Galaxy Formation Galaxy Formation

University of Durham University of Durham

Carlos Frenk Carlos Frenk
Institute of Computational Cosmology Institute of Computational Cosmology
University of Durham University of Durham

Goal: understand origin and evolution of cosmic structures You should be familiar with:

• Review of standard Big Bang model • Basic concepts in Big Bang theory
• Growth of small fluctuations (linear theory) • The contents of the Universe
• Fluctuations in the microwave background radiation • The expansion properties of the Universe
• The formation of galaxies and clusters Books:
Connection to three outstanding problems in 21st Physics: Cole & Lucchin: Cosmology -- about the right level
Peacock: Galaxy Formation -- advanced
• The identity of the dark matter Liddle: Cosmology -- basic background
• The nature of the dark energy http://star-www.dur.ac.uk/~csf/homepage/GalForm_lectures
• Origin of cosmic structure Institute for Computational Cosmology Institute for Computational Cosmology

The Big Bang Theory Empirical evidence for the Big Bang
University of Durham University of Durham

What it is: 1. The expansion of the universe of galaxies

• Theory that the Universe as we know it began 10 – 15 billion years ago • galaxies are receding from us with speed proportional to their distance
• Initial state was a hot, dense, uniform sea of particles that filled space uniformly and • expansion is the same for all observers
was expanding
2. The microwave background radiation
What it describes: • heat left over from Big Bang explosion
• How the universe expands and cools • comes from everywhere in space (homogeneous and isotropic)
• How the light chemical elements formed • it was emitted when the universe was 300000 years old
• How matter congealed to form stars and galaxies
3. The abundance of the light elements

What it does not describe: • BB theory predicts that 75% of mass is hydrogen, 24% is helium and 1% is the rest

• What caused the expansion (expanding initial state assumed) • These are precisely the abundances observed in distant gas clouds!
• Where did matter come from (energy assumed to be there from start)
(nb: elements heavier than H and 4He were produced billions of years later inside stars)
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 University of Durham
The content of our universe

What is the Universe made of?

Dark matter ≡ matter that does not emit light at any wavelength
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What is the universe made of?

University of Durham University of Durham Galaxy rotation curves
density ρ = ρmass + ρrel + ρvac
Ω = critical density
critical density = density that makes univ. flat: (Ω = 1 for a flat univ.)

• Radiation (CMB, T=2.726±0.005 K) o

Ωr = 4.7 x 10-5
• Massless neutrinos Ων = 3 x 10-5
• Massive neutrinos Ων = 6 x 10-2 (<mν>/ev)
• Baryons Ωb = 0.037 ± 0.009
(of which stars) Ωs = 0.0023 ± 0.0003
• Dark matter (cold dark matter) Ω dm ≅ 0.26
• Dark energy (cosm. const. Λ) ΩΛ ≅ 0.7
Flat Vc M(<r) ∝ r
—> Ω = Ωb + Ωdm+ ΩΛ ≅ 1 ⇒ dark halos around galaxy
(assuming Hubble parameter h=0.7) Institute for Computational Cosmology Institute for Computational Cosmology
 Mapping the dark matter
University of Durham University of Durham

Light rays are deflected by gravity (E=mc2)

Computer
simulation of
galaxy halo

Distant galaxy
Observer
Galaxy clusters
(Gravitational lens)

0.5 Mpc/h Institute for Computational Cosmology Institute for Computational Cosmology

Gravitational lensing The visible and dark sides of

University of Durham University of Durham
the universe

• There is ~5 times more dark matter than there is

ordinary (baryonic) matter

(~90% of the mass of the Universe is dark matter)

→ Most of the dark matter is NOT ordinary

(baryonic) matter

Light from distant galaxies is deflected by dark matter in → Weakly interacting massive particles
cluster, distorting the galaxies’ images into arcs (WIMPS)
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 Non-baryonic dark matter Looking for WIMPS
candidates
University of Durham University of Durham

Type candidate mass CERN

hot neutrino a few eV Geneva

Sterile
warm keV-MeV
neutrino
axion 10-5eV->100
cold
neutralino GeV

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The search for dark matter

University of Durham University of Durham

UK DM search
(Boulby mine)
Boulby mine

Looking for dark matter …

down the mine

(where cosmic rays can’t

penetrate)

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 University of Durham University of Durham
What is the universe made of?

So, the Universe contains:

UK DM search
(Boulby mine)
Boulby mine • Ordinary matter (Ωb=0.04)
• Dark matter (Ωdm= 0.21)

Anything else?
Looking for dark matter …
down the mine Yes! Dark energy
(where cosmic rays can’t
Dark energy is a property of space
penetrate)
itself.
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It has the opposite effect to gravity Institute for Computational Cosmology

Evidence for Λ from high-z Friedmann equations

University of Durham
supernovae University of Durham

Ωm ΩΛ
..
2 d 2
a =- 43p G 3w c a =- 3 pc
SN type Ia (standard candles) at
1
da
flux

z~0.5 are fainter than expected even if ρtot = ρmass + ρrel + ρvac 2
where p w
the Universe were empty
a-3 a-4 const?

3w 1 0 a 0 expansion accelerates

Þ The cosmic expansion must have dρ 2

been accelerating since the light was If ρ = ρ vac = const , = 0 ⇒ p = − ρc ⇒ w = −1
da cosmological constant
emitted
If ρvac = ρvac (z,x) and ⇒ quintessence
a/a0=1/(1+z)
Perlmutter et al ‘98 Institute for Computational Cosmology Institute for Computational Cosmology
 Evolution of Cosmic Scale
Factor in FRW Model The origin of galaxies
University of Durham

ρ= ρmass + ρrel + ρvac

∨ ∨ ∨
a
,r
a-3 a-4 const
o
ct = 0 .1

fa
le
a
cs = 1
ic
> 0
m vac
so
= 1
c
> 1

= 8

time

Λ>0

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Inflation
Scalar field
Initially, Universe is Φ
trapped in false vacuum

Universe decays to true

vacuum keeping ρv~
const

Universe oscillates
converting energy into
particles
 Inflation
Friedmann equations
University of Durham

8p
kc 2
2 2
a G
3

If k 0 and vac
const w =- 1

2
a 8p
G
a 3
t 1 2
3
aµe t t
⇒ 8p

⇒ Universe expands exponentially Institute for Computational Cosmology

Generation of primordial fluctuations

Cosmic Inflation
University of Durham University of Durham

Observable universe
Quantum fluctuations are
t=10-35 s
blown up to macroscopic
scales during inflation

Inflation
Chaotic theory predicts:
inflation
2. Flat geometry (Ω =1) √
(eternal expansion)
4. Small ripples in mass distribution

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University of Durham University of Durham

^
Or if pressure forces dominate inside the perturbation
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University of Durham University of Durham

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 The origin of cosmic structure
University of Durham
QUANTUM FLUCTUATIONS:
Damping (nature of
Inflation (t~10-35 s)
+
2 n
k k n= 1
Gau ss iana mplitu des

dark matter)

P(k)=Akn T2(k,t)
Rh(teq) Transfer function
Cold dark matter
Horizon crossing
Mezaros damping
P(k)
baryons • Hot DM (eg ~30 ev neutrino)
- Top-down formation
radiation • Cold DM (eg ~neutralino)

1
n=
- Bottom-up (hierachical)
Free streaming

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The microwave background radiation

38
00

University of Durham
00
ye
ars
aft
er
the
big
Ba

The microwave background radiation

ng

Plasma
T=2.73 K

t=0
Institute for Computational Cosmology John Mather 2006 Nobel laureate t=380 000 yrs
 The microwave background radiation University of Durham
Dependence of ∆T/T on cosmological params
38
00
00

inf
ye

lat
ar

ion
s aft
er
the
big
Ba
ng

Max Tegmark
Plasma
T=2.73 K

z=∞
z =1000 Institute for Computational Cosmology

The CMB The CMB

University of Durham University of Durham

1992 1992

The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) provides a

window to the universe at t~3x105 yrs
George Smoot - Nobel Prize 2006
In 1992 COBE discovered temperature fluctuations (∆T/T~10-5)
consistent with inflation predictions

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 The CMB WMAP temp anisotropies in CMB
University of Durham University of Durham

1992 Amplitude of fluctuations

The amplitude of the

CMB ripples is exactly as
2003 predicted by inflationary
cold dark matter theory
The position of the first
peak
FLAT UNIVERSE

Institute for Computational Cosmology Hinshaw etal ‘06 Institute for Computational Cosmology

The origin of cosmic structure The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey

University of Durham
1. FLAT GEOMETRY: A collaboration between (primarily) UK and
Inflation (t~10-35 s)
k
2
k
n
n= 1
Australia
250 nights at the AAT
Gau ss iana mplitu des

2. QUANTUM FLUCTUATIONS:

CMB (t~3x105 yrs)

Structure
(t~13x109yrs)
Cold dark matter

221,000 redshifts
to bj<19.45 median z=0.11
Survey complete and catalogue released
Institute for Computational Cosmology in July/03
 Sloan Digital Sky Survey

~300,000 galaxy redshifts so far,

500,000 eventually

Evolution of spherical Calculating the evolution of cosmic structure

University of Durham
perturbations University of Durham

Rh(teq)

Mezaros damping
P(k)

N-body
1
n=

Free streaming
simulation

Large scales Small scales

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 Neutrino (hot) dark matter
University of Durham University of Durham

Ων=1 (mν = 30 ev)

Non-baryonic dark matter
candidates

Free-streaming length
Ca ndida te Mass

Axion s -5
10 eV

Neutrinos

Neutralin os (SUSY)
30 eV

>20 Ge V
so large that
Primordial black hole s
15
>10 g superclusters form first
and galaxies are too
young
Cold DM
Hot DM Zf=0.5 Zf=2.5
Neutrinos cannot
make an appreciable
Cold DM
contribution to Ω CfA redshift
Cold DM and mν<< 30 ev survey

Frenk, White & Davis ‘83

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University of Durham
Cold dark matter University of Durham

dalla Vechia, Jenkins

& Frenk
CDM
In CDM structure Ω=0.2
forms hierarchically

QuickTimeª and a
YUV420 codec decompressor
150 Mpc/h

are needed to see this picture.

Early CDM N-body

simulations gave HDM Ω=1
promising results
CfA redshift survey
Comoving
Davis, Efstathiou, coordinates
Frenk & White ‘85
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 The Millennium simulation
QuickTimeª and a QuickTimeª and a
3ivx D4 4.5.1 decompressor 3ivx D4 4.5.1 decompressor
are needed to see this picture. are needed to see this picture.

Springel et al Nature June/05

Helly & Frenk 06

1 Mpc

Dependence of ∆T/T on cosmological params

SDSS University of Durham

real
CMB

CfA

2dF survey
Galaxies

simulated
ΛCDM Max Tegmark
Springel, Frenk & White
Nature, May ‘06 Institute for Computational Cosmology
 Cosmological parameters from WMAP+2dFGRS
The cosmic power spectrum: from the CMB
to the 2dFGRS
University of Durham University of Durham

Accelerated expansion
ΛCDM provides an excellent
description of mass power z=0
spectrum from 10 -1000 Mpc WMAP
ΛCDM

CMB:
2dFGRS
• Convert angular separation to
distance (and k) assuming flat geometry

• Extrapolate to z=0 using linear theory

SpergelInstitute
etal ‘03 Cosmology
for Computational Sanchez et al 06 Institute for Computational Cosmology

Conclusions
University of Durham The origin of cosmic structure University of Durham

Inflation (t~10-35 s) 1. FLAT geometry:

2. Small (quantum) ripples

CMB (t~3x105 yrs)

Galaxies
(t~13x109yrs)
Cold dark matter

Ripples seen as hot & cold spots in

cosmic radiation Galaxies form

• Recent measurements of fluctuations in the

temperature of the microwave background confirm Institute for Computational Cosmology Institute for Computational Cosmology
this paradigm.
 University of Durham
Open questions University of Durham
Open questions
Tools:

• What is the dark matter? • Satellites to study the CMB & distant galaxies
• What is the dark energy? • Large telescopes
• What happened in the first 10 s after the Big Bang?
-35
• Direct dark matter searches
• How, in detail, did stars and galaxies form? • Particle accelerators (CERN)
• How much farther will the simulations go? • Supercomputer simulations
Ideas:

• Theoretical physics & mathematics

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The paradigm of structure formation

ΛCDM
University of Durham

• Material content: Cold dark matter, baryons, Λ

• Initial conditions: From quantum fluctuations during

inflation: |δk|2 k; Gaussian ampl.
• Growth processes: Gravitational instability;
gas (cooling, star formation, etc)
• Parameters: CDM
0 . 26 , b 0 . 04 , h 0 . 70 ,
2
3 H 0 0 . 7, 8
0.9

Galaxies form hierarchically

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 Conclusions: open questions
The future of cosmology
University of Durham University of Durham

Open questions:

Detection (or manufacture) dark matter

The origin of the dark energy ?
? The astrophysics of galaxy formation ?

?
• Direct searches for CDM (Boulby, CDMS, G Sasso)
• Constraints on w (high-z SN, lensing, high-z clustering)
UK DM search
(Boulby mine) • Surveys of galaxies at high-z (VLT, SIRTF, ALMA, NGST)
• Supercomputers simulations
• New ideas on w
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