Chapter 7 PDF

MGT 3220:CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 7:
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS AND DILEMMAS
INTI. EDUCATION THAT EMPOWERS

By:
Mr Joel Gurprit Singh,
PRIVATE & CONFIDENTIAL
Lecturer of Business & Management
Slide 5.2
Chapter 7: Cultural dimensions and

dilemmas
• Value orientations and dimensions
– Particular attention to the Fons Trompenaars’
dimensions
• Reconciling cultural dilemmas
– Method for finding a way to resolve dilemmas when
doing business with other cultures
Browaeys & Price, Understanding Cross-Cultural Management, 2nd Edition © Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 5.3
Time
See you at tea.

Come before tea.
See you after tea.
Slide 5.4
Time Perception
• Labour class in the northern England tea is our

dinner at 5pm – 6pm.
• Whereas, our time culture is influence by the
Southern England.
Slide 5.5
Cross-cultural studies aims
To understand the differences between human

beings who come from different cultural
backgrounds, and to understand the similarities
between all human beings.
Slide 5.6
Slide 5.7
Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck
Slide 5.8
Value orientations and dimensions
Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck define value

orientations as:
• being complex principles
• resulting of interaction between three elements:
– Cognitive, Affective, Directive
Three assumptions:
– Universal nature of value orientations
– Many ways of solving problems
– Preferences in choosing solutions
Slide 5.9
Five orientations
Five problems common to all human groupings

1. Human nature orientation (goodness or badness
of human nature)
2. Man–nature orientation (harmony-with-
nature/mastery-over-nature)
3. Time orientation (past/present/future)
4. Activity orientation (being, being-in-becoming and
doing)
5. Relational orientation (man’s relation to other
men)
Slide 5.10
Five Common Human Concerns and Three

Possible Responses (based on Kohls, 1981)
Concerns/ Possible Responses
orientations
Human Evil. Most people Mixed. There are Good. Most people
Nature: What is the can't be trusted. both evil people and are basically pretty
basic nature of People are basically good people in the good at heart; they
people? bad and need to be world, and you have are born good.
controlled. to check people out
to find out which they
are. People can be
changed with the
right guidance.
Man-Nature Subordinate to Harmony with Dominant over
Relationship: What Nature. People really Nature. Man should, Nature. It the great
is the appropriate can't change nature. in every way, live in human challenge to
relationship to nature Life is largely harmony with nature. conquer and control
determined by nature. Everything
external forces, such from air conditioning
as fate and genetics. to the "green
What happens was revolution" has
meant to happen resulted from having
met this challenge.
Slide 5.11

Time Sense: How Past. People should Present. The Future. Planning
should we best think learn from history, present moment is and goal setting
about time? draw the values they everything. Let's make it possible for
live by from history, make the most of people to
and strive to it. Don't worry about accomplish
continue past tomorrow: enjoy miracles, to change
traditions into the today. and grow. A little
future. sacrifice today will
bring a better
tomorrow.
Activity: What is Being. It's enough Becoming. The Doing. If people

the best mode of to just "be." It's not main purpose for work hard and apply
activity? necessary to being placed on this themselves fully,
accomplish great earth is for one's their efforts will be
things in life to feel own inner rewarded. What a
your life has been development. person
worthwhile. accomplishes is a
measure of his or
her worth.
Slide 5.12

Social Hierarchical. Collateral. The Individual. All
Relations: What There is a natural best way to be people should
is the best form of order to relations, organized is as a have equal rights,
social some people are group, where and each should
organization? born to lead, everyone shares have complete
others are in the decision control over one's
followers. process. It is own destiny.
Decisions should important not to When we have to
be made by those make important make a decision
in charge. decisions alone. as a group it
should be "one
person one vote."
Slide 5.13
Trompenaars’ dimensions
• Trompenaars goes beyond the framework of

anthropology/sociology
• He shows how the following dimensions affect the
process of managing cultures:
– relations with other people
– relations with time
– relations with nature
Trompenaars standpoint:
– Each culture has its own specific solutions for
universal problems
Slide 5.14
Seven dimensions
5 Relations to the others

1. Universalism versus particularism
2. Individualism versus collectivism
3. Neutral versus affective relationships
4. Specific versus diffuse relationships
5. Achievement versus ascription
6. Relation to time: sequential/synchronic
7. Relation to the environment: inner- versus
outer-directed
Slide 5.15
Universalism versus Particularism
• In universalist culture ideas can be applied

anywhere and there is always a definition that can
be used to determine the distinction between right
and wrong. ( "What is good and right can be
defined and ALWAYS applies." )
• Standards and values are important and can only

be departed from after consultation. It is generally
accepted that in similar situations people from
different origins receive the same salary.
Slide 5.16
Universalism versus Particularism
• In a particularistic culture, members believe that the

circumstances that determine how ideas can be applied in
practice.
• Personal relationships and obligations play an important

role when making ethical decisions.
• Status is important in this as a result of which for example

salary is linked to reputation and origin.
Slide 5.17
Universalism
Take the case of trying to cross the street at the red

light. In a very rule-based society like the U.S., you
will still be frowned at even if there is no traffic. It
tends to imply equality in the sense that all persons,
or citizens, falling under the rule should be treated
the same.
Slide 5.18
Universalist VS Particularist
1. Focus is more on rules than 1. Focus is more on

relationships relationships than on rules
2. Legal contracts are readily 2. Legal contracts are readily

drawn up modified
3. A trustworthy person is the 3. A trustworthy person is the

one who honors his or her one who honors changing
word or contract mutualities
4. There is only one truth or 4. There are several perspectives

reality which has been agreed on reality relative to each
to participant
5. A deal is a deal 5. Relationships evolve
Slide 5.19
Managerial Implications
For Universalist For Particularist
1. Be prepared for "rational", 1. Be prepared for personal

"professional" arguments "meandering" or
and presentations that "irrelevancies" that do not
push for your seem to be going
acquiescence anywhere
2. Do not take impersonal, 2. Do not take personal, "get

"get down to business" to know you" attitudes as
attitudes as rude small talk
Slide 5.20
Individualism versus Communitarianism
• Individualism sees human beings as individuals,

whereas communitarianism
characterizes humanity as being part of a group.
• Fons Trompenaars says that the individualist

culture is linked to the ideas of the western world,
whereas the communitarian culture is linked to
non-western countries.
Slide 5.21
• Cultures change continuously and sometimes

they change more quickly than people realize.
• As an example, Fons Trompenaars mentions

Mexico, which was predominantly communitarian
at first.
• Influenced by the global economy, Mexico is now

moving towards a more individualistic culture.
Slide 5.22
• In a society where individualism prevails such as

the U.S., people regard themselves primarily as
individuals, an it is more important to focus on
individuals so that they can contribute to the
community as and if they wish.
• In a communitarian society like Japan, people's

opinions are just the opposite: People think of
themselves as part of a group, and consider the
community first since that is shared by many
individuals.
Slide 5.23
Individualism vs Communitarianism
1. More frequently use of "I" 1. More frequently use of

form. "We" form
2. Decisions made on the 2. Decisions referred back by

spot by representatives delegate to organization
during negotiation
3. People ideally achieve in
3. People ideally achieve groups which assume joint
alone and assume responsibility
personal responsibility
4. Vacations in organized
4. Vacations taken in pairs, groups or with extended
even alone family
Slide 5.24
For Communitarians
For Individualists
1. Prepare for quick decisions
1. Show patience when and sudden offers from
negotiating or discussing individualists
with communitarians
2. Notice that Conducting
2. Notice that conducting business alone means that
business when surrounded this person is respected by
by helpers means that his his/her company and has
person has high status is its esteem
his/her organization
3. Individualists' aim is to
3. Communitarians' aim is to make a quick deal
build lasting relationships
Slide 5.25
Neutral versus emotional
• In a neutral emotions are controlled, whereas in

an emotional culture emotions are expressed
openly and spontaneously.
• Well-known examples of neutral cultures are

Japan and Great Britain, where they frown upon
being angry in public, laughing loudly or
displaying any other emotional outbursts. In an
emotional culture, however, this behaviour is
allowed.
Slide 5.26
Neutral versus emotional
• Fons Trompenaars mentions countries such as

the Spain and Mexico where people often laugh,
talk loudly and greet each other enthusiastically.
• When people from a neutral culture do business

with people from an emotional culture, they could
be deterred by the other person’s behaviour.
• A good preparation and taking someone’s

culture into consideration will prevent
awkward situations.
Slide 5.27
Affective vs Neutral
1. Reveal thoughts and feelings

verbally and non-verbally 1. Do not reveal what they are
thinking or feeling
2. Transparency and
expressiveness release 2. May (accidentally) reveal
tensions tension in face and posture
3. Emotions flow easily, 3. Emotions often dammed up

effusively, vehemently and will occasionally explode
without inhibition
4. Cool and self-possessed
4. Heated, vital, animated conduct admired
expressions admired
5. Physical contact, gesturing or
5. Touching, gesturing and strong facial expressions
strong facial expressions often taboo
common
6. Statements often read out in
6. Statements declaimed fluently monotone
and dramatically
Slide 5.28
For Neutrals
For Affectives
1. When the affectives are
1. Put as much as you can on expressing goodwill,
paper before a meeting respond warmly
2. Lack of emotional tone 2. The affectives' enthusiasm,

does not mean that they readiness to agree or
are disinterested or bored, vehement disagreement
only that they do not like to does not mean that they
show their hand have made up their mind
3. Be prepared for 3. Be prepared for

discussions focused on discussions mostly
the object and not so much focused on you as
on you as persons personas and not so much
on the object being
discussed
Slide 5.29
Specific versus diffuse
• In a specific culture, individuals have a large

public space, which they share easily with other
people.
• They also have a small private space which they

share with good friends and close associates.
• People often approach each other informally in

both the public and private space.
Slide 5.30
Specific versus diffuse
• In a diffuse culture the public space and the

private space tend to be interwoven(locked closely).
• People in a diffuse culture will therefore protect

their private space because this will provide easy
access to the public space.
• People from a diffuse culture attach great value to

formality.
Slide 5.31
Specific
• This dimension measures how far people get involved with

other's life space.
• In specific-oriented cultures, the project leader would segregate

out the task relationship he/she has with a subordinate, and
insulates this "work relationship" from other dealings.
• Therefore, the leader's authority only reaches where his/her

work relationship with the subordinate is defined, and each area
in which the two persons encounter each other is considered
apart from the other.
• Work and life are sharply separated in specific-oriented cultures

life the U.S
Slide 5.32
Diffuse
• In diffuse cultures, however, life space and every level of personality tends
to permeate ALL others.
• For example, a teacher would be treated by the student not only as an

instructor in the classroom, but also has certain influence on the student's
home life.
• The boss-subordinate relationship usually does not stop only in the office;
the boss is likely to have a say in other aspects of his/her employee's
personal life.
• Because of the importance of loyalty and the multiplicity of human bonds,

diffuse cultures tend to have lower turnover and employee mobility.
• Most East Asian cultures are highly diffuse-oriented. The following are
some characteristics of both cultures
Slide 5.33
Specific vs Diffuse
1. Direct, to the point, 1. Indirect, circuitous,

purposeful in relating seemingly "aimless" forms
of relating
2. Precise, blunt, definitive
and transparent 2. Evasive, tactful,
ambiguous, even opaque
3. Principles and consistent
moral stands independent 3. Highly situational morality
of the person being depending upon the
addressed person and context
encountered
Slide 5.34
For Specific-oriented People For Diffuse--oriented People
1. Study the history, 1. Study the objectives and

background and future principles of specific-
vision of the diffuse- oriented people
oriented people
2. Be quick, to the point and
2. Let the meeting flow, efficient
occasionally nudging
(push) its process 3. Do not use titles or
acknowledge skills that are
3. Respect a person's title, irrelevant to issues being
age, background discussed
connections
Slide 5.35
Achievement versus Ascription
• This concerns achieved status (achievement)

versus ascribed (ascription) status.
• In an achievement-oriented culture, a person’s worth is

determined on the basis of their performances and how
well they perform their tasks.
• In a culture in which status is ascribed, status is based

on who the person in question is. Their position is derived
from for example origin, gender, age, career or a person’s
career or position..
Slide 5.36

• When someone from an achievement-oriented culture does
business with people from an ascription-oriented culture, it
is advisable to deploy older, more experienced people who
are familiar with formal customs and manners and who
respect established titles.
• In the contrary situation, it is important that people from an

ascription-oriented culture make use of well-informed
people who know exactly what the knowledge and skills are
of people from an achievement-oriented culture.
• Fons Trompenaars says that there is often a mix, whereby

culture determines on which elements from the
Achievement or Ascription cultures the emphasis is put.
Slide 5.37
1. Extensive use of titles,

1. Use of titles only when especially when these
relevant to the competence clarify your status in the
brought to a specific task organization
2. Respect for superior in 2. Respect for superior in
hierarchy is based on how hierarchy is seen as a
effectively his/her job is measure of your
performed and how commitment to the
adequate their knowledge organization and its
mission
3. Most senior managers are
of varying age and gender 3. Most senior managers are
and have shown male, middle-aged and
proficiency in specific jobs qualified by their
background
Slide 5.38
For Ascriptives For Achievers
1. Respect the knowledge 1. Respect the status and

and information of the influence of the
achievers, even if you ascriptives, even if you
suspect they are short of suspect they are short of
influence back home knowledge. Do not show
them up.
2. Use the title that reflects
how competent you are as 2. Use the title that reflects
an individual your degree of influence in
your organization
3. Do not underestimate the
need of the achievers to do 3. Do not underestimate the
better or do more than is need of the ascriptives to
expected make their ascriptions
come true
Slide 5.39
Sequential versus synchronous time
• Time can be measured and understood in

different ways.
• We measure past, present and future using years,

months, weeks, days and hours. This concrete
measurement of time falls within sequential time.
• “Time is money” is a typical expression that

forms part of this culture, just like the eternal race
against clock.
Slide 5.40
Sequential versus synchronous time
• Synchronous time is more abstract and focuses on

being able to work on various projects at once.
• It does not concern itself with time zones, but is aware

that the human body has its own rhythm.
• In a synchronous time it is about the rhythm of the

group and that of nature.
• There is, however, a risk to doing several things at the

same time. It could result in work not being actually
completed.
Slide 5.41
Can you give a substantive meaning of

Time?
Slide 5.42
Internal direction versus outer direction
• In internal-directed versus outer-directed cultures

the focus is on how people experience their
environment.
• Is the environment a threat (external) or is it

sensible to move with the factors that are caused
by society (internal)?
• The way in which people experience their

environment differs from culture to culture.
Slide 5.43
Internal direction versus outer direction
• People in western cultures are mainly outer-

directed and they want to control their
environment as much as possible.
• In many non-western cultures it is more about

living in harmony with the environment; there are
forces that cannot be controlled or influenced and
therefore you have to adapt yourself to these
external circumstances.
Slide 5.44
Discussion Question
What do you think?

Are the Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions
applicable in today’s modern economy and
international organisations?
Slide 5.45
Relations to the others
1. Universalism/particularism: societal versus

personal obligation
2. Individualism/collectivism (Communitarianism):
personal versus group goals
3. Neutral/affective relationships: emotional
orientation
4. Specific/diffuse relationships: contract versus
contact
5. Achievement/ascription: legitimating power and
status
Slide 5.46
Relations to time and the environment
Table 5.2 Relations to time and the environment

Source: adapted from Trompenaars (1993: 8–11) and his other publications.
Slide 5.47
Management dilemmas & dimensions
In practice dilemmas are typically between:

1. Universalism–particularism
– Legal contracts and loose interpretations
– Low cost strategies or premium strategy
– Extending rules or discovering exceptions
2. Individualism–collectivism
(Communitarianism)
– Profit or market share strategy
– Originating ideas or refining useful products
Slide 5.48

(Continued)
3. Neutral or affectivity
– Long pauses or frequent interruptions
– Being professional or engaged
4. Specific–diffuse
– Data and codification or concepts and models
– Being results-oriented or process-oriented
5. Achieved or ascribed status
– Pay for performance or vindication for worth
– Head-hunting or developing in-house
Slide 5.49

(Continued)
6. Sequential or synchronic time
– Highly rational, standardised production or just-in-
time production
– Keeping to schedule or being easily distracted
7. Inner or outer directed
– Strategically oriented or fusion oriented
– Dauntless entrepreneur or public benefactor
Slide 5.50
Trompenaars versus Hofstede

dimensions
• The nature of Trompenaars’ dimensions and
Hofstede dimensions is very different in approach:
• Trompenaars:
– cultures are more like circles with ‘preferred
arcs joined together’
– seen as a ‘model-to-learn-with’
• Hofstede:
– linear forms where cultures are positioned high
or low or in the middle
– seeking ‘the perfect model’
Slide 5.51
Ethnocentrism is a trap to create a culturally

inclusive environment
• Ethnocentrism, which refers to the belief that one's own culture and
subculture are inherently superior to other cultures.
• Studies by social psychologists suggest that there is a natural tendency

among humans to identify themselves with a particular group and to feel
antagonistic and discriminatory toward other groups.
• The combination of this natural force toward separation, ethnocentric

viewpoints, and a standard set of cultural assumptions and practices
create a number of challenges for minorities and leaders.
• We have the propensity to segregate culture/ cultural differences based

on our own interest. As a result, we might lose sight on the possibilities
to connect cultures to achieve synergy.
Slide 5.52
Inclusive Culture
• Cultures are not antithesis but they are unique in their own way.
Hence, we cannot categorize culture using a linear process as
culture itself progress in a nonlinear manner.
• Culture evolves, it changes depends on many variables. Therefore,

cross cultural management is not aim to define culture nor to
contain culture. Neither we shall give up our own culture/identity to
gel with the culture from another party nor we make another
culture less diverse and just looks like ours.
• Cross culture management is to find the possibilities to connect

different cultures to create innovation. In order to achieve that, we
cannot simply use a singular perspective to examine cultural
differences but to find the links in between cultural dimensions to
create a robust framework to explore new opportunities.
Slide 5.53
Additional Reading
Linkage: Fons Trompenaars, Innovating through

Dilemma Reconciliation
http://www.noreenkelly.com/2007/06/linkage-fons-
trompenaars-innovating-through-dilemma-reconciliation/
Dr. Fons Trompenaars : Transcultural Competence:

reconcile dilemmas to collaborate and innovate
https://www.leadershipandchangemagazine.com/dr-fons-
trompenaars-transcultural-competence-reconcile-dilemmas-
to-collaborate-and-innovate/

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MGT 3220:CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT

INTI. EDUCATION THAT EMPOWERS

Chapter 7: Cultural dimensions and

See you at tea.

• Labour class in the northern England tea is our

Cross-cultural studies aims

To understand the differences between human

Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck

Value orientations and dimensions

Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck define value

Five problems common to all human groupings

Five Common Human Concerns and Three

Five Common Human Concerns and Three

Activity: What is Being. It's enough Becoming. The Doing. If people

Five Common Human Concerns and Three

• Trompenaars goes beyond the framework of

5 Relations to the others

Universalism versus Particularism

• In universalist culture ideas can be applied

• Standards and values are important and can only

Universalism versus Particularism

• In a particularistic culture, members believe that the

• Personal relationships and obligations play an important

• Status is important in this as a result of which for example

Take the case of trying to cross the street at the red

1. Focus is more on rules than 1. Focus is more on

2. Legal contracts are readily 2. Legal contracts are readily

3. A trustworthy person is the 3. A trustworthy person is the

4. There is only one truth or 4. There are several perspectives

5. A deal is a deal 5. Relationships evolve

For Universalist For Particularist

1. Be prepared for "rational", 1. Be prepared for personal

2. Do not take impersonal, 2. Do not take personal, "get

Individualism versus Communitarianism

• Individualism sees human beings as individuals,

• Fons Trompenaars says that the individualist

Individualism versus Communitarianism

• Cultures change continuously and sometimes

• As an example, Fons Trompenaars mentions

• Influenced by the global economy, Mexico is now

Individualism versus Communitarianism

• In a society where individualism prevails such as

• In a communitarian society like Japan, people's

1. More frequently use of "I" 1. More frequently use of

2. Decisions made on the 2. Decisions referred back by

Neutral versus emotional

• In a neutral emotions are controlled, whereas in

• Well-known examples of neutral cultures are

Neutral versus emotional

• Fons Trompenaars mentions countries such as

• When people from a neutral culture do business

• A good preparation and taking someone’s

1. Reveal thoughts and feelings

3. Emotions flow easily, 3. Emotions often dammed up

2. Lack of emotional tone 2. The affectives' enthusiasm,

3. Be prepared for 3. Be prepared for

Specific versus diffuse

• In a specific culture, individuals have a large

• They also have a small private space which they

• People often approach each other informally in

Specific versus diffuse

• In a diffuse culture the public space and the

• People in a diffuse culture will therefore protect