Computer Aided Manufacturing

(CAM)

GROUP TECHNOLOGY
 Introduction to Group Technology (GT)

• Manufacturing a most important activity for a nation’s

growth.
• Mass production or batch production highly desirable
• Production (batch or mass) must be made as efficient
as possible.
• For this there must be an integration between the
design and manufacturing functions in a firm.
• An approach directed at both of these objectives is
“Group Technology”
Introduction to Group Technology (GT)

• Group Technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy

in which similar parts are identified and grouped
together to take advantage of their similarities in
design and production.
• Similar parts are arranged into part families, where
each part family possesses similar design and/or
manufacturing characteristics.
• The processing of each member of the given family is
similar – results in manufacturing efficiencies.
• This efficiencies are generally achieved by arranging
the production equipment into machine groups, or cells
to facilitate work flow.
• Whereas grouping the production equipment into
machine cells, where each cell specializes in the
production of a part family, is called cellular
manufacturing.
Introduction to Group Technology (GT)

• GT and cellular manufacturing can be applied to a

variety of manufacturing solutions.
• GT is most appropriate under
• Plant using traditional batch production and a
process type layout
• High material handling effort
• High process inventory
• Long manufacturing lead times
• The parts can be grouped into families
Implementing Group Technology (GT)

• There are two major tasks that a company must

undertake when it implements Group Technology.

1. Identifying the part families. If the plant makes

10,000 different parts, reviewing all of the part
drawings and grouping the parts into families is a
substantial task that consumes a significant amount of
time.

2. Rearranging production machines into cells. It is time

consuming and costly to plan and accomplish this
rearrangement, and the machines are not producing
during the changeover.
Benefits of Group Technology (GT)

• GT promotes standardiztion of tooling, fixturing, and

setups.
• Material handling is reduced because parts are moved
within a machine cell rather than within the entire
factory.
• Process planning and production scheduling are
simplified.
• Setup times are reduced, resulting in lower
manufacturing lead times.
• WIP is reduced.
• Higher quality work is accomplished.
• Improved worker satisfaction.
TYPES OF PLANT LAYOUT

PRODUCT LAYOUT
PROCESS LAYOUT

Group Technology (GT) LAYOUT

HYBRID LAYOUT

FIXED POSITION LAYOUT

Part Families

• A part family is a collection of parts that are similar

either because of geometric shape and size or because
similar processing steps are required in their
manufacture.
• The parts within a family are different, but their
similarities are close enough to merit their inclusion as
members of the part family.

Parts/yr : 100000 10000 100

Material : CR Steel S.S 7075 Al
Tolerance : ± 0.01 in. ± 0.001 in. ± 0.0001 in.

Rotational part family requiring similar turning operations

Part Families

Similar prismatic parts requiring similar milling operations

Dissimilar parts requiring similar machining operations (hole

drilling, surface milling

Material : Steel Plastic

Identical designed parts requiring completely different manufacturing
processes
 Grouping Part Families
• There are Four general methods for solving part families
grouping.
• All the Four are time consuming and involve the analysis of
much of data by properly trained personnel.
• The Four methods are:
1. Visual inspection.
• Based on the parts or photos of the parts
2. Composite Part Method
• The features of all the parts of the part family are
combined into a hypothetical composite part

3. Parts classification and coding.

• Identifying similarities and differences among parts and
relating them by means of a coding scheme
4. Production flow analysis.
• Using information contained on route sheets to classify
parts
1- Visual Inspection Method
• The visual inspection method is the least
sophisticated and least expensive method.
• It involves the classification of parts into families by
looking at either the physical parts or their
photographs and arranging them into groups having
similar features.
3- Parts classification and Coding

• Most time consuming

• In parts classification and coding, similarities among
parts are identified, and these similarities are related in
a coding system.

• Two categories of part similarities can be distinguished:

1. Design attributes, which concerned with part
characteristics such as geometry, size and
material.
2. Manufacturing attributes, which consider the
sequence of processing steps required to make a
part.
2- Parts classification and Coding
• Reasons for using a classification and coding system:
1. Design retrieval. A designer faced with the task of
developing a new part can use a design retrieval
system to determine if a similar part already exist.
A simple change in an existing part would take
much less time than designing a whole new part
from scratch.

2. Automated process planning. The part code for a

new part can be used to search for process plans
for existing parts with identical or similar codes.

3. Machine cell design. The part codes can be used to

design machine cells capable of producing all
members of a particular part family, using the
composite part concept.
Parts classification and Coding
• Most classification and coding systems are based
on one of the following:
• Part design attributes
• Part manufacturing attributes
• Both design and manufacturing attributes
Parts design attributes

•Major dimensions
•Basic external shape
•Basic internal shape
•Length/diameter ratio
•Material type
•Part function
•Tolerances
•Surface finish
Parts manufacturing attributes

•Major process
•Operation sequence
•Batch size
•Annual production
•Machine tools
•Cutting tools
•Material type
Part Coding Schemes

1. Hierarchical structure (monocode)

• Interpretation of each successive digit depends
on the value of the preceding digit

2. Chain-type structure (polycode)

• Interpretation of each symbol is always the same
• No dependence on previous digits

3. Hybrid (Mixed-code) structure

• Combination of hierarchical and chain-type
structures
Hierarchical structure (monocode)
Hierarchical structure (monocode)
Hierarchical structure (monocode)
Chain-type structure (polycode)
Chain-type structure (polycode)
Chain-type structure (polycode)
CODING ON PAN CARD
Made up of total 10 alphanumeric
characters
For e.g
◦ BQAPS9103P
First three characters: 
◦ Alphabetic series between AAA to ZZZ. For
instance, the beginning of your PAN could be
BEP or APZ; the selection is random.
CODING ON PAN CARD
Fourth character: 
◦ The fourth character of your PAN always
represents your status.
◦ The fourth character for a majority of PAN
holders is the letter “P”, which stands for
“person”. The other nine letters used are
◦ C – company; H - Hindu Undivided Family; F-
partnership firm; A - association of persons; T –
Trust; B - body of individuals; L- represents local
authority J - artificial juridical person and G -
government
CODING ON PAN CARD
Fifth character: 
◦ Represents the first alphabet of your last name or
surname.
Sixth to Ninth character: 
◦ The next four characters are sequential numbers between
0001 to 9999. Like the first three characters, here too the
selection is random.
Tenth character: 
◦ The last and tenth character in the PAN is an alphabetic
check digit. Alphabetic check digit is generated by
applying a formula to the preceding nine letters and
numbers.
 IMPORTANCE
A unique number enables the income-tax
department to link all transactions of the
person with the department.
These transactions include tax payments, tax
deducted at source/tax collected at source
credits, returns of income/wealth/gift,
specified transactions, correspondence and so
on.
PAN, thus, acts as a unique identifier of
persons for the tax department.
Hybrid Code (Mixed)
Hybrid Code (Mixed)
Hybrid Code (Mixed)
Optiz Code (Mixed)
Optiz Code (Mixed)
Digits (1-5) for Rotational parts in the Opitz System
Optiz Code (Mixed)
Optiz Code (Mixed)
Example: Optiz part coding System
• Given the rotational part design below, determine the form code in the
Optiz parts classification and coding system.
Example: Optiz part coding System
• Given the rotational part design below, determine the form code in the
Optiz parts classification and coding system.
3- Production Flow Analysis (PFA)

• Method to form Part family and formation of machine

cells developed by J. Burbidge
• Production flow analysis (PFA) is a method for
identifying part families and associated machine
groupings that uses the information contained on
process plans rather than on part drawings.
• Workparts with identical or similar process plans are
classified into part families.
• These families can then be used to form logical
machine cells in a group technology layout.
• It uses manufacturing data rather than the design data
and hence can overcome two major anomalies that
can occur in part classification and coding
3- Production Flow Analysis (PFA)

• First, there can be parts with different geometries but

may require similar operations (process routings)
• Second, there can be parts with similar geometries but
may require different process routines.
• The procedure in production flow analysis must begin
by defining the scope of the study, which means
deciding on the population of parts to be analyzed.
• After that the PFA procedure consists of the following
steps.
3- Production Flow Analysis

1. Data Collection. The minimum data needed

in the analysis are the part number and
operation sequence, which is obtained from
process plans (route sheets).
- Each operation is usually associated with a particular
machine.
- So determining the operation sequence also determines
the machine sequence.
3- Production Flow Analysis

2. Sortation of process plans. A sortation

procedure is used to group parts with
identical process plans.
- All operations or machines are give specific code
numbers.
- For each part, the operation codes are listed in the order
in which they are performed.
- A sortation process then groups the parts with identical
routings.
3. PFA Chart. The processes used for each
group are then displayed in a PFA chart as
shown below.
3- Production Flow Analysis

3. PFA Chart.
 The processes used for each group are then displayed in a
PFA chart.
 The chart is a tabulation of the process or machine code
numbers for all of the parts.
 The chart is also sometimes called part-machine incidence
matrix.
3- Production Flow Analysis (PFA)
3- Production Flow Analysis

4. Cluster Analysis
 From the PFA chart, related groupings are identified and
rearranged into a new pattern that brings together packs
with similar machine sequences.
3- Production Flow Analysis (PFA)
A new pattern that brings together groups with similar
machine sequences.
3- Production Flow Analysis
 In the above figure, different machine grouping
are indicated within blocks.
 The blocks are considered as machine cells.
 It can so happen that some packs do not fit into
logical groupings.
 This parts might be reanalyzed to check whether
the revised process sequence can be developed that
fits one of the groups.
 If not, this part is fabricated through a
conventional process layout.
 A systematic technique to perform the cluster
analysis is Rank Order Clustering.
Rank Order Clustering
Rank Order Clustering
Solve Using Rank Order Clustering Method
First Iteration (Step 1)
Second Iteration
Solution
Rank Order Clustering
Rank Order Clustering
Rank Order Clustering
Rank Order Clustering
Arranging Machines in a GT Cell
After part-machine grouping have been
identified by rank order clustering, the next
problem is to organize the machines into the
most logical arrangement.
Hollier method is used for the same.
This method uses the sums of flow “From” and
“To” each machine in the cell. The method can
be outlined as follows
 Hollier Method
1. Develop the From-To chart from part routing data : The data contained in
the chart indicates numbers of part moves between the machines in the cell.
2. Determine the “From” and “To” sums for each machine. This is
accomplished by summing all of the “From” trips and “To” trips for each
machine.
 The “From” sum for a machine is determined by adding the entries in
the corresponding row.
 The “To” sum is found by adding the entries in the corresponding
column.
3. Assign machines to the cell based on minimum “From” or “To” sums:
The machine having the smallest sum is selected.
 If the minimum value is a “To” sum, then the machine is placed at the
beginning of the sequence.
 If the minimum value is a “From” sum, then the machine is placed at
the end of the sequence.
 Hollier Method
Tie breaker
 If a tie occurs between minimum “To” sums or minimum
“From” sums, then the machine with the minimum “From/To”
ratio is selected.
 If both “To” and “From” sums are equal for a selected
machine, it is passed over and the machine with the next lowest
sum is selected.
 If a minimum “To” sum is equal to a minimum “From” sum,
then both machines are selected and placed at the beginning
and end of the sequence, respectively
4. Reformat the From-To chart: After each machine has been selected,
restructure the From-To chart by eliminating the row and column
corresponding to the selected machine and recalculate the “From”
and “To” sums.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all machines have been assigned
Example of Arranging Machines in a GT
Cell
Suppose that four machines, 1, 2, 3, and 4 have been
identified as belonging in a GT machine cell. An analysis
of 50 parts processed on these machines has been
summarized in the From-To chart presented below.
Additional information is that 50 parts enter the machine
grouping at machine 3, 20 parts leave after processing at
machine 1, and 30 parts leave after machine 4. Determine a
logical machine arrangement using Hollier method.
First Iteration
Second Iteration

Machine 3 removed
Third Iteration
Machine 2 removed

• There is a tie here. To resolve we have to calculate the ratio

of From/To. Here,
• For Machine 1, the From/To ratio is 25/10 = 2.5
• For Machine 4, the From/To ratio is 10/10 = 1
• So the minimum value is a “From” sum, and hence machine
4 is placed at the end of the sequence.

• The resulting machine sequence 3214

The flow diagram for machine cell in the
Example is shown below. Flow of parts into
and out of the cells has also been included
Cellular Manufacturing
After part family formation, there is an
advantage in producing those parts using GT
machine cells rather than traditional process type
machine layout.
When the machine are grouped the term cellular
manufacturing is used.
Cellular manufacturing is an application of GT
in which dissimilar machines or processes have
been aggregated into cells, each of which is
dedicated to the production of parts, product
family or limited group of families.
Advantages of Cellular
Manufacturing
Shorten manufacturing lead times
Reduces WIP inventory
To improve quality
To simplify production scheduling
To reduce setup times
Cellular Manufacturing
Two major aspects of cellular manufacturing
◦ The composite part concept
◦ Machine cell design
The composite part for a given family is a
hypothetical part that includes all of the
design and manufacturing attributes of the
family.
In general, an individual part in the family
will have some of the features of the family,
but not all of them
Composite Part Concept
Machining Operation
Design feature Corresponding
operation
1. External cylinder Turning
2. Face of cylinder Facing
3. Cylindrical step Turning
4. Smooth surface External cylindrical
grinding
5. Axial hole Drilling
6. Counter bore Counterboring
7. Internal threads Tapping
Machine Cell
Critical in Cellular manufacturing
A production cell for the part family would
consist of those machines required to make
the composite part.
Such a cell would be able to produce any
family member, by omitting operations
corresponding to features not possessed by
that part.
Types of Machine Cell & Layout
Cells classified according to the number of
machines.
And the degree to which the material flow is
mechanised between the machines.
Four important GT cell configurations are:
Types of Machine Cell & Layout
1. Single machine
2. Multiple machines with manual handling
◦ Often organized into U-shaped layout
3. Multiple machines with semi-integrated
handling
4. Automated cell – automated processing and
integrated handling
◦ Flexible manufacturing cell
◦ Flexible manufacturing system
Single Machine
• Consists of one machine and supporting fixture
and tooling.
• Applied to work parts whose attributes allow
them to be made on one basic type of process
such as turning or milling.
• The composite part (shown in the example) can
be produced on a conventional turret lathe.
(except step 4)
Multiple machines with manual
handling

U-shaped machine cell with manual part

handling between machines
Multiple machines with semi-
integrated handling

In-line layout using mechanized work handling

between machines
Multiple machines with semi-
integrated handling

Loop layout allows variations in part routing

between machines
Multiple machines with semi-
integrated handling

Rectangular layout also allows variations in

part routing and allows for return of work
carriers if they are used
Computer Aided Process Planning
(CAPP)
Process Plan
Basic Process to develop a Plan
Approaches
ManualPlans
Computer Aids
◦ Retrieval (Variant) System
◦ Generative System
Manual Plans
CAPP
Manual plans are time consuming
Manu. Firms are interested in CAPP
CAPP is considered to be a part of CAM
CAPP becomes direct connection
between design and manufacturing.
Advantages of CAPP
Process rationalization and standardization
Increased productivity of Process planners
Reduced lead time for process planning
Improved legibility
Incorporation of other application
programs
CAPP
Designed around two approaches
◦ Retrieval CAPP
◦ Generative CAPP
Retrievals (Variant) CAPP Systems
Based on the principles of GT and parts
classification and coding.
A std. process plan (route sheet) is stored
in computer files for each part code.
A database of the route sheets is prepared
Before the system can be used for process
planning, a significant amount of
information must be compiled and entered
into the CAPP data files.
Preparatory Phase of Retreival Systems
Consists of
1. Selecting proper classification and coding
scheme for the company
2. Forming part families
3. Preparing standard process plans for the part
families
4. Step 2 and 3 are ongoing as new parts are
designed and added to the database.
Retreival (Variant) CAPP Systems
After the preparatory stage the system is ready
for use.
When new part comes for manufacturing
◦ The first step is to derive the GT code
◦ With this code number the user searches the part
family file to determine if a standard route sheet
exists for the given part code.
◦ If the file contains a process plan for the part, it is
retrieved and displayed.
◦ This standard process plan is examined to determine
whether any changes are required.
Retreival (Variant) CAPP Systems
 If there are minor changes in the process required,
then the user edits the standard plan accordingly.
 If the file does not contain a standard process plan
for the given code number, the user may search
the user may search for a similar or related code
number for which a standard route sheet exists.
 Either by little modifications in the existing
process plan, or by starting from scratch, the user
prepares the route sheet for the new part.
Retreival (Variant) CAPP Systems
This route sheet becomes the standard
process plan for the new part code
number.
Variant CAPP