SDS TRC AND RGICD COLLEGE OF

NURSING
BENGALURU-29.

Seminar: Communication Model.

Subject: Advance Nursing Practice.

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Mrs. Shantakka N Chougle Miss. Revathi H K

Principal & Head of the Departmaent, 1ST Year, M.Sc (N)

Medical Surgical Nursing.

Date of Submission:
Sl no Content outline
1 Introduction.

2 Meaning of communication.

3 Definitions of communication.

4 Ways of communication.

5 Objectives.

6 Purposes.

7 Components.

8 Types of communication.

9 Principles.

10 Process of communication.

11 Barriers of communication.

12 Definition of model.

13 Definition of models of communication.

14 Various models of communication.

15 Conclusion.

16 References.
INTRODUCTION:

For decades, man has known the importance of communication. Today, with various
means by which one can communicate, it has become much easier to communicate a message to
the other party, than it was several decades ago. Every organization, no matter what their
expertise and where they are situated, and what scale they operate, realize and value the
importance of good communication. This communication for organizations takes place both
within the organization as well as with other stakeholders outside. Therefore, it is vital for any
organization to understand the communication models out there, so they can use them for
enhancing effective communication in the organization.

The communication of ideas, facts, feelings and information is very vital for facilitating
human interaction.

MEANING:

 Communication, comes from the Latin communis, "common."

 When we communicate, we are trying to establish a "commonness" with someone. That

is, we are trying to share information, an idea or an attitude.

DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNICATION:

 “Imparting, conveying or the exchanging of ideas, thoughts, knowledge among

individuals through the medium of a sign of some kind”.

 “Anything that conveys meaning, that carries a message from one person to another; from
student to teacher, from student to student, from teachers to student, from administrator to
teacher and so on”.

 “ It is process by which two or more people exchange their ideas, facts, feelings or
impressions in ways that each gains a ‘common understanding’ of meaning, intent & use
of a message”.
 Effective communication requires knowledge of the symbol, the cues, stimuli to
which other person will react.

WAYS OF COMMUNICATION:

 Oral or written.

 Sign/ signal.

 Action.

 Objective.

OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION:

 Awareness of information.

 Action information.

 Continuing information.

 Updating information.

Purposes:

Purposes must be specified in such a way:

 It is not logically contradictory or inconsistent with itself.

 It should be expressed in terms of human behaviour. The goal of the sender or receiver of
the message rather than as the property of the message itself.
 It should be specific enough for us to be able to relate it to actual communication
behaviour.
 It should be consistent with the ways in which people du communicate.
COMPONENTS:

 Source.

 Message.

 Channel or a transmitter.

 Receiver.

The source:

Source is a person or an individual who wishes to affect the behaviour of the other
individual by originating or perceiving an idea or purposes, which he wants to communicate in
order to produce a particular response.

Message:

The message is some desired behaviour in physical form, it is the translation of the ideas,
the purposes and the intention of the source into code. A sign is a strong determiner of
behaviour.

 Natural sign: a part of larger thing or event or condition signified by it.

E.g.- Blood on surgical dressing is a sign of haemorrhage.

 Non-natural sign: which symbolized something is designated.

E.g.- Body cast signifies some physical health problem.

 Iconic sign: a sign is like the thing it signifies.

E.g.- photos.

 Digital sign: independent of their physical parameters for their meaning.

E.g.- pattern, size or stimulus intensity.

Message comprises three components:

 Message code.

 Message content.

 Message treatment.

Message code: any group of symbols that can be structured in a way that is meaningful to same
person, e.g. language.

Message content: the material in the message i.e. selected by the source to express his purpose.
In a book the message content includes the assertions that one makes, the information i.e.
presented, the inferences drawn and the judgments proposed contents like codes has both
elements and structure. It has to be presented in proper order and sequences.

Message treatment: the source encoder has choice available to him and in coding you can
choose one or another set of elements from within the code.

The channel:

 Channel is a media which is selected to convey the message to the receiver from the
sender.

Receiver:

 Receiver is the person who receives the information or message from the sender.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION:

 One-way communication.

 Two-way communication.
  Serial communication.

 Interpersonal communication.

 Mechanical communication.

 Physiological communication.

 Psychic communication.

 Verbal communication.

 Non-verbal communication.

 Formal communication.

 Informal communication.

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION:

 Communication should have convictions.

 Communication should be appropriate to situation.

 Communication should have objectives and purpose.

 Communication should promote total achievement of purpose.

 Communication should represent the personality & individuality of the communicator.

 Communication should seek attention.

 Credibility is very important in communication.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS:

 Encoding
 The sender generates and encodes thoughts to be conveyed .
 Noises from outside may disturb the encoding, which may alter the meaning.

 Transmission:
 The encoded message gets transmitted to the receiver.

 Receiving and Decoding:

 The receiver accepts the messages.
 (S)He then assigns meaning to the message and sends feedback to the sender.

BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION:

 Personal barriers.

 Language.
 Mental state.
 Personality complexes.
 Bias and prejudice.
  Impatience.
 Inhibition attitude.
 Hospitalization.
 Cultural factors.
 Age and sex.

 Physical impediments.

 Psychological factors.

 Mechanical factors.

 Educational difference.

 Organizational barriers.

 Rumours.

 Large institutions.

 Pathological barriers.

Models:

 “A three-dimensional representation of a person or thing or of a proposed structure,

typically on a smaller scale than the original”.
 “A thing used as an example to follow or imitate”.

Models of communication:

“Models of communication are conceptual models used to explain the human

communication process”.

The first major model for communication was developed in 1948.

COMMUNICATION MODELS ARE:

 Shannon's Model.

 Berlo's Model.

 Schramm's Model.

 Linear Model.

 Interactive Model.

 Transactional Model.

 The Rileys' model.

 Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric.

 Westley and MacLean’s Conceptual Model.

 Newcomb’s model of communication.

 George Gerbner’s model.

The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model, 1949

Background

Claude Shannon, an engineer for the Bell Telephone Company, designed the most
influential of all early communication models. His goal was to formulate a theory to guide the
efforts of engineers in finding the most efficient way of transmitting electrical signals from one
location to another (Shannon and Weaver, 1949). Later Shannon introduced a mechanism in the
receiver which corrected for differences between the transmitted and received signal; this
monitoring or correcting mechanism was the forerunner of the now widely used concept of
feedback (information which a communicator gains from others in response to his own verbal
behavior).
 One of the earliest models of communication that introduced was Claude Shannon's
model in 1948.

 This laid the foundation for the different communication models and has greatly helped
and enhanced the communication process in various fields.

 In Shannon's model, the information source typically refers to a person, who then sends a
message with the use of a transmitter.

 This transmitter could be any instrument today, from phones to computers and other
devices. The signals that are sent and received can be vary depending on the method of
communication.

 The box at the bottom called NOISE refers to any signals that may interfere with the
message being carried. This again would depend on the method of communication.

 The receiver is the instrument or the person on the other side that receives the. This
model is the simplest models to understand the workings of the communication process.
 Berlo's Model

 In this model, Berlo stresses on the relationship between the person sending the message
and the receiver.

 According to this model, for the message to be properly encoded and decoded, the
communication skills of both the source and the receiver should be at best. The
communication will be at its best only if the two points are skilled.

 Berlo's model has four main components and each component has its own sub
components describing the assisting factors for each.

Schramm's Model

 Schramm on the other hand, emphasized in 1954 that both the sender and the receiver
take turns playing the role of the encoder and the decoder when it comes to
communication.

 The following diagram illustrates the model proposed by Schramm.

 Linear Model

 It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a
message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs - the
linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also
displays no feedback from the receiver. For example; a letter, email, text message,
lecture.
 Interactive Model

 It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the
receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original
sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way
but a two way process.

Transactional Model

 It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction.
Firstly, it recognizes that each of us is a sender, receiver, not merely a sender or a
receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So
communication is fluid/simultaneous.
  The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication
environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is
the most effect communication area because both communicators share the same
meaning of the message. For example - talking/listening to friends.

The Rileys' model

John W. and Matilda White Riley, a husband and wife team of sociologists, point out the
importance of the sociological view in communication in another way. The two sociologists say
such a view would fit together the many messages and individual reactions to them within an
integrated social structure and process. The Rileys developed a model (Figure 3) to illustrate
these sociological implications in communication.5

The model indicates the communicator (C) emerges as part of a larger pattern, sending
messages in accordance with the expectations and actions of other persons and groups within the
same social structure. This also is true of the receiver (R) in the communications process.

In addition, both the communicator and receiver are part of an overall social system.
Within such an all-embracing system, the communication process is seen as a part of a larger
social process, both affecting it and being in turn affected by it. The model clearly illustrates that
communication is a two-way proposition.

The important point the Rileys' model makes for us is that we send messages as members of
certain primary groups and that our receivers receive our messages as members of primary
groups. As you likely can visualize, group references may be a positive reinforcement of our
messages; at other times they may create a negative force.

Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric.

Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric. Ehninger, Gronbeck and Monroe: One of the earliest
definitions of communication came from the Greek philosopher-teacher Aristotle (384-322
B.C.).

 “Rhetoric” is “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of
persuasion” (Rhetoric 1335b).
 Aristotle’s speaker-centered model received perhaps its fullest development in the hands
of Roman educator Quintilian (ca. 35-95 A.D.), whose Institutio Oratoria was filled with
advice on the full training of a “good” speaker-statesman.
 Aristotle’s model of proof. Kinnevay also sees a model of communication in Aristotle’s
description of proof:

a. Logos, inheres in the content or the message itself

b. Pathos, inheres in the audience

c. Ethos, inheres in the speaker

 Bitzer’s Rhetorical Situation. Lloyd Bitzer developed described the “Rhetorical
Situation,” which, while not a model, identifies some of the classical components of a
communication situation (“The Rhetorical Situation,” Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1 (Winter,
1968):1-15.).

Bitzer defines the “rhetorical situation” as “a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations
presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if
discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action so as to bring
about significant modification of the exigency.

Westley and MacLean’s Conceptual Model, 1957

Background

 Westley and MacLean realized that communication does not begin when one person
starts to talk, but rather when a person responds selectively to his immediate physical
surroundings.
 Each interactant responds to his sensory experience (X1 . . . ) by abstracting out certain
objects of orientation (X1 . . . 3m). Some items are selected for further interpretation or
coding (X’) and then are transmitted to another person, who may or may not be
responding to the same objects of orientation (X,b),
A conceptual model of communication. (Reprinted with permission from Westley and
MacLean, Jr., 1957.)

(a) Objects of orientation (X 1 ... X) in the sensory field of the receiver (B) are transmitted
directly to him in abstracted form (XZ ... X 3) after a process of selection from among all
Xs, such selection being based at least in part on the needs and problems of B. Some or
all messages are transmitted in more than one sense (X3m, for example).

(b) The same Xs are selected and abstracted by communicator A and transmitted as a
message (x') to B, who may or may not have part or all of the Xs in his own sensory field
(X1b). Whether on purpose or not, B transmits feedback (fBA) to A.

(c) The Xs that B receives may result from selected abstractions which are tr ansmitted
without purpose by encoder C, who acts for B and thus extends B's environment. C's
selections are necessarily based in part on feedback (fBC) from B.

(d) The messages which C transmits to B (x") represent C's selections both from the
messages he gets from A (x') and from the abstractions in his own sensory field (X3c,
X4), which may or may not be in A's field. Feedback moves not only from B to A (fBA)
and from B to C (f BC) but also from C to A (fCA). Clearly, in mass communication, a
large number of Cs receive from a very large number of As and transmit to a vastly larger
number of Bs, who simultaneously receive messages from other Cs.
Strengths

i. Accounts for Feedback

ii. Accounts for a sensory field or, in Newcomb’s (1953) words, “objects of co-orientation.”

iii. Accounts for non-binary interactions—more than just two people communicating directly.

iv. Accounts for different modes. E.g. interpersonal vs. mass mediated communication.

Weaknesses

i. Westley and MacLean’s model accounts for many more variables in the typical communication
interaction. It is, however, still two-dimensional. It cannot account for the multiple dimensions of
the typical communication event involving a broad context and multiple message.

New comb’s ABX model

Theodore Newcomb (1953) developed a Co orientation Model as a helpful tool in

relational analysis of dyadic pairs. This simple yet insightful model consists of two
communicators, A and B, and their "orientation" toward some "object of communication", X.
The object of communication could be an actual physical object (such as a house which the
couple is considering purchasing or a painting in a museum), an event (such as baseball, a rock
concert or a christening), an activity (such as playing cards or watching football on television
every Sunday), an attitude (such as loving action movies or being opposed to abortion), or a
behavior (such as selling Aunt Molly's antique quilt without conferring about it first or donating
uniforms to the local little league baseball team). Any subject, behavior, attitude, belief, event, or
object, which is the focus of communication for the two participants, has the potential to be the
"object of communication". Each communicator, A and B, has a simultaneous co orientation
toward his or her communication partner (usually the level of attraction and feelings toward the
partner) and toward the object of communication (the degree of positive or negative attitude
about X).
Newcomb (1953) - ABX Model – is based on psychological view of communication. Newcomb
saw communication as a way in which people orient to their environment and to each other. Base
on the concept of balance between one's attitudes and beliefs and those that are important to an
individual. If the balance is disturbed, communication is used to restore it.
Newcomb is the one that introduces us to fundamentally different shape. It is triangular. Its main
significance, however, lies in the fact that it is the first of our models to introduce the role of
communication in society or a social relationship. For Newcomb this role is simple – it is to
maintain equilibrium within the social system, The way the model works is this, A and B are
communicator and receiver; they may be individuals, or group. X is part of their social
environment. ABX is a system, which means that its internal relations are interdependent: if A
changes, B and X will change as well; or if A changes her/his relationship to X, B will have to
change his/her relationship either with X or with A.
If A and B are friends, and X is something or someone known to both of them, it will be more
important that A and B will be under pressure to communicate until the two friends arrive at
broadly similar attitudes to X. The more important a place X has in their social environment, the
more urgent will be their drive to share an orientation towards him or it. Of course, X may not be
a thing or a [person: it may be any part of their shared environment. A May be the government,
B the labour, and X pay policy: in this case we can see, to oversimplify for the sake of clarity,
that a labour government (a) and the labour (B), who in theory ‘like’ each other, will be under
pressure to hold frequent meetings to try and agree on X, the pay policy. But if A is Anti labour
government who is not friendly with the b, the Labour, there will be less pressure for them to
agree on x. If the AB relationship is not of liking they can differ over X: the system is till in
equilibrium.
Another example of the way equilibrium increases the need to communicate can be seen when X
changes. Immediately A and B need to communicate to establish their co-orientation to the new
X. In time of war, people’s dependence on the media is increased, and so too is the government’s
use of the media. This is because the war, X, is not only of
crucial importance but is also constantly changing. So government and people (A and B) need to
be in constant communication via the mass media.
This model assumes, though does not explicibly state, that people need information. In a
democracy information is usually regarded as a right, but it is not always realized that
information is also a necessity. Without it we cannot feel part of the society, We must have
adequate information about our social environment in order both to know how to react to it and
to identify in our reaction factors that we can share with the fellow members of our peer group,
subculture, or culture. In simpler terms this model suggests the interaction between sender and
receiver for any common goal or cause. Both sender and receiver are at the same level but their
interpretation for the common goal or cause may or may not differ.
Newcomb sees four basic components of this relational system: (1) A's attitude toward X, (2) A's
attraction to B, (3) B's attitude toward X, and (4) B's attraction to A. According to the model,
both A and B have a natural propensity toward balance in their coorientation toward X and their
partner. If A has a negative attitude toward smoking (X) and a very positive attraction toward B,
but B has a positive attitude toward smoking (X) and toward A, then A will experience an
imbalance resulting in a push toward revision of attitudes to regain balance. This "strain toward
balance" can be resolved by one or a combination of (1) A decreasing the amount of liking for B,
(2) A changing his attitude toward X, and (3) A changing B's attitude about X to align with A's.
A's actions are dependent on A's own orientations as well as A's perceptions of B's orientations,
and vice versa for B. Thus, both communicators are continually making predictions or estimates
of their partner's orientations. A has perceptions of what B is thinking and feeling, just as B has
perceptions of what A is thinking and feeling. Based on this model, Wilmot (1987) concludes
that at the very minimum, any thorough index of a dyadic relationship should include the
following two items of information: (1) each person's orientation (that is, their attitude toward
the object of communication and their attraction toward their communication partner) and (2)
what each person perceives their partner's orientations to be.

Gerbner's General Model

Gerbner's General Model emphasizes the dynamic nature of human communication. It

also, in common with other models, gives prominence to the factors, which may affect fidelity.
The model shown diagrammatically is to be read from left to right, beginning at E - Event.
Please click on the model for further details. Gerbner: E & Perceptual dimension
‘E’ is an event, which takes place in the 'reality'. The event (E) is perceived by M (the man (sic)
or machine). The process of perception is not simply a matter of 'taking a picture' of event E. It is
a process of active interpretation (as Schramm & Osgood emphasize in their circular model). The
way that the E is perceived will be determined by a variety of factors, such as the assumptions,
attitudes, point of view, and experience of M. It draws our attention to the way that attitudes,
knowledge level, communication skills, culture and social position affect the encoding and
decoding of messages. E can be a person talking, sending a letter, telephoning, or otherwise
communicating with M. In other words, E could be what we conventionally call the Source or
Transmitter. Equally, E can be an event - a car crash, rain, waves crashing on a beach, a natural
disaster etc. In this case, we could be applying the model to mass media communication, say the
reporting of news. It is this generality in the model, which makes it a useful starting point for the
analysis of wide variety of communication acts. Note that the model, besides drawing our
attention to those factors within E, which will determine perception or interpretation of E, also
draws our attention to three important factors:
Selection: M, the perceiver of the event E (or receiver of the message, if you prefer) selects from
the event, paying more attention to this aspect and less to that. This process of selecting, filtering
is commonly known as gate keeping, particularly in discussion of the media's selection and
discarding of events or aspects of them.
Context: a factor often omitted from communication models, but a vitally important factor. The
sound represented by the spelling 'hair' means an animal in one context,
something that's not supposed to be in your soup in another. Shouting, ranting and raving means
this man's very angry in one context, raving loony in another.
Availability: how many Es are there around? What difference does availability make? If there are
fewer Es around, we are likely to pay more attention to the ones there are. They are likely to be
perceived by us as more 'meaningful'. What sort of Es are there - for example, in the media house
can be pro government or anti government.
Gerbner: E1 and M
E1 is the event-as-perceived (E) by the man (sic) or machine M. In terms of human
communication, a person perceives an event. The perception (E1) they have of that event is more
or less close to the 'real' event. The degree of correspondence between M's perception of event E
(E1) will be a function of M's assumptions, point of view, experiences, social factors etc.
Gerbner: Means and Controls
In the next stage of the model, M becomes the Source of a message about E to someone else. M
produces a statement about the event (SE). To send that message, M has to use channels (or
media) over which he has a greater or lesser degree of control. [For comment on channels, see
the Lasswell Formula.] The question of 'control' relates to M's degree of skill in using
communication channels. If using a verbal channel, how good is he at using words? If using the
Internet, how good is he at using new technology and words? And so on? 'Control' may also be a
matter of access - does he own this medium? can he get to use this medium? Think of teachers in
classrooms controlling the access to communication channels, parents at home, owners of
newspapers, editors of letters pages etc.
Gerbner: SE SE (statement about event) is what we would more normally call the 'message'. S
stands for Signal in fact, so in principle an S can be present without an E, but in that case it
would be noise only. The process can be extended ad infinitum by adding on other receivers
(M2, M3etc.) who have further perceptions (SE1, SE2 etc.) of the statements about perceived
events.
McQuail and Windahl (1981) suggest that the generality of the model makes it useful both for
the analysis of interpersonal and mass communication. For example, on an individual-to-
individual level,
it may......be useful to illustrate communicative and perceptual problems in the psychology of
witnessing before a court: How adequate is the perception of witness M of event E, and how well
is E1 expressed in SE and to what degree does the perception of SE1 of judge M2 correspond to
SE? Where the mass media are concerned, they suggest E could be potential news, M the mass
media, SE media content and M2 the media audience. That then allows us to ask: 'How good is
the correspondence between reality and the stories (between E and SE) about reality given by the
media (M)?' and 'How well is media content (SE) understood by the media audience (M2)?'
Gerbner adds in the contextual elements of perception, culture, the medium, and power.
Person #1 perceives an event, "E". This perception is filtered: (physical ability to experience the
event, personal and cultural selective perceptions), and is therefore one step removed from the
original event ("E1").
CONCLUSION:

We need to keep in mind that these complexities that accompany the communication
models may only make understanding the communication much harder. It is best that both
parties, the source (sender) and the receiver, are clear about what they would like to discuss. This
is also known as the context of the message. This would make it much easier to decode what the
other party is saying without too much trouble. The process of communication, if kept simple
and to the point, should not usually have too many issues, and the message will be easily
understood by both parties.
REFERENCES:

1. K P Neeraja. ‘Textbook of Nursing Education’, 2003. JAYPEE

publications. 336-342.
2. Net sources;
 http://www.currentnursing.in
 http://www.slideshare.net
 Scribd.