclic color map shown in gure
5.13. The air voids in blue color are connected while the rest could be clogged or
semi-eective. At this stage of the study the total air voids that exist in the 2D
slices can be viewed and saved for Matlab numerical analysis.
Figure 5.13: Labelled voids, the red and yellow air voids indicate trapped or clogged
voids.
An individual analysis is generated from the labelled images to get void data in table
form. This feature counts the amount of air voids, their corresponding volume, area
etc. The largest air voids are ltered to visualize only the connected ones. Figure
5.14 shows an ortho slice view of the connected air voids, these images are also
exported to Matlad for numerical analysis.
77
Figure 5.14: interconnected air-voids.
Finally the Generate Surface module, a 3D nite-element simulation is applied and

viewed with a surface viewer . Figure 5.15 shows 3D of total, labeled and connected
air voids after cleaning. The red and yellow parts of the labelled (middle) are semi
eective voids, clogging of voids can be detected by the 3D visualization and air-
voids distribution along depth of each core samples.
Figure 5.15: surface generation of total, labeled and connected voids.
78
Chapter 6
Results and Analysis
It is of great importance to understand how voids reduction is related to clogging.

This chapter will start by showing the visual eectiveness of the high pressure clean-
ing vehicle VägRen, followed by plotting connected air voids from each period and
a mean value will be plotted to simplify calculation. The total air voids will be
tabulated. Clogging is analyzed for before and after cleaning (2014). The results
are plotted and tabulated for comparison and nally noise measurement conducted
by VTI/TUG will be discussed.
6.1 Vacuum Cleaning
The result of the maintenance vehicle is measured by means of noise reduction,

permeability and through porosity analysis. The 100 m length cleaned indicated
permeability was restored at a certain level, this was measured by pouring 1 litre
of water on the cleaned surface immediately after maintenance, it took 5.5 sec to it
run through the surface. However, a standardized measurement is required to draw
full conclusion. From the visual evaluation the wet surface indicated substantial
cleaning and corresponding un-cleaned severely clogged surface is clearly shown in
gures 6.1 and 6.2.
79
CHAPTER 6. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Figure 6.1: Left: un-cleaned and cleaned surface
Figure 6.2: Cleaned surface (stones appear clear from dirt)
80
6.2. ANALYSIS OF AIR VOID STRUCTURE
6.2 Analysis of Air Void Structure
In this analysis the total and connected air voids are compared separately. Some
cores had rough bottom due to coring which caused diculties in determining the
height of the samples. To overcome this challenge all the samples were calculated
for 70 mm and the top layer of samples from 2011 were > 30 mm. Other challenges
are due to the following facts:
• Dirt and small (crushed) aggregates appear alike in the cross section.
• Air voids and aggregate crack that touch each other appear as one large air
voids.
For the previous reasons, the top and bottom slices gave erroneous high void content
and were left out of calculation. Therefore, the calculation starts from the depth of
the aggregates. The top layer of 2011 cores was calculated for an average of 33 mm.
There is reason to believe the abducted material in the air voids are not necessarily
causing clogging, they could be particles that could easily be removed with fast water
ow or material just trapped in semi-eective voids. To exclude this assumption,
connected air voids are visualized in 3D and all semi-eective voids are excluded in
volume rendering. Figure 6.3 shows the appearance of air voids and aggregate of a
ltered slice. The constituents on the ltered raw images can be dened through
thresholding and air voids and the edges of the image slices are completely dark, in
order to capture the whole specimen and to exclude the edges, a simple arithmetic
equation shown in previous section was employed.
Figure 6.3: Filtered slice)
81
6.2.1 Porosity analysis

Figure 6.4 shows the mean value of total and connected voids in all the samples. It
is clear that cores from 2014 before cleaning had the lowest air voids.
Figure 6.4: Total and connected air voids
Figures 6.5 throughout 6.7 present the mean connected air voids distribution for
the dierent periods and the total air voids are tabulated. The mean porosity
before vacuum cleaning (VR) 2011 was for the total air voids 13.7% and 13.3% for
connected air voids. This dimidiated porosity is due to compaction or clogging or
combinations thereof. The upper layer has more voids than lower with 16.7% and
corresponding 10.7% in the 2nd layer and sample 2B has more voids in the bottom
layer, possible explanations to this reduction could be dirt and detritus get averted
in the upper layer which works as a lter and additional trac compaction over the
year (2010) since the surface was laid.
82
Figure 6.5: Connected voids 2011
Table 6.1: Mean value Porosity
Air voids
before cleaning Mean Value Mean value (top layer) Mean value (bottom layer)
Total 2011 13.7% 16.7% 10.7%
Connected 2011 13.3% 15.9% 10.9%
83
Figure 6.6 shows the total air voids of 2014 samples before cleaning. It is clear
from the gure that the amount of air voids has been reduced all over the layers.
The mean total air voids is 5.3% and corresponding 2.6 % for connected air voids.
All samples showed clogging tendencies, connected air voids of sample 1BC, 2BC
and 3BC stop at 60 mm, 35 mm and 10 mm, (see Appendix A.4,A.5 and A.6).
This means that the majority of the voids that exist in sample 2BC and 3BC are
semi-eective.
Table 6.2: Mean value Porosity 2014 before cleaning
Air voids
Total 2014BC 5.3% 8.2% 3.2%
Connected 2014BC 2.6% 5.4% 0.5%
84
A signicant dierence in porosity is observed after high-pressure vacuum cleaning

in gure 6.7 and the previous ones. The mean total void increased to 16.2% and
15.4% for connected voids. The total mean air voids increased with 10.4% in the
upper layer and 11.4 % for connected. The biggest void increment is achieved in
the top layer and no change in porosity mean occurred in the bottom layer since
all the samples were clogged. The total air voids increased after VägRen with
10.9 percentage points and the biggest change occurred in the interlayer. Through
plotting, samples 2B, 3BC and S2 appear to have an increase of voids at 40-50 mm
depth, this aected the mean values in these sample, but not the overall porosity
pattern ( see Appendix Figure A.3, A.5 and A.8).
Table 6.3: Mean value Porosity 2014 after cleaning
Air voids
Total 2014AC 16.2% 18.6% 14.6%
Connected 2014AC 15.4% 18.0% 14.2%
85
6.3 Clogging
By analyzing the mean connected void before and immediately after high-pressure
vacuum cleaning a clear change in the connected voids has occurred, especially in the
bottom layer which was completely clogged before cleaning. Since no other vehicles
passed after cleaning, the void reduction is therefore attributed to clogging that
could be reduced with operational maintenance. As previously mentioned, clogging
of these types of asphalt occur in the interlayer, shown in gure 6.8
Figure 6.8: Change in porosity before and after high-pressure vacuum cleaning
Clogging was reduced in the interlayer with 84%. This establishes that VR is ef-
fective in increasing connected air voids of porous surface optimized for Nordic
condition. For samples between 2011 and 2014 before cleaning, air voids decreased
with 61%. This means the restored porosity was better than 2011 samples.
86
6.4. NOISE MEASUREMENTS
6.4 Noise measurements
The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute [45] conducted CPX-
measurements every year since the 2010 see gure 6.9 and table 6.4 and. The
measurements were made at 70 and 90 km/h, the levels presented are interpolated
to 80 km/h. ABS 16 (SMA 16) was used as a reference surface.
Figure 6.9: CPX noise measurement trailer at E4 Huskvarna the tires SRTT (P1)
right and Avon A4 (H1) left are mounted in the middle of the chamber
[45]
Table 6.4: A-weighted CPX noise level measurement in dB interpolated to 80 km/h

for measurements at six dierent times on dierent SMA 16 pavements.
Tyre P1 is the SRTT and tyre H1 is the AAV4 [45]
The high-pressure vacuum cleaning VägRen cleaned the slow lane K1 northbound
and the results are based on 11 runs of the cleaned section, the two tires measured
both the wheel-tracks and between the wheel tracks. In this case TUG/VTI used
the un-cleaned section in comparison. The results varied from -0.7 dB to +0.7 dB
[45].
There is a dual explanation that can be attributed to the reason why air voids
connectivity enhanced from the X-ray CT did not reect is noise measurements.
Throughout its 4 years life time the road has been rejuvenated on dierent occa-
sions. In particular September 2013, the entire slow lane of K1 northbound was
rejuvenated. As previously mentioned in subsection 2.6.1, rejuvenation penetrates
87
the spaces between stone-on-stone contact and causes clogging (and probably sealed
the existing dirt was trapped inside).
It appears in gure 6.10 (high frequency) together with table 6.4 that the slow lane
lost most of its noise reduction than the fast lane. The average loss was 2.8 dB in
the slow lane's right wheel track, 2.4 dB between the wheel tracks in the slow lane,
against only 0.9 dB in the fast lane [45]. This is an aect of the increased trac
in lane K1. Another explanation that could cause this is VägRen cleaned a very
short distance (100 m). If the distance had been < 400 m at least maybe the results
would have dier.
Figure 6.10: A-weighted frequency spectra [45]
88
Chapter 7
Comments and conclusions
7.1 Conclusion
The overall intent of this thesis is to provide analysis in the utilization of porous
asphalt under Nordic conditions and to evaluate the eectiveness of Skanska's main-
tenance vehicle (VR) which is optimized for cleaning porous roads with larger stone
size due to the use of studded tires. For this, nine drill core samples from E4
Huskvarna were obtained between 2011 and 2014. The result from this study as-
serts the value of maintaining porous asphalt. From the aforementioned hypothesis
and the workow developed for this work following ndings and conclusions have
been drawn:
• X-ray Computed Tomography together with image analysis are precise versa-
tile tools in analyzing air void structure of porous asphalt. It was clear that all
gures from same period had similar pattern, this suggests the method used
is correct for this analysis.
• It has been observed that there has been change in porosity from the results
of air voids distribution with depth, caused by one pass of VR at 2 Km/h
high-pressure vacuum cleaning. Since no trac was induced on the surface
between 2014 before and after cleaning, clogging compared between the two
occasions gave following results:
The mean total voids increased with 67 % throughout the cores before and
after cleaning and the mean total connected voids increased with 83%.
The most striking dierence 87 % occurred in the inter-layers where most
dirt and detritus settles, this theory held true.
Despite the dierence in time between 2011 BC and 2014 AC cores,

porous asphalt in Huskvarna show air void increased with:
∗ 15 % for total void and
∗ 15.8 % for connected.
89
CHAPTER 7. COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
• The two arguments the supports compactions is not analysed in this report
are:
An evaluation regarding compaction was not possible due to the lack

of original samples and beside all core samples were drilled between the
wheel-path ok K1 Northbound Huskvarna.
No trac was subjected in 2014 before and after cleaning, thus com-
paction is irrelevant
• Loss of stones was noticed from the visual inspection after VägRen, One expla-
nation could be loose stones came o after dirt was cleaned and stone increase
could be due to VägRen cleaned the surface that the stones became more
visible.
• Visualization of clogging with the help of CT-scan and image analysis sign-
posted that the maintenance vehicle used in the trial section Huskvarna is
eective in cleaning porous asphalt optimized under for Nordic climate con-
ditions. This did not reect however on the noise measurement conducted by
TUG/VTI. The results varied from -0.7 dB to +0.7 dB, there are multiple
theories that could explain why noise reduction did not increase:
The surface K1 has been fog sealed in September 2013, this probably
clogged the pores to a certain extent and the dirt that was already in the
pore structure became glued and was probably impossible to ush away.
The cleaned length was most likely too short to be able to conduct noise
measurement.
90
7.2. RECOMMENDATION
7.2 Recommendation
On the basis of the results presented from this study. The author would like to
recommend following open questions for future research:
• A follow up analysis of porous asphalt and to clean a distance > 400 m with
VR to evaluate the eectiveness with respect to enhanced noise reduction.
• To study the aggregate orientation angle throughout the samples, radial di-
rection (inner and outer) to detect segregations and compaction.
• A study regarding adhesion between the stones and the bitumen after high-
pressured vacuum cleaning to identify possibility of damage inside the asphalt
91
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Appendix A
Porosity with depth
A.1 Air voids Distribution
101
APPENDIX A. POROSITY WITH DEPTH
Figure A.1: Total and connected air voids sample 1B.
Table A.1: Sample 1B Porosity
Sample 1B Mean Top layer Bottom layer
Total voids 12.9% 17.1% 8.9%
Connected voids 12.7% 17 % 8.5%
102
A.1. AIR VOIDS DISTRIBUTION
Figure A.2: Total and connected air voids sample 2A
Table A.2: Sample 2A Porosity distribution
Sample 2A Mean Top layer Bottom layer
Total voids 14% 17.3% 10.8%
Connected voids 13.8% 17.2 % 10.5%
103
Figure A.3: Total and connected air voids sample 2B.
Table A.3: Sample 2B Porosity distribution
Sample 2B Mean Top layer Bottom layer
Tota voidsl 14.1% 15.7% 12.8%
104
Figure A.4: Total and connected air voids sample 1BC.
Table A.4: Sample 1BC Porosity distribution
Sample 1BC Mean Top layer Bottom layer
Total voids 5.1% 8.1% 2.8%
Connected 2.6% 6.2 % 1.3%
105
Tota voidsl 5.1% 8.7% 2.6%
106
Total voids 5.6% 8.7% 4%
Connected voids 1.2% 2.9% 0%
107
Figure A.7: Total and connected air voids sample S1.
Table A.7: Sample S1 Porosity distribution
Sample S1 Mean Top layer Bottom layer
Total voids 16.4% 19% 14.5%
108
Total voids 16.6% 15% 19%
Connected voids 16.3% 18.7 % 9.4 %
109
Total voids 16.4% 19% 14.5%
110
TRITA 1103-4297
ISSN MASTER THESIS 440, ROAD AND RAILWAY AND ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING 2015
ISRN KTH/BKN/EX—440—SE
www.kth.se

Porous Asphalt Clogging Performance Under Swedish Conditions

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DEGREE PROJECT IN DEPARTMENT OF

CIVIL AND ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING , SECOND LEVEL

Porous Asphalt Clogging

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Given these problem, it is therefore important to understand how clogging can be

Föreliggande avhandling har jämfört nio borrkärnor från en bullerreducerande beläg-

Secondly, I owe enormous gratitude to Johannes Lidström, District manager at

Stockholm, February 2015

1.5 Organization of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.1.2 Air Voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.2 Single Layer Porous Asphalt (SLPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.3 Double layer Porous Asphalt (DLPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.6.2 High-pressured vacuum cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.6.3 Winter maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.7 Correlation between noise absorption and pore structure . . . . . . . 32

2.8 Noise measurement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.8.1 Statistical Pass-by Method (SPB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.8.2 Close Proximity method (CPX) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.1.1 Danish Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.1.2 The Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.2.1 Wear Due to studded tire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.2.2 Situation in Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.2 Silent Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4.2.1 Specic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4.2.2 Material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4.3 Previous objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4.3.1 Previous cleaning attempt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

4.4 Skanska's Maintenance Vehicle 'VägRen' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.5.1 Noise measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

5 X-Ray CT scan and Image Analysis 69

5.3 Digital Image Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5.3.1 Image Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

6 Results and Analysis 79

6.2 Analysis of Air Void Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

6.2.1 Porosity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

6.4 Noise measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

7 Comments and conclusions 89

A Porosity with depth 101

Figure 1.1: Dierent types of noise barriers [4]

Given awareness of the problem, it is therefore important to understand how clogging

• Objective 1: To employ an X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning

• Objective 2: To compare core samples from E4 Huskvarna that have been

• Objective 3: To examine if the high-pressure vacuum cleaning induced any

This thesis is establishing a phenomenological study procedure for assessing noise

Figure 1.2: Flow chart over the methodology.

Figure 1.3: Hypotheses.

Within the context of this thesis, it is important to consider porous asphalt as a

Figure 1.4: Moisture penetration into the asphalt mix [12].

1.5 Organization of the Thesis

• Chapter 2 Literature review

 In this chapter porous asphalt will be conceptualized, the inuence of the

• Chapter 3 International Relevance

 An overview of what has been achieved in countries that implements

• Chapter 4 Skanska Test Sites and Materials

 This chapter presents a brief description of Skanska's concept of low noise

• Chapter 5 X-Ray Computer Tomography and Image Analysis

 A description of the scanning and the numerical analyses procedure of

 In this chapter the results of the analysis will be presented.

• Chapter 7 Conclusion and Recommendation

• Low-noise road surface

• Noise-reducing road surface

• Open graded friction course OGFC

4.2.1 Specic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Figure 1.1: Dierent types of noise barriers [4]

In this chapter porous asphalt will be conceptualized, the inuence of the

An overview of what has been achieved in countries that implements

This chapter presents a brief description of Skanska's concept of low noise

A description of the scanning and the numerical analyses procedure of

In this chapter the results of the analysis will be presented.

Binder(pure or modied) 4-7%

Figure 2.6: Dierent wavelengths with corresponding surface texture [34]

Figure 2.7: Air voids classication [8]

It is recommended to use polymer modied bitumen (PMB) in porous asphalt [54].

Table 2.3: Shows permeability measurements of porous asphalt in dierent stages

Degree of clogging Outow time seconds Permeability class

• Road and trac ow