Professional Documents
Culture Documents
University of Khartoum
Faculty of Engineering
Presented by:
1/Mohamed Ahmed Elsamani 2/ Mohamed Elfadil Elwadie
Supervised by:
Dr. Salah Ahmed Abdallah
August 2015
i
Dedication
ii
Acknowledgments
iii
Abstract
Gasoline emissions in service station is one of the biggest issues that people are not
taking it under consideration especially in Sudan , because the rate of the gasoline
emissions are very high backs to the high temperature rates. Gasoline emissions should
also be taking seriously because the high value of gasoline. These emissions contribute to
the formation of smog and the control of these emissions has been applied internationally
for some years. Vapor recovery is the preferred control technology after prevention and
minimization.
The application of vapor recovery of gasoline in Sudan has never been used. Gasoline
loading data and vapor analyses date were used to determine the theoretical and
experimental filling emissions from underground tanks in three different service stations
in Khartoum:
1/Al-Oshra station.
The average evaporative emission per year in each station were (13800.04 liter/year),
(8822.02 liter/year) and (7825.46 liter/year) respectively.
From These values of gasoline emissions it shows that the economic losses are very high
with a range of 30000- 60000 SDG per year. So the application of Vapor recovery
System should be applied in Sudan to minimize the Gasoline losses in service stations.
iv
Table of contents
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 2
Literature review .............................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Evaporative emissions ............................................................................................. 9
2.2.1 Displacement emissions .................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 Breathing and withdrawal emissions .............................................................. 9
2.2.3 Filling emissions ................................................................................................ 9
2.4 Control of emissions .............................................................................................. 11
2.4.1 Emission prevention and minimization ........................................................ 11
2.4.2 Vapor recovery ............................................................................................... 12
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Working loss .......................................................................................................... 25
Working losses occur when the vapor in the vapor space over the liquid is displaced
from the tank by the addition of organic liquid during tank filling. .............................. 25
3.3 Breathing loss......................................................................................................... 27
3.4 Assumptions & givens ........................................................................................... 32
3.5 Sample of calculations........................................................................................... 32
3.5.1 Working loss.................................................................................................... 32
3.5.2 Breathing loss .................................................................................................. 33
4.1 Results ........................................................................................................................ 35
5.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 38
5.2 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 38
References ........................................................................................................................ 39
Appendix A ...................................................................................................................... 40
v
List of abbreviations
vi
List of Figures
vii
List of tables
viii
Chapter one
Introduction
1
1.1 Introduction
Besides being an environmental hazard, these fugitive VOCs emissions actually cost a lot
money. So by minimizing the escaped vapors from bulk storage at marketing depot and
the storage tank at service station we maximize the profits of the owners of the marketing
depot and the service station.
Vapor recovery of gasoline is used extensively in Europe and the United States of
America, with legislation to enforce its use. In Sudan little attention has been given to
VOC control in general, and the use of vapor recovery systems in particular.
2
Evaluate vapor recovery systems used in first world countries for the control of
VOC emissions from gasoline,
Determine evaporative losses from the storage tank at service station.
In this dissertation the evaluation of vapor recovery systems and related terminology was
conducted via a literature review and is presented in Chapter 2. Methodology and
calculation of losses from the storage tank at service station in Chapter 3, followed by a
discussion of the results in Chapter 4. Conclusions and recommendations are presented in
Chapter 5
3
Chapter two
Literature review
4
Literature review
2.1 Introduction
Gasoline is a commodity used worldwide. During its use, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides
and hydrocarbons are emitted as a result of combustion processes taking place in a
vehicle. Further emissions, consisting of hydrocarbons, take place during the storage and
distribution of gasoline due to evaporation.
The hydrocarbons emitted during gasoline storage and distribution can be broadly
classified as volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs make up a major class of air
pollutants and is a brad collective term for different organic compounds. These include
pure hydrocarbons, partially oxidized hydrocarbons and organics containing chlorine,
Sulphur and nitrogen; with most VOCs being toxic and/or carcinogenic (Jo and Song,
2001).
According to Jeffery (1998), there is some discrepancy in the definition of VOCs used in
international legislation. In the United States of America a VOC is defined as any
compound of carbon that participates in atmospheric photo chemical reaction, excluding
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonic acid, metallic carbides and carbonates and
ammonium carbonate. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)
classifies VOCs based on their photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP). POCP is
defined as the change in photo chemical ozone production due to change in emission of a
particular VOC and can be determined by photochemical model calculation or laboratory
experiments (Jeffery, 1998).
In the presence of sunlight, VOCs react with nitrogen oxides forming photochemical
oxidants such as ozone. Ground level ozone (GLO) is a major component in the
formation of smog, can migrate great distances and is a known greenhouse gas. Smog
also adversely affects human health, vegetation and materials. Although VOCs and
nitrogen oxides occur naturally, anthropogenic sources have greatly increased the
concentration in the atmosphere. According to Sangster (1991), VOC emissions originate
from:
Industrial and domestic solvents (40%);
Exhaust gases from motor vehicles (25%);
5
Evaporative and running losses from motor vehicles (10%);
Gasoline distribution (3%);
Vehicle refueling (2%);
Oil refining (3%); and
17% from other sources.
Although gasoline distribution and vehicle refueling contributes to only 5% of the total
VOC emissions, these emissions are concentrated at gasoline bulk storage facilities and
service station, highly frequented by people.
A typical gasoline distribution system is shown in Figure 2.1. In Sudan pipelines are
mainly used for the transportation of gasoline from product storage facilities at refineries
to bulk storage tanks at marketing depots. From the marketing depots road tankers are
used to transport the gasoline to the service stations.
6
The control of emissions that occur during the transportation of gasoline from bulk
storage facilities to the ultimate consumer is represented by three stages, namely (Figure
2.2):
Stage Ia involves the control of emissions that occur at facilities when road
tankers are loaded;
Stage Ib involves the control of emissions that occur when road tankers unload
into service station storage tanks; and
Stage II involves the control of emissions that are formed during vehicle
refueling.
During each of these stages evaporation losses occur, as shown in Figure 2.2.
Evaporation occurs whenever gasoline is introduced into a tank that has a vapor space
(Hadley et al., 1978). Unless the resultant vapor (a VOC/air mixture) is contained or
suppressed by some means, a loss of product results. The VOC composition of gasoline
vapor; gasoline being a mixture of compounds with different boiling points with the
tendency of the lower molecular weight compounds to evaporate; is shown in Table 2.1
(Hansen, 1996).
Compound Volume
Ethane Traces
Propane 1.5 %
Isobutene 8%
n-Butane 10 %
Pentane 14 %
TOTAL 40 %
(VOC only, remainder is air)
7
8
Figure 2.2
9
Evolution vapor (𝑉𝑒 ) evaporates from the product itself when it is being loaded. Petrol
can be loaded into a road tanker via top splash loading, submerged top loading or bottom
loading. Most 𝑉𝑒 evaporation takes place during splash loading when the turbulence in a
tank is at its peak.
The rate of evaporation is also proportional to the area of the liquid/vapor interface. By
decreasing the liquid/vapor interface area, the amount of evaporation will decrease due to
the limited amount of vapor space above the liquid (Hadley et al., 1978).
Turbulence in the liquid and/or vapor will increase the rate of evaporation and reduces
the time necessary to reach 100% saturation in the vapor space via two mechanisms
(Hadley et al., 1978). When light hydrocarbons evaporate, the thin liquid surface layer
becomes momentarily deficient in these molecules, slowing the rate of evaporation.
However, when fresh gasoline is loaded, the light hydrocarbons move to this region via
diffusion and evaporation continues. This process is accelerated by mixing and/or
turbulence in the liquid.
10
In the vapor space above the liquid, the hydrocarbons molecules are heavier than air and
tend to accumulate as a layer just above the liquid surface, suppressing further
evaporation (Hadley et al., 1978). Turbulent movements in the vapor space cause by
thermal convection currents or pressure vacuum valve air intakes accelerate evaporation.
11
2.4.2 Vapor recovery
In this dissertation we are interested in the vapor recovery for underground tanks in
service stations. There are five vapor recovery systems, this section reviews the vapor
recovery systems applicable to bulk terminals and assesses the efficiency, reliability,
safety and manufacturing capacity of these systems.
12
Figure 2.3 compression-refrigeration-absorption unit by Parker Hannifin
13
Figure 2.4 compression-refrigeration-absorption by Rheem Superior
The vapor collection efficiency of a CRA vapor recovery unit is difficult to define due to
its dependency on inlet hydrocarbon concentration. The outlet hydrocarbon
concentration, however, is essentially fixed by the absorber operating conditions. Field
tests have shown it to range from 1% to 4.5%, by volume. Current CRA systems on the
market can surpass 90% recovery (if so required) for inlet hydrocarbon concentrations
GJ: greater than 20% by volume. One CRA unit supplies a booster compressor to achieve
90% recovery at lower inlet hydrocarbon concentrations.
2.4.2.2 Compression-Refrigeration-Condensation Systems
Compression-Refrigeration-Condensation vapor recovery systems (CRC) were
the first type utilized by the petroleum industry. They are based on the condensation of
hydrocarbon vapors by compression and refrigeration. Figures 2.5 and 2.6 show the flow
scheme of two CRC systems. Incoming vapors are first contacted with recovered product
in a saturator, and are saturated beyond the flammability range.
The saturated vapors are then compressed in a two-stage compressor with an
inter-cooler. Condensate is withdrawn from the inter-cooler prior to second stage
compression. The compressed vapors pass through a condenser where they are cooled,
14
condensed, and returned along with condensate from the inter-cooler to the gasoline
storage tank. Essentially, hydrocarbon-free air is vented from the top of the condenser.
Each manufacturer has minor variations from this basic flow scheme.
Operation conditions vary with the manufacturer, with temperatures ranging
from -10°F to 30°F and pressures ranging from 85 psig to 410 psig. Although dependent
on terminal operating schedules and vapor storage capacity.
The efficiencies of CRC vapor recovery units are not well documented and
difficult to define due to their dependency on inlet hydrocarbon concentrations. Data
from field tests indicate that CRC units can recover 96% of the hydrocarbons in saturated
gasoline vapors and 8870 to 90% of the hydrocarbons in sub saturated gasoline vapors
from bottom loading operations. Vendors claim that adjustments and optional equipment
can improve the efficiency of CRC systems to a minimum recovery of 94.
15
Figure 2.5 compression-refrigeration-condensation unit by GESCO
16
Figure 2.6 compression-refrigeration-condensation unit by VAPOREX
17
2.4.2.3 Refrigeration Systems
One of the vapor recovery systems is the straight refrigeration system, based on the
condensation of gasoline vapors by refrigeration at atmospheric pressure.
Figure 2.7 shows the flow scheme of such a system. Vapors displaced from the
terminal enter a horizontal fin-tube condenser where they are cooled to -100°F and
condensed. Because vapors are treated on demand, no vapor holder is required.
Condensate is withdrawn from the condenser bottom and the remaining air, containing
only a small amount of hydrocarbon, is vented from the condenser top. Cooling for the
condenser coils is supplied by a methyl chloride reservoir. A two-stage refrigeration unit
is used to refrigerate the stored brine solution to between -105°F a 125° F.
The vapor recovery efficiency of refrigeration systems is again dependent on the
hydrocarbon concentration of the inlet vapors. Field tests of a unit with a condenser
temperature of -100°F indicate the outlet hydrocarbon concentration is relatively fixed by
the condenser temperature at 0.6% to 2.6% by volume. Typical hydrocarbon recoveries
are 93% to 97% with recoveries reaching 99% for saturated inlet vapors.
18
Figure 2.7 refrigeration vapor recovery unit by Edwards
19
separated light ends are compressed, condensed, and returned to storage, and the lean
gasoline is stored separately for use in the absorption column.
The vapor recovery efficiency of LOA systems is dependent on the liquid to
vapor ratio in the absorber and on the hydrocarbon content of the inlet vapors. The
manufacturer reports that normal practice is to adjust the lean oil feed rate to the absorber
such that the hydrocarbon content of the stripped air is 370 by volume. This corresponds
to a 907o or greater recovery for inlet hydrocarbon concentrations of 247° or greater.
Higher lean oil rates are used when improved recovery is required
20
2.4.2.5 Operating Reliability
Both solutions to the icing problems generally work well, however, isolated problems
with icing still occur. Another major source of problems in CRA and CRC systems is the
gasoline vapor compressor. Compressors handling heterogeneous mixtures of air, light
hydrocarbons, and water vapor have maintenance problems in rotors and bearings
normally encountered with closed loop refrigerant compressors. There have also been
reports that some lean oil absorption units are experiencing problems in obtaining
adequately stripped lean oil feed to the absorber.
2.4.2.6 Safety
Safety is always of paramount importance in designing equipment to handle flammable
materials. The manufacturers of vapor recovery equipment have been conscious of this,
and have included safety features in their designs. ORC, and CRA units have potential
safety problems whenever explosive hydrocarbon mixtures are being stored and
processed. To eliminate the possibility of explosion, these units are generally equipped
with means to saturate the incoming vapor stream which raises the hydrocarbon content
above the explosive Refrigeration systems generally operate at temperatures which
explosions are a threat. CRA and CRC systems have the problem of compressing
hydrocarbon vapors. The adiabatic heat of compression increases the outlet gas
temperature to the point where it is much more easily ignited than is the cooler inlet
vapors. Compression ratios and the corresponding outlet gas temperatures must be
maintained at levels low enough to prevent excessive heating and spontaneous
combustion.
Another potential safety problem in systems employing vapor holders has been leakage
creating explosive mixtures in the air space above the diaphragm. Regularly maintained
21
and inspected diaphragms should pose no safety problems. Because these are largely
custom made, none of the vapor recovery systems currently have obtained Underwriters
Laboratory approval.
2.4.2.8 Summary
The four major types of vapor recovery systems for terminals are compression-
refrigeration-absorption, compression refrigeration-condensation, straight refrigeration
and lean oil absorption. The technology of each system is well developed. Each of these
vapor recovery systems are capable of meeting 90% recovery although some may require
adjustments or additional equipment to meet 90% recovery on inlet streams having a very
low hydrocarbon concentration. The reliability of vapor recovery units for bulk terminals
is good and is continuously being improved. Future stream factors, assuming proper
maintenance should be in the 95% category
22
hydrocarbon emissions, the unit essentially pays for itself with the value of the recovered
gasoline.
Figure 2.9 Flow diagram of a membrane gasoline-vapor recovery unit suited to a retail gasoline station tank vent.
Typical systems are small, containing a single 1-2 m2 membrane module and costing
from $5,000 to 15,000. Several hundred, perhaps as many as1000 of these systems have
been installed around the world.
23
Chapter three
Methodology
24
Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter is structured in the theoretical evaporation emissions calculations, using
Sudan product (gasoline) data, are presented. Thereafter experimental evaporation
emissions for Sudan’s service stations are calculated in three different service stations
based on the gasoline consumption rate in each station. One with High consumption rate,
second with medium consumption rate and third with low consumption rate.
In Sudan there’s an Agreement between the petroleum companies and service provider in
which the amount of loss due evaporation must not exceed 0.3 in percentage and In case
of exceeding the company is obligated to compensate the difference.
Theoretical filling emission Calculations in Service station:
The theoretical evaporation emissions is calculated based on Equations found EPA
methodology using gasoline RVP (Reid vapor pressure), product temperature and vapor
characteristics . The Gasoline Produced in Sudan (Khartoum Refinery) has an average
Reid Vapor Pressure 8.3.
According to EPA (2006) the equations to estimate the working losses and breathing
losses from underground and aboveground gasoline storage tanks are
The following equation was used for the estimation of working loss from underground
and aboveground gasoline storage tanks:
Where:
Where
T= site specific mean daily temperature during warm and cold season, respectively (oC)
PVA=the vapor pressure of gasoline at daily average liquid surface temperature was
calculated using appendix A
KN=the working loss turnover (saturation) factor (KN) was estimated from the following
USEPA model:
(180 + 𝑁)
𝐾𝑁 = (3.3)
6𝑁
KN = 1
Q
N = 5.614 ∗ V 1 (3.4)
LX
Where:
26
VLX= storage tank working volume (gallon or liter, converted as appropriate); VLX was
estimated from equation (3.5).
Where:
(r−h)
VSegment = L ∗ [r 2 ∗ COS −1 [r−(r−h)] ∗ √ (2rh − h2) ] (3.6)
Where:
3.1416
BL = 365 ∗ K E ∗ ( ) ∗ HVO ∗ K S ∗ WV (3.7)
4∗D2E
Where:
27
BL= storage tank breathing loss (lb. /year)
365= constant, the number of daily events in a year.
KE= vapor space expansion factor, dimensionless
3.1416= mathematical constant; the standard ratio of 22/7 for circle circumference to its
diameter
DE= effective tank diameter for horizontal tanks (ft.)
HVO= vapor space outage (ft.)
KS= vented vapor saturation factor, dimensionless
WV= gasoline vapor density (lb. /ft3)
KE=the vapor space expansion factor (KE) was calculated by using equation (3.8).
∆TV
KE = ( T ) + (ΔPV − ΔPB ) / (PA − PVA ) (3.8)
LA
Where:
Where:
28
Where:
Where:
(TAX + TAN )
TAA = (3.12)
2
Where:
𝑇𝐵 =for aboveground tanks, the liquid bulk temperature (TB) was calculated by using
equation (3.13), while for underground tanks, it was assumed to be equal to the average
underground temperature during the particular season.
29
TB = TAA + (6 α − 1 ) (3.13)
Where:
Where:
Where:
1
−
L∗D 2
DE = [ π ] (3.16)
4
Where:
DE= effective tank diameter (ft.)
L= length of the horizontal tank (ft.)
30
D= diameter of the horizontal tank (ft.)
HVO =the vapor space outage (HVO) for horizontal tanks is equal to half of the effective
tank height, calculated by using equation (3.17).
𝐻𝐸
𝐻𝑉𝑂 = (3.17)
2
Where:
3.1416∗ D
𝐻𝐸 = (3.18)
4
Where:
1
𝐾𝑆 = (3.19)
(1+0.053∗𝑃𝑉𝐴 ∗𝐻𝑉𝑂 )
Where:
MV ∗PVA
WV = (3.20)
(R∗TLA )
31
Where:
MV= gasoline vapor molecular weight (lb./lb.-mole), the gasoline vapor molecular weight
(MV) was calculated by using equation (3.2) above.
PVA= vapor pressure at daily average liquid surface temperature (psi)
R= ideal gas constant (10.731 psia ft3/lb.-mole °R)
TLA= daily average liquid surface temperature (°R), the daily average liquid surface
temperature (TLA) was calculated by using equation (3.11).
Vapor pressure at daily average liquid surface temperature 𝑷𝑽𝑨 =49 kPa. (7.12 psi)
Gasoline vapor molecular weight MV=100.
Daily average maximum ambient temperature TAX =37 oC.
Daily average minimum ambient temperature TAN =26 oC.
PVX=8.63616 psi from Appendix A at TAX =37 oC.
PVN=6.062 psi from Appendix A at TAN =26 oC.
Tank paint solar absorbance α= 0, for underground tanks, this parameter assumes
the value of zero.
Breather vent pressure setting range ΔPB =0 in the absence of pressure and
vacuum vents, ΔPB assumes the value of zero.
Storage tank working volume VLX= 95% of VTotal
𝑉𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 for the three stations =45000 liters
The working loss product factor KP= 1.
R= ideal gas constant (10.731 psi ft3/lb.-mole °R)
32
Use equation (3.4) N=95
Use equation (3.3) 𝐾𝑁 = 0.48
Use equation (3.1) WL= 5576.97 liter per year (8848.786 lb. per year)
33
Chapter four
Results & Discussion
34
4.1 Results
Our pervious calculations have been made to calculate the fuel emission in three different
service stations in Khartoum City. The three service stations with different consumption
rate in each station:
Al-Oshara station (high consumption rate).
Jabl Awleya station (medium consumption rate).
Dar AL Salam station (low consumption rate).
The calculations contain the measure of the working loss, the breathing loss,
total loss and the percentage of the total loss to the total volume in each service station to
compute the fuel losses per year.
35
The cost of the total loss of gasoline for the three service stations:
Al-Oshara 64446..187 SDG
Jabl Awleya 41198.8 SDG
Dar AL Salam 36544.9 SDG
4.2 Discussion
The breathing loss is constant for the three stations because it depends on the total
volume of the tank and their volume is constant
As we had mentioned before in chapter 3 that In Sudan there’s an Agreement between
the petroleum companies and service provider in which the amount of loss due
evaporation must not exceed 0.3 in percentage and In case of exceeding the company is
obligated to compensate the difference.
Our results showing that two of the three service stations is in the allowable range of the
0.3%, Al-Oshara and Jabl Awleya with 0.196519% and 0.215374% respectively.
The Third station Dar AL Salam with 0.409281% evaporation losses which exceed the
Limit of 0.3%. The service station owner must demand the company to compensate the
losses.
36
Chapter five
Conclusions & Recommendations
37
5.1 Conclusions
The evaporation loss from underground tanks in some service stations in Sudan is
about 0.41%.This is significantly higher that set by the petroleum companies and
stations provider (0.3%).
A loss percentage of 0.41% if gained means an annually saving of 36544 SDG
for a certain Service Station.
From the results we found that it is important to use vapor recovery system
VOC controls can take many forms and the type of control method used will be
determined by the characteristics of the VOC emissions. Minimization
techniques, such as the lowering of RVP, can be implemented but only to a
certain degree, as there is a lower limit with regard to petrol volatility. Vapor
recovery is the preferred technique for the control Of VOC emissions from petrol
storage and distribution systems. This also has added advantage Of monetary
savings from recovered petrol vapor. There are various VOC treatment
techniques, but this must only be used in situations were other control options are
not viable.
5.2 Recommendations
Install automatic Tank gauge system to eliminate the use to dip stick to minimize
the residual losses caused when we open the tank to measure the fuel volume.
Replace the splash loading method with submerged loading method. As
evaporation is a function of turbulence in liquid and/or vapor interface.
Evaporation reduction or recovery measures need to be developed, declared and
implemented.
Install simple and small membrane vapor recovery system
38
References
39
Appendix A
40