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6.2 The geomagnetic field

6.2.1 Spatial variations in Earth’s magnetic field

Approximately 90% of the observed geomagnetic field can be described by a dipole that
originates within the Earth. The axis of the dipole is inclined at 11.5 degrees to the
rotation axis. In the year 2000, the magnetic dipole moment was 7.94 ×1022 A m2.

At any point on the Earth, the magnetic field can

be described by the geomagnetic elements:

B is the total magnetic flux density, with

horizontal component H and vertical component Z
Æ B varies from ~25000 nT near the equator to
~70000 nT near the magnetic poles

D is the declination – the horizontal angle

between the geographic pole and magnetic pole.

I is the inclination – the angle between the

magnetic field direction and the horizontal
(Fig 7.6 from Kearey et al., 2000)

The magnetic field is described by the International Geomagnetic Reference Field

(IGRF), which is updated every few years as the magnetic field changes over time. The
figures below show the IGRF in 2000.
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The IGRF model is analogous to the Geodetic Reference System (GRS) formula used in
gravity exploration (Section 2.4), but is far more complex. The geomagnetic field is
described using spherical harmonics, which is a mathematical technique that was
developed by Gauss (see Kearey et al., section 7.4)

IGRF defines the undisturbed magnetic field at any point on the Earth’s surface. In
magnetic exploration, we are interested in deviations (magnetic anomalies) from the
IGRF field which are caused by local geological structures.

6.2.2 Origin of the geomagnetic field

The majority of the geomagnetic field observed on the Earth’s surface originates within
the Earth. The interior of the Earth is well above the Curie temperature for all materials
and the observed magnetic moment is too large to be caused by simple magnetized
minerals. The geomagnetic field does not originate from remanent magnetization.

Current theories show that the geomagnetic field is

primarily due to the fluid motion in the outer core
of the Earth (called a dynamo). The outer core is
primarily composed of liquid iron, which is
undergoing rapid flow due to buoyancy-driven
convection and Coriolis forces (caused by Earth’s
rotation). This produces helical flow patters which
result in the geomagnetic field.

The figures below show a computer simulation of

the geodynamo, which can explain the main
features of the geomagnetic field, including the
approximate alignment of the dipole with the
rotation axis, periodic reversals of the magnetic field, and secular variations in the
magnetic field. However, many details still need to be addressed.

For more information see: G.A. Glatzmaier and P.H. Roberts, "A three-dimensional self-
consistent computer simulation of a geomagnetic field reversal," Nature, 377, 203-209
(1995)
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The geodynamo accounts for ~97% of the Earth’s surface magnetic field. The remaining
magnetic field comes from two other factors:

1) External sources: a small component (1-2%) of the surface magnetic field comes
from interactions between the Earth’s atmosphere and the solar wind (a stream of
electrons, protons, and H and He ions from the Sun) in the magnetosphere.

2) Crustal magnetism: This is also a small component (1-2%) of the main geomagnetic
field. It is caused by both induced magnetization and remanent magnetization of crustal
rocks. In magnetic exploration, this is the component that we are interested in.

Comparison to the gravitational field

Gravity is spherical field and the gravitational force acts downward. The spatial
variations can be approximated by the GRS formula.
In Edmonton: latitudinal variation = 0.8 mgal km-1
elevation variation = 0.3 mgal m-1

The magnetic field is 90% dipole and the inclination varies from -90° to +90°, depending
on location. The IGRF equation is composed of complex spherical harmonics.
In Edmonton: latitudinal variation = 3 nT km-1
elevation variation = 0.03 nT m-1
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6.2.3 Temporal variations in the geomagnetic field

The Earth’s magnetic field is not static. It changes over time due to temporal changes in
the internal and external processes that generate the geomagnetic field.

Internal factors
Changes in the convection pattern in the outer core result in secular variations in the
geomagnetic field:

1) Reduction of the dipole field – observations show that Earth’s dipole moment (m) is
decaying: m = 9.5 ×1022 A m2 in 1550 to 7.9 ×1022 A m2 today (a decrease of over 15%).
If this continues, the dipole moment will reach zero in another 2500 yrs. The cause is not
well understood. It may be due to long-term circulation patterns in the core, or it may be
decreasing in preparation for the next magnetic field reversal.

2) Westward drift – the location of the dipole axis is also changing. This can be
observed in plots that show the tilt of the dipole axis (relative to the rotation axis) and the
longitude of the geomagnetic pole. These changes result in the magnetic field “drifting
westward” relative to Earth’s surface at a rate of ~1 degree longitude every 5 years.
(movies are available at http://geomag.usgs.gov/movies/)

3) Geomagnetic jerks – there are also very abrupt

changes that happen in the magnetic field on
timescales of a few years. In 1969, the westward drift
of the magnetic field appeared to accelerate. There is
also some evidence for other geomagnetic jerks in the
early 1900’s and possibly in 1991 and 2003.

4) Magnetic field reversals – the Earth’s magnetic

field also reverses direction. It appears that the
reversals result in a switching of the north and south
magnetic poles, such that the magnetic dipole axis is
always approximately aligned with the rotation axis.
The series of reversals is chaotic, with an average
interval of ~250,000 years. The last magnetic field
reversal was ~780,000 years ago.

External factors
Changes in the magnetic field also result from variations in the solar wind:

1) Diurnal variations – the rotation of the Earth causes variations in the surface
magnetic field associated with the solar wind over the period of a day. The fluctuations
are smooth and regular and on a typical day (called a quiet day or Q day) have an
amplitude of 10-80 nT, with a maximum at high latitudes.
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2) Lunar variations – a smaller variation with a period of 25 days is observed due to the
orbit of the moon around the earth that interfered with the solar wind.

3) Magnetic storms – days when the solar wind is more active than normal are called
disturbed days (or D days). This can produce large, short-term disturbances (magnetic
storms) in the surface magnetic field with a magnitude of 100-1000 nT.

4) Sunspots and solar flares – Sunspots are dark regions on the Sun that represent
disturbances in solar activity. Solar flares are associated with sunspots – the flares
release large volumes of charged particles into the solar wind, which then affects the
Earth’s magnetic field. Sunspot activity follows an 11 year cycle.

Comparison to the gravitational field

As shown above, the geomagnetic field is subject to many temporal variations with both
an internal and an external origin. In contrast, the gravity field is relatively constant over
time. External factors that can affect the gravity field are tidal signals and variations in
soil water content. Both can be reasonably well predicted and removed from
measurements. There may also be a slow small-amplitude variation in the surface gravity
due to motion of the tectonic plates and mantle convection (internal factors).