Chapter 13/Conflict and Stress 91

Chapter 13
CONFLICT AND STRESS
Author : Andrew J. Dubrin (2016)

The purpose of this chapter is to help readers better understand and manage both conflict and
stress. Presented first is an explanation of the nature of and leading causes of workplace
conflict, followed by explicit information about conflict management. The second half of the
chapter discusses work stress in terms of its nature, causes, and consequences. In addition, we
describe how individuals and organizations can better manage stress, and improve well being.

Learning Objectives

1. Understand the nature of conflict in organizations and its leading causes.

2. Have the necessary information to resolve many workplace conflicts including

dealing with difficult people.

3. Be aware of the basic negotiating and bargaining techniques to resolve conflict.

4. Understand the nature of work stress, its causes, and consequences.

5. Explain what organizations can do to manage and reduce stress.

6. Do a more effective job of managing your own stress.

Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes

I. CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATIONS
Conflict refers to the opposition of persons or forces that gives rise to some tension. It
occurs when two or more parties perceive mutually exclusive goals, values, or events.
Conflict has enough emotional content to lead to stress for the individuals involved.

A. Sources and Antecedents of Conflict

Managers spend between 20 and 30 percent of their work activities directly or
indirectly resolving conflict. The sources, antecedents, or causes of conflict are
numerous, and the list is dynamic.
1. Perceived Adverse Changes. One example is downsizing, the laying off of
workers to reduce costs and increase efficiency. Survivors may suffer from guilt,
anger, and bereavement, as they feel sorry for departed workers. Another adverse
change is when company management freezes wages or pension payments.
2. Line versus Staff Differentiation. Line and staff workers may conflict when the
line manager perceives that the staff professional is attempting to heavily
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influence his or her decisions. The loyalty staff professionals have to their
discipline can also create conflict.
3. Sexual harassment. Being harassed creates conflict. Sexual harassment is
generally defined as unwanted sexually oriented behavior in the workplace that
results in discomfort and/or interference with the job. In quid pro quo
harassment, the employee’s submission to or rejection of unwanted advances or
conduct is used as the basis for a tangible employment action about the
employee. Hostile working environment harassment occurs when someone in the
workplace creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment.
What constitutes this type of harassment can be highly subjective.

A research study in a manufacturing setting emphasizes the importance of

perception in determining what behavior constitutes sexual harassment by
supervisors or coworkers. The standard of what constitutes harassment was U.S.
Federal guidelines. The majority of workers could accurately identify quid pro
quo harassment, yet had difficulty identifying hostile work environment
harassment. Students might be asked to interpret the data in Table 13-1.

U.S. Supreme Court rulings continue to shape the meaning of sexual harassment.
In Oncale vs. Sundowner, same-sex harassment was considered actionable. In
Burlington Industries vs. Ellert, the Court ruled that mere threats of harassment
make the employer liable. However, an affirmative defense is that the company
tried to prohibit and remedy sexual harassment. In Faragher vs. Boca Ration, it
was ruled that a company is liable for harassment even if unaware of the
problem.

At least 50 percent of women perceive they have been harassed, often resulting in
problems of well-being. Unwanted turnover is a negative consequence of
harassment for both the organization and the individual, as documented by a
study of 11,521 military servicewomen.

Company policy that emphasizes the illegality of sexual harassment is helpful in

minimizing harassment on the job.

4. Factional Groups. Interpersonal conflict often takes place because there are
different factions (subgroups) with different points of views and loyalties. The
factions often take place because of a merger, and groups are formed to balance
the representatives from the two merged companies. A study with factional
groups at Sino-foreign ventures showed large demographic differences between
the groups can lead to stereotyping, distrust, and discord.

5. Competing Work and Family Demands. Work-family conflict occurs when the
individual has to perform multiple roles: worker, spouse, and, often, parent.
Among the findings of one survey were that 80 percent of workers consider their
effort to balance work and personal life as their first priority. A survey in a
Fortune 500 company indicated that working long hours interferes with family
Chapter 13/Conflict and Stress 93

life, and can lead to stress-related health problems. Many companies offer
programs to help reduce work-family conflict.

A note of caution for career-minded people is that a conflict-free balance between

work and home life may be difficult to attain because significant career
accomplishment requires so much commitment.

6. Incivililty, Personality Clashes, and Workplace Bullies. People who are rude,
aggressive, inconsiderate, hostile, or intensely pessimistic readily enter into
conflict. Rudeness and incivility engender counter-reactions. A poll of 800 U.S.
workers found that 10 percent witnessed incivility each day on the job, such as a
person processing e-mail messages while talking to a coworker. Employees who
feel they have been treated uncivilly may decrease work effort, lose time from
work, become less productive, or leave the organization.
A personality clash is an antagonistic relationship between two people based on
differences in personal attributes, preferences, interests, values, and styles.
Bullying contributes to substantial interpersonal conflict, such as a bully who
tries to control his or her victim through fear and intimidation. Many bullies are
bosses because they can make good on their threats. The worker’s demands for
tranquility on the job are incompatible with the demands of the bully (as in
harassment).

7. Cultural conflict –

Definition of Culture Conflict

Americans celebrate the Fourth of July. The French celebrate Bastille Day. Argentinians
celebrate El Carnaval del Pais. All over the world, different countries and different
cultures engage in different holidays, customs, cultural practices, religions, and more.
These differences make up our diverse world, but also create culture conflict.
Culture conflict theory is also known as cultural deviance theory. This theory suggests
that crime is caused due to the clash of values that arises when different social groups
have different ideas of acceptable behavior. In other words, different social groups have
different cultural beliefs and ideas that conflict, and this conflict sometimes leads to
crime.

Cultural conflict in negotiations tends to occur for two main reasons. First,
it’s fairly common when confronting cultural differences, for people to rely
on stereotypes. Stereotypes are often pejorative (for example Italians
always run late), and they can lead to distorted expectations about your
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counterpart’s behavior as well as potentially costly misinterpretations. You

should never assume cultural stereotypes going into a negotiation.

Instead of relying on stereotypes, you should try to focus on prototypes—

cultural averages on dimensions of behavior or values. There is a big
difference between stereotypes and prototypes.

For example, it is commonly understood that Japanese negotiators tend to

have more silent periods during their talks than, say, Brazilians. That said,
there is still a great deal of variability within each culture—meaning that
some Brazilians speak less than some Japanese do.

Thus, it would be a mistake to expect a Japanese negotiator you have

never met to be reserved. But if it turns out that a negotiator is especially
quiet, you might better understand her behavior and change your
negotiating approach in light of the prototype. In addition, awareness of
your own cultural prototypes can help you anticipate how your counterpart
might interpret your bargaining behavior. It’s not just about being aware of
their culture, but also how yours might be viewed.

B. Task versus Relationship Conflict

Some conflicts within the group deal mostly with disagreements over how work
should be done. They are referred to as task or cognitive conflicts because they deal
most with the work itself rather than emotions and relationships. Task conflict
focuses on substantive, issue-related differences related to the work itself. Other
conflicts are more people-oriented. Relationship conflict focuses on personalized,
individually oriented issues. The conflict relates to subjective issues that are dealt
with more emotionally than intellectually. Task conflict in moderate doses can be
functional because it requires teams to engage in activities that foster team
effectiveness.

An analysis of many studies cautions that both task conflict and relationship conflict
can be equally disruptive. A little conflict can be beneficial, but this advantage
quickly breaks down as conflict intensifies.

C. Consequences of Conflict
The right amount of conflict may enhance job performance, but too much or too little
conflict lowers job performance.
1. Positive Consequences of Conflict. As described above, the new evidence is that
the right amount of conflict is usually quite low—somewhat like fat in your diet.
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Positive consequences of conflict include increased creativity, effort, diagnostic

information, and group cohesion or unity.
2. Negative Consequences of Conflict. Choosing between two undesirable
alternatives is the worst type of conflict. Negative consequences of conflict
include poor physical and mental health, wasted resources, poor performance and
sidetracked goals, and heightened self-interest.

D. Conflict Management Styles

As shown in Exhibit 13-2, the five style of managing conflict are based on a
combination of satisfying one’s own concerns (assertiveness) and satisfying the
concerns of others (cooperativeness).
1. Competitive is a desire to win one’s own concerns at the expense of the other
party.
2. Accommodative favors satisfying the other’s concerns without taking care of
one’s own.
3. Sharing reflects moderate but incomplete satisfaction to both parties.
4. Collaborative reflects a desire to fully satisfy the desires of both parties. It is
based on the philosophy of win-win, the belief that after conflict has been
resolved, both sides should gain something of value.
5. Avoidant is a combination of uncooperative and unassertive, and reflects an
indifference to the concerns of either party.

E. Conflict Resolution Methods

Styles of dealing with conflict are closed related to methods of resolving conflict.
1. Confrontation and Problem Solving. A widely applicable approach to resolving
conflict is confrontation and problem solving, a method of identifying the true
source of conflict and resolving it systematically. The confrontation approach is
gentle and tactful rather than combative and abusive. During the confrontation
one person decides to work cooperatively, and confronts the second person. After
understanding the real issue, the parties attempt to develop specific means of
reducing or eliminating the cause of the conflict.
2. Confront, Contain, and Connect for Anger. To resolve conflict with angry
people, do as follows: Confront the agitated worker. Contain the angry worker by
moving him or her out of sight and earshot. Connect by asking open-ended
questions to get at the real issues behind an outburst. Mediator Nina Meierding
says, “Workers need a safe outlet to talk through anger and not feel they will be
minimized or have their job put in jeopardy.”
3. Structural Methods. A structural method of resolving conflict emphasizes
juggling work assignments and reporting relationships so that disputes are
minimized. Having control over all the resources one needs to accomplish the job
prevents conflict. Exchanging members among units lowers conflict. An appeals
procedure is standard practice. Management in some firms maintains an open-
door policy in which any employee can bring a gripe to its attention without
checking with the immediate manager. Being able to help two group members in
dispute resolve their conflicts is a high-level management skill. Exhibit 13-3
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presents some of the competencies required to help subordinates resolve their

conflicts.

F. Negotiating and Bargaining

Conflicts can be considered situations calling for negotiating and bargaining—
conferring with another person in order to resolve a problem. The term, mutual
gains, refers to the idea that both parties win.
1. Compromise. One party agrees to do one thing if the other party agrees to do
something else. Compromise is a realistic approach to resolving conflict and is
almost inescapable in our culture. Yet the two parties may wind up with a
solution that pacifies both but does not solve the problem.
2. Allow Room for Negotiation but Be Plausible. Most people believe that allowing
room for negotiation includes beginning with an extreme demand or offer. But a
plausible demand is better because it shows you are bargaining in good faith.
Also, a plausible demand will receive more sympathy from a third party such as a
judge.
3. Focus on Interests, Not Positions. Rather than clinging to specific negotiating
points, keep your overall interests in mind and try to satisfy them. A key benefit
of focusing on interests rather than positions is that I helps place the emphasis
away from winning and toward what you really want to achieve.
4. Use Deadlines. Deadlines often force people into action because they require
some type of external control or motivation.
5. Ask the Other Side, “What Do You Want Me to Do?” If you do what the other
side wants, you will often have reached and agreement. They underlying
psychology is that having suggested the solution, the other side will feel
committed.
6. Make a Last and Final Offer. In many instances, presenting a final offer will
break a deadlock.

G. Dealing with Difficult People

A challenge all workers face from time to time is dealing constructively with workers
who appear intent on creating problems. A difficult person is an individual who
creates problems for others, yet has the skill and mental ability to do otherwise. To
help difficult people change to a more constructive behavior pattern, the following
techniques are recommended:
1. Use tact and diplomacy in dealing with annoying behavior.
2. Use non-hostile humor.
3. Give recognition and attention. (Counterproductive people are sometimes crying
out for attention.)
4. Help the difficult person feel more confident. (Many counterproductive people
are simply low in self-confidence and self-efficacy.)
5. Reinforce civil behavior and good moods.

II. WORK STRESS

Conflict is a major contributor to stress, the mental and physical condition that results
from a perceived threat that cannot be dealt with readily. Stress is therefore an internal
Chapter 13/Conflict and Stress 97

response to a state of activation. Companies lose an estimated $200 billion annually

because of stress, taking into account below standard job performance, tardiness, and
workers’ compensation claims.

A. Symptoms and Consequences of Work Stress

Symptoms occur to cope with a stressor, any force creating the stress reaction. These
symptoms can include a host of physiological, emotional, and behavioral reactions
including those listed in accompanying self-assessment. Physiological symptoms of
stress include increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, pupil assize, and
perspiration. Emotional symptoms include anxiety, tension, depression,
discouragement, feeling unable to cope, and various types of defensive thinking.
Behavior symptoms include nervous habits, decreased job performance due to
forgetfulness and errors in concentration and judgment.

People require the right amount of stress to keep them mentally and physically alert.
Uncomfortable and distasteful stress lowers job performance. A person’s perception
of an object usually determines whether it will be a negative or positive stressor.

Prolonged exposure to stress may lead to burnout, a pattern of emotional, physical,

and mental exhaustion in response to chronic job stressors. The same syndrome is
sometimes regarded as work exhaustion. Personal accomplishment finally diminishes
as a result of burnout. A study conducted in a hospital found that emotional
exhaustion led to lower commitment to the organization, a higher rate of intention to
leave the organization, lower job performance, and lower organizational citizenship
behavior.

B. Factors Contributing to Work Stress

A host of individual and organizational factors contribute to work stress.
1.Factors within the Individual. The more significant life change you have to cope
with in a short period of time, the greater the probability of a stress disorder.
Exhibit 13-5 presents the impact of various life changes, measured in life-
change units. Type A people—those who are hostile, aggressive, impatient, and
suffer from hurry sickness—create stress for themselves. Such people are also
prone to cardiovascular disorders. An external locus of control predisposes
people to job stress because they do not believe they can control the stressor in
their environment. Negative lifestyle factors predispose a person to stress.
Such factors include poor exercise and eating habits and heavy consumption of
caffeine, alcohol, and other drugs. Being pessimistic predisposes one to stress,
whereas being optimistic helps ward off stress.
2. Adverse Organizational Conditions. High stress levels created by adverse
organizational conditions lead to many negative symptoms. According to the job
demands-job control model, workers experience the most stress when the
demands of the job are high, yet they have little control over the activity. Role
overload is a major contributor to work stress. Worrying about being on the “hit
list” is another job stressor. Role underload can also be a problem.
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A long-recognized contributor to work stress is role conflict, having to choose

between competing demands or expectations. The four types of role conflict are
intrasender (two opposing objectives), intersender (two people giving
incompatible directions), interrole (two roles in conflict), and person-role (values
clash with employer expectations). Another role-related stressor is role
ambiguity, a condition in which the job holder receives confusing or poorly
defined expectations. Information may be incomplete and confusing about
expected performance, behavior, and outcomes.

A powerful stressor for knowledge workers is information overload, as described

in Chapter 8 about communication. Stress caused by information overload is
sometimes referred to as technostress, caused by having to cope with ever
changing technology and the deluge of data stemming from information
technology.

Another contributor to stress and burnout is emotional labor, having to modify or

fake emotions, at least facial expression, when dealing with customers. Finally,
cultural diversity can be a stressor including competition for attention and
resources and trying to be politically correct.

C. Organizational Approaches to Stress Management

Organizations are actively involved in stress management. Creating a high-demand,
high-control job helps prevent stress. So does providing emotional support to
employees, and establishing a wellness and physical fitness program. One study
showed that employees who feel they had their boss’s support suffered only half as
much illness in 12 months as those who felt they lacked such support. A wellness
program is a formal organization-sponsored activity to help employees stay well and
avoid illness. Such a program might include a class in stress management, and
another in smoking cessation. Biofeedback is often part of a wellness program. The
Nevada Stress Center found that employees who participated in a stress management
program had fewer sick days than those who did not participate. An emerging
approach to help employees combat stress is to give them the opportunity to nap on
company premises. Napping is one of the most effective methods of treating and
preventing stress. (“You snooze, you win!”)

A macro approach for reducing stress is for an organization to practice justice with
respect to policies and managerial actions. Justice includes using accurate, unbiased
procedures and implementing them openly.

D. Individual Approaches to Stress Management

Techniques individuals can use to manage stress can be divided into three categories:
control, symptom management, and escape.
1. Control. Control includes getting emotional support, good work habits and time
management, including less procrastination. Gaining control is important because
being out of control is a major stressor.
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2. Symptom Management. Among the dozens of symptom management techniques

is exercise. Another is the relaxation response, a general-purpose method of
learning to relax by yourself. The stress busters listed in Exhibit 13-6 are mostly
aimed at symptom management.
3. Removal of the Stressor. Escape (meaning removal of the stressor) methods of
stress management are actions and reappraisals of situations that provide escape
from the stressor. Eliminating the stressor is the most effective escape technique.
[A high-impact class exercise here is to have class members one-by-one present
their most effective method of stress management that they are willing to share
with the class. Later, the class discusses the methods, and reaches a few
conclusions. Often the favorite methods are just temporary escapes, such as
listening to music, participating in sports, or drinking beer. Not enough students
attack the true stressor.]

III. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERIAL PRACTICE

A manager’s goal should be to maintain optimal levels of conflict in his or her unit. A
manager needs to develop effective conflict resolution skills, such as confrontation and
problem solving. Because somewhere between 20 to 30 percent of a manager’s time
involves resolving conflict, a manager needs to develop good conflict resolution skills. A
manager should strive to design the appropriate amount and kinds of stressors for both
individuals and groups. Managers should encourage team members to systematically
manage stress, considering today’s turbulent work environment.

Comments on End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions and Activities

1. Get together in a small group to present evidence that being effective at resolving
conflict is still a major problem in business and society.

Collective thinking will probably reveal many instances of major, unresolved conflicts in
business and society. Many unions as well as other employee groups continue to dispute
management about cutbacks in pension and health benefits. Stockholder groups struggle
with management about executive compensation. Tribal wars are ongoing in many
countries, resulting in machete attacks on each other. At any given times there are dozens
of wars between countries taking place. With the implementation of effective methods of
conflict resolution many of the struggles just mention could be ended.

2. In what way does the presence of spam advertising on e-mail represent conflict? Who
are the parties in conflict?

Spam advertising on e-mail represents a conflict because the interests of two sides clash.
The advertiser wants to exercise the right to freely distribute information about his or her
product without constant threats of being shutdown and/or sued. Most recipients of the
advertising, however, want access to their e-mail without deleting or sorting through all
the advertisements. The presence of spam has also precipitated battles with even Bill
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Gates of Microsoft deploring spam, which he perceives as a threat to the viability of e-

mail as a form of communication.

3. Conflict is said to have some functional consequences. Describe an example of how

conflict has ever improved your work life or personal life.

Some careful reflection is needed to answer this question. In the present era many
workers faced a conflict when the employer decided to eliminate their jobs. Some of
these people resolved the conflict by starting their own business and profiting from the
experience. On the personal side, some people experienced substantial conflict with a
spouse or partner about managing finances. As a result of the conflict, many of these
people began a better program of managing finances.

4. Why do so many workers at all organizational levels still commit sexual harassment
despite all the information available about its illegality and immorality?

A general answer here is that people continue to engage in behavior that damages
themselves and others in many areas despite the prohibitions on such behavior. Among
these dangerous behaviors of potential harm to others are smoking, driving while
intoxicated, riding in a passenger car or truck and not wearing seatbelts, skydiving, and
motorcycle driving. The potential thrill of sexually harassing another person might cloud
judgment about its potential negative consequences. As with shoplifters, many sexual
harassers probably think they will not get caught.

5. Why are entrepreneurs and other business owners more likely to experience work/family
conflict than corporate employees?

Entrepreneurs and other business owners frequently work longer hours, and are even
more passionate about their work than corporate employees. (One reason for the
excessive hours is that entrepreneurial firms are traditionally understaffed.) This intense
commitment to work creates more conflict with family life.

6. Give an example from your personal experience of how too much stress can lead to
problems that damaged a person’s career.

Although answering this question seems easy, students may have to pause to think of an
example of a direct link between heavy stress and career damage. Among the types of
examples are an individual in a competitive position who developed cardiac disease and
sought a less demanding and lower paying job to escape so much stress. Many high
school teachers have left teaching because of the stress of dealing with classroom
discipline. Hundreds of management consultants have left consulting for lower-paid
positions because of burnout from the heavy travel and long hours combined with
intensive work.

7. Identify a job in any field of business that you think creates negative stress for most
incumbents, and pinpoint the stressors.
Chapter 13/Conflict and Stress 101

Many bank managers are expected to increase business volume by adding new
customers, and selling new services, such as a credit card, to existing customers. The
stressor is that so many banks are attempting to do the same thing that attaining the goal
is exceedingly difficult.

A technical support position in which the incumbent provides assistance over the
telephone is often stressful. One stressor is absorbing the anger of customers who are
terribly frustrated. Another stressor is the ambiguity of trying to give help over the
phone, because sometimes the people in need of help are too frazzled to accurately
describe their problem. Another stressor is attempting to help people who lack the
requisite skills to follow the directions. Making quota, as measured by the number of
people helped, can also be stressful because some customers take so long to help even
with a simple problem.

Comments on Self-Assessment and Skill-Development Exercises

Mutual Gains Bargaining

Mutual gains bargaining is a good challenge for students because it requires creative thinking,
going beyond a simple compromise. It is difficult to find a solution that creates a win for both
sides. A possible win-win solution to the scenario about the cost-of-living adjustment is for the
workers to increase their productivity enough to cover the cost-of-living adjustment.
Management pays the cost-of-living adjustment but they get in back in improved productivity.

The toaster problem is difficult because we do not know how much flexibility each side has.
Perhaps the manufacturing group can outsource a key component of the toaster and have it
produced at a lower price. In this way the manufacturing group would still have a small win by
retaining the toaster making. At the same time, perhaps the sales group can sell the toaster with
one less feature thereby lowering the cost of manufacturing by even one dollar. Blockbuster
might take the frequent approach of building an historic-looking store front to blend in with
the neighborhood. In this way Blockbuster would get its store, and the town would get the tax
revenue with only a minimum disturbance to the appearance of the district.

The Stress Questionnaire

The stress symptoms in this questionnaire reflect a balance of the physiological, emotional,
and behavioral symptoms. As a result, answering the questions helps raise self-awareness
about personal stress. Most of the symptoms require a subjective interpretation, which makes
sense considering that many stress symptoms are subjective.

The Freeze-Frame Technique for Managing Stress

Here is an opportunity for students to use a systematic technique of stress reduction that
emphasizes reappraisal, along with some symptom management. As with most systematic
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approaches to stress management, the study may need to use the freeze-frame technique
several times to attain its full benefit. Step Two about shifting the focus away from the racing
mind or disturbed emotions around the heart requires good concentration.

Answers to Case Questions

Hard Charger Turned Soccer Mom

Although the “hard charger turned soccer mom” is an extreme case, her story illustrates how
difficult it can be to find the right balance between having a successful career and a successful
family, and personal life. The case illustrates both conflict and stress.

1. What kind of conflicts and stress was the case heroine facing?

The heroine wanted a successful career, and at the same time presumably wanted to be a
parent. She was thus suffering role conflict. She faced person-role conflict when she was
asked to come to work at 10 p.m. on a Sunday when she and her son were ill with the flu.
The heroine probably also faced considerable stress while commuting between Delaware
and her home in Chevy Chase, Maryland.

2. Has this woman really achieved an effective work/life balance?

Many people will criticize the work/life balance the woman has achieved. Working 12
hours per workday as the mother of a young child is still excessive. A toddler needs a
mother around before 7 or 8 p.m. It could be that the father is there for a little while in
the earlier evening, but the heroine does not mention shared child rearing. The fact that
the heroine does not work weekends suggests that she is spending more time with family
responsibilities.
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3. What suggestions can you make the case heroine to create an even more effective
work/life balance?

Given that the heroine has such a young child, it would be helpful to work/life balance if
she could work until only 5 p.m., and then perhaps do a little more work after the child is
asleep. Such a job move could result in less responsibility and income which might
create conflict for the heroine. She is not quite yet a true soccer mom.

4. How should this woman have dealt with the late-night request by her boss?

The woman’s reflex response of “no can do” was probably the correct one. Being sick
with the flu, and taking care of a child with the flu at the same time is justification for
not attending an emergency meeting at 10 p.m. on Sunday. The woman in question might
have requested that she could provide input for the meeting over the telephone or by e-
mail—anything but making a trip to the office and handing her sick child to the security
guard.