Basic Concepts in Mathematics

Basic Concepts in Mathematics
MATH 10: Mathematics in the Modern World

Sections XX and GGG
Jasper John Segismundo
1 Sets
2 Relations and Functions
3 Elementary Logic

1 Sets
3 Elementary Logic

Sets
Preliminaries
Definitions:
• A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
• These objects in a set are called elements (or members).
Remarks:
• We denote sets with uppercase letters and elements with
lowercase letters.
• For a set A, we write a ∈ A to denote a is an element of A,
and a ∉ A if a is not an element of A.
• A set is completely determined by what its elements are—
not the order in which they might be listed or the fact
that some elements might be listed more than once.
Sets Relations and Functions Elementary Logic
4
Sets
Special Sets
• ℝ: set of all real numbers

• ℝ+ : set of all positive real numbers
• ℤ: set of all integers
• ℤ+ : set of all positive integers
• ℕ: set of all natural numbers
• ℚ: set of all rational numbers
• 𝕀𝕀: set of all imaginary numbers
• ℂ: set of all complex numbers

5
Sets
Notations
• A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by

writing all of its elements between braces.
Examples:
• {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
• {5, 5, 4, 4, 3, 3, 2, 2, 1, 1}
• {ENGL 11, FILI 11, MATH 10, THEO 11}
• {2, 4, 6, 8, …, 100}
• 1, 1 , 2, 4 , 3, 9 , …, 10, 100
• {{1}, {2}, {3}, {4}}

6
Sets
Notations
• Another way to specify a set is to use the set-builder

notation by stating the property that needs to be
satisfied to be a member of the set.
• It has the form x ∈ S | P x , where P x is the property
that the elements of the set S should satisfy.
Examples:
• red, yellow, blue = x | x is a primary color
• a, b = x ∈ ℝ | a ≤ x < b = x | a ≤ x < b
• A = x ∈ ℝ | −2 < x2 < −1
• B = x ∈ ℤ+ | 3 2 + 4 2 = x2

7
Sets
Empty and Singleton Sets
• The empty set is the set containing no elements. It is

denoted by ∅ or { }.
• A set containing one element is called a singleton set.
Examples:
• ∅ = x ∈ ℝ | −2 < x2 < −1
• 5 = x ∈ ℤ+ | 3 2 + 4 2 = x2
• ∅ = x | x is a primary and a secondary color
• 1 = x > 0 | x2 = 1

8
Sets
Subsets
• Let A and B be sets. A is called a subset of B if and only if

every element of A is also an element of B . This is
denoted by A ⊆ B.
• A is a proper subset of B if and only if every element of A
is in B but there is at least one element of B that is not in
A. This is denoted by A ⊂ B.
• If there is at least one element in A not in B, then A ⊈ B.
Examples:
• ℤ ⊆ ℚ and ℤ ⊆ ℝ
• x ⊆ w, x, y, z but a ⊈ w, x, y, z
1 1 1
• , , ⊆ x|0≤x≤1
2 3 4
9
Sets
Exercises
Determine whether the ff. statements are true or false:

1. 2 ∈ 1, 2, 3
2. 2 ∈ 1, 2, 3
3. 2 ⊆ 1, 2, 3
4. 2 ⊆ 1, 2, 3
5. 2 ⊆ 1, 2
6. 2 ∈ 1, 2
7. 2 ∈ 1, 2, 1 , 2
10
Sets
Exercises
Describe each of the following sets:

1. x ∈ ℝ | −2 < x < 5
2. x ∈ ℝ+ | −2 < x < 5
3. x ∈ ℤ | −2 < x < 5
4. x ∈ ℤ− | −2 < x < 5
5. x ∈ ℤ+ | −2 < x < 5

11
Sets
Exercises
Let A = ℤ+ , B = n ∈ ℤ | 10 ≤ n ≤ 100 , and C = {100, 200,

300, 400, 500} . Determine whether the ff. statements are
true or false:
1. B ⊆ A
2. C ⊂ A
3. C ⊆ B
4. C ⊂ C

12
Sets
Ordered Pair and Cartesian Product
Definitions:
• The notation a, b denotes an ordered pair, where a is
the first element and b is the second element.
• Two ordered pairs a, b and c, d are equal if and only if
a = c and b = d.
• Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B,
denoted by A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs a, b ,
where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

13
Sets
Exercises
Let A = 1, 2, 3 and B = u, v .
1. Find A × B.
2. Find B × A.
3. Find B × B.
4. How many elements are there in these sets?
5. Describe ℝ × ℝ.

14
1 Sets
3 Elementary Logic

Relations and Functions
Preliminaries

16
Relations
• Let A and B be sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset

of A × B.
• Given an ordered pair in A × B, x is related to y by R,
denoted by x R y, if and only if x, y is in R.
• The set A is called the domain of R and the set B is called
its co-domain.
• The arrow diagram for R is obtained as follows:
• Represent the elements of A as points in one region and the
elements of B in another region.
• For each x ∈ A and y ∈ B, draw an arrow from x to y if and only if
x is related to y by R.

17
Exercise
Let A = 2, 3, 4 and B = 6, 8, 10 and define a relation R

from A to B as follows:
y
For all x, y ∈ A × B, x, y ∈ R means that is an integer.
x
1. Write A × B as a set of ordered pairs.

2. Is 4 R 6? 4 R 8?
3. Is (3, 8) ∈ R? Is (2, 10) ∈ R?
4. Write R as a set of ordered pairs.
5. Draw an arrow diagram for R.

18
Functions
• A function F from set A to set B is a relation that satisfies

the following properties:
• For every element x ∈ A, there is an element y ∈ B
such that x, y is in F.
• For all elements x ∈ A and y, z ∈ B, if x, y ∈ F and
x, z ∈ F, then y = z.
• The unique element in B that is related to x by F is
denoted by F(x).
Remark:
In a function, each element in the domain A corresponds to
one, and only one element of the co-domain B.

19
Exercise
Let A = {2, 4} and B = {1, 3, 5}. Define the relations R, S, and

T from A to B as follows: For all x, y ∈ A × B,
• x, y ∈ R means that y – x > 2
x
• x, y ∈ S means that y – 1 =
2
• T = 2, 5 , 4, 1 , 2, 3
1. Write R and S as a set of ordered pairs.
2. Draw the arrow diagrams for R, S, and T.
3. Which of the following relations are functions?

20
Equality of Functions
• If f and g are functions from a set A to a set B, then

f = x, y ∈ A × B | y = f x
g = x, y ∈ A × B | y = g x
• It follows that f equals g, written f = g, if and only if f x =
g x for all x in A.

21
Exercises
1. For all x, y ∈ ℝ2 , x, y ∈ C means that x2 + y2 = 1.

Is C a function? Explain.
2. For all x, y ∈ ℝ2 , x, y ∈ D means that y – x2 = 1.
Is D a function? Explain.
3. Define f and g from ℝ to ℝ by the following formulas:
2x3 + 2x
for all x ∈ ℝ, f x = 2x and g x = . Does f = g?
2
x +1
4. Define h and j from ℝ to ℝ by the following formulas:
x2 – 9
for all x ∈ ℝ, f x = x + 3 and g x = . Does h = j?
x–3
NOT INCLUDED IN THE QUIZ

22
1 Sets
3 Elementary Logic

Elementary Logic
Propositions
• A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true

or false, but not both.
• Every proposition has a truth value, namely true or false.
Examples:
• Mathematics makes the invisible visible.
• How are you doing?
• 2019 is divisible by 3.
• Pass your papers forward.
• x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 = 125.

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Elementary Logic
Compound Propositions
• A simple proposition conveys a single idea, while a

compound proposition conveys two or more ideas.
• Compound propositions are formed from existing
propositions using logical operators.
(e.g. negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional)
• A truth table shows the truth value of a proposition for
all possible truth values of its simple propositions.
Examples:
• You will not buy milk tea nor eat samgyup this week.
• If it is raining hard, then classes will get suspended.

25
Elementary Logic
Negation
• Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p,

is the proposition “not p.” The truth value of ¬p is the
opposite of the truth value of p.
p ¬p
T F
F T

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Elementary Logic
Negation
Consider the proposition:

p: Harry Potter is a full-blooded wizard.
Then,
¬p: Harry Potter is not a full-blooded wizard.
Exercise: What is the negation of the ff. propositions?

• Pineapples go on pizzas.
• There are 13 items in a baker’s dozen.
• John sends more than 100 text messages everyday.

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Elementary Logic
Conjunction
• Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q,

denoted by p ∧ q, is the proposition “p and q.” It is true
when both p and q are true and is false otherwise.
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Remark: In logic, the word “but” is sometimes used instead

of “and” in a conjunction.

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Elementary Logic
Conjunction
Consider the propositions:

p: Captain America is worthy of the Mjölnir.
q: Iron Man collected all six infinity stones.
Then,
p ∧ q: Captain America is worthy of the Mjölnir and Iron
Man collected all six infinity stones.

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Elementary Logic
Disjunction
• Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p and q,

denoted by p ∨ q, is the proposition “p or q.” It is false
when both p and q are false and is true otherwise.
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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Elementary Logic
Disjunction

p: I will finish all my requirements tonight.
q: I will sleep and rest for tomorrow’s exam.
Then,
p ∨ q: I will finish all my requirements tonight or I will
sleep and rest for tomorrow’s exam.

31
Elementary Logic
• If a compound proposition is written in symbolic form,

then parentheses are used to indicate which simple
propositions are grouped together.
• If it is written as an English sentence, then a comma is
used to indicate which simple propositions are grouped
together.

32
Elementary Logic

p: Stephen Curry is a football player.
q: Stephen Curry is a basketball player.
r: Stephen Curry is a rock star.
s: Stephen Curry plays for the Warriors.
Exercise: Write the following propositions in English.

• (p ∨ q) ∧ ¬r
• (¬q ∧ r) ∨ s

33
Elementary Logic
Conditional
• Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statement

p → q, is the proposition “if p, then q.” It is false when p is
true and q is false, and true otherwise.
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Remark: A conditional prop. is also called an implication.

In addition, p is called the hypothesis (antecedent) and q is
called the conclusion (consequent).
34
Elementary Logic
Conditional
• “If we don’t get that stone, billions of people stay dead.”

(Black Widow to Hawkeye)
• “If you want to be my lover, you got to get with my
friends.” (Spice Girls)
• “If I get an A in the MATH 10 long exam, then I will treat
you in a buffet.”

35
Elementary Logic
Conditional*
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
p: I will get an A in the MATH 10 long exam.
q: I will treat you in a buffet.
Then,
p → q: If I get an A in the MATH 10 long exam, then I will
treat you in a buffet.
36
Elementary Logic
Conditional
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
p: I win in the elections.
q: I will help in the education sector.
Then,
p → q: If I win in the elections, then I will help in the
education sector.
37
Elementary Logic
Exercise
Determine the truth value of the following.

• If Mars is the fourth planet in the Solar System, then 9
plus 16 is equal to 25.
• If 2019 is a positive integer, then π is a rational number.
• If a rectangle is a square, then 7 × 8 = 56.

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Elementary Logic
Conditional
• Other forms of p → q include:

• q if p
• p only if q
• p implies q
• q when p
• q follows from p
Examples:
• p → q: If it is sunny, then I wear shades.
• p → q: I wear shades if it is sunny.
• p → q: It is sunny only if I wear shades.

39
Elementary Logic
Conditional
• Other forms of p → q include:

• q if p
• p only if q
• p implies q
• q when p
• q follows from p
Examples:
• q → p: If I wear shades, then it is sunny.
• q → p: It is sunny if I wear shades.
• q → p: I wear shades only if it is sunny.

40
Elementary Logic
Conditional
• The converse of p → q is q → p.
• The inverse of p → q is ¬p → ¬q.
• The contrapositive of p → q is ¬q → ¬p.
Examples:
• p → q: If it is sunny, then I wear shades.
• q → p: If I wear shades, then it is sunny.
• ¬p → ¬q: If it is not sunny, then I do not wear shades.
• ¬q → ¬p: If I do not wear shades, then it is not sunny.

41
Elementary Logic
Logical Equivalence
• Two propositions p and q are equivalent (p ≡ q) if they

both have the same truth values for all possible truth
values of their statements.
Exercise: Construct a truth table for the ff. propositions:

• ¬p ∨ q (p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q)
• ¬q → ¬p (p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p)
• (¬p ∨ q) → p
• [p ∧ (q ∨ ¬p)] → ¬p
• (r ∨ p) ∧ q

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Elementary Logic
Propositional Function
• p: Jake is eligible to vote in the 2022 elections.

• q: Amy is eligible to vote in the 2022 elections.
• r: Terry is eligible to vote in the 2022 elections.
• s: Gina is eligible to vote in the 2022 elections.
How to write: “Every person who is at least 18 years old is

eligible to vote in the 2022 elections.”

43
Elementary Logic
Propositional Function
• A statement involving a variable can be represented as

P x , where P is the propositional function and x is the
variable.
• P x can be divided into two parts: the variable(s) is/are
the subject, while the predicate refers to the property or
characteristic that the subject can have.
Captain Holt is eligible to vote in the 2022 elections .

subject predicate

44
Elementary Logic
Exercise
Let P x denote the statement |x| ≤ 5, where the domain

consists of all real numbers. Determine the truth values of
the following.
• P(3)
• P(12)
• P(−5) ∧ P(5)
• P(10) → P(−1)

45
Elementary Logic
Quantifiers
• A quantifier expresses the extent to which a predicate is

true over a range of elements.
• The domain is the set of all possible values of the variable
x in the propositional function P x .

46
Elementary Logic
Quantifiers
• The universal quantification of P x , denoted by ∀x P x ,

is the statement
“P x for all values of x in the domain.”
• The symbol ∀ is read as “for all,” “for every,” or “for each.”
Example:
• All Avengers have superpowers.
• Every integer is a rational number.

47
Elementary Logic
Quantifiers
• The existential quantification of P x , denoted by ∃x

P x , is the statement
“There exists an element x in the domain such that P x .”
• The symbol ∃ is read as “there exists,” or “for some.”
Example:
• Some Avengers have flying superpowers.
• There exists an even number that is divisible by 4.

48
Elementary Logic
Truth Value of Quantifiers
∀x P x
• True: P x is true for every x in the domain.
• False: There is an x for which P x is false.
∃x P x
• True: There is an x for which P x is true.
• False: P x is false for every x in the domain.
Therefore, ¬∀P x ≡ ∃¬P x and ¬∃P x ≡ ∀¬P x .

49
Elementary Logic
Therefore, ¬∀P x ≡ ∃¬P x and ¬∃P x ≡ ∀¬P x .

The negation of ∀P x is ∃¬P x .
The negation of ∃P x is ∀¬P x .
Statement Negation
All X are Y. Some X are not Y.
No X are Y. Some X are Y.
Some X are Y. No X are Y.
Some X are not Y. All X are Y.

50
Elementary Logic
Example:
• ∀P x : All Avengers have superpowers.

• ¬∀P x : Not all Avengers have superpowers.
• ∃¬P x : There is an Avenger who has no superpowers.
• ∃P x : Some Avengers have flying superpowers.

• ¬∃P x : Not some Avengers have flying superpowers.
• ∀¬P x : No Avengers have flying superpowers.

51
Elementary Logic
Exercise
Write the negation of the following statements.

• There is an honest politician.
• Some dogs are not friendly.
• All Filipinos eat sisig.
• No odd numbers are divisible by 2.

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MATH 10: Mathematics in the Modern World
Sections XX and GGG
Jasper John Segismundo

Basic Concepts in Mathematics

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Basic Concepts in Mathematics

MATH 10: Mathematics in the Modern World

2 Relations and Functions