LESSON 3 – ARGUMENTATION

(PART 2)
PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON
LESSON 3
 TYPES OF REASONING

DEDUCTION -

INDUCTION -
 RULES OF REPLACEMENT

Double Negation –

––A=A

Commutativity –
A&B = B&A/ AvB = BvA

Associativity –
(A&B) & C = A & (B&C) / (AvB) v C = A v (BvC)

Tautology –
A = A&A / A = AvA
 RULES OF REPLACEMENT

De Morgan’s Law

-(A&B) = -A & -B/ -(AvB) = -A v –B

Transposition

A ->B = - B -> -A

Material Implication

A ->B = -AvB
 RULES OF REPLACEMENT

Exportation

A-> (B->Y) = (A&B) -> y

Distribution

A & (BvC) = (A&B) v (A&C) / A v (B&C) = (AvB) & (AvC)

Material Equivalence

A <–> B = (A –> B) & ( B –> A)

A <–> B = (A&B) v (-A&-B)
 VALIDITY AND SOUNDNESS

• DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT IS SAID TO BE VALID IF AND ONLY IF IT TAKES A FORM THAT MAKES IT
IMPOSSIBLE FOR THE PREMISES TO BE TRUE AND THE CONCLUSION NEVERTHELESS TO BE
FALSE.

• A DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT IS SOUND IF AND ONLY IF IT IS BOTH VALID, AND ALL OF ITS
PREMISES ARE ACTUALLY TRUE.
 FALLACIES

• (A) A KIND OF ERROR IN AN ARGUMENT

• (B) A KIND OF ERROR IN REASONING (INCLUDING ARGUMENTS,
DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND SO FORTH)
• (C) A FALSE BELIEF
• (D) THE CAUSE OF ANY OF THE PREVIOUS ERRORS INCLUDING
WHAT ARE NORMALLY REFERRED TO AS "RHETORICAL
TECHNIQUES."
Ad Populum
Begging the Question
 OTHER MOST USED FALLACIES

• FALSE DICHOTOMY - THIS FALLACY RESTS ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT THERE ARE ONLY TWO POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS,
SO DISPROVING ONE SOLUTION MEANS THAT OTHER SOLUTION SHOULD BE UTILIZED. IT IGNORES OTHER
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS.
• HASTY GENERALIZATION - HASTY GENERALIZATION OCCURS WHEN THE PROPONENT USES TOO SMALL OF A
SAMPLE SIZE TO SUPPORT A SWEEPING GENERALIZATION.
• POST HOC - THIS FALLACY ASSUMES THAT CORRELATION EQUALS CAUSATION OR, IN OTHER WORDS, IF ONE EVENT
PREDICTS ANOTHER EVENT IT MUST HAVE ALSO CAUSED THE EVENT
• SLIPPERY SLOPE – WHEN A RELATIVELY INSIGNIFICANT FIRST EVENT LEADS TO MORE SIGNIFICANT EVENTS UNTIL
SOME ULTIMATE EVEN IS REACHED. WHICH IS IMPROBABLE.
• FALSE ANALOGY – TWO THINGS ALIKE IN ONE OR MORE ASPECT THEN THEY ARE ALIKE IN SOME OTHER ASPECT.