ATENEO DE NAGA UNIVERSITY

College of Science and Engineering

Civil Engineering Department

IMPACT OF VARYING TEMPERATURES ON THE COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

A Thesis Submitted to

The Faculty of the College of Science and Engineering

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

Civil Engineering Project

Researchers:

Aron Jasper Ted Aguila

Irvin Manongsong

Maryjoe Nomo
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Fire is one of the most severe hazards that building structures may experience during

their lifetime (Garlocka, 2012). The severity of the damage depends upon the duration,

magnitude and temperature attained by fire. All construction materials progressively lose their

ability to support a load when they are heated. There were various studies that have been carried

out towards the development of better understanding of concrete behaviour when exposed to

high temperatures.

The most important materials found in the concrete buildings are obviously concrete.

Concrete is a non-combustible material and possesses an outstanding fire resistance and thus it

does not contribute to the fire load and does not burn at elevated temperatures. It also provides

fire shielding and works as an insulation material for other construction materials such as steel

and timber due to its low thermal conductivity. Although concrete structures exposed to varying

temperatures is good compared to other construction materials, some physical and chemical

changes in the concrete material occur and cause significant reduction in its mechanical

properties. These changes in concrete structure will cause consequent substantial changes in its

compressive strength (Chang et al., 2006).

Concrete compressive strength decreases significantly as the temperature increases and

that the residual strength after cooling was further reduced and become more pronounced with
higher temperatures. As it is an established fact that at high temperature there are chemical and

physical changes in the material composition of concrete. Aggregate colour changes, crack

pattern and bonding between aggregate and paste all occurs at high temperatures. Apart, from

compressive strength, the flexure strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete also reduces.

This can be attributed to the micro-cracking that is formed in the transition zone of concrete

(Kingsch et al., 2009).

In connection to this, a project-based research is carried out to present about the impact of

concrete to high temperature including analytical models that can be implemented in any finite

element code to describe the compressive of concrete. The experimental work was performed by

testing standard cylindrical specimens casted from various concrete mixes with different

water/cement ratios and exposed to high temperatures to evaluate their compressive strength and

an attempt to better understand the influence of cooling regimes. Also, to provide a solid basis

for designing concrete structures to account for various possible fire scenarios by presenting and

comparing the different models used for predicting the concrete at various temperatures.
1.2 Statement of the Problem

Structural fires have led to a great loss of buildings and damage to property in the

country. There are numerous fire related incidents reported each year. Fire incidents have been

increasing consistently every year for the past years. The fire incident data published by the

Bureau of Fire Protection showed that fire incidents have increased by 0.84 percent in the year

2018. BFP records from January 1 to December 27 showed that a total of 14,316 fire incidents

occurred in the Philippines and 3,943 of which were recorded in Metro Manila alone resulting in

222 civilian deaths and 671 injured persons.

With such high figures, it is very necessary to conduct a study to assess the residual

performance of the structural system after fire. Most concrete structures exposed to fire

conditions are not fully deteriorated and their structural integrity and mechanical properties can

still be restored by applying suitable repair methods. The ultimate strength of concrete degrades

in fire due to the decrease in both the strength and stiffness of the material.

Hence, there is a growing need to provide approaches for post-fire repair of structural

members to bring back and enhance their structural safety but such repairing methods can’t

simply be obtained if there are no series of tests that will be conducted on the damaged concrete

itself. A building that is damaged by fire can be retrofitted and rehabilitated but such measures

require extensive evaluations regarding technical aspects, at first before retrofitting the structure

and rehabilitating the building.

1.3 Significance of the Study

The main advantage of this study is to have a better understanding about the impact of

varying temperatures on the compressive strength of concrete. This study can provide a solid

basis for designing concrete structures to account for various possible fire scenarios by

presenting and comparing the different concrete specimens used for predicting the concrete at

various temperatures. This study aims to benefit the following:

Future Researchers. This study may serve as a reference for future researchers who aim to

study on fire damage concrete members. With the limited researches on fire damage concrete

members, this study maybe a valuable addition to the references researches may need for future

study on the impact of high temperatures on concrete.

Civil Engineers in the Philippines. The results of this study may be used as a guide for Civil

Engineers with goal of assessing and repairing real fire damaged concrete structures. It has

become imperative for civil engineers to be interested in the residual design strength of concrete

subjected to high temperatures in order to form data base for performance at these elevated

temperatures for practical research applications.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The overall aim of this study is to come up with a viable and sustainable understanding

about the impact of varying temperatures on concrete conducting several tests with various

experimental variables; varying temperatures, heating duration, and cooling speed. With this

aim, this study consists of the following objectives:

 Evaluate the behaviour of the concrete specimens at varying temperatures.

 Gather information on the compressive strength of the concrete specimens before and

after the testing.

 Compare the compressive strength of the unheated and heated concrete specimens by

analysing and interpreting the results gathered.

1.5 Scope and Delimitations

This study will only focus on testing and assessing the effects to the compressive strength

of the concrete when subjected to high temperatures, duration time, and cooling method.

This topic will include a class A concrete mix. A total of 102 samples will be produced, 3

of which would be a controlled test for 14-day concrete strength and another 3 would be a

controlled test for 28-day concrete strength. The remaining 96 concrete samples will undergo

various experimental variables, which are the duration being heated, high temperature, and

cooling method. However, the limitation of this study in terms of temperature range is between

150° C to 300° C due to available temperature equipment. Samples will not contain steel

reinforcements.

A controlled oven shall be used to attain high temperatures that will be subjected on the

concrete specimens. UTM found at the Ateneo de Naga Main Campus will be used for testing

the samples.

Heating Duration Temperature Cooling Speed No. of Samples

150° Celsius Slow cooling 3 samples

30 mins.
300° Celsius Rapid Cooling 3 samples
150° Celsius Slow cooling 3 samples
1 hour
300° Celsius Rapid Cooling 3 samples
150° Celsius Slow cooling 3 samples
2 hours
300° Celsius Rapid Cooling 3 samples
150° Celsius Slow cooling 3 samples
4 hours
300° Celsius Rapid Cooling 3 samples

Table 1.1
(Distribution of Concrete Samples in Varying Temperatures,
Heating Duration, and Cooling Speed)
 Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough and in-depth

search done by the researchers for better understanding of this study.

2.1 Concrete

In 2014, Haseeb Zaman described concrete as a very stable material in nature. It is inert,

solid, with high compressive strength and excellent surface hardness. The melting point of

concrete is around 1200 Celsius Centigrade. All these properties make it quite subtle when

exposed to fire. Materials are into seven categories (A1, A2, B, C, D, E and F). A1 is considered

as the best possible material which is virtually inert to fire or fire resistant and concrete is

assigned under A1 category. Concrete doesn’t burn by itself because it is not a combustible

material, hence, it doesn’t add up in the fire load. It doesn’t melts and doesn’t drips materials at

the temperature that normally occurs in fire. The inert property of concrete is down to the

ingredients in the concrete mix which gives it these inert properties. Moreover concrete has poor

thermal conductance and it transfers heat at a very low rate.

 This behaviour of concrete makes it structurally sound enough even in intense fires and

structure avoids collapse. The strength remaining in the concrete after it is cooled down depends

upon number of factors like,

 Temperature attained by concrete (not the temperature of air or the temperature of

flames)
 Duration of fire
 Aggregates present in concrete
 Concrete batch mix proportion and
 Load beard by structure during fire

All these factors affect the strength of concrete after the event of fire. Up to the

temperature of 300 Celsius, concrete more or less retains is strength and this is also considered as

the benchmark of safe temperature of concrete. Up to the temperature of 500 Celsius a

significant loss of strength happens but still holds sufficient residual strength. Above 600 Celsius

serious damages occur. The behaviours of concrete at different temperatures and shown in the

table below (Concrete Society TR68, 2008):

 Table 2.1

Mineralogical and Strength Changes in Concrete at Different Temperatures

2.2 Impact of Temperature on Concrete Microstructure

In 2013, Hager stated that the deterioration of concrete exposed to high temperatures is

attributed to three factors: physicochemical changes in the cement paste, in its aggregates, and

the thermal incompatibility between them. Fire-related factors, such as temperature and heating
rate, and structural element conditions, such as applied load and humidity, also play a role in

concrete deterioration.

2.2.1 Cement Paste

Cement paste heating results to drying. The water evaporates from the material

gradually. The order in which water is removed from heated concrete depends on the

energy that binds the water and the solid. Thus, free water evaporates first, followed by

capillary water, and finally by physically bound water. The process of removing water

that is chemically bound with cement hydrates is the last to be initiated. The mechanical

properties of cement paste are strongly affected by chemical bonds and cohesion forces

between sheets of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. It is assumed that approximately

50% of cement paste strength comes from cohesion forces (important C-S-H gel sheet

area); therefore, the evaporation of water between C-S-H gel sheets strongly affects the

mechanical properties of the cement paste.

2.2.2 Aggregates

Aggregates occupy 70–80% of the volume of concrete and thus heavily influence

its thermal behaviour. Thermally stable aggregates are characterized by chemical and

physical stability at high temperature, which is determined by dilatometric, as well as

thermogravimetric, and differential thermal tests. Considering concrete behaviour at high

temperature, a suitable aggregate would be one with a low thermal strains coefficient as

well as negligible residual strains.

 2.2.3 Cement Paste and Aggregate Interaction in Concrete during Heating

The heating of concrete makes its aggregate volume grow, and at the same time it

causes the contraction of the cement paste which surrounds it. As a result, the cement

paste-aggregate bond is the weakest point in heated cementitious material. To a large

extent, damage to concrete is caused by cracking, which occurs arising due to

mismatched thermal strains between the coarse aggregates and the matrix.

2.3 Compressive Strength

Concrete mixtures can be designed to provide a wide range of mechanical and durability

properties to meet the design requirements of a structure. The compressive strength of concrete is

the most common performance measure used by the engineer in designing buildings and other

structures. The compressive strength is measured by breaking cylindrical concrete specimens in a

compression testing machine. The compressive strength is calculated from the failure load

divided by the cross-sectional area resisting the load and reported in units of pound-force per

square inch (psi) in US Customary units or megapascals (MPa) in SI units. Concrete compressive

strength requirements can vary from 2500 psi (17 MPa) for residential concrete to 4000 psi (28

MPa) and higher in commercial structures. Higher strengths up to and exceeding 10,000 psi (70

MPa) are specified for certain applications (nrmca.org).

2.3.1 Effects of Elevated Temperature on Compressive Strength of Grade 40 Concrete

A study in 2015 by Sylvester Osuji and Uchenna presents the results of

investigation of the effects of elevated temperatures on the compressive strength of Grade

40 concrete. A total of thirty cube specimens were cast, cured in water at ambient

temperature in the laboratory and subjected to various temperature regimes before testing.

Specimens cured for 7 and 28 days were subjected to uniaxial compressive loading tests

at room and elevated temperature of 24, 100, 150, 200, 250, and 300 degrees Celsius at

one hour duration. It indicated a 14.49%, 25%, 31%, 35.51%, and 43.88% decrease in

compressive strength at the earlier quoted temperatures respectively. At 300 degrees

Celsius, a peak decrease of 53.47% in compressive strength was observed.

2.3.2 Effects of Heating Durations on Normal Concrete Residual Properties:

Compressive Strength and Mass Loss

In 2017, Fadzli Mohamed Nazri investigated the effects of high temperature with

five different heating durations on residual properties of 30 MPa normal concrete.

Concrete cubes were being heated up to 600°C for 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 minutes. The

temperature will keep constant for 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 minutes. The standard

temperature-time curve ISO 834 is referred to. After heating the specimen were left to

cool in the furnace and removed. After cooling down to ambient temperature, the residual

mass and residual compressive strength were observed. The obtained result shows that,

the compressive strength of concrete decrease as the heating duration increases. This

heating duration influence, might affects the loss of free water present and decomposition
 of hydration products in concrete. As the heating duration increases, the amount of water

evaporated also increases led to loss in concrete mass .Conclusively, the percentage of

mass and compressive strength loss increased as the heating duration increased.

2.4 Cooling Speed

One factor that had a great effect on the compressive strength of the concrete was the

cooling speed. The use of water during a fire, in their case quenching the samples into water

presented a significant reduction on the compressive strength of the concrete samples. Their

study showed that the decrease of mechanical properties could still be recovered depending on

the rehydration process. Concrete samples subjected to not more than 500 degrees Celsius, and

then rehydrated slowly would recover 90% of its initial strength (De Souza and Moreno, 2010).

2.4.1 Effects of High Temperature and Cooling Pattern on the Chloride Permeability of

Concrete

The strength decreases as the temperature increases. The fire-damage becomes

significant when the temperatures reached 400 degrees Celsius. After undergoing the

same temperatures, the strength of samples that reached 200 degrees Celsius had a higher

strength capacity after water-cooling rather than the air-cooled samples. While samples

subjected to 400 degrees Celsius had a lower strength capacity after water-cooling

compared to samples that were air-cooled (Ma, Duan, and Ba, 2018).
 2.4.2 Effect of Cooling Methods on the Compressive Strength of Concrete

A study in 2014 by Xingyan Shang and Zhoudao Lu titled, Impact of High

Temperature on the Compressive Strength of Concrete, showed that different cooling

methods may also affect the mechanical properties, such as compressive strength and

modulus of elasticity, of the concrete. Samples quenched with water showed better results

than the ones cooled in air. Also, the recovery of the strength of concrete after quenching

the 800 degrees’ samples with water was significantly greater than of the 400 degrees’

samples.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Concrete Design
Heating Duration
Mix
Temperature
30 mins.
Cement
150° Celsius 60 mins.
Coarse
300° Celsius 2 hours
Aggregates
4 hours
Fine aggregates
Water

Assessment Cooling Method

Graphical and Water Cooling

Physical Analyses Air Cooling

Figure 2.3
Conceptual Framework of the Study
 The Conceptual Framework illustrated above shows the variables that the controlled and

experimental samples will undergo. All the samples would be composed of a Class A Concrete

design mix, which is composed of Portland Type 1 Cement, Fine Aggregates, Coarse

Aggregates, and Water. The experimental samples would be subjected to various temperatures

(at 2000°and 300° Celsius). Also, the samples would be heated and would maintain that specific

temperature for different lengths of time (30 minutes, 60 minutes, 2 hours and 4 hours). After

being heated at various temperatures at different durations, the concrete samples would be

subjected to rapid cooling (quenching in water) or air cooling. These experimental values were

obtained from previous researches. Physical observation would take place every after an

experimental variable. The data gathered from this research will be analyzed graphically. The

data from this research would help in giving emphasis on the extent of degradation of concrete at

high temperatures.
 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

ACI Code
Design Mix
Fine Aggregates Previous Researches
Coarse Aggregates - Various Temperature
Cement Paste - Heating Duration
Water to Cement Ratio - Cooling Speed
Curing

Analyses of the
Degradation of
Compressive
Strength

Figure 2.4
Theoretical Framework of the Study
 The Figure illustrated above shows the different variables of this research that would

determine the effects of high temperatures, heating duration, and cooling methods to the

compressive strength of concrete. The controlled variables are taken from the ACI code which

will be consistent throughout this research. The experimental variables are the various

temperatures, heating duration and cooling methods that may affect the compressive strength of

concrete.

The process of mixing is derived from the ACI code on the Concrete Mix Design. This is to

obtain the optimum strength design at the minimum cement content. This would be a key

component to gain a reasonable data, the design mix should be consistent throughout the

experiment. These samples are to be tested after 14 and 28 days of curing and will be tested for

compressive strength using the Universal Testing Machine (UTM). For this study, the

researchers will be using the traditional test method for concrete which is the ASTM C39

Standard Test Method for the Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.

In the previous researches conducted by different researchers the dehydration of the cement

gel, which is Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate (C-H-S gel), was initiated at 200° Celsius. C-H-S gel is a

main binding agent that that binds the other cement particles into a cohesive whole. At a

temperature reaching and exceeding 500° Celsius the compressive strength lessens even more to

the point when concrete becomes structurally useless. Also, there were micro cracks that began

to appear at 400° Celsius, and as temperature increased the micro cracking also grew in size.

The purpose of this study is to determine the intensity of the damage to the compressive strength

of concrete when subjected to different heat levels, duration being heated, and cooling method.
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the researchers focused on the procedure that needs to be completed at the

full length of conducting the study. The materials and preparations for the testing of samples

are also presented in this chapter. This chapter also contains the process obtained by the

researchers to make sure that at the end of this research, all the objectives of the study are

met.

3.1 Research Design

The researchers used experimental and descriptive method in this study. Experimental

method uses manipulation and testing for the goal of understanding the impact of high

temperature on the compressive strength of concrete. Another research method used in this

study is descriptive method. It interprets the substantial findings, and provides a systematic

analysis of the test and experiment results.

3.2 Experimental Procedure

The flow chart illustrated below provides the step by step process followed and

conducted for this study. A detailed explanation for each of the steps is provided in the

succeeding sections of this chapter.

3.2.1 Flow Chart
3.2.2 Preparation of Materials and Equipment

3.2.2.1 Materials

 Water

The water used in this research experiment is potable water that is

available within the working area.

 Cement

The cement used for the concrete design mix is Portland Cement

Type 1.

 Aggregates

Albay sand and ¾” gravel will be used. Moreover, the aggregates

will be maintained at saturated surface dry (SSD) condition and

will undergo test methods (ASTM C29) to determine its bulk

density and voids.

3.2.2.2 Equipment

 Shovels
 Bucket for Water and Clean-up
 Containers
 Plastic Sheets
 100x200 mm Cylindrical Mold
 Concrete Mixer
 Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
 Controlled Oven
3.2.3 Design of Concrete Mix

The process of mixing is derived from the ACI code on the Concrete Mix Design.

This is to obtain the optimum strength design at the minimum cement content. This

would be a key component to gain a reasonable data. The concrete design mix utilized for

this study is composed of Portland Cement Type 1, Fine Aggregates, Coarse Aggregates,

and water. The concrete mix was produced by shovelling a ratio of one part cement, two

parts sands, and four parts gravel and putting it into a concrete mixer, the dry mix

ingredients were thoroughly mixed together until an even, uniform mixture was achieved.

A small amount of water was poured in like a half bucket, into the mixer.

3.2.4 Preparation of Samples

Several batches of concrete mix were prepared for this study. These sample types

were used for the determination of compressive strength in accordance with ASTM

standards. For compressive strength test, the specimen was placed in a 100x200 mm

improvised cylindrical mold, and was tested after the 14th and 28th day of curing. 3 of

which would be a controlled test for 14-day concrete strength and another 3 would be a

controlled test for 28-day concrete strength. The remaining 96 concrete samples will be

divided into 2 for a 14-day and 28-day test with varying temperatures, heating duration,

and cooling speed.

 3.2.4.1 Casting

For casting of the concrete samples for compressive strength test, a

100x200 mm improvised cylindrical mold was used. Immediately after mixing,

the fresh concrete was placed in their respective molds.

3.2.4.2 Curing

For curing, the samples were enclosed with plastic sheets to preserve its

moisture. The samples were then situated on a flat surface free from any vibration

to prevent disturbance in the concrete. After 24 hours, the hardened samples were

casted out then from its molds and were placed in the curing tank for 14 and 28

days of curing. The samples were cured in natural air for a day before the testing.

3.2.4.3 Cooling Method

There are 2 cooling process conducted in this experiment. The concrete

specimens were quenched in a container with water for 2 hours for rapid cooling.

Slow cooling was then applied on another batch of concrete specimens

maintaining it at a room temperature for 24 hours.

3.2.5 Testing of Samples

3.2.5.1 Slump Test

A slump test was performed to measure the consistency of fresh concrete

before its sets. It was used as a means of checking that the correct amount of

water has been added to the mix.

3.2.5.1 Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of concrete samples was evaluated using the

universal testing machine following the standards provided by the ASTM C39

Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete in

testing 14th and 28th day compressive strength of concrete samples. A separate set

of samples will be produced for normal concrete compressive strength testing and

for the oven-heated concrete compressive strength testing. The figure will show

the proper breakdown and distribution of the concrete samples in varying

temperatures, heating duration, and cooling speed:

 Table 3.1
(Distribution of Concrete Samples in Varying Temperatures,

Heating Duration, and Cooling Speed)