CHAPTER 7: PROCESS PLANNING

7.1 Introduction
Process planning consists of preparing a set of instructions that describe how to fabricate a
part or build an assembly which will satisfy engineering design specifications. The resulting
set of instructions may include any or all of the following:
Operation sequence, machines, tools, materials, tolerances, notes, cutting parameters,
processes (such as how to heat-treat), jigs, fixtures, methods, time standards, setup details,
inspection criteria, gauges, and graphical representations of the part in various stages of
completion. It is obvious that process planning can be a very complex and time-consuming
job requiring a large amount of data. In addition, several people may participate in developing
a process plan, because no one person may have the broad expertise required. This is further
complicated by the fact that the plan is a critical element in making the part correctly and
economically.
Process planning received little attention until the latter 1970s. Informally, process planning
has been performed for hundreds of years ever since someone first developed instructions to
make something. However, the industrial revolution fostered a need to formalize process
planning in the manufacturing environment. Initially, manufactured parts had few components
and were made by a small number of people. In this setting, formal process plans were not
required. As the number of parts and complexities increased, a need for formal process plans
was recognized. Nevertheless, until the 1970s the importance of process planning was
understood primarily by those closely involved in making the individual parts. Consequently,
little was done to automate this process.
Today’s manufacturing environment has become very competitive and complex. This
complexity is a function of more intricate parts and factors, such as machining technologies
that permit making a part several different ways, small lot sizes that neither support long setup
times nor provide frequent learning reinforcement for the machine operator, increased
government regulation that requires documentation of process plans, many types of materials
that may require special tools and/or processes, and less skilled machinists. These factors
combined with increased emphasis on reducing manufacturing costs have affirmed the
significance of process planning, and corroborated that substantial savings can be achieved by
automating the preparation of process plans. Consequently, this function has been receiving
widespread attention.
The benefits that have been reported from successful applications of auto mating some of the
process planning functions are impressive and have one of the shortest payback periods of all
CAD/CAM technologies. Some typical benefits include:
1. 50% increase in process planner productivity
2. 40% increase in capacity of existing equipment
3. 25% reduction in setup costs
4. 12% reduction in tooling
5. 10% reduction in scrap and rework
6. 10% reduction in shop labor
7. 6% reduction in work in process

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 8. 4% reduction in material

Some of these benefits may not appear to be related to the automation of process planning.
However, consider what can happen if the process planner’s productivity is significantly
improved:

1. More time can be spent on methods improvements and cost-reduction activities.

2. Routings can be consistently optimized.
3. Manufacturing instructions can be provided in greater detail.
4. Preproduction lead times can be reduced.
5. Responsiveness to engineering changes can be increased.

Benefits such as these are not going unnoticed.

7.2 Key Definitions

Computer Managed Process Planning (CMPP) A generative process planning system

developed by United Technologies and the U.S. Army.
Decision table A tabular method for expressing the actions that should follow if certain
conditions exist. The table is composed of four major components: condition stubs, condition
entries, action stubs, and action entries.
Design and Classification Information Retrieval (DCLASS) A general-purpose computer
system for processing classification and decision-making logic.
Decision tree A graphical method for expressing decision-making logic (the actions that
should follow if certain conditions exist). The graph is composed of a root, branches, and
nodes.
Generative process planning A process planning system, including a data base and decision
logic that will automatically generate a process plan from graphical and textual engineering
specifications of the part.
Geometric Modeling Applications Interface Program (GMAP) A project funded by the
U.S. Air Force to expand upon the results obtained in the Product Definition Data Interface
(PDDI) project. PDDI is extended to cover two new part types (turbine disks and blades), and
applications in inspection, analysis, and product support.
Hierarchical tree A method for expressing decision information and logic as a graphical tree.
Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) A standard sequential file format for
interchanging product definition data (wire frame edge-vertex geometry, annotations, and
structure) among CAD systems.
Operation code (op code) An alphanumeric code used to represent a series of operations
performed at one machine or one work station.
Operation plan (op plan) A detailed description of operations represented by an op code. All
operations performed at a machine or work station may not be described, only those deemed
necessary to concisely and clearly describe what tasks are to be performed.
Part family matrix A matrix used to represent the group technology codes for parts in a
family. The columns of the matrix represent character positions in the group technology code,
and the rows represent the number of characters that can be assigned to any one position in
the code.
Process planning The preparation of a set of instructions that describe how to fabricate a part
or build an assembly which will satisfy engineering design specifications.

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Product Data Exchange Specification (PDES) A project initiated by the IGES organization
to develop specifications that will facilitate transferring a complete product model with
sufficient information as to be interpretable by advanced CAD/CAM applications, such as
process planning. The product model includes data relative to the entire life cycle of a product,
encompassing design to field support.
Product Definition Data Interface (PDDI) A project funded by the U.S. Air Force to define
and demonstrate a prototype system that replaces the engineering drawing as the interface
between design and all manufacturing functions, including process planning, numerical
control programming, quality assurance, tool design, and production planning and control.
This concept is based on a neutral file exchange format that can be used to translate data
among dissimilar CAD and CAM systems.
Standard for Transfer and Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP) A world wide
standard being defined by the International Standards Organization (ISO) to capture the
information comprising a computerized product model in a neutral format that can be used
throughout the life cycle of the product.
Standard process plan A sequence of op codes representing all operations included in a
process plan for any part in a particular part family.
Tolerance chart A procedure for calculating the dimensions and associated tolerances that
must be maintained for each cut so that the finished part will satisfy blueprint specifications.
Variant process planning Computer-aided process planning involving a library of standard
process plans; interactive editing programs; and storage, retrieval, and documentation
capabilities. The plan for a new part is created by retrieving and modifying the standard
process plan for a given part family.

7.3 The role of Process Planning in CAD/CAM Integration

With the emergence of CAD/CAM integration as a predominant thrust in discrete parts

industries, the communication between design engineering and manufacturing engineering
has become a very important consideration. Most firms are using CAD techniques extensively
to design their products; similarly, they are using some CAM techniques, such as
computerized numerical control (CNC) machines, to manufacture products. However, in
many of these firms there is very little communication between design and manufacturing. As
was noted in the previous chapter, the norm is well described by engineering designs the
product and then throws the drawings over the wall for manufacturing to make the product.”
Process planning emerges as a key factor in CAD/CAM integration because it is the
link between CAD and CAM. After engineering designs are communicated to manufacturing,
either on paper or electronic media, the process planning function converts the designs into
instructions used to make the specified part. CIM cannot occur until this process is automated;
consequently, automated process planning is the link between CAD and CAM.
As discussed in Chapter 6, group technology is an important element in CAD/CAM
integration, because it provides a basis and a methodology for engineering and manufacturing
communications. Automated process planning provides a means to facilitate this
communication and remove the “wall” between engineering and manufacturing. The
significance of group technology to this integration will be reinforced in this chapter with the
realization that most CAPP systems utilize group technology concepts. As a result, it is easy
to understand why process planning and group technology has received a great deal of
attention as CAD and CAM technologies are implemented and integrated.

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7.4 Approaches to Process Planning

Traditionally, process planning has been performed manually by most companies. Figure 7.1
depicts the information flow as a process plan is developed and portions are sent to other
departments within a company. As companies seek to automate this function, two approaches
are considered: variant and generative. Each of these approaches will be discussed in this
section.

Figure 7.1: Process plan information flow

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7.4.1 Manual Approach

Under the manual approach, a skilled individual, often a former machinist examines a part
drawing to develop the necessary instructions for the process plan. This requires knowledge
of the manufacturing capabilities of the factory: machine and process (such as heat-treat)
capabilities, tooling, materials, standard practices, and associated costs. Very little of this
information is documented; often this information exists only in the minds of the process
planners. When a process plan is being prepared, if the planner has a good memory, a process
plan for a similar part might be retrieved and modified. In a more organized company, some
“workbooks” might be used to store and provide limited retrieval capabilities. This approach
relies almost entirely on the knowledge of the individual planner. Consequently, process plans
developed for the same part by different planners will usually differ unless the part is simple
to make.
The same planner may develop a different process plan for the same part if there is a
long time lag between the analyses for that part, because the planner’s experience may change
during the time interval and/or shop conditions may change significantly. For instance, a
critical machine might have been under repair and because the part was needed as soon as
possible, a different machine might have been specified, even though the cost to make the part
might be considerably greater. In this case, when the critical machine is repaired, the process
plan probably will not be modified because of the manual effort involved.
Manual preparation involves subjective judgments that reflect the personal preferences
and experiences of the planner; consequently, plans prepared by different planners for similar
parts can vary significantly. Furthermore, as much as 40% of the task involves the preparation
of documentation for the plan. As a result, this approach is very labor-intensive, time-
consuming, and tedious. For example, it is not uncommon for a process plan for one part in
the aerospace industry to contain more than 100 pages.

Despite these disadvantages, the manual approach is generally preferred by small firms that
have few process plans to prepare. However, as the volume of the plans to be prepared
increases, a point is reached where some type of computerized system should be considered to
assist in this task. The exact point will depend on the cost of the system and the benefits that
can be realized. These factors are rapidly changing as the cost of computing decreases and
process planning system capabilities increase with changes in technology.

7.4.2 Variant Approach

The variant approach is one of two approaches, the other being generative, used to develop a
CAPP system. A variant system is much simpler than a generative approach, but it can require
more human interaction. It is important to realize that all CAPP systems in use outside
research environments require someone to input the specifications (shape, features,
dimensions, tolerances, instructions, etc.) of Variant CAPP systems are designed to utilize the
fast storage and retrieval capabilities of a computer, and to provide an interactive environment
between the planner and the computer. This type of system is developed so that a planner with
limited computer knowledge can effectively prepare a process plan. Thus, the planner is
prompted for the necessary data, and the inputs are edited. If errors are detected, the user is
prompted to correct the erroneous entry.
A variant system requires a data base containing standard process plans. A standard
process plan for a family consists of all instructions (such as operations, tools, and notes) that
would be included in a process plan for any part in that family. Initially, group technology

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concepts are usually applied to form families of parts. Then a standard process plan is created
for each of these families and stored in the computer.
The process planning task for a new part starts with coding and classifying the part
into a part family using group technology. The standard process plan for this family can then
be retrieved from the computer. Since this plan contains instructions for all parts in this family,
some editing may be required for a specific part. Therefore, variant systems provide editing
programs to facilitate this procedure. Often, very little editing is required, because the new
plan is a variation (variant) of the standard process plan. As a result, considerable time is
saved in preparation of the plan, and a significantly greater consistency in plans is obtained.
After editing, the plan can be stored and/or printed out.
If the part being planned cannot be classified into an existing family of parts, the
planner can develop a new standard process plan using interactive computer programs. In
essence, a variant CAPP system attempts to create a work environment for the planner that
utilizes the computer to “remember” (store and retrieve) similar process plans. Interactive
programs are provided so that any required editing can be performed expediently. Also,
programs are provided to create any documentation required.

7.4.3 Generative Approach

A generative CAPP system will automatically generate a process plan from engineering
specifications (graphical and textual) of the finished part. Many times when engineering
specifications are considered, only the graphical drawings come to mind; however, quite often
extensive textual information is also required, such as material type, special processing details,
and special inspection instructions. Considering the many details contained in some process
plans and the complexity of some parts, it is understandable that a truly universal generative
process planning system has not been developed. However, systems of this type have been
developed for special classes of parts with limited types of geometric features.
The first step in generating a process plan for a new part using a generative system is
to input the engineering specifications into the system. Ideally, these specifications would be
read directly from a CAD system. For this to occur, the CAPP system must have the ability to
recognize the features of a part, such as a hole, slot, gear tooth, and chamfer, as stored in raw
data form in the computer. Although this is being done in the laboratory for simple parts, it is
pragmatically beyond the state of the art. Consequently, the simpler approach of coding the
physical features of the part is used. The coding scheme utilized must define all geometric
features and associated details such as locations, tolerances, and sizes. Additionally, it must
describe the part in its rough state, because the system must be able to determine what
material must be removed to obtain a finished part. In a metal fabrication environment the
initial form of a part may vary considerably; for example, it may be a solid block of metal or a
“near-net-shape” casting. The near- net-shape casting may require very little machining.
The second major component of a generative system is a set of programs that can
transform the coded data and accompanying textual information into a detailed process plan.
In general, it may be impossible to develop such a program; however, we will consider some
of the things that a generative system must do.

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