Garum – Fermented Fish Sauce from the Roman Empire

Garum is fermented fish sauce. It was developed by the Greeks and Romans, and was common
throughout the Roman Empire (100BC-400CE). It was both highly praised for its nutritional
value, and widely criticized as an extravagance of excessive living. At its height, it spread to the
edges of the Roman Empire (Egypt to Britain, Spain to the Black Sea) – and then it virtually
disappeared. It was used more often than salt in the Roman recipes that have survived antiquity.

Garum is made by mixing fish intestines, blood, and other organs (innards) with salt and leaving
the mixture to ferment, causing “hydrolysis primarily through endogenous enzymic proteolysis.”
(Curtis 2009 712) The resulting liquid is garum, which when combined with other foods creates
the umami flavor.

While European cooking moved away from garum and other fish sauces, there are references to
garum in 1615 (Cotgrave) and further post SCA period. In modern cuisine, Southeast Asian fish
sauces are in vogue, such as nam-pla of Thailand and nuoc-mam of Vietnam. Modern chemical
analysis of these fish sauces gives us a hint of the make-up of garum, in terms of nutritional
value, etc. (Curtis 2009)

The Terms: garum, liquamen, muria, and allec

Pliny writes:
CHAP. 43.—GARUM: FIFTEEN REMEDIES.
Another liquid, too, of a very exquisite nature, is that known as "garum:" it is
prepared from the intestines of fish and various parts which would otherwise be
thrown away, macerated in salt; so that it is, in fact, the result of their
putrefaction. Garum was formerly prepared from a fish, called "garos" by the
Greeks; who assert, also, that a fumigation made with its head has the effect of
bringing away the afterbirth.

(8.) At the present day, however, the most esteemed kind of garum is that
prepared from the scomber, in the fisheries of Carthago Spartaria: it is known as
"garum of the allies," and for a couple of congii we have to pay but little less than
one thousand sesterces. Indeed, there is no liquid hardly, with the exception of the
unguents, that has sold at higher prices of late; so much so, that the nations which
produce it have become quite ennobled thereby. There are fisheries, too, of the
scomber on the coasts of Mauretania and at Carteia in Bætica, near the Straits
which lie at the entrance to the Ocean; this being the only use that is made of the
fish. For the production of garum, Clazomenæ is also famed, Pompeii, too, and
Leptis; while for their muria, Antipolis, Thurii, and of late, Dalmatia, enjoy a high
reputation.

CHAP. 44.—ALEX: EIGHT REMEDIES.

Alex, which is the refuse of garum, properly consists of the dregs of it, when
imperfectly strained: but of late they have begun to prepare it separately, from a
small fish that is otherwise good for nothing, the apua of the Latins, or aphua of

1
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the Greeks, so called from the fact of its being engendered from rain. The people
of Forum Julii make their garum from a fish to which they give the name of
"lupus." In process of time, alex has become quite an object of luxury, and the
various kinds that are now made are infinite in number. The same, too, with
garum, which is now prepared in imitation of the color of old honied wine, and so
pleasantly flavored as to admit of being taken as a drink. Another kind, again, is
dedicated to those superstitious observances which enjoin strict chastity, and that
prepared from fish without scales, to the sacred rites of the Jews. In the same way,
too, alex has come to be manufactured from oysters, sea-urchins, sea-nettles,
cammari, and the liver of the sur-mullet; and a thousand different methods have
been devised of late for ensuring the putrefaction of salt in such a way as to secure
the flavors most relished by the palate.

Thus much, by the way, with reference to the tastes of the present day; though at
the same time, it must be remembered, these substances are by no means without
their uses in medicine. Alex, for instance, is curative of scab in sheep, incisions
being made in the skin, and the liquor poured therein. It is useful, also, for the
cure of wounds inflicted by dogs or by the sea-dragon, the application being made
with lint. Recent burns, too, are healed by the agency of garum, due care being
taken to apply it without mentioning it by name. It is useful, too, for bites inflicted
by dogs, and for that of the crocodile in particular; as also for the treatment of
serpiginous or sordid ulcers. For ulcerations, and painful affections of the mouth
and ears, it is a marvelously useful remedy.

Muria, also, as well as the salsugo which we have mentioned, has certain
astringent, mordent, and discussive properties, and is highly useful for the cure of
dysentery, even when ulceration has attacked the intestines. Injections are also
made of it for sciatica, and for celiac fluxes of an inveterate nature. In spots which
lie at a distance in the interior, it is used as a fomentation, by way of substitute for
sea-water.
(Pliny NH 31.43-44)

There is some confusion between the terms garum and liquamen. Garum is the Roman
transliteration from the Greek, while liquamen means “to liquefy.” (Grocock and Grainger
Appendix 4) Both refer to fish and salt – but do they mean the same thing? Some writers treat
them as the same (notably Curtis in various writings) while others treat them as something
separate. The difference, according to Grainger, appears to be whether the mixture contained
only blood and viscera (garum) or if it also contained whole small fish (liquamen). Grainger’s
theory is that “garum” was used as a condiment at the table, while “liquamen” was used as an
ingredient in recipes. According to her, the earliest references from the Greek were to the simple
ingredient, but that the later “high end” condiment took over the name of “garum” while the
ingredient written about in recipes was “liquamen.”

While both theories have merit, for the purposes of this paper, I am treating all references to
liquamen and garum as the same foodstuff, and will use the term garum for convenience.
Historical references will not be changed, and may therefore mean something slightly different.
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Two other fish products often mentioned with garum are muria and allec. Muria is usually
considered a type of brine rather than a sauce. It was the liquid drawn off the fish packed in salt.
Allec, on the other hand, was the remains after all the liquids had been drawn off the fermented
mass. This paste, which would contain anything the enzymes didn’t break down, was used as a
condiment of varying quality, too. (Pliny NH 31.44)

The Physical Remains

As with most food products, physical remains of
garum are hard to find. There are archaeological
finds of containers that contain fish remains, but
they could be some other fish or fish by-product.
Garum was shipped around the Roman Empire in
amphorae, similar to olive oil. (De Sena and
k heimo Curtis 1983 238) Different shaped
amphorae have been identified as carrying
different commodities (olive oil, wine, fish sauce,
etc.) and the shapes varied, based on location and
era.
Figure 1: Amphorae from Pompeii. (c) Victoria Museum. (Greene)

It was also distributed in urceus, a single handled pitcher of distinctive shape. (Curtis 1991 Plate
7a) These amphorae and urcei are often marked with “tags” that indicate what the container held,
as well as the manufacturer and/or distributor. These ‘tags’ are called tituli picti, and used
diminutives and abbreviations to fit useful information in a small space.

Figure 3: Example of 'tituli picti' on amphora.

(Curtis 1991 plate 7B)
Figure 2: Urceus to hold garum. (British Museum)

Because of the natural disaster at Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79CE, there are preserved
remains of containers and other archaeological remains that help identify containers that held
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garum. Pliny mentioned the garum of Pompeii as being of high quality, and finds from Pompeii
have been found in other Roman cities (Pliny NH 31.43)

Some of the most interesting garum finds from

Pompeii involve an enterprise centered on Aulus
Umbricius Scaurus. He is believed to be a prosperous
garum merchant, and his products represent over 20%
of the finds from Pompeii. (Curtis 1991 92) Based on
data from tituli picti, garum of various grades was sold
under his ‘brand’, which included products from his
workshop, as well as from freedmen under his
auspices. He was a prosperous businessman, and
excavators are fairly certain they have found his house
in the remains of Pompeii: he had a mosaic floor put in
an atrium that advertised his garum! In the corners of
the mosaic, there are depictions of urceus with labels
showing the types and grades of garum available.
These urcei match finds of actual urceus from the city,
making the identification pretty secure. (Curtis 1991
plate 7a; See appendix for more pictures of the
mosaics)

Figure 4: Mosaic from Pompeii. (Curtis 1991 Plate 7a)

There is also evidence of garum (or allec) being

stored in jars sealed with pine pitch. A jar from
Antinoe, Egypt, dated to the Roman era, had its
contents analyzed. The contents, which were
described as “a dark, thick, translucent substance”
was determined to have salt, fish scales, and
animal lipids (fats), combined with pine resin.
While the fats aren’t 100% proven to be from fish
(the technology isn’t that specific) – the
combination of all the elements make it likely that
garum or allec was in the jar when it was buried.
(Ribechini, et al.)
Figure 5: Garum Jar from Antinoe, Egypt. (Ribechini, et al. 483)

Literary References

Garum has a rich literary heritage from the Greco-Roman world. Garum was mentioned in
various satires, price edicts, medical treatises, cookbooks, and other sources. It was a common
ingredient in Roman recipes, praised highly by some, while reviled and satirized by others.
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De Re Coquinaria, the most famous Roman cookbook is attributed to Apicius, and is thought to
have been compiled in the 4th century CE. There is little mention of salt as an ingredient in the
majority of the recipes: instead, garum is included, often combined with vinegar. This would
impart a pleasant salt/sour taste, and the umami aspect would enhance the other spices and
flavors of the food. Even “sweet” recipes such as apricots included garum, indicating the taste
couldn’t be that extreme. (Apicius 4.5.4)

Garum was prescribed in medical treatises to cure a variety of ills. The Greeks and Romans
followed the “Body Humor” theory of medicine. They assigned certain attributes to different
types of food, and tried to balance the body with those foods. If the body was hot and dry, then
cold and wet foods were prescribed and vice versa. Garum is treated differently by the various
medical sources and many of the recipes call for strange and unusual ingredients, of which
garum is just one. These "cures" are not likely to be effective in treating medical ailments, either.

Garum reached the height of notoriety in literature, however. Pliny describes garum as "that
secretion of putrefying matter," and Seneca, speaking about garum sociorum, asks disdainfully,
"Do you not realize that garum sociorum, that expensive bloody mass of decayed fish, consumes
the stomach with its salted putrefaction?” (Curtis 1983) This notoriety continues to an extent
today, presumably because it is an unusual food, made in such a way as sounds disgusting to the
modern palate.

Pliny’s treatment of garum is very strange. He derides it in one chapter, and then turns around
and mentions the high quality available, and the remedies for which it is used. He also mentions
a particular type of garum, garum castimoniale -“Another kind, again, is dedicated to those
superstitious observances which enjoin strict chastity, and that prepared from fish without scales,
to the sacred rites of the Jews.” (Pliny NH 31.44) Of course, in order to be kosher the garum
would need to be made from fish WITH scales – but there are references in the Talmud to such
fish sauces being made (with the admonition that they be made by professionals, so there was no
added wine) and certified kosher, so it appears Pliny was correct in theory, but hazy on the
details. (Patai 53-54; Kurlansky 75)

Lastly, garum was mentioned in a variety of Price Edicts in the Roman Empire. These price-lists
specify how much could be charged for commodities, including garum. These prices show a
range of values, from the very high-end to the quite reasonable. This means that most people
could afford some sort of fish sauce, even if not the highest quality. (Curtis 1983)

Method of manufacture

The processing, selling, and transport of salted fish and fish sauce was big business in the Roman
Empire. Finds along the Mediterranean and Atlantic coast show large centers for processing the
fish, which couldn’t easily be transported fresh over long distances. The best-documented areas
are in Spain, Portugal, France, the Black Sea and North Africa in the Western Roman Empire.
(Curtis 2009 715; Bekker-Nielsen)
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While salting facilities have been

found, it is not known whether
garum was made in any/all of the
locations. Salt fish was made in
large square vats, while the liquid
garum was usually made in smaller
batches, often in dolia, large round
jar-type containers. Many locations
had both types of containers,
probably indicating a full-scale fish
processing operation.

Figure 6: Garum production site, Cadiz, Spain. (c) http://www.gentedecadiz.com (Garum)

While actual recipes from the Roman era are scarce,

the process is generally considered to follow this
flowchart. (Curtis 2009) Quantities of fish and salt
aren’t usually specified, and the types of fish would
vary, as well.

While most garum is assumed to have been made in

the ‘traditional’ way, there is at least one reference to
a “quick” garum, where fish is reduced in a brine to
form a sauce. (Geoponica recipe, see below) This
recipe would seem to make more of a “fish flavored
brine” rather than a full garum, since there isn’t time
for full fermentation to take place.

Figure 7: Proposed Flowchart of Garum Manufacture (Curtis 2009 Figure 1)

Ingredients

Garum was a specialty product, and each manufacturer probably had their ‘secret recipe.’ While
there are several descriptions of how garum was made, there are few specific recipes. Only one
recipe gives a proportion of fish to salt (8:1) and another gives directions to mix in herbs and
spices. (See recipes, below)
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The Fish
The mackerel and the tunny (tuna) are mentioned as the most desirable for making garum.
(Pliny, Cuvier, Curtis, etc.) This is not surprising, since those were large commercial catches,
making their ‘refuse’ readily available. Garum sociorum is specifically mentioned as being made
from mackerel. (Pliny NH 31.43) Not all garum was made from these fish, however. Many
descriptions also say that small fish and other ‘throwaways’ were made into garum. (Geoponica
recipe, see below)

The Salt
Salt production often accompanied garum and salt-fish production. (Curtis 1991) The Romans
used a variety of methods to obtain salt throughout the Mediterranean and the Empire. They
boiled sea water in pottery, which when broken left a solid block of salt. They also created solar
evaporation ponds (common in later eras) and mined rock salt and scraped dry lake beds. They
extracted salt from marshes by boiling the water and burning marsh plants, extracting the salt
from the ashes. The Romans needed vast amounts of salt for their population, and they exploited
the different methods already in use in the areas they conquered to provide it. (Kurlansky 64)

Because of where and how the salt was harvested, there would be trace minerals locked into the
crystals, which are mostly NaCl (sodium chloride, tablet salt, halite). Each locale would have a
slightly different mixture of trace minerals, and the method of salt manufacture would affect the
final product. (Kurlansky; Bitterman)

In contrast, modern commercial table salt is processed to remove the trace minerals (most are
99%+ NaCl) and has iodine and anti-clumping agents added. This is done on purpose to make a
standard product, but it means that the salt has lost some of its character and taste. Commercial
Kosher salt and sea salt don’t have the additives, but are still created to be virtually 100% pure
NaCl, with the same lack of taste variations. Artisan salts are now being made that exploit the
differences in manufacture and locale to make more ‘traditional’ salts. (Bitterman 85-104;
Kurlansky 445-449)

Recipes

While garum flourished in the Roman Empire, one of the best sources for a reproducible recipe
is the “Geoponica”, a Greek agricultural manual written about 900CE. (Kurlansky 70; Dalby
348-349)

The so-called liquamen is made in thus. Fish entrails are put in a container and
salted; and little fish, especially sand-smelt or small red mullet or mendole or
anchovy, or any small enough, are all similarly salted; and left to pickle in the
sun, stirring frequently. When the heat has picked them, the garos is got from
them thus: a deep close-woven basket is inserted into the centre of the vessel
containing these fish, and the garos flows into the basket. This, then, is how the
liquamen is obtained by filtering through the basket; the residue makes alix.
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The Bithynians make it thus. Take preferably small or large mendole, or if none,
anchovy or scad, or mackerel, or also alix, and a mixture of all of these, and put
them into a baker’s bowl of the kind in which dough is kneaded and to one
modios of fish knead in 6 Italian pints of salt so that it is well mixed with the fish,
and leaving it overnight put it in an earthenware vessel and leave it uncovered in
the sun for 2 or 3 months, occasionally stirring with a stick, then take [the fluid],
cover, and store. Some add 2 pints of old wine to each pint of fish.

If you want to use the garon at once, that is, not by ageing in the sun but by
cooking, make it thus. Into pure brine, which you have tested by floating an egg in
it (if it sinks, the brine is not salty enough) in a new bowl, put the fish; add
oregano; place over a sufficient fire, until it boils, that is, until it begins to reduce
a little. Some also add in grape syrup. Then cool and filter it; filter a second and a
third time until it runs clear; cover and store.

A rather high-quality garos, called haimation, is made thus. Take tunny entrails
with the gills, fluid, and blood, sprinkle with sufficient salt, leave in a vessel for
two months at the most; then pierce the jar, and the garos called haimation flows
out.

Geoponica 20.46:1-6

Another recipe for garum adds spices in the manufacture. (Bober 156)

Use fatty fish, for example, sardines, and a well-sealed container with a 20-30
liter capacity. Add dried, aromatic herbs with strong flavors, such as dill,
coriander, fennel, celery, mint, oregano, and others, making a layer on the bottom
of the container. Then put down a layer of fish (if small, leave them whole, if
large, use pieces) and over this, add a layer of salt two fingers high. Repeat these
layers until the container is filled. Let it rest for seven days in the sun. Then mix
the sauce daily for 20 days. After that, it becomes a liquid.”
Gargilius Martialis, AD 240

The Fall of Garum

In its time, garum was a high end commodity traded throughout the Roman Empire. It was
spread along with “Romanization” from the Black Sea to England. But when the Roman Empire
collapsed, the local cuisines changed, and garum became another of the “extravagances” of
Rome, and one to be rejected. Anthimus, a Gaul writing in the 6th century, states unequivocally
“We ban the use of fish sauce from every culinary role.” (Kurlansky 78) This pronouncement has
remained, although salt-fish of various types continued to be eaten in later centuries.
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Experiments in Garum Making

In the early summer of 2012, I started my first batch of garum. A subsequent batch was started in
fall of 2012, and a 3rd batch was started in January 2013. Pictures have been taken along the
way, and are included. These pictures depict the fish in various states of fermentation/autolysis/
breakdown, and are not pretty.

Finding the Supplies

The Fish
Since I do not have access to fresh mackerel or tuna, I chose to use whatever fish innards I had
available to make garum. After some searching, I found a local grocery store that received whole
red-fish, which they gut on-site. I was able to purchase several pounds of the innards, and used
these as the basis for my garum. The workers at the store were intrigued by the idea of garum,
and they tried one of the first batches of garum.

Figure 8: Red-fish at the seafood counter. Figure 9: The fish being gutted. (Author)
(Author)

The Salt
Prior to making garum, I researched methods of harvesting salt. There are no dry lake beds near
me, and mining for salt wasn’t possible. The Gulf of Mexico is not particularly close, and
because of modern pollution, I did not think using its sea-water would be safe, since it could lock
industrial waste into the salt – something that was not an issue for the Romans.

However, Cato mentions a way to make rock salt into more preferable evaporated salt.
(Kurlansky 447-448)

“Recipe for bleaching salt: Break off the neck of a clean amphora, fill with clear
water, and place in the sun. Suspend in it a basket filled with common salt and
shake and renew from time to time. Do this daily several times a day until the salt
ceases to dissolve for two days. You can find when it is saturated by this test:
place a small dried fish or an egg in it, and if it floats you have a brine strong
enough to pickle meat or cheese or salted fish. Place this brine in flat vessels or in
pans and expose it to sun. Keep it in the sun until it solidifies, and you will have a
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pure salt. In cloudy weather or at night put it under cover, but expose it to the sun
every day when there is sunshine.”

I used our local water supply, which comes from an aquifer, and is considered fairly ‘hard’. The
salt thus harvested had a different texture and taste from commercial table salt or kosher salt.
However, the amount needed for this project made using that salt unfeasible.

For this project, I used Morton® White Crystal® Rock Salt, a “high purity salt that is mined from
natural underground salt deposits.” (“Morton Salt”) I chose this instead of table salt for several
reasons. The price for a large bag (40lbs) is substantially cheaper than the same amount for table
salt. Also, rock salt has minimal processing, no anti-clumping agents and was a product known
to the Romans from the salt mines of Hallstatt, Hallein, and other Celtic conquests.

The salt apparently hit full saturation in each batch of garum, since there were salt crystals left at
the bottom of each batch.

First Batch – Summer 2012

Since I am not planning on going into business
making garum, I had to make some changes to
create the same product on a small scale. For the
first batch, I used a large ceramic jar. I felt this
was a good size, since I could easily move it, and
I thought the style looked good for display
purposes. It did have a large drainage hole in the
bottom, which I plugged with a cork. I used a
matching ceramic saucer as a lid, which fit
snugly, but not air-tight.

Figure 10: Ceramic jar used in first batch of garum (Author)

I put in a layer of salt on the bottom, and then mixed in the fish and salt (approximately 8:1 ratio
of fish to salt, based on weight)

Figure 11: Fish entrails in the jar. (Author) Figure 12: Adding the salt to the entrails (Author)
As the salt and summer heat did their work, a liquid started forming on the top.

Figure 13: Liquid forming after about 1 week. Figure 14: More liquid forming as time passes.
(Author) (Author)

This jar had an issue, however. At the time, wasn’t sure if the liquid was draining through the
cork, or through the pottery itself, but soon after filling it with the fish/salt mixture, it began
‘seeping’. nvestigating the seepage – it was a salt brine with a hint of fish. After losing a bit to
the porch, I sat the whole jar on top of a plain terra-cotta saucer. The brine leeched through the
saucer, as well, so I ended up using a Pyrex baking dish, which caught the mixture.

After reading more about the ‘best strained garum’ descriptions, started collecting the liquid
from the baking dish every few days. It definitely seemed to match the description as to color
and taste, and was the basis for my first batch of garum. All of the liquid collected was strained
through a ‘reusable’ coffee filter to collect any large particles.

At this point, I purchased a bottle of inexpensive Asian fish sauce to compare the two liquids.
There is a distinct difference in smell and taste – the Asian fish sauce is very pungent, and has an
overwhelming taste. My liquid is closer to a “fishy soy sauce” with a subtle flavor.

While some of the recipes call for herbs and spices to be added to the fish and salt (see above), I
chose not to add them into the main mixture, because the cost of the spices in the proportions
specified would be very expensive – especially if the project was a failure and had to be thrown
away. Instead, I used a portion of the “base liquid” to make individual infusions with the
following herbs and spices: marjoram, cumin, coriander, cardamom, and fennel. While only
some of these were listed in the recipe above, all were known in Roman cooking. (Grocock and
Grainger, various) Each infusion was left to soak for 2 weeks, and then strained to remove
particles.

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From the infusions, a “master batch” was made, with 2 parts of

each infusion, combined with 3 parts plain garum. This master
batch has been well received, and I feel that it embodies the
nature of the condiment. This batch has been put in a sealed glass
bottle and kept in the refrigerator.

About Mid-September, the batches of garum (both the “base

liquid” and the various infusions) started to go bad. The “base
liquid” started developing a scum on the bottom of the bottle, and
the taste shifted to a “sweeter” taste, which made me suspect
some form of undesirable fermentation. The infusions started
smelling bad and a scum started growing on the top of the bottle. I
decided at this point to discard all of the mixtures that hadn’t been
refrigerated.

The non-liquid portions that remained in the jar were put on the
compost heap, instead of trying to make allec (“Fish Paste”).
Before emptying the jar, I took a ladle-full of the liquid and put it
in a jar. The liquid has settled, with fine sediment on the bottom.
The taste is more pronounced than the bottled garum, however.
Figure 15: The first batch of garum. (Author)

Second Batch – Fall 2012

Because of the seepage issue, I wanted to try and make a batch that had all of the liquid confined
in one place. I chose a glass fish bowl as the container: while this is obviously modern, it was
guaranteed to keep all liquid inside, and it allowed a ‘photo essay’ of the process, as well. I
placed saran wrap over the top to avoid any bugs and to keep any smell from permeating the
house.

Figure 16: Fish entrails without salt. (Author) Figure 17: Entrails with the salt added. (Author)
When the garum is not disturbed, there is a separation of liquid visible in the bowl (clearer on
top, darker on the bottom) – but this is hard to photograph.

Figure 18: Liquid forming at the top. (Author) Figure 19: Trying to show the different colored
liquid. (Author)

The second batch has not turned out successful, unfortunately. The taste is closer to the Asian
fish sauce I purchased – and the smell is more pronounced, as well. I have not been able to bring
myself to try more than a very brief taste (followed by rinsing my mouth) – so further
experiments with this batch have ended.

The batch may not have had enough oxygen movement with the saran wrap covering the
opening. The historical examples all show outdoor environs, and the containers with garum were
often exposed to the air, only having covering from rain.

The chemical reaction may also have been affected by the autumn temperatures. Garum was
usually a summer endeavor, since it was a by-product of fish migration. While it has been a mild
autumn, the temperature is definitely lower than the summer.

The breakdown of the fish solids appears to have

stopped, as well. Stirring and moving the liquid
around has not made any change in the
composition.

Figure 20: Current state of batch 2. (Author)

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Third Batch – January 2013

Based on the experiences from the first 2 batches, I decided to try a third batch, to see if the first
batch was a fluke, or if the second batch was just a mistake. The first batch created a palatable
food, while the second batch was inedible. But the first batch was not taken from the top of the
jar, which is how the garum is described as being made. The second batch, not being “strained”
like the first, was probably a closer imitation of the historical process, if not end result. Or
possibly all the satirical descriptions of “salted putrefaction” were more accurate.

When discussing the process of making the first batch, it was also brought to my attention that
the pot, being for plants and not food, might have had a lead-based glaze. This was bothersome,
although there was nothing to be done about it at the time.

Another concern with the first batch was that I was unclear whether the garum was soaking
through the pot itself, or working its way past the cork at the bottom. Experiments with small
unglazed terra-cotta saucers and liquid from the second batch, it was clear that the clay wasn’t
porous enough for the garum to pass through. A second experiment involving a cork and a funnel
shows that a portion of the liquid could pass the cork, but that the cork acted as a “strainer”.

Further reading into garum also showed that some of the descriptions included “best strained
liquamen.” (Curtis 1991 165) Unfortunately, there is no way of telling whether the Romans
strained the garum the same way that I had – using a cork and gravity. While they had cork, there
are no references to filtering liquid through it, or through porous pottery that I could find in
research on water production, pottery manufacture, and related topics.

Because of these problems, I was very frustrated with the project. I had made something that was
not “accurate” with the first batch, but was edible, while the second batch was disgusting and
inedible. While trying to reconcile the different issues, I came across a video showing the
production of colatura di alici, a fish sauce made in Cetara, taly. While it’s made from
anchovies, not fish entrails, the process is remarkably similar to garum manufacture. Layers of
salt and the fish are enclosed in a wooden container, and then as the liquid forms from the
enzyme breakdown, the container is tapped from the bottom, allowing a golden-brown liquid to
drip into a container below. (TPVideoPro) Based on this, I feel that using the cork and the hole
already in the pot is a viable “substitution” for tapping the bottom of the container, and that the
results I got from the first batch were probably close to the colatura di alici – whether that is
comparable to Roman fish sauce is impossible to say, however.

Having resolved this issue, I decided to purchase a smaller pot in the same style as the larger one.
Since poisoning people with lead was not my intention (even though the Romans used lead in
their water supply and around their food) – I purchased a lead testing kit, which showed that
neither pot contained lead in the glaze, which solved that problem. I used a cork cut to the size of
the drainage hole in the bottom of the pot, and again placed it on a Pyrex baking dish to catch the
liquid that drained through. This time, I placed a small glass saucer that fit inside the pot on top
of the fish entrails to help press it down.
Figure 21: Batch 3. (Author)
Figure 22: Batch 3 - the garum forming. (Author)

Figure 24: Garum forming beneath the pot.

(Author)
Figure 23: Batch 3, showing the saucer pressing
down on the garum. (Author)

Conclusions

The study of garum crosses several “traditional” disciplines. t is mentioned in a variety of extant
Latin texts, sometimes in disparaging terms. Archaeological finds help identify garum
manufacture, distribution, and even the home of a prominent producer in Pompeii. Food
historians all mention garum in discussions of Roman cuisine, although some are more
complementary than others. Fish sauce is even mentioned in books on Jewish maritime trade.
There are only a few researchers that have brought all of the facts together about garum, so
tracking down original sources was a challenge.

The prospect of making an edible food from “fermented fish guts” was intriguing. Obviously the
Romans and other made the sauce in the past – but was it possible to make something edible

15
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using the available recipes? Historical recipes are not always reliable, and it was conceivable that
something was omitted that could have consequences in the final product. Many people who
recreate Roman recipes use the Asian fish sauces - but comparing the two has shown that they
are not the same, and so the recipes probably tasted different, as well.

In the various experiments, I have been pleasantly surprised at the lack of smell – although the
taste has varied widely, as evidenced by the 3 different batches. ’m sure the Romans had batches
that went “off” – but they probably didn’t have the luxury of tossing it out and starting over
again, like I did.

As a result of this project, I have learned quite a bit about Roman cuisine, Roman pottery, and
Roman trade routes. I also learned quite a bit about Roman salt-works, both as a commodity in
itself, as well as how it related to the salt-fish trade.

While I am not going to go into large-scale garum production, I am going to continue making a
few small batches of garum to share with other Iron Age and Roman enthusiasts.
 Garum – Fermented Fish Sauce from the Roman Empire
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Appendix - Mosaics from Pompeii showing Garum urcei.

Figure 25: Pompeii, House of A. Umbricius Figure 26: Pompeii, House of A. Umbricius
Scaurus, mosaic, URCEUS A: G(ari) F(los) Scaurus, mosaic, URCEUS B:
SCOM(bri)/SCAURI/EX OFFICI/NA SCAU/RI LIQUA(men)/FLOS (Curtis 1984 Plate 74 fig. 4)
(Curtis 1984 Plate 74, fig. 3)
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Figure 27: Pompeii, House of A. Umbricius Scaurus, mosaic, URCEUS D: LIQUAMEN/OPTIMUM/EX

OFFICIN/A SCAURI (in situ) (Curtis 1984 Plate 74 fig. 6)