Fundamentals of Computer

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
Computer
A Computer is an automatic electronic, calculating device which can process a given

input in a prescribed manner to produce a desired output, at a very high speed with
remarkable accuracy. It can also perform all arithmetic and logical functions according
to instructions given in a systematic order to solve any problem and produce
processed information.
Characteristics of Computers
Speed
Since computer is an electronic machine and electrical pulses travel at the rate of
passage of electric current. This speed enables the computer to perform millions of
calculations per second.
Storage
A computer has too much storage capacity. Once recorded, a piece of information can
never be forgotten.
High Accuracy
A computer can be considered as 100% accurate. Checking circuits are built directly
into the computer, that computer errors that undetected are extremely rare.
Versatility
Computer can perform any task, provided it can be reduced to a series of logical steps.
Diligence
Computer never gets tired. It performs most boring, repetitive and task.
Automatic Operation
Once a program is fed into computer the individual instructions are processed on after
the other. Thus computer works automatically without manual intervention.
Obedience
The ability to take in and store a sequence of instructions for the computer to obey.
Such a sequence of instruction is called a PROGRAM and it must be written in the
Computer Language.
Decision Making Capability
Computer can take simple decisions, such as less than, greater than or equal to. It
also determines whether a statement is true or false.
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Generations of Computer
First Generation of Computer (1946-1959)
Main Features
 Major Innovation - Vacuum Tubes

 Main Memory - Punched Cards
 Input Output Devices - Punched cards and papers
 Languages - Low level machine language
 Operating System - No operating system, human operators to set switches
 Size - Main frame for example ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC
The duration lasted from 1946-1959 was based on vacuum tubes. These vacuum
tubes were about the size of 100 watt light bulb and used as the internal computer
component. However because thousands of such bulbs were used, the computers
were very large and generate a large amount of heat, causing many problems in
temperature regulation and climate control.
In this generation input and out put device (punched card) that was used fro data
storing purpose were very slow. The computers were operating manually and the
language used was a low level machine language (symbolic language) with binary
code that required a high programming skill. ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC and Mark-1
were some of the major inventions of this generation.
Advantages of First Generation

1. Vacuum tubes were used as electronic component.
2. Electronic digital computers were developed for the first time.
3. These computers were the fastest calculating devices of their time.
4. Computations were performed in millisecond.
Disadvantages of First Generation

1. Too large in size.
2. They were unreliable.
3. Induce a large amount of heat due to the vacuum tubes.
5. Not portable.
6. Limited commercial use.
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Second Generation of Computers (1959-1964)
Main Features
 Major Innovation - Transistors as main component.

 Main Memory - RAM and ROM.
 External Storage - Magnetic tapes and Magnetic Disk.
 Input Output Devices - Magnetic tapes and Magnetic Disk.
 Languages - Assembly language, some high level languages for Example
BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN.
 Operating System - Human handles punched card.
 Size - Main frame for example IBM-1401, NCR-300, IBM-600 etc.
The period of this generation is from 1959 to 1964. During this period transistor were
used for internal logic circuits of computers. These computers could execute 200000
instructions per second. The input/output devices became much faster by the use of
magnetic table. During this period the low level programming language were used
however the high level programming languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL were
also used. The problem of heat maintenance was solved and size of computer
reduced, while speed and reliability were increased. Many companies manufactured
second generation computers and many of those for business applications. The most
popular second generation computer was IBM-1401, introduced in 1960, while the
following computers were used by many business organizations. IBM-1400 series,
IBM-1600 series, UNIVAC-III, NCR-300 etc.
Advantages of Second Generation

1. Smaller in size as compares to 1st generation.
2. Much more reliable.
3. Less heat generated.
4. Computation was performing in micro second.
5. Less hardware and maintenance problem.
6. Could be used for commercial use.
Disadvantages of Second Generation

1. Very costly for commercial use.
2. It still required frequent maintenance.
3. Frequent cooling also required.
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Third Generation of Computers (1965-1970)
Main Features
 Major Innovation - Integrated circuit (ICs) as basic electronic component.

 Main Memory - PROM and DRAM.
 External Storage - Improve disk (Floppy Disk)
 Input and Output Devices - Keyboard for input, monitor for output.
 Languages - More high level languages.
 Operating System - Complete operating systems were introduced.
 Size - Mini, for example: IBM SYSTEM / 360, ICH-360, HONEY WELL-316 etc.
In this generation the integrated circuits (IC) were used. Integrated circuits contain
many electronic components on a single chip. The disk oriented systems wee made at
the end of this generation. The size of computer became very small with better
performance and reliability. High level programming languages were extensively used.
In 1969 the first microprocessor chip INTEL 4004 was developed but it was used only
in calculators. The faster input/output devices made possible multi-processing and
multi programming. Where by a number of input terminals could be run virtually at the
same time on a single centrally located computer. The famous computer were IBM-
360, IBM-370, UNIVAC 9000 series etc.
Advantages of Third Generation

1. Smaller in size as compared to second generation.
2. More reliable.
3. Portable
4. Less electricity consumption.
5. Heat generation was rare.
6. General purpose computer.
Disadvantages of Third Generation

1. Air conditioning was required in many cases due to ICs.
2. Very advance technology was required to make the ICs.
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Fourth Generation of Computers (1971-1981)
Main Features
 Major Innovation - LSIC and VLSIC (Micro Processor)

 Main Memory - EPROM and SRAM.
 External Storage - Floppy Disk and Hard Disk.
 Input and Output Devices - Monitor for output.
 Languages - Languages and application software.
 Operating System - MS-DOS and PC-DOS
 Size - Micro computer e.g. IBM-PC, Apple Macintosh etc.The Integrated circuits
were more developed and called Small scale integration (SSI), after some time
the SSI were more developed and termed as Large scale integration (LSI).
There was a great versatility of input/output devices. In 1971, a powerful
microprocessor chip INTEL 8008 was introduced. The first microprocessor which
is used in personal computers (PC) was INTEL 8080. The 8 inch floppy disk was
also introduced in 1971, while hard disk was introduced in 1973. The 5.25 floppy
disk was first time used in 1978. The optical disk was developed in 1980. First
portable computer "Osborne I" was marketed in 1981. IBM-3033, IBM-370, IBM
system 34, IBM system 36, Cray-I, CP/M etc were introduced in this generation.
Advantages of Fourth Generation

1. Smaller in size and much reliable.
2. No cooling system required in many cases.
3. Much faster computation.
4. Portable and cheap.
5. The heat generated was negligible.
6. Totally general purpose computer.
Disadvantages of Fourth Generation

1. Very advanced technology was required to fabricate to the ICs.
Fifth Generation (1981-Onward)
Main Features
 Major Innovations - ULSIC (Ultra large scale integrated circuit)

 Main Memory - EEPROM, SIMM and DIMM.
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 External Storage - Modified magnetic and Optical disks.

 Input/output Devices - Keyboard, Pointing Device, Scanner as input and Monitor
as main output.
 Languages - AI (Artificial Intelligence) Expert systems.
 Operating System - GUI based e.g. Windows 95, Windows NT.
 Size - Very small in size example: Laptop, Note book, Digital Diary, Palm top and
Pocket PC.
This generation is started from 1981 and still continued, new technologies are adopted
to fabricate IC chips, such as electron beam, X-rays or laser rays. The Very Large
Scale Integration (VLSI) was developed, so the computer became much smaller than
ever before. New memory storage device like bubble memory, optical or memory are
being designed. the new computer will be controlled by using human voice and will
work by giving command in our own language. Future computer will in some way to be
intelligent and capable of making decision.
Advantages of Fifth Generation

1. Very large storage capacity.
2. Long bit processor builds.
3. Artificial Intelligence Language developed.
Introduction to operating system
An operating system, or "OS," is software that communicates with the

hardware and allows other programs to run. It is comprised of system
software, or the fundamental files your computer needs to boot up and
function. Every desktop computer, tablet, and smart phone includes an
operating system that provides basic functionality for the device. Common
desktop operating systems include Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. While
each OS is different, they all provide a graphical user interface, or GUI, that
includes a desktop and the ability to manage files and folders. They also
allow you to install and run programs written for the operating system. While
Windows and Linux can be installed on standard PC hardware, Mac OS X
can only run on Macintosh computers. Therefore, the hardware you choose
affects what operating system(s) you can run.
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Mobile devices, such as tablets and smart phones also include operating
systems that provide a GUI and can run applications. Common mobile OS
es include Android, iOS, and Windows Phone. These OSes are developed
specifically for portable devices and therefore are designed around touch
screen input. While early mobile operating systems lacked many featurees
found in desktop OSes, they now include advanced capabilities, such as
the ability to run third-party apps and run multiple apps at once.
Since the operating system serves as a computer's fundamental user

interface, it significantly affects how you interact with the device. Therefore,
many users prefer to use a specific operating system. For example, one
user may prefer to use a computer with Mac OS X instead of a Windows-
based PC. Another user may prefer an Android-based smart phone instead
of an iPhone, which runs the iOS.
When software developers create applications, they must be write and

compile them for a specific operating system. This is because each OS
communicates with he hardware differently and has a specific application
program interface, or API, that the programmer must use. While many
popular programs are cross platform, meaning they have been developed
for multiple OSes, some are only available for a single operating system.
Therefore, when choosing a computer, it is important to make sure the
operating system supports the programs you want to run
Concept of basic input output system(Bios)

BIOS stands for Basic Input/ Output System, although the full term is used very
infrequently. The system BIOS is the lowest-level software in the computer; it acts as
an interface between the hardware (especially the chipset and processor) and the
operating system. The BIOS provides access to the system hardware and enables the
creation of the higher-level operating systems (DOS, Windows 95, etc.) that you use to
run your applications. The BIOS is also responsible for allowing you to control your
computer's hardware settings, for booting up the machine when you turn on the power
or hit the reset button, and various other system functions.
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BOOTING
When we start our Computer then there is an operation which is performed
automatically by the Computer which is also called as Booting. In the Booting, System
will check all the hardware’s and Software’s those are installed or Attached with the
System and this will also load all the Files those are needed for running a system. In
the Booting Process all the Files those are Stored into the ROM Chip will also be
Loaded for Running the System. In the Booting Process the System will read all the
information from the Files those are Stored into the ROM Chip and the ROM chip will
read all the instructions those are Stored into these Files. After the Booting of the
System this will automatically display all the information on the System. The
Instructions those are necessary to Start the System will be read at the Time of
Booting.
SYSTEM CONTROL UNIT

The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the
computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program
instructions, transforming them into a series of control signals which activate other
parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order
of some instructions so as to improve performance. A key component common to all
CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of
which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from. The control system's
function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these
steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of
CPU:
1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program
counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals
for each of the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps
from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within
the instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct
the hardware to perform the requested operation.
7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or
perhaps an output device.
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8. Jump back to step (1).
Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be
changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would
cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the
program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and
allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional
instruction execution (both examples of control flow).
The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction
is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU
designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a micro sequencer, which runs a
microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to
addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division, trigonometry
functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots. Some can only operate on
whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers,
albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just
the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex
operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be
programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do
so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare
numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is
equal to, In greater than or less than the other.
INPUT OUTPUT FUNCTIONS

Input/ Output is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the
outside world. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called
peripherals. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the
keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk
drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output
devices. Computer networking is another form of Input/ Output.
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Input/ Output devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own
CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny
computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics. Modern
desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in
performing Input/ Output
Memory
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily or
permanently. For example, Random Access Memory (RAM), is a type of volatile
memory that is stores information on an integrate circuit, and that is used by the
operating system, software, hardware, or the user. Below is an example picture of a
512MB DIMM computer memory module.
Volatile and non-volatile memory

Memory can be either volatile and non-volatile memory. Volatile memory is a
temporary memory that loses its contents when the computer or hardware device
loses power. Computer RAM is a good example of a volatile memory and is why if your
computer freezes or reboots when working on a program you lose anything that hasn't
been saved. Non-volatile memory, sometimes abbreviated as NVRAM, is memory that
keeps its contents even if the power is lost. EPROM is a good example of a non-
volatile memory.
Flash Memory
Flash memory is a type of constantly-powered nonvolatile memory that can be erased
and reprogrammed in units of memory called blocks. It is a variation of electrically
erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) which, unlike flash memory, is
erased and rewritten at the byte level, which is slower than flash memory updating.
Flash memory is often used to hold control code such as the basic input/output system
(BIOS) in a personal computer. When BIOS needs to be changed (rewritten), the flash
memory can be written to in block (rather than byte) sizes, making it easy to update.
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On the other hand, flash memory is not useful as random access memory (RAM)
because RAM needs to be addressable at the byte (not the block) level.
Flash memory gets its name because the microchip is organized so that a section of
memory cells are erased in a single action or "flash." The erasure is caused by Fowler-
Nordheim tunneling in which electrons pierce through a thin dielectric material to
remove an electronic charge from a floating gate associated with each memory cell.
Intel offers a form of flash memory that holds two bits (rather than one) in each
memory cell, thus doubling the capacity of memory without a corresponding increase
in price.
Flash memory is used in digital cellular phones, digital cameras, LAN switches, PC
Cards for notebook computers, digital set-up boxes, embedded controllers, and other
devices.
Random Access Memory (ROM)

RAM (random access memory) is the place in a computer where the operating
system, application programs, and data in current use are kept so that they can be
quickly reached by the computer's processor. RAM is much faster to read from and
write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer, the hard disk, floppy disk, and
CD-ROM. However, the data in RAM stays there only as long as your computer is
running. When you turn the computer off, RAM loses its data. When you turn your
computer on again, your operating system and other files are once again loaded into
RAM, usually from your hard disk
.
Read Only Memory(ROM)
ROM is "built-in" computer memory containing data that normally can only be read,
not written to. ROM contains the programming that allows your computer to be
"booted up" or regenerated each time you turn it on. Unlike a computer's random
access memory (RAM), the data in ROM is not lost when the computer power is
turned off. The ROM is sustained by a small long-life battery in your computer. If you
ever do the hardware setup procedure with your computer, you effectively will be
writing to ROM.
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PROM
Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is read-only memory ( ROM ) that can be
modified once by a user. PROM is a way of allowing a user to tailor a microcode
program using a special machine called a PROM programmer . This machine supplies
an electrical current to specific cells in the ROM that effectively blows a fuse in them.
The process is known as burning the PROM . Since this process leaves no margin for
error, most ROM chips designed to be modified by users use erasable programmable
read-only memory ( EPROM ) or electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM).
EPROM
EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is programmable read-only
memory (programmable ROM) that can be erased and re-used. Erasure is caused by
shining an intense ultraviolet light through a window that is designed into the memory
chip. Although ordinary room lighting does not contain enough ultraviolet light to cause
erasure, bright sunlight can cause erasure. For this reason, the window is usually
covered with a label when not installed in the computer.
EEPROM
EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) is user-modifiable
read-only memory (ROM) that can be erased and reprogrammed (written to)
repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical voltage. Unlike
EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not need to be removed from the computer to be
modified. However, an EEPROM chip has to be erased and reprogrammed in its
entirety, not selectively. It also has a limited life - that is, the number of times it can be
reprogrammed is limited to tens or hundreds of thousands of times. In an EEPROM
that is frequently reprogrammed while the computer is in use, the life of the EEPROM
can be an important design consideration.
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March 7, 2013 [ INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES]
1. Introduction to Mouse-A Computer mouse is a handheld pointing device. Mouse has a device
inside that detects the motion relative to the flat surface. Computer user pushes the mouse the surface and
press the left and right button to perform the required activities on the computer screen like open a
document, close a document, share a folder, browse a website, click a link, delete a file, select an option
from the menu and many other functions. A mouse provides the ease of work and flexibility and without
mouse it’s not easy for average computer users to perform all the function efficiently. It is also important
for the graphical programs to draw the diagrams and images and for the normal computer usage. A mouse
consists of a metal or plastic casing, a ball that rolls over the flat surface, buttons and the cable that
connection the mouse with the computer. A mouse can be connected with the computer by different ways
like through the PS/2, Serial and USB port and wirelessly. Notebook computer has built-in mouse that let
you roll over your finger to control the motion of the cursor.
In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to
its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with
one or more buttons.
The mouse sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various
system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or features that can add more control or dimensional input.
The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine
control of a graphical user interface
Following are the three basic types of the mouse.:
Mechanical-Mechanical mouse has the rubber ball that rolls over a flat surface and moves in all the
directions. Mechanical sensors detect the motion of the ball and move the cursor the computer screen
accordingly.
Optical-Optical Mouse uses laser to detect the motion of the mouse. Optical mouse has no mechanical
parts and they response more quickly and efficiently than the mechanical mouse.
Optomechanical- Optomechanical are like the mechanical mouse but they use the laser to detect the
motion of the ball.
Wireless Mouse Wireless mouse are not physically connected with the computer and they uses the
infrared or radio waves to communicate with the computer.
The most common manufacturers of the mouse are A4Tech, Microsoft, Compaq, Logitech, Belkin, Dell,
IBM, Kensington, Labtec and Belkin.
Common Features-The modern mouse provides the following common features;

 4-way scrolling
 Magnifier
 Instant Viewer
 High definition optical
 Bluetooth wireless
 Wireless technology, Customization buttons
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TRACKBALL
A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket containing sensors to detect a rotation of
the ball about two axes—like an upside-down mouse with an exposed protruding ball. The user rolls the ball
with the thumb, fingers, or the palm of the hand to move a pointer. Compared with a mouse, a trackball has no
limits on effective travel; at times, a mouse can reach an edge of its working area while the operator still
wishes to move the screen pointer farther. With a trackball, the operator just continues rolling (however, it
could be argued that a mouse user could simply increase sensitivity and/or increase mouse pad size to avoid
this problem) Some trackballs, such as Logitech's optical-pickoff types, have notably low friction, as well as
being dense (glass), so they can be spun to make them coast. The trackball's buttons may be situated to that
of a mouse or to a unique style that suits the user.
TOUCH PANEL
A touchpad or track pad is a pointing device featuring a tactile sensor, a specialized surface that can
translate the motion and position of a user's fingers to a relative position on screen. Touchpads are a common
feature of laptop computers, and are also used as a substitute for a mouse where desk space is scarce.
Because they vary in size, they can also be found on personal digital assistants (PDAs) and some portable
media players. Wireless touchpads are also available as detached accessories.
LIGHT PEN
This article is about the computer input device. For the pen-sized flashlight, see penlight.Photo of the
Hypertext Editing System (HES) console in use at Brown University, circa October 1969. The photo shows
HES on an IBM 2250 Mod 4 display station, including light pen and programmed function keyboard, channel
coupled to Brown's IBM 360 mainframe.
A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive wand used in conjunction with a
computer's CRT display.
It allows the user to point to displayed objects or draw on the screen in a similar way to a touch screen but with
greater positional accuracy. It was long thought that a light pen can work with any CRT-based display, but not
with LCDs (though Toshiba and Hitachi displayed a similar idea at the "Display 2006" show in Japan) and
other display technologies. However, in 2011 Fair light Instruments released its Fair light CMI-30A, which
uses a 17" LCD monitor with light pen control.
Light pen detects change in brightness of nearby screen pixels when scanned by CRT electron beam and
communicates the timing of this event to the computer. Since CRT scans entire screen one pixel at a time, the
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computer can keep track of the expected time of scanning various locations on screen by the beam and infer
the pen's position
Monitors
The keyboard is the most commonly used input device and the monitor is the most commonly used output
device on most personal computer systems. As you use your com*purer—whether you arc typing a letter,
copying files, or surfing the Internet—hardly a moment goes by when you are not looking at your monitor. In
fact, people often for man opinion about a computer just by looking at the monitor. They want to sec whether
the image is crisp and clear and how well graphics are displayed on the monitor. Two important hardware
devices determine the quality of the image you see on any monitor: the monitor itself and the video controller.
In the following sections, you will team about both of these devices in detail and find out how theywork
together to display text and graphics.
Types of monitors
CRT Monitors
CRT monitor works. Near the back o f a monitor's housing is an electron gun. The gun shoots a beam of
electrons through a magnetic coil (sometimes called a yoke), which aims the beam at the front of the monitor
The back of the monitor’s screen is coated with phosphors, chemicals that glow when they are struck by the
electron beam. The screen’s phosphor coating is organized into a grid o f dots. The smallest number of
phosphor dots that the gun can focus on is called a pixel, a contraction of the term picture element. Each pixel
has a unique address, which the computer use to locate the pixel and control its appearance. Some electron
guns can focus on pixels as small as a single phosphor dot.
TOUCH SCREEN
A touch screen is an electronic visual display that the user can control through simple or multi-touch gestures
by touching the screen with one or more fingers. Some touch screens can also detect objects such as a stylus
or ordinary or specially coated gloves. The user can use the touch screen to react to what is displayed and to
control how it is displayed (for example by zooming the text size).
The touch screen enables the user to interact directly with what is displayed, rather than using a mouse,
touchpad, or any other intermediate device (other than a stylus, which is optional for most modern touch
screens).
Touch screens are common in devices such as game consoles, all-in-one computers, tablet computers, and
smart phones. They can also be attached to computers or, as terminals, to networks. They also play a
prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), satellite
navigation devices, mobile phones, and video games. The popularity of smart phones, tablets, and many
types of information appliances is driving the demand and acceptance of common touch screens for portable
and functional electronics. Touch screens are popular in the medical field and in heavy industry, as well as in
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kiosks such as museum displays or room automation, where keyboard and mouse systems do not allow a
suitably intuitive, rapid, or accurate interaction by the user with the display's content.
Historically, the touch screen sensor and its accompanying controller-based firmware have been made
available by a wide array of after-market system integrators, and not by display, chip, or motherboard
manufacturers. Display manufacturers and chip manufacturers worldwide have acknowledged the trend
toward acceptance of touch screens as a highly desirable user interface component and have begun to
integrate touch creens into the fundamental design of their products.
MICR
The MICR is a device that can recognise human readable characters printed on documents such as cheques
using a special magnetic ink. The reader reads these characters by examining their shapes. Characters are
printed in a special font. Each character is formed by a 7 x 10 matrix. The MICR has a magnetic head which
can detect the magnetic pattern for each character.
The abbreviation MICR stands for Magnetic Ink Character Recognition. This is a type of data input often found
in banks. The bank account number and other details are printed onto bank cheques (USA - checks)in a
special font with magnetic ink.
The magnetic characters can be read very quickly and accurately by MICR readers. This means that cheques
can be processed much more quickly
Numbers in a special MICR font
Optical character recognition(OCR)

Optical character recognition (OCR) is a method of automatic data entry. OCR software is used to convert
handwritten, type-written or printed text into data that can be edited on a computer. In simple systems, the
paper documents are scanned with an image scanner. The OCR software then looks at the image and
compares the shapes of the letters to stored images of letters. In this way, it makes a text file that can be
edited with a normal text editor.
More complex systems look at images, layout and so on. This can make editable electronic versions which
look identical to the original documents.
OCR works best with clean, clearly printed materials
Optical mark recognition(OMR)
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OMR test form, with registration marks and drop-out colors, designed to be scanned by dedicated OMR device
OMR (optical mark recognition) is a form of automated data input. Marks are made on a specially printed
paper forms which are then read by an OMR reader. The data is then sent to a computer for processing. One
of the most common uses of OMR is in multiple choice examinations. Students mark their answers on
specially printed sheets using either a pencil or a special marker. The sheets are then collected in and the
data read using a sheet feed OMR scanner
Other Uses
 Attendance registers in schools

 Survey forms for market research
 Time sheets in factories
 Lottery Forms
DIGITAL CAMERA
A digital camera is a camera that stores pictures on a memory card instead of film. Because of this, a digital
camera can hold many more pictures than the traditional film camera. A digital camera can sometimes hold
hundreds of pictures. There are different sizes of memory cards and each size can hold a different number of
pictures. A digital camera can use a USB cable that hooks into a computer to take the pictures from the
camera and put them on the computer.
BAR CODE READER

Bar Code Readers Bar code readers are one of the most widely used input devices. The most common type of
bar code reader is the flat bed model, which is commonly found in supermarkets and department stores.
Workers for delivery services, such as FedEx, also use hand held bar code readers in the Held to identify
packages (see Figure 2B.8).These devices read bar codes, which
are patterns of printed bars that appear on product packages. The bar coded identify the product. The bar
code reader emits a beam of light—frequently a laser beam—that is reflected by the bar code image. A light-
sensitive detector identifies the bar code image by recognizing special bars at both ends of the image. These
special bars are different, so the reader can tell whether the bar code has been read right-side up or upside
down. After the detector has identified the bar code, it converts the individual bar patterns into numeric digits—
code the computer can understand . The reader then feeds the data into the computer, as though the number
had been typed on a keyboard.
Hard copy devices impact and non-impact

Daisy wheel printing
is an impact printing technology invented in 1969 by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems. It uses
interchangeable pre-formed type elements, each with typically 96 glyphs, to generate high-quality output
comparable to premium typewriters such as the IBM \ electric, but two to three times faster. Daisy wheel
printing was used in electronic typewriters, word processors and computers from 1972. According to
Webster's, the daisy wheel is so named because of its resemblance to the daisy flower. By 1980 daisy wheel
printers had become the dominant technology for high-quality print. Dot-matrix impact or thermal printers were
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used where higher speed was required and poor print quality was acceptable. Both technologies were rapidly
superseded for most purposes when dot-based printers—in particular laser printers—that could print any
characters or graphics rather than being restricted to a limited character set became able to produce output of
comparable quality. Daisy wheel technology is now found only in some electronic typewriters.
Dot Matrix Printers

Dot matrix printers are commonly used in workplaces where physical impact with the paper is important, such
as when the user is printing to carbon copier pressure-sensitive forms. These printers can produce sheets of
plain text very quickly. They also arc used to print very wide sheets, as data processing departments often use
when generating large reports with wide columns of information. A dot matrix printer creates an image by
using a mechanism called a print head, which contains a cluster (or matrix)
Line Printers
A line printer is a special type of impact printer. It works like a dot matrix printer but uses a special wide print
head that can print an entire line of text at one time (see Figure 3B.6). Line printers do not offer high resolution
but are incredibly fast; the fastest can print3,000 lines of text per minute.
Band Printers
A band printer features a rotating band embossed with alphanumeric characters. To print a character, the
machine rotates the band to the desired character then a small hammer taps the band, pressing the character
against a ribbon. Although this sounds like a slow process, band printers are very fast and very robust.
Depending on the character set used, a good-quality band printer can generate 2,000 lines of text per minute.
Non-impact printers
Inkjet Printers
Ink jet printers create an image directly on the paper by spraying ink through tiny nozzles (see Figure 3B.7).
The popularity of ink jet printers jumped around 1990 when the speed and quality improved and prices
plummeted. Today, good ink jet printers are available for less than $100.These models typically attain print
resolutions of at least 300 dots per inch. These same models can print from two to four pages per minute(only
slightly slower than the slowest User printers).Compared to laser printers, the operating cost of an ink jet
printer is
relatively low. Expensive maintenance is rare, and the only part that needs routine replacement is the ink
cartridge, which ranges in pricefrom$20 to $35. Many ink jet printers use one cartridge for color printing and a
separate black-only cartridge for black-and-white printing. This feature saves money by reserving colored ink
only for color printing. Color ink jet printers have four ink nozzles: cyan (blue), magenta(red), yellow, and
black. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as CMYK printers, or as using the CMYK color process.
These four colors arc used in almost all color printing because it is possible to combine them to create any
color. Notice that the colors arc different from the primary additive colors (red, green, and blue) used in
monitors. Printed color is the result of light bouncing off the paper, not color trans mined directly from a light
source. Consequently, cyan, magenta, yellow, and black are sometimes called subtractive colors and color
printing is sometimes called four color printing. When used with special printing paper, many ink jet printers
can produce photo-quality images. For this reason ,they are often used to print pictures taken with a digital
camera.
Laser Printers
Laser printers are more expensive than ink jet printers, their print quality is higher and most are faster: As their
name implies, a laser is at the heart of these printers. A CPU and memory are built into the printer to interpret
the data that it receives from the computer and to control the laser. The result is a complicated piece of
equipment that uses technology similar to that in photocopiers. Figure3B.8 shows how a laser printer works.
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The quality and speed of laser printers make them ideal for office environments, where several users can
easily share the same printer via a network. Just as the electron gun in a monitor can target any pixel, the
laser in a laser printer can aim at any point on a drum, creating an electrical charge. Toner, which is composed
of tiny particles of ink, sticks to the drum in the places the laser has charged. Then, with pressure and heat,
the toner is transferred off the drum onto the paper. The amount of memory that laser printers contain
determines the speed at which documents are printed. A color laser printer works like a single-color model,
except that the process is repeated four times and a different toner color is used for each pass. Tlie four colors
used are the same as in the color ink jet printers: cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. Single-color (black) laser
printers typically can produce between 4 and 16pages of text a minute. If you are printing graphics, the output
can be a great deals lower. The most common laser printers have resolutions of 300 or 600 dpi, both
horizontally and vertically, but some high*end models have resolutions of 1,200or 1,800 dpi. The printing
industry stipulates a resolution of at least 1,200 dpi for top-quality professional printing. It is difficult to detect
the difference between text printed at 600 dpi and at 1,200 dpi; the higher resolution is most noticeable in
graphics reproduction such as photographs and artwork. Laser printers start at about S I50, and the price
increases dramatically along with speed and resolution. Color laser printers are considerably more expensive
than single-color printers. In addition, laser printers require new toner cartridges after a few thousand pages,
and toner cartridges can cost anywhere from$40 to$200.
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HIGH-LEVEL-LANGUAGE
A high-level programming language is a programming language with strong abstraction from the details of
the computer. In comparison to low-level programming languages, it may use natural language elements, be
easier to use, or may automate (or even hide entirely) significant areas of computing systems (e.g. memory
management), making the process of developing a program simpler and more understandable relative to a
lower-level language. The amount of abstraction provided defines how "high-level" a programming language
is. The first high-level programming language designed for computers was Plankalkül, created by Konrad Zuse.
However, it was not implemented in his time, and his original contributions were largely isolated from other
developments (it influenced Heinz Rutishauser's language "Super plan").
LOW- LEVEL- LANGUAGE
a low-level programming language is a programming language that provides little or no abstraction from a
computer's instruction set architecture. Generally this refers to either machine code or assembly language. The
word "low" refers to the small or nonexistent amount of abstraction between the language and machine
language; because of this, low-level languages are sometimes described as being "close to the hardware."
Low-level languages can be converted to machine code without using a compiler or interpreter, and the
resulting code runs directly on the processor. A program written in a low-level language can be made to run
very quickly, and with a very small memory footprint; an equivalent program in a high-level language will be
more heavyweight. Low-level languages are simple, but are considered difficult to use, due to the numerous
technical details which must be remembered. By comparison, a high-level programming language isolates the
execution semantics of a computer architecture from the specification of the program, which simplifies
development.
SOFTWARE
Computer software is a general term that describes computer programs. Related terms such as software
programs, applications, scripts, and instruction sets all fall under the category of computer software. Therefore,
installing new programs or applications on your computer is synonymous with installing new software on your
computer. Software can be difficult to describe because it is "virtual," or not physical like computer hardware.
Instead, software consists of lines of code written by computer programmers that have been compiled into a
computer program. Software programs are stored as binary data that is copied to a computer's hard drive, when
it is installed. Since software is virtual and does not take up any physical space, it is much easier (and often
cheaper) to upgrade than computer hardware.
While at its most basic level, software consists of binary data, CD-ROMs, DVDs, and other types of media that
are used to distribute software can also be called software. Therefore, when you buy a software program, it
often comes on a disc, which is a physical means of storing the software.
(a)System Software
System software is any program (hat controls the computer’s hardware or that can be used to maintain the
computer in some way so that it runs more efficiently. There are three basic types of system
software:
≫ An operating system tells the computer how to use its own components. Examples of operating systems
include Windows, the Macintosh Operating System, and Linux. An operating system is essential for any
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computer; because it acts as an interpreter between the hardware, application programs, and the use When a
program wants the hardware to do something, it communicates through the operating system. Similarly, when
you want the hardware to do something (such as copying or printing a file), your request is handled by the
operating system.
≫ A network operating system allows computers to communicate and share data across a network while
controlling network operations and overseeing the network’s security.
≫ A utility is a program that makes the computer system easier to use or performs highly specialized
functions. Utilities arc used to manage disks, troubleshoot hardware problems, and perform other tasks that the
operating system itself may not be able to do.
(b)Application Software
Application software tells the computer how to accomplish specific tasks, such as
word processing or drawing, for the user. Thousands of applications are available
for many purposes and for people o f all ages. Some of the major categories of these applications include Word
processing software for creating text-based documents such as news letters or brochures:-
≫ Spreadsheets for creating numeric-based documents such as budgets or balance Sheets

≫ Database management software for building and manipulating large sets of data, such as the names,
addresses, and
phone numbers in a telephone directory.
≫ Presentation programs for creating and presenting electronic slide shows .

≫ Graphics programs for designing illustrations or manipulating photographs, movies, or animation.
≫ Multimedia authoring applications for building digital movies that incorporate sound, video, animation, and
interactive Features.
≫ Entertainment and education software, many of which are interactive multimedia events.
≫ Web design tools and Web browsers, and other Internet applications such as newsreaders and e-mail
programs.
≫Games, some o f which are for a single player and many of which can be played by several people over a
network or the Internet.
HARDWARE
Computer hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer and related devices. Internal hardware devices
include motherboards, hard drives, and RAM. External hardware devices include monitors, keyboards, mice,
printers, and scanners.The internal hardware parts of a computer are often referred to as components, while
external hardware devices are usually called peripherals. Together, they all fall under the category of computer
hardware. Software, on the other hand, consists of the programs and applications that run on computers.
Because software runs on computer hardware, software programs often have system requirements that list the
minimum hardware required for the software to run.
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FIRMWARE
Firmware is a software program or set of instructions programmed on a hardware device. It provides the
necessary instructions for how the device communicates with the other computer hardware. But how can
software be programmed onto hardware? Good question. Firmware is typically stored in the flash ROM of a
hardware device. While ROM is "read-only memory," flash ROM can be erased and rewritten because it is
actually a type of flash memory.Firmware can be thought of as "semi-permanent" since it remains the same
unless it is updated by a firmware updater. You may need to update the firmware of certain devices, such as
hard drives and video cards in order for them to work with a new operating system. CD and DVD drive
manufacturers often make firmware updates available that allow the drives to read faster media. Sometimes
manufacturers release firmware updates that simply make their devices work more efficiently.
You can usually find firmware updates by going to the "Support" or "Downloads" area of a manufacturer's
website. Keeping your firmware up-to-date is often not necessary, but it is still a good idea. Just make sure that
once you start a firmware updater, you let the update finish, because most devices will not function if their
firmware is not recognized.
COMPILER
A compiler is a software program that compiles program source code files into an executable program. It is
included as part of the integrated development environment IDE with most programming software packages.
The compiler takes source code files that are written in a high-level language, such as C, BASIC, or Java, and
compiles the code into a low-level language, such as machine code or assembly code. This code is created for a
specific processor type, such as and Intel Pentium or PowerPC. The program can then be recognized by the
processor and run from the operating system.
After a compiler compiles source code files into a program, the program cannot be modified. Therefore, any
changes must be made in the source code and the program must be recompiled. Fortunately, most modern
compilers can detect what changes were made and only need to recompile the modified files, which saves
programmers a lot of time. This can help reduce programmers' 100 hour work weeks before project deadlines to
around 90 or so.
INTERPRETER
An interpreter is a program that reads and executes code. This includes source code, pre-compiled code, and
scripts. Common interpreters include Perl, Python, and Ruby interpreters, which execute Perl, Python, and
Ruby code respectively.Interpreters and compilers are similar, since they both recognize and process source
code. However, a compiler does not execute the code like and interpreter does. Instead, a compiler simply
converts the source code into machine code, which can be run directly by the operating system as an executable
program. Interpreters bypass the compilation process and execute the code directly.
Since interpreters read and execute code in a single step, they are useful for running scripts and other small
programs. Therefore, interpreters are commonly installed on Web servers, which allows developers to run
executable scripts within their web pages. These scripts can be easily edited and saved without the need to
recompile the code.While interpreters offer several advantages for running small programs, interpreted
languages also have some limitations. The most notable is the fact that interpreted code requires and interpreter
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to run. Therefore, without an interpreter, the source code serves as a plain text file rather than an executable
program. Additionally, programs written for an interpreter may not be able to use built-in system functions or
access hardware resources like compiled programs can. Therefore, most software applications are compiled
rather than interpreted.
ASSEMBLER
An assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits that
the computer's processor can use to perform its basic operations. Some people call these instructions assembler
language and others use the term assembly language.
Here's how it works:
 Most computers come with a specified set of very basic instructions that correspond to the basic
machine operations that the computer can perform. For example, a "Load" instruction causes the
processor to move a string of bits from a location in the processor's memory to a special holding place
called a register. Assuming the processor has at least eight registers, each numbered, the following
instruction would move the value (string of bits of a certain length) at memory location 3000 into the
holding place called register 8:
 The programmer can write a program using a sequence of these assembler instructions.
 This sequence of assembler instructions, known as the source code or source program, is then specified
to the assembler program when that program is started.
 The assembler program takes each program statement in the source program and generates a
corresponding bit stream or pattern (a series of 0's and 1's of a given length).
 The output of the assembler program is called the object code or object program relative to the input
source program. The sequence of 0's and 1's that constitute the object program is sometimes called
machine code.
 The object program can then be run (or executed) whenever desired.
In the earliest computers, programmers actually wrote programs in machine code, but assembler languages or
instruction sets were soon developed to speed up programming. Today, assembler programming is used only
where very efficient control over processor operations is needed. It requires knowledge of a particular
computer's instruction set, however. Historically, most programs have been written in "higher-level" languages
such as COBOL, FORTRAN, PL/I, and C. These languages are easier to learn and faster to write programs
with than assembler language. The program that processes the source code written in these languages is called a
compiler. Like the assembler, a compiler takes higher-level language statements and reduces them to machine
code.
A newer idea in program preparation and portability is the concept of a virtual machine. For example, using the
Java programming language, language statements are compiled into a generic form of machine language known
as byte code that can be run by a virtual machine, a kind of theoretical machine that approximates most
computer operations. The byte code can then be sent to any computer platform that has previously downloaded
or built in the Java virtual machine. The virtual machine is aware of the specific instruction lengths and other
particularities of the platform and ensures that the Java byte code can run.
FILE ALLOCATION TABLE

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(A)VFAT
Stands for "Virtual File Allocation Table." Older Windows operating systems (Windows ME and earlier) used
a file system called "FAT" or "FAT32." The file system is what the operating system uses to organize and
access files on the hard drive. VFAT, introduced with Windows 95, was an improvement to the basic FAT file
system, allowing more information to be stored for each file. While the FAT file system can only store 8
characters for each file name, VFAT allows for file names up to 255 characters in length. Personally, I use the
term VFAT to refer to the size of my cat.
(B)FAT32
This strange term refers to the way Windows stores data on your hard drive. "FAT" stands for "File Allocation
Table," which keeps track of all your files and helps the computer locate them on the disk. Even if a file gets
fragmented (split up into various areas on the disk), the file allocation table still can keep track of it. FAT32 is
an improvement to the original FAT system, since it uses more bits to identify each cluster on the the disk. This
helps the computer locate files easier and allows for smaller clusters, which improves the efficiency of your
hard disk. FAT32 supports up to 2 terabytes of hard disk storage. Unless you are a serious power user, that
should be more than enough space for you.
(C)NTFS
Stands for "New Technology File System." NTFS is a file system introduced by Microsoft with Windows NT
and is supported by subsequent versions of Windows, such as Windows 2000 and Windows XP. NTFS has a
number of advantages over the previous file system, named FAT32 (File Allocation Table). One major
advantage of NTFS is that it includes features to improve reliablity. For exmaple, the new technology file
system includes fault tolerance, which automatically repairs hard drive errors without displaying error
messages. It also keeps detailed transaction logs, which tracks hard drive errors. This can help prevent hard
disk failures and makes it possible to recover files if the hard drive does fail.
NTFS also allows permissions (such as read, write, and execute) to be set for individual directories and files. It
even supports spanning volumes, which allows directories of files to be spread across multiple hard drives. The
only reason why you would not want to select NTFS when formatting your hard drive is if you like slow,
outdated technology or you need to run an older operating system such as Windows 95 or MS-DOS. Of course,
if you are running DOS, there is a good chance you really do like outdated technology.
INTRODUCTION TO ALGORITHM
An algorithm is a set of instructions, sometimes called a procedure or a function, that is used to perform a
certain task. This can be a simple process, such as adding two numbers together, or a complex function, such as
adding effects to an image. For example, in order to sharpen a digital photo, the algorithm would need to
process each pixel in the image and determine which ones to change and how much to change them in order to
make the image look sharper.Most computer programmers spend a large percentage of their time creating
algorithms. (The rest of their time is spent debugging the algorithms that don't work properly.) The goal is to
create efficient algorithms that do not waste more computer resources (such as RAM and CPU time) than
necessary. This can be difficult, because an algorithm that performs well on one set of data may perform poorly
on other data.
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As you might guess, poorly written algorithms can cause programs to run slowly and even crash. Therefore,
software updates are often introduced, touting "improved stability and performance." While this sounds
impressive, it also means that the algorithms in the previous versions of the software were not written as well as
the could have been.
REPRESENTETION OF AN ALGORITHM
As mentioned previously, algorithms are generally represented by either pseudocode or a flowchart. But what
are these? It might be accurate to claim that each is merely a means of representing an algorithm, but that
would hardly move the discussion along. Instead, let's focus on what features we need our means of algorithm
representation to have in order for it to be a meaningful and useful representation.
 Show the logic of how the problem is solved - not how it is implemented.
 Readily reveal the flow of the algorithm.
 Be expandable and collapsible.
 Lend itself to implementation of the algorithm.
Essential Elements of a Good Representation
1- Show the Logic-One of the most difficult things for people just learning problem solving - especially when
it involves computer programming - is to clearly distinguish between the concept of problem logic and
implementation logic. The former is independent of the details of how the problem solution is implemented. If
you are trying to find the radius of a sphere having a specific surface area, then you need to find out what that
area is, you need some means of dividing that area by 4pi, and you need some means of taking the square root
of the result. It doesn't matter whether you are solving the problem with a C program, a Java program, a
calculator, a pencil and paper, or in your head - those elements are part of the logic of solving the problem.
2-Reveal the Flow-Most problems, especially if they are intended to be solved with the aid of a computer
program, involve flow control. In the "structured programming" paradigm, this flow control consists of
sequences, selections, and repetitions. This may not be readily apparent at the topmost level where the
algorithm can be represented by a list of tasks that are to be performed one after another in a specific sequence.
3-Be Expandable and Collapsible-Our algorithm representation should be flexible and allow us to readily
collapse it so as to show less detail and focus on the more abstract elements of the algorithm or to expand it so
as to get as detailed as necessary in order to actually implement the solution. Unstated in this is an
acknowledgement that, as we expand our algorithm and become more detailed, at some point we have to get
into the logic of the implementation issues.
4-Aid in Implementation-At the end of the day, the goal is usually to actually implement a solution to the
problem being solved. If our method of representing our algorithm does not lend itself to an orderly
implementation of that algorithm, then our method is seriously flawed. Conversely, if our method of
representation lends itself to a systematic implementation of the algorithm, then our method is extremely
useful.
5-Implementation Independence-From this point forward, we will restrict the discussion to algorithms
that are intended for eventual implementation using a computer program - but the concepts described can be
readily generalized to any type of implementation and you should read them with the intent of grasping those
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generalized concepts. Most texts maintain that the pseudo code or flowchart for a problem should represent the
solution in a manner that is independent of how that solution will eventually be implemented and sufficiently
complete such that the person developing the conceptual solution, who may have little if any programming
background, can turn the material over to a programmer who could, in turn, decide what programming
language to use and proceed to implement the solution without even understanding any of the conceptual goals
behind the code being written
FLOWCHARTING
INTRODUCTION
The flowchart is a means of visually presenting the flow of data through an information processing systems, the
operations performed within the system and the sequence in which they are performed. In this lesson, we shall
concern ourselves with the program flowchart, which describes what operations (and in what sequence) are
required to solve a given problem. The program flowchart can be likened to the blueprint of a building. As we
know a designer draws a blueprint before starting construction on a building. Similarly, a programmer prefers
to draw a flowchart prior to writing a computer program. As in the case of the drawing of a blueprint, the
flowchart is drawn according to defined rules and using standard flowchart symbols prescribed by the
American National Standard Institute, Inc.
25.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to understand:
 the meaning of flowchart

 the basic parts of the flowchart such as flowchart symbols and the flow lines connecting these
symbols.
 the advantages and limitations of flowchart
25.3 MEANING OF A FLOWCHART
A flowchart is a diagrammatic representation that illustrates the sequence of operations to be performed to

get the solution of a problem. Flowcharts are generally drawn in the early stages of formulating computer
solutions. Flowcharts facilitate communication between programmers and business people. These flowcharts
play a vital role in the programming of a problem and are quite helpful in understanding the logic of
complicated and lengthy problems. Once the flowchart is drawn, it becomes easy to write the program in any
high level language. Often we see how flowcharts are helpful in explaining the program to others. Hence, it is
correct to say that a flowchart is a must for the better documentation of a complex program.
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25.4 GUIDELINES FOR DRAWING A FLOWCHART
Flowcharts are usually drawn using some standard symbols; however, some special symbols can also be
developed when required. Some standard symbols, which are frequently required for flowcharting many
computer programs are shown in Fig. 25.1
Start or end of the program
Computational steps or processing function of a program
Input or output operation
Decision making and branching
Connector or joining of two parts of program
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Disk
Off-page connector
    Flow line
Annotation
Display
Flowchart Symbols
The following are some guidelines in flowcharting:
(a) In drawing a proper flowchart, all necessary requirements should be listed out in logical order.
(b) The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow. There should not be any room for
ambiguity in understanding the flowchart.
(c) The usual direction of the flow of a procedure or system is from left to right or top to bottom.
(d) Only one flow line should come out from a process symbol.

  or
(e) Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol, but two or three flow lines, one for each
possible answer, should leave the decision symbol.
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Yes <0 >0
No =0
(f) Only one flow line is used in conjunction with terminal symbol.
(g) Write within standard symbols briefly. As necessary, you can use the annotation symbol to
describe data or computational steps more clearly.
This is top secret data
(h) If the flowchart becomes complex, it is better to use connector symbols to reduce the number of
flow lines. Avoid the intersection of flow lines if you want to make it more effective and better way
of communication.
(a) Ensure that the flowchart has a logical start and finish.
(b) It is useful to test the validity of the flowchart by passing through it with a simple test data.
ADVANTAGES OF USING FLOWCHARTS

The benefits of flowcharts are as follows:
1. Communication: Flowcharts are better way of communicating the logic of a system to all concerned.
2. Effective analysis: With the help of flowchart, problem can be analysed in more effective way.
3. Proper documentation: Program flowcharts serve as a good program documentation, which is needed
for various purposes.
4. Efficient Coding: The flowcharts act as a guide or blueprint during the systems analysis and program
development phase.
5. Proper Debugging: The flowchart helps in debugging process.
6. Efficient Program Maintenance: The maintenance of operating program becomes easy with the help of
flowchart. It helps the programmer to put efforts more efficiently on that part
LIMITATIONS OF USING FLOWCHARTS
1. Complex logic: Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. In that case, flowchart becomes
complex and clumsy.
2. Alterations and Modifications: If alterations are required the flowchart may require re-drawing
completely.
3. Reproduction: As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed, reproduction of flowchart becomes a problem.
4. The essentials of what is done can easily be lost in the technical details of how it is done.
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DISK OPERATING SYSTEM
Stands for "Disk Operating System." DOS was the first operating system used by IBM-compatible computers. It was
originally available in two versions that were essentially the same, but marketed under two different names. "PC-DOS"
was the version developed by IBM and sold to the first IBM-compatible manufacturers. "MS-DOS" was the version that
Microsoft bought the rights to, and was bundled with the first versions of Windows.
DOS uses a command line, or text-based interface, that allows the user to type commands. By typing simple instructions
such as pwd (print working directory) and cd (change directory), the user can browse the files on the hard drive, open
files, and run programs. While the commands are simple to type, the user must know the basic commands in order to use
DOS effectively (similar to Unix). This made the operating system difficult for novices to use, which is why Microsoft
later bundled the graphic-based Windows operating system with DOS.
The first versions of Windows (through Windows 95) actually ran on top of the DOS operating system. This is why so
many DOS-related files (such as .INI, .DLL, and .COM files) are still used by Windows. However, the Windows
operating system was rewritten for Windows NT (New Technology), which enabled Windows to run on its own, without
using DOS. Later versions of Windows, such as Windows 2000, XP, and Vista, also do not require DOS.
DOS is still included with Windows, but is run from the Windows operating system instead of the other way around. The
DOS command prompt can be opened in Windows by selecting "Run..." from the Start Menu and typing cmd.
DOS System Files
The modern DOS operating system is distributed on 3-5 high density floppy disks. It comes with backup utilities and
(depending on how the lawyers feel) disk compression drivers. However, all the stuff that goes into C:\DOS and its
subdirectories are programs and utilities. The core DOS operating system consists of six files:
 The boot sector is a 512 byte record placed at the beginning of the C: drive when DOS was installed, or placed
there subsequently using the "sys c:" command.
 Two "hidden" files are stored in the root directory of the C: drive. They do not show up in a DIR listing unless
the /A switch is used. On IBM PC DOS systems, they are IBMBIO.SYS and IBMDOS .SYS. On MS DOS
systems, they are called IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS. These files form the kernel of the DOS system.
 COMMAND.COM is the "shell" or command interpreter. It prints out the "C:\&gt " prompt and reads user
commands. It also supports BAT files.
 The user configuration files are CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT. The reader is assumed to be familiar
with these files.
COMMAND.COM is initially stored in the C:\ root directory. The problem is that OS/2 and Windows NT have their own
versions of COMMAND.COM. To avoid confusion, each COMMAND.COM should be stored in the subdirectory that
belongs to its particular operating system. In normal use, this means that the DOS version should be in C:\DOS. To
relocate it, two statements must be added to the user configuration files:
"SHELL=C:\DOS\COMMAND.COM" is added to CONFIG.SYS.
"SET COMSPEC=C:\DOS\COMMAND.COM" is added to AUTOEXEC.BAT.
The hidden files IBMBIO, IBMDOS, IO, or MSDOS have names that do not conflict with each other or with any system
file belonging to any other operating system. They can stay in the C:\ root directory no matter what gets added to the
system. This means that the volatile part of the DOS system consists of the boot record, C:\CONFIG.SYS, and C:\
AUTOEXEC.BAT.
Putting DOS on a Floppy
Page 1 of 8
To install a copy of the DOS system files on a floppy, simply issue the command:
FORMAT A: /S
Recovering Damaged DOS System Files
If the DOS system files have been clobbered, boot the same release of DOS from a floppy. When using the Install
Diskettes for DOS, wait till the first panel appears and then escape from the installation system to the command prompt.
Type
DOS Commands
DOS Commands are instructions to perform tasks on files and directories. They are case insensitive. And as
you already know, file is the area where we store group of information or data, and collection of group of files
is called directory
In MS-DOS the file name follow 8dot3 format and is divided into two parts - primary name and secondary
name. Primary name is up to 8 characters long and secondary name is up to 4 characters with dot. For
example, in the image file-name Logo.jpg, Logo is the primary name and .JPG is the secondary name.
Secondary names are fixed for particular type of file, meaning for system files the secondary name is
designated as .sys, for text files it is .txt and so on. Here is the list of some of the important types of files with
their default secondary names:
Text file .txt
Command file .com
System file .sys
Programme file .prg
Database file .dbm
Library file .lib
Batch file .bat
Executable file .exe
DOS Commands are divided into 2 types:
1. Internal Commands
These are for performing basic operations on files and directories and they do not need any external file
support.
2. External Commands
These external commands are for performing advanced tasks and they do need some external file
support as they are not stored in COMMAND.COM
Page 2 of 8
Cursor gives our position.
In MS-DOS, keyboard shortcuts involving handy ones like Functional keys, arrows along with ESC are of great
help for recalling to searching to clearing command line etc., Here are few of them:
 UP (↑) and DOWN (↓) arrows recall previously entered commands.

 ESC clears the present command line.
 F7 key displays command history and ALT+F7/ESC hides it.
 F9 is used to selects a command by number. Just enter the command number and it fetches the
command line for you.
Most Commonly Used Internal DOS Commands
1. DATE
This command is used to display the system current date setting and prompt you to enter a new date.
The syntax is: DATE [/T | date]
If you type DATE without parameters then it displays current date and prompts to enter new date. We
should give new date in mm-dd-yy format. If you want to keep the same date just Press ENTER. DATE
command with /T switch tells the command to just output the current system date, without prompting
for a new date.
2. TIME
This command is used to displays or the system time.

The syntax is: TIME [/T | time]
Page 3 of 8
Same as DATE command, typing TIME with no parameters displays the current time and a prompt for
a new one. Press ENTER to keep the same time. TIME command used with /T switch tells the
command to just output the current system time, without prompting for a new time.
3. COPY CON
It is used to create a file in the existing directory. Syntax is: COPY CON filename after that press
Enter and start typing your text and after you're done typing your text, to save and exit hit F6 key.
4. TYPE
This command is used to display the contents of a text file or files. The syntax is: TYPE [drive:]
[path]filename
Now, lets try to display the contents of the file named filename we've created earlier using COPY CON
command.
5. CLS
It is used to clear the screen. Syntax is CLS
6. REN
Page 4 of 8
This command is used to change/modify the name of a file or files.
Syntax is: REN [drive:] [path] filename1 filename2.
Here, filename1 is source file for which you wanted to change the name, and filename2 will obviously
becomes your new file name. Also note that you cannot specify a new drive or path for your destination
file.
7. DIR
This command displays a list of files and subdirectories in a directory. Syntax is: DIR
[drive:] [path] [filename] [/A[[:]attributes]] [/B] [/C] [/D] [/L]
[/N] [/O[[:]sortorder]] [/P] [/Q] [/S] [/T[[:]timefield]] [/W] [/X] [/4]
Here,
[drive:][path][filename] Specifies drive, directory, and/or files to list.
Displays files with specified attributes. The possible attributes are as follow: D → Directories, R
/A:attributes → Read-only files, H → Hidden files, A → Files ready for archiving, S → System files, - Prefix
meaning not
/B display in bare format with no heading information or summary
Using this attribute with dir by default displays the thousand separator in file sizes. To disable
/C
display or separator use /-C
/D Displays file list sorted by column.
/L Uses lowercase in listing file names and sub-directories.
/N Display in new long list format where filenames are on the far right.
Displays list by files in sorted order. The sortorder attributes are as follow: N → By name
/O:sortorder (alphabetic), S → By size (smallest first), E → By extension (alphabetic), D → By date/time
(oldest first), G → Group directories first, - Prefix to reverse order
Display page wise pausing after each screenful of information and prompts to press any key to
/P
continue.
/Q Displays the owner of a file or files.
Displays files in specified directory and all subdirectories. Bear caution in using this in your root
/S directory as you may end up in overflowing information. To stop the screen overflow at any
point hit Pause-Break key.
This sorts and displays the list based on time field specified. C for Creation, A for Last Access, W
T:timefield
for Last Written
/W Displays list width wise or wide list format.
/X This is used to display the short names generated for non-8dot3 file names.
Page 5 of 8
PATH
This command displays the path that how we have come to the present position or sets a search path for
executable files.
Its Syntax is PATH [[drive:]path[;...][;%PATH%]]
Typing PATH without any parameters displays the current path under current directory. Typing PATH ; clears
all search-path settings and direct cmd.exe to search only in the current directory. And including %PATH% in
the new path setting causes the old path to be appended to the new setting.
VER
This command displays the version of the Microsoft Windows running on your computer.
8. VOL
It displays the disk volume label and serial number, if they exist for the drive specified. If no drive is
specified it displays for the active drive.
Syntax is VOL [drive:]
DEL/ERASE
Used to delete one or more files.
Syntax is DEL [/P] [/F] [/S] [/Q] [/A[[:]attributes]] names
Here,
tr>
Specifies a list of one or more files or directories. Wildcards * and ? may be used to delete multiple files. *
names indicates group of unknown characters whereas using wildcard ? in file-names is for single unknown
character. And using this command if a directory is specified, all files within the directory will be deleted.
/P
Prompts for (Y)es/(N)o confirmation before deleting each file.
/F Used to force delete read-only files.
Page 6 of 8
Delete specified files from all subdirectories. If Command Extensions are enabled DEL and ERASE change
/S
while using /S switch such that it shows you only the files that are deleted, not the ones it could not find.
/Q Delete in quite mode and do not ask if ok to delete on global wildcard
Delete files based on specified attribute. The attributes are: R for Read-only files, S for System files, H for
/A:attributes
Hidden files, A for files ready for archiving and - Prefix meaning not.
COPY
This command is useful in copying one or more files to another file or location. Syntax is COPY [/D] [/V] [/
N] [/Y | /-Y] [/Z] [/A | /B ] source [/A | /B] [+ source [/A | /B] [+ ...]] [destination [/A | /B]]
The different switches that can be used with this command as follow along with their use.
source It specifies the file or files to be copied.
/A Indicates an ASCII text file.
/B This switch indicates a binary file.
/D This allows the destination file to be created with decryption.
destination This specifies the directory and/or filename for the new file or files.
/V Helps to verify new files to be written correctly.
/N Specifying this switch uses short filename, if available, when copying a file with a non-8dot3 file name.
If destination file already exists, this switch suppresses prompting to confirm you want to overwrite it and
/Y
does it asap.
Contrary to above switch, this causes prompting to confirm you want to overwrite an existing destination
/-Y
file.
/Z Copies networked files in restartable mode.
For appending multiple files for source use wildcard or file1+file2+file3 format and make sure to specify a
single file for destination.
MD, CD and RD
 MD (or MKDIR) command stand for make directory and it is used to create a directory.
Syntax is MD [drive:]path
 CD (or CHDIR) stands for create or change directory and it allows to display the name of or change
the current directory or rather we can say come out of a directory. Syntax is CD [/D] [drive:]
[path]
Page 7 of 8
→ Typing CD drive: displays the current directory in the specified drive. This CD (or CHDIR)
command does not treat spaces as delimiters due to which it allows to CD into a subdirectory name that
contains a space without surrounding the name with quotes.
For example:
CHDIR \program files\mozilla firefox
is the same as:
CHDIR "\program files\mozilla firefox"
→ If you type CD without any parameters it displays current drive and directory. CD.. specifies that you
want to change to the higher directory in the current path. Whereas, using CD\ you can directly change
to parent/root directory from any location in the current drive.
→Using /D switch changes current drive in addition to current directory for a drive
RD (or RMDIR)
command removes or deletes a directory. There are two conditions to remove any directory - (1)
Directory to be removed should be empty. and (2) We should be outside the directory we are
commanding to delete.
Syntax is RD [/S] [/Q] [drive:]path
Here, using the switch /S removes a directory tree meaning it removes all directories and files in
the specified directory in addition to the directory itself. And using /Q is the quiet mode that
doesn't asks for ok approval to remove a directory tree.
Page 8 of 8

Fundamentals of Computer

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Fundamentals of Computer

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UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

A Computer is an automatic electronic, calculating device which can process a given

 Major Innovation - Vacuum Tubes

Advantages of First Generation

Disadvantages of First Generation

Second Generation of Computers (1959-1964)

 Major Innovation - Transistors as main component.

Advantages of Second Generation

Disadvantages of Second Generation

Third Generation of Computers (1965-1970)

 Major Innovation - Integrated circuit (ICs) as basic electronic component.

Advantages of Third Generation

Disadvantages of Third Generation

Fourth Generation of Computers (1971-1981)

 Major Innovation - LSIC and VLSIC (Micro Processor)

Advantages of Fourth Generation

Disadvantages of Fourth Generation

Fifth Generation (1981-Onward)

 Major Innovations - ULSIC (Ultra large scale integrated circuit)

 External Storage - Modified magnetic and Optical disks.

Advantages of Fifth Generation

Introduction to operating system

An operating system, or "OS," is software that communicates with the

Since the operating system serves as a computer's fundamental user

When software developers create applications, they must be write and

Concept of basic input output system(Bios)

SYSTEM CONTROL UNIT

8. Jump back to step (1).

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

INPUT OUTPUT FUNCTIONS

Volatile and non-volatile memory

Random Access Memory (ROM)

Following are the three basic types of the mouse.:

Common Features-The modern mouse provides the following common features;

Numbers in a special MICR font

Optical character recognition(OCR)

OCR works best with clean, clearly printed materials

Optical mark recognition(OMR)

 Attendance registers in schools

BAR CODE READER

Hard copy devices impact and non-impact

Dot Matrix Printers

LOW- LEVEL- LANGUAGE

≫ Spreadsheets for creating numeric-based documents such as budgets or balance Sheets

≫ Presentation programs for creating and presenting electronic slide shows .

Here's how it works:

FILE ALLOCATION TABLE

Essential Elements of a Good Representation

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to understand:

 the meaning of flowchart

A flowchart is a diagrammatic representation that illustrates the sequence of operations to be performed to

Start or end of the program

Computational steps or processing function of a program

Input or output operation

Decision making and branching

Connector or joining of two parts of program

The following are some guidelines in flowcharting:

This is top secret data

ADVANTAGES OF USING FLOWCHARTS

DOS System Files

"SHELL=C:\DOS\COMMAND.COM" is added to CONFIG.SYS.

"SET COMSPEC=C:\DOS\COMMAND.COM" is added to AUTOEXEC.BAT.

Putting DOS on a Floppy