Speech and Oral Communication

Oral or speech communication is the preferred form of communication because it flows spontaneously and directly between
individuals. Although public speaking no longer defines the scope of human communication, its functions for a society are equally
important to individuals and groups (Gronbeck et al 1994)

Etymological Meaning of Communication

From Latin word “communis”—Com and munis, (common, public)
Com- together
Munis/munia- duties working together

What Is Communication?
 The simultaneous sharing and creating of meaning through human symbolic interaction.
 The imparting or exchanging of information or news.
 Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information,
news, ideas, and feelings but also create and share meaning
Functions of Speeches
1.Speeches are used for self-definition.
2. Speeches are used to disseminate ideas and information.
3. Speeches are used to debate questions of fact, value, and policy in communities.
4. Speeches are used to transform individuals and groups.

Values of Communication
Communication helps us to define and understand ourselves and our environment
Communication breaks barriers between two or more persons; thus, leading to relationships
Communication creates bonding in groups and affirms the human need to belong
Communication facilitates cooperative action toward goal attainment.
Communication informs and enlightens people for knowledge’s sake
Communication leads to enduring friendships and intimacy between individuals and among groups
Communication enhances our understanding of and respect for different cultures
Communication opens avenues for growth of the individual and society

The models of Communication

—Models provide a schema for understanding various phenomena
—A good model presents the essential nature of what it describes by highlighting key features thought important by model
builder.

Why models?
• Presents the essential nature of what it describes by highlighting key features thought important by the model builder.
• Visualizes for us how certain features are related to another and provides a more orderly understanding that we might have
without the model.
• At another level models have heuristic value; that is, they provide new ways to conceive of hypothetical ideas and
relationships.

Models of Communication
1. The Aristotelian Model
• Was first developed among the Greeks in ancient times
• Greek citizens thus placed a “premium” on one’s persuasiveness to his audience.
• This quality of persuasiveness is called “ethos.”

2. The Lasswell Model

—One of the earliest models of communication was a verbal model model advanced by Harold Lasswell in 1948

—Lasswell model suggests the message flow in a multicultural society with multiple audiences. The flow of message is through
various channels. And also this communication model is similar to Aristotle’s communication model.
—In this model, the communication component who refers the research area called “Control Analysis”,
—Says what is refers to “Content Analysis”,
—In which channel is refers to “Media Analysis”,
—To Whom is refers to “Audience Analysis”
—With What Effect is refers to “Effect Analysis”
Example:
—CNN NEWS – A water leak from Japan’s tsunami-crippled nuclear power station resulted in about 100 times the permitted
level of radioactive material flowing into the sea, operator Tokyo Electric Power Co said on Saturday.
—Who – TEPC Operator
—What – Radioactive material flowing into sea
—Channel – CNN NEWS (Television medium)

—Whom – Public
—Effect – Alert the people of japan from the radiation.
 —This model is about process of communication and its function to society, According to Lasswell there are three functions for
communication:
—Surveillance of the environment—functions of diplomats and political leaders designed to alert society to the dangers and
opportunities it faces
—Correlation of components of society—functions of journalists, educators and poll takers designed to gather, coordinate and
integrate into meaningful form
—Cultural transmission between generation—functions carried out by the family, church, school and community in order to
hand down values, customs and traditions.

3. The Shannon-Weaver Model

—A model originally designed for telephone communication, it identifies five (5) basic components:

—Information Source The Source All human communication has some source(information source in Shannon’s terminology),
some person or group of persons with a given purpose, a reason for engaging in communication. You’ll also find the terms
transmitter and communicator used.
—Transmitter (aka Encoder) Once the purpose of the source has been decided, there must be a specified format fort he message
to take. This is what the transmitter (encoder) does; it takes the concept that the source wants sent out, and puts it into a suitable
format for later interpretation.
—Channel is essential for meaningful communication that a suitable means to transmit the message be selected. The channel is
the route that the message travels on, be it verbal, written, electronic, or otherwise.
—Noise Source-- It is inevitable that noise may come into play during the communication process. Noise could be considered
an interference or distortion that change s the initial message; anything that can misconstrue the message may be noise. Noise
can be physical, as in an actual sound that muffles the message as it is being said, or it can be semantic, like if the vocabulary
used within the message is beyond the knowledge spectrum of its recipient.
—Receiver--In order for communication to be executed, there must be a second party at the end of the channel the source has
used. The receiver takes in the message that the source has sent out.
—Destination--The intended audience to the message.
—Feedback--relates to the source whether their message has been received, and most importantly, if it has been interpreted
accurately. Without feedback, the source would never know if the communication was successful

4. Schramm's Model

—The fourth model of communication presents another heuristic insight by the fact that it emphasizes the dynamism of human
communication. People interact in constant cynical fashion.
—Schramm finally captures the notions of process and interaction.

5. BERLO’S Model
Berlo acknowledged the complexity of the communication process as evidenced by the influence of several factors on
communication, to include an all-encompassing system --- the communicator’s socio-cultural framework.

1. White's Model

—White’s model implies a step-by-step sequence of events that starts with thinking in the mind of the speaker and ends
—Thinking—a desire, feeling, or an emotion provides a speaker a stimulus to communicate a need.
—Symbolyzing—before a speaker can utter sounds, a speaker has to know the code of oral language with which to represent his
ideas and in order to make his selection.
—Expressing—the speaker uses his vocal mechanism to produce the sounds of language accompanied by his facial expression,
gestures, and body stance.
—Transmitting—sound waves and light waves carry he speaker’s message
—Receiving—sound waves impinge upon the listener’s ears.
—Decoding—The listener interprets the language symbols he receives and thinks further.
2. Dance Model

Another very important model of communication is the Helical Model of communication. The Helical Model of communication
was proposed by Frank Dance in 1967 to throw some more light on communication process. Dance thought of communication
process similar to helix.

Types of Speech Context

1. Intrapersonal – This refers to communication that centers on one person where the speaker acts both as the sender and the
receiver of message. “The message is made up of your thoughts and feelings. The channel is your brain, which processes what you
are thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that as you talk to yourself, you discard certain ideas and replace them with
others.”
2. Interpersonal – This refers to communication between and among people and establishes personal relationship between and
among them. Solomon and Theiss (2013) state that “the inter part of the word highlights how interpersonal communication connects
people... when you engage in interpersonal communication, you and another person become linked together... The personal part
means that your unique qualities as a person matter during interpersonal communication...”
Types of Interpersonal Context
Dyad Communication – communication that occurs between two people Example: • You offered feedback on the
speech performance of your classmate. • You provided comfort to a friend who was feeling down.

Small Group – This refers to communication that involves at least three but not more than twelve people engaging in
a face-to-face interaction to achieve a desired goal. In this type of communication, all participants can freely share ideas in a
loose and open discussion.

3. Public – This type refers to communication that requires you to deliver or send the message before or in front of a group. The
message can be driven by informational or persuasive purposes. “In public communication, unlike in interpersonal and small group,
the channels are more exaggerated. The voice is louder and the gestures are more expansive because the audience is bigger. The
speaker might use additional visual channels such as slides or a Power Point presentation.” (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p 19)
4. Mass Communication – This refers to communication that takes place through television, radio, newspapers, magazines,
books, billboards, internet, and other types of media.

Types of Speech Style

The context dictates and affects the way people communicate, which results in various speech styles. According to Joos (1968),
there are five speech styles. These are (1) intimate, (2) casual, (3) consultative, (4) formal, and (5) frozen. Each style hdictates what
appropriate language or vocabulary should be used or observed.
1. Intimate – This style is private, which occurs between or among close family members or individuals. The language used in
this style may not be shared in public.
2. Casual – This style is common among peers and friends. Jargon, slang, or the vernacular language are used.
3. Consultative – This style is the standard one. Professional or mutually acceptable language is a must in this style. Examples
of situations are communication between teachers and students, employers and employees, doctor and patient, judge and lawyer, or
President and his/her constituents.
4. Formal – This style is used in formal settings. Unlike the consultative style, this is one-way. Examples are sermons by priests
and ministers, State of the Nation Address of the President, formal speeches, or pronouncements by judges.
5. Frozen – This style is “frozen” in time and remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in ceremonies. Common examples are the
Preamble to the Constitution, Lord’s Prayer, and Allegiance to country or flag.

Definition of Speech Acts

A speech act is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect. Some of the functions which are carried out using
speech acts are offering an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. A speech act might contain just
one word or several words or sentences. For example, “Thanks” and “Thank you for always being there for me. I really appreciate
it” both show appreciation regardless of the length of the statement

Three Types of Speech Act

According to J. L. Austin (1962), a philosopher of language and the developer of the Speech Act Theory, there are three types of
acts in every utterance, given the right circumstances or context. These are:
Locutionary act is the actual act of uttering.
“Please do the dishes.”

Illocutionary act is the social function of what is said.

By uttering the locution “Please do the dishes,” the speaker requests the addressee to wash the dishes.

Perlocutionary act is the resulting act of what is said. This effect is based on the particular context in which the speech act was
mentioned.
“Please do the dishes” would lead to the addressee washing the dishes.

Searle’s Classifications of Speech Act

As a response to Austin’s Speech Act Theory, John Searle (1976), a professor from the University of California, Berkeley, classified
illocutionary acts into five distinct categories.
1. Assertive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses belief about the truth of a proposition. Some examples
of an assertive act are suggesting, putting forward, swearing, boasting, and concluding.
Ex. No one makes better pancakes than I do
2. Directive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the addressee perform an action. Some examples of
a directive act are asking, ordering, requesting, inviting, advising, and begging.
Ex. Please close the door
3. Commissive – a type of illocutionary act which commits the speaker to doing something in the future. Examples of a
commissive act are promising, planning, vowing, and betting.
From now on, I will participate in our group activity
4. Expressive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses his/her feelings or emotional reactions. Some
examples of an expressive act are thanking, apologizing, welcoming, and deploring.
I am sorry for not helping
5. Declaration – a type of illocutionary act which brings a change in the external situation. Simply put, declarations bring into
existence or cause the state of affairs which they refer to. Some examples of declarations are blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding,
passing a sentence, and excommunicating.
Ex. You are fired
Verbal and nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication and verbal communication are similar in that they are both culturally determined, but there are some
characteristics that distinguish the nonverbal dimension of communication from the spoken and written word.

Verbal Communication Skills

1.Volume is the loudness or softness of tone
2.Enunciation and pronunciation-refers to the proper pronunciation of the sounds on a word or the blending of sounds
3.Pitch-is the highness or lowness of vocal tone
4.Stress is the emphasis on words
5.Phrasing-pauses on speech
6.Rate is the speed at which a person speaks
Nonverbal Communication Skills
1.Use of body-Kinesics

Eye contact
Gestures-hand and body movement
Facial expression--A facial expression is one or more motions or positions of the muscles beneath the skin of the face.
Posture-the way the body is positioned (sitting/standing)
Haptics-interpretation of touch

2.Paralanguage-The voice is a significant medium of nonverbal communication. Paralanguage is how we speak

•3. Proxemics
Intimate distance (0 to 18 inches) is reserved for intimate activities include making love, holding intimate or confidential
conversations, hugging, kissing, and snuggling.
Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet) is used for most conversations with family, friends, and most acquaintances.
Social distance (4 to 12 feet) is the distance we feel most comfortable with transacting business, sitting during committee meetings,
and interacting with the hotel clerk, the supermarket cashier, or the police officer giving us a ticket.
Public distance (12 to 25 feet) is used for public ceremonies, speeches, large group meetings, and class lectures. If the distance
between people is greater than 25 feet, communication is often limited to shouting and exaggerated nonverbal gestures
Functions of communication
Communication acts to control member behavior in several ways. Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines
that employees are required to follow. When employees, for instance for instances are required to first communicate any job related
grievance to their immediate boss, to follow their job description, or to comply with company policies, communication is performing
a control function. But informal communication also controls behavior. When work groups tease or harass a member who produces
too much (and makes the rest of the group look bad) they are informally communicating with, and controlling the member’s
behavior.
Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well they are doing and what can be done to
improve performance if it’s subpar. We saw his operating in our review of goal-setting and reinforcement theories. The formation of
specific goals, feedback on progress toward the goals, and reinforcement of desired behavior all stimulate motivation and require
communication.
For many employees, their work group is a primary source for social interaction. The communication that takes place within the
group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show their frustration and feelings of satisfaction. Communication therefore
provides release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs.
The final function that communication perms relates to its role in facilitating decision making. It provides the information that
individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data to identify and evaluate alternative choices.
Emotional Expression-Communication facilitates people’s expression of their feelings and emotions.

Types of Speech Context

1. Intrapersonal – This refers to communication that centers on one person where the speaker acts both as the sender and the
receiver of message. “The message is made up of your thoughts and feelings. The channel is your brain, which processes what you
are thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that as you talk to yourself, you discard certain ideas and replace them with
others.” (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p 16)
A. Reflected Appraisal
It holds that the self-concept is largely shaped by the responses of others.
This means that a person is deeply influenced by people’s attitude towards him or her.
A person views his/her “self” as being viewed by others.
B. Self-Attribution
Anita E. Woolfolk (1998) clarifies that at the heart of attribution theory is the perception of individual perception.
Ex. If a student believes he lacks the ability to deal with higher mathematics, he will probably act on this belief
even if his actual ability is well above average.

•One concept of self-awareness is explained by Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham in the JOHARI WINDOW

Known to Self Not known to self

Known to others OPEN BLIND
Not known to others HIDDEN UNKNOWN

2. Interpersonal – This refers to communication between and among people and establishes personal relationship between and
among them. Solomon and Theiss (2013) state that “the inter part of the word highlights how interpersonal communication connects
people... when you engage in interpersonal communication, you and another person become linked together... The personal part
means that your unique qualities as a person matter during interpersonal communication...” (p. 5)
Types of Interpersonal Context

a. Dyadic Communication (Interview)- •Dyadic speech communication is described as communication occuring between two
people who engage in face-to-face interaction for purposes of social facilitation or fulfillment or the exchange of ideas and
information. The purpose in the transaction may range from casually purposive to highly purposive. The latter characteristic is most
evident in a formal interview.

a.1 conversation- friendly and informal exchange between two people. It has no formal purpose and is less serious. The
conversation may provide pleasure and relaxation

b.2 dialogue-the deepest, most intimate and most personal relationships are formed. Trust, warmth and concern are needed
for a sustained relationship between two people. Marital Communication is an example.

b.3 interview-it is the most purposive of dyad forms. It is organized consisting of an opening, a body and a closing.

b. Small Group Communication-This refers to communication that involves at least three but not more than twelve people
engaging in a face-to-face interaction to achieve a desired goal. In this type of communication, all participants can freely share ideas
in a loose and open discussion.

3. Public Communication- This type refers to communication that requires you to deliver or send the message before or in front of
a group. The message can be driven by informational or persuasive purposes. “In public communication, unlike in interpersonal and
small group, the channels are more exaggerated. The voice is louder and the gestures are more expansive because the audience is
bigger. The speaker might use additional visual channels such as slides or a Power Point presentation.” (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p
19)
4. Mass Communication – This refers to communication that takes place through television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books,
billboards, internet, and other types of media

Types of Speech Style

The context dictates and affects the way people communicate, which results in various speech styles. According to Joos (1968),
there are five speech styles. These are (1) intimate, (2) casual, (3) consultative, (4) formal, and (5) frozen. Each style dictates what
appropriate language or vocabulary should be used or observed.
1. Intimate – This style is private, which occurs between or among close family members or individuals. The language used in
this style may not be shared in public.
2. Casual – This style is common among peers and friends. Jargon, slang, or the vernacular language are used.
3. Consultative – This style is the standard one. Professional or mutually acceptable language is a must in this style. Examples
of situations are communication between teachers and students, employers and employees, doctor and patient, judge and lawyer, or
President and his/her constituents.
4. Formal – This style is used in formal settings. Unlike the consultative style, this is one-way. Examples are sermons by priests
and ministers, State of the Nation Address of the President, formal speeches, or pronouncements by judges.
5. Frozen – This style is “frozen” in time and remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in ceremonies. Common examples are the
Preamble to the Constitution, Lord’s Prayer, and Allegiance to country or flag.

SPEECH ACTS

Definition of Speech Acts

A speech act is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect. Some of the functions which are carried out using
speech acts are offering an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. A speech act might contain just
one word or several words or sentences. For example, “Thanks” and “Thank you for always being there for me. I really appreciate
it” both show appreciation regardless of the length of the statement.

Three Types of Speech Act

According to J. L. Austin (1962), a philosopher of language and the developer of the Speech Act Theory, there are three types of
acts in every utterance, given the right circumstances or context. These are:
1. Locutionary act is the actual act of uttering
“Please do the dishes.”

2. Illocutionary act is the social function of what is said.

By uttering the locution “Please do the dishes,” the speaker requests the addressee to wash the dishes.

3. Perlocutionary act is the resulting act of what is said. This effect is based on the particular context in which the speech act was
mentioned.

Searle’s Classifications of Speech Act

As a response to Austin’s Speech Act Theory, John Searle (1976), a professor from the University of California, Berkeley, classified
illocutionary acts into five distinct categories.
1. Assertive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses belief about the truth of a proposition. Some examples
of an assertive act are suggesting, putting forward, swearing, boasting, and concluding.
2. Directive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the addressee perform an action. Some examples of
a directive act are asking, ordering, requesting, inviting, advising, and begging.
3. Commissive – a type of illocutionary act which commits the speaker to doing something in the future. Examples of a
commissive act are promising, planning, vowing, and betting.
4. Expressive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses his/her feelings or emotional reactions. Some
examples of an expressive act are thanking, apologizing, welcoming, and deploring.
5. Declaration – a type of illocutionary act which brings a change in the external situation. Simply put, declarations bring into
existence or cause the state of affairs which they refer to. Some examples of declarations are blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding,
passing a sentence, and excommunicating.