Drilling Engineering

Drilling Fluids

Dr. Imre FEDERER

Associate Professor
 Drilling Fluids

• Functions Of Mud
• Drilling Mud Additives
• Drilling Fluid Types
• Drilling Mud Properties
• Drilling Fluid Selection
• Drilling Mud Problems
• Solids Control
 Drilling Fluids
• To remove the drilled cuttings from the hole.
– Viscosity, Mud Weight.
• To suspend the cuttings when circulation is stopped
– Gel strength, Yield Point, Mud Weight.
• To control BHP pressure greater than formation pressure.
– Mud weight.
• To cool and lubricate the bit and drillpipe.
• To prevent the walls of the hole from caving.
– Formation of a stable mud cake on the walls of wellbore.
• To prevent or minimize the damaging effects to the formation.
– Clay stabilizer additives
• To assist in the gathering of the information from the formations.
Drilling Fluid Additives
Weighting Materials
 Drilling Fluid Additives
Weighting Materials

Barite (BaSO4)
• Barite (or barytes) is the most commonly used weighting material.
• Barium sulphate has a specific gravity in the range of 4.20 - 4.60
• It is preferred because of its low cost and high purity.
• It is used when mud weights in excess of 10 ppg are required.
• Barite can be used to achieve densities up to 2.28 s.g (22.0 ppg) in
both water- based and oil -based muds.
– At very high mud weights the rheological properties of the fluid become
difficult to control.

• Disadvantage: Not soluble in acid cause formation damage.

 Drilling Fluid Additives
Weighting Materials
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
• Advantage: its ability to react and dissolve in hydrochloric acid.
• Filter cake formed on productive zones can be easily removed.
• CaCO3 is dispersed in oil muds more readily than is barite.
• Its low specific gravity (2.60 - 2.80) limits the mud weight.
• The maximum density of mud to about 1.44 g/cm3 (12.0 ppg)
• Calcium carbonate is available as limestone or oyster shells.
Dolomite is a calcium - magnesium carbonate
• Dolomitre specific gravity of 2.80 - 2.90.
• The maximum mud density achieved is 1.60 s.g. (13.3 ppg).
• Its ability to react and dissolve in hydrochloric acid
 Salt Brines

Practical Maximum
Fluid
Density kg/l (ppg)
Caesium Formate 2.36 (19.7)
Potassium Formate (KHCO2) 1.60 (13.3)
Sodium Formate (NaHCO2) 1.33 (11.1)
Sea water 1.02 (8.5)
Brine-sodium chloride (NaCl) 1.18 (9.8)
Brine-potassium chloride (KCl) 1.17 (9.7)
Brine-calcium chloride (CaCl2) 1.38 (11.5)
Brine-calcium bromide (CaBr2) 1.80 (15.0)
Brine-zinc bromide (ZnBr2) 2.18 (18.1)
 Crystallization Point of Brines

Weight Crystallization Point

kg/l ppg oC oF

Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

1,02 8.5 -2 29
1,08 9.0 -7 19
1,14 9.5 -16 6
1,2 10.0 -4 25
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)
1,02 8.5 -1 30
1,14 9.5 -13 9
1,2 10.0 -22 -8
1,26 10.5 -37 -36
1,32 11.0 -30 -22
1,38 11.5 +2 35
Calcium Chloride/Bromide (CaCl2/Br2)
1,44 12.0 12 54
1,56 13.0 15 59
1,68 14.0 17,7 64
1,8 15.0 19,4 67
 Drilling Fluid Additives

Viscosifiers
• High viscosity provide the ability of cutting transport.
• Low viscosity provide low pressure loss in the circulation system.
• Solids removal efficiency increase when the viscosity is decrease.

Materials used as viscosifiers

Relationship Between Function Of A Polymer In A
Drilling Fluid
 Filtration Control Materials

• Filtration Control Materials

• Filtration control agents are compounds which reduce the amount of
fluid that will be lost.
• from the drilling fluid into a subsurface formation due, essentially, to
the differential between the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid and the
formation pressure.
• Bentonite, polymers,
• starches and thinners or deflocculants all function as filtration control
agents.
 Filtration Control Materials
• Bentonite is the "backbone" of clay based mud systems. It imparts viscosity and suspension
• as well as filtration control. The flat, "plate like" structure of bentonite packs tightly together
• under pressure and forms a firm compressible filter cake, preventing fluid from entering the
• formation
• Polymers such as Polyanionic cellulose (PAC) and Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)
• reduce filtrate mainly when the hydrated polymer chains absorb onto the clay solids and plug
• the pore spaces of the filter cake p preventing fluid seeping through the filter cake and
• formation. Filtration is also reduced as the polymer viscosifies the mud thereby creating a
• viscosified structure to the filtrate making it difficult for the filtrate to seep through.
• Starches function in a similar way to polymers. The free water is absorbed by the sponge like
• material which aids in the reduction of fluid loss. They form very compressible particles that
• plug the small openings in the filter cake.
• Thinners and deflocculants function as filtrate reducers by separating the clay flock‟s or
• groups enabling them to pack tightly to form a thin, flat filter cake.
 Rheology Control Materials

• Basic rheological control is achieved by controlling the concentration of the primary

• viscosifiers used in the drilling fluid system. However, when efficient control of viscosity
• and gel development cannot be achieved by control of viscosifier concentration, materials
• called "thinners", "dispersants", and/or "deflocculants" are added. By definition, these are
• materials that cause a change in the physical and chemical interactions between solids and/or
• dissolved salts such that the viscous and structure forming properties of the drilling fluid are
• reduced.
• Thinners are also used to reduce filtration and cake thickness, to counteract the effects of
• salts, to minimize the effect of water on the formations drilled, to emulsify oil in water, and
• to stabilize mud properties at elevated temperatures.
• Materials commonly used as thinners in water based clay containing drilling fluids can be
• broadly classified as: (1) plant tannins, (2) lignitic materials, (3) lignosulfonates, and (4) low
• molecular weight, synthetic, water soluble polymers.
 Alkalinity and pH Control
Materials
• The pH affects several mud properties including:
• detection and treatment of contaminants such as cement
and soluble carbonates
• solubility of many thinners and divalent metal ions such
as calcium and magnesium
• Alkalinity and pH control additives include the alkali and
alkaline earth hydroxides; NaOH,
• KOH, Ca(OH)2, NaHCO3 and Mg(OH)2. These are
compounds used to attain a specific pH
• and to maintain optimum pH and alkalinity in water base
fluids Among the materials most
• commonly used to control pH are
• Lubricating Material
• Lubricating materials are used mainly to reduce
friction between the wellbore and the
• drillstring. This will in turn reduce torque and
drag which is essential in highly deviate and
• horizontal wells.
• Lubricating materials include: oil (diesel, mineral,
animal, or vegetable oils), surfactants,
• fatty alcohol, graphite, asphalt, gilsonite, and
polymer or glass beads
 Shale Stabilizing Materials
• There are many shale problems (see Chapter 14) which may be encountered while
drilling sensitive highly hydratable shale sections.
• Shale stablisers include: high molecular weight natural or synthetic polymers
• (polyacrylics/polyamines), asphaltic hydrocarbons, potassium and calcium salts,
glycols, and certain surfactants and lubricants.
• Essentially, shale stabilization is achieved by the prevention of water contacting the
open shale section. This can occur when the additive encapsulates the shale or when
a specific ion such as potassium actually enters the exposed shale section and
neutralise the charge on it.
• Field evidence indicates that polymers do not provide on their on complete shale
• stabilisation and that soluble salts must also be present in the aqueous phase to
stabilize hydratable shales.
• .D r. i.l .l i.n . g. . F. .l u. .i d. . T. .y . p. e. .s
• A drilling fluid can be classified by the nature of
its continuous phase, i.e. what the fluid is
• based on, or built from. The three types of
drilling fluid are:
• 1. Water Based Muds
• 2. Oil Based Muds
• 3. Gas Based Muds
 Water Based Mud
• Water Based Mud
• These are fluids where water is the continuous
phase. The water may be fresh, brackish or
• seawater, whichever is most convenient and
suitable to the system.
• The following designations are normally used to
define the classifications of water base
• drilling fluids:
• 1. Non-dispersed-Non - inhibited
 Water Based Mud
• 2. Non-dispersed - Inhibited
• 3. Dispersed - Non-inhibited
• 4. Dispersed - Inhibited
• “Dispersed” means that thinners have been
added to scatter chemically the bentonite (clay)
• and reactive drilled solids to prevent them from
building viscosity.
• “Non-Dispersed” means that the clay particles
are free to find their own dispersed
• equilibrium in the water phase.
 Water Based Mud
• Inhibited means that the fluid contains inhibiting ions such as chlorine, potassium or
• calcium or a polymer which suppresses the breakdown of the clays by charge association and
• or encapsulation.
• Non-Inhibited means that the fluid contains no additives to inhibit hole problems.
• Non-inhibited - non-dispersed fluids do not contain inhibiting ions such as chloride (Cl-),
• calcium (Ca2+) or potassium (K+) in the continuous phase and do not utilize chemical
• thinners or dispersants to effect control of rheological properties.
• Inhibited - non-dispersed fluids contain inhibiting ions in the continuous phase, however
• they do not utilize chemical thinners or dispersants.
• Non-inhibited dispersed fluids do not contain inhibiting ions in the continuous phase, but
• they do rely on thinners or dispersants such as phosphates, lignosulfonate or lignite to
• achieve control of the fluids' rheological properties.
• Inhibited dispersed contain inhibiting ions such as calcium (Ca2+) or potassium (K+) in the
• continuous phase and rely on chemical thinners or dispersants, such as those listed above to
• control the fluids rheological properties.
PRACTICAL RIG HYDRAULICS

Dr Federer Imre
Associate Professor
• Rheological models are mathematical equations used to predict fluid
behaviour.
Most drilling fluids are non-Newtonian and pseudoplastic .
BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL
The Bingham Plastic model describes laminar flow using the following
equation:
τ= YP + PV * (γ)

• τ = measured shear stress in lb/100 ft2

• YP = yield point in lb/100 ft2
• PV = plastic viscosity in cP
• γ = shear rate in sec ^(–1)

PV = θ600 – θ300
YP = θ300 – PV
YP = (2 × θ300) – θ600

The Bingham Plastic model usually overpredicts yield stresses (shear

stresses at zero shear rate) by 40 to 90 percent.
The following equation produces more realistic values of yield stress at
low shear rates:

YP (Low Shear Rate)= (2 × θ3) - θ6

This equation assumes the fluid exhibits true plastic behaviour in the low
shear rate range only.
 POWER LAW MODEL
The Power Law model assumes that all fluids are The constant “n” is called the POWER LAW INDEX and its value
pseudoplastic indicates the degree of non-Newtonian behaviour over a given
in nature and are defined by the following equation: shear rate range. The constant “n” has no units.
The Power Law model actually describes three types of fluids,
τ = K *(γ)^n based on the value of 'n':
• n = 1: The fluid is Newtonian
• τ = Shear stress (dynes / cm2) • n < 1: The fluid is non-Newtonian
• K = Consistency Index • n > 1: The fluid is Dilatent
• γ = Shear rate (sec-1)
• n = Power Law Index The “K” value is the CONSISTENCY INDEX and is a measure of
the the thickness of the mud. An increase in the value of 'K'
indicates an increase in the overall hole cleaning effectiveness
of the fluid. The units of 'K' are either lbs/100ft^2, dynes-sec
or N/cm^2.

Hence the Power Law model is mathematically more complex

than the Bingham Plastic model and produces greater accuracy
in the determination of shear stresses at low shear rates.
The effect of „n” value
 HERSCHEL-BUCKLEY (YPL) MODEL

The Herschel-Bulkley model describes the rheological behaviour of drilling muds more accurately
than any other model using the following equation:

τ = τo + K * (γ)^n

• τ = measured shear stress in lb/100 ft^2

• τo= fluid's yield stress (shear stress at zero shear rate)
in lb/100 ft2
• K = fluid's consistency index in cP or lb/100 ft sec^2
• n = fluid's flow index
• γ= shear rate in sec^(-1)

The YPL model is very complex and requires a minimum of three shear-stress/shear-rate
measurements for a solution.
 PRACTICAL HIDRAULICS EQUATIONS
The procedure for calculating the various pressure losses in a
circulating system is summarised below:
1. Calculate surface pressure losses using:
P1 = E * ρ^0.8 * Q^1.8 * PV^0.2
2. Decide on which model to use: Bingham Plastic or
Power Law.
3. Calculate pressure loses inside the drillpipe first then
inside drillcollars.
4. Divide the annulus into an open and cased sections.
5. Calculate annular flow around drillcollars (or BHA).
6. Repeat step four for flow around drillpipe in the open
and cased hole sections.
7. Add the values from step 1 to 5, call this system losses.
8. Determine the pressure drop available for the bit = pump
pressure - system losses
9. Determine nozzle velocity, total flow area and nozzle sizes
For step 3. :
• Calculate critical velocity of flow
• Calculate actual average velocity of flow
• Determine whether flow is laminar or turbulent by
comparing average velocity with critical velocity.
If average velocity is less than critical velocity the
flow is laminar.If average velocity is greater than
critical velocity the flow is turbulent.
• Use appropriate equation to calculate pressure drop
For step 5. :
• Calculate critical velocity of annular flow
• Calculate actual average velocity of flow in the annulus
• Determine whether flow is laminar or turbulent by comparing
average velocity with critical velocity. If average velocity is less
than critical velocity the flow is laminar.If average velocity is
greater than critical velocity the flow is turbulent.
• Use appropriate equation to calculate annular pressure drop
 BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL
PIPE FLOW – ANNULAR FLOW
PIPE FLOW:
Determine average velocity and critical velocity:

If average velocity > critical velocity flow is turbulent, use:

If average velocity < critical velocity flow is laminar, use:

ANNULAR FLOW:
Determine average velocity and critical velocity:

If average velocity > critical velocity flow is turbulent, use:

If average velocity < critical velocity flow is laminar, use:

 POWER LAW MODEL
PIPE FLOW - ANNULAR FLOW
Determine n and K from:

PIPE FLOW:
Determine average velocity and critical velocity:

If average velocity > critical velocity flow is turbulent, use:

If average velocity < critical velocity flow is laminar, use:

 POWER LAW MODEL
PIPE FLOW - ANNULAR FLOW
ANNULAR FLOW:
Determine average velocity and critical velocity:

If average velocity > critical velocity flow is turbulent, use:

If average velocity < critical velocity flow is laminar, use:

 PRESSURE LOSS ACROSS BIT
The object of any hydraulics programme is to optimise pressure drop across the bit such that maximum cleaning
of bottom hole is achieved.
For a given length of drill string (drillpipe and drill collars) and given mud properties, pressure losses P1, P2, P3, P4
and P5 will remain constant. However, the pressure loss across the bit is greatly influenced by the sizes of nozzles
used, and the latter determine the amount of hydraulic horsepower available at the bit.
To determine the pressure drop across the bit, add the total pressure drops across the system, i.e. P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 +
P5, to give a total value of Pc (described as the system pressure loss). Then determine the pressure rating of the pump
used. If this pump is to be operated at, say, 80-90% of its rated value, then the pressure drop across the bit is simply
pump pressure minus Pc.
Procedure
1. From previous calculations, determine pressure drop across bit, using:

2. Determine nozzle velocity (ft/s):

3. Determine total area of nozzles (in^2):

4. Determine nozzle sizes in multiples of 32 seconds

 OPTIMISATION OF BIT HYDRAULICS

All hydraulics programmes start by calculating pressure

drops in the various parts of the circulating system.
Pressure losses in surface connections, inside and around
the drillpipe, inside and around drill collars, are calculated,
and the total is taken as the pressure loss in the circulating
system, excluding the bit.
This pressure loss is normally given the symbol Pc.
 SURFACE PRESSURE

Once the system pressure losses, Pc, is determined, the questions is how much pressure
drop can be tolerated at the bit (Pbit). The value of Pbit is controlled entirely by the
maximum allowable surface pump pressure. Most rigs have limits on maximum surface
pressure, especially when high volume rates – in excess of 1000 gpm are used. In this
case, two or three pumps are used to provide this high quantity of flow. On land rigs
typical limits on surface pressure are in the range 2,500 – 3000 psi for well depths of
around 12,000 ft. For deep wells, heavy duty pumps are used which can have pressure
ratings up to 5,000 psi.
Hence, for most drilling operations, there is a limit on surface pump pressure, and the
criteria for optimising bit hydraulics must incorporate this limitation.
 HYDRAULIC CRITERIA

There exist two criteria for optimising bit hydraulics: (1) maximum bit
hydraulic horsepower (BHHP); and (2) maximum impact force (IF).
Each criterion yields difference values of bitpressure drop and, in turn,
different nozzle sizes. The engineer is faced with the task of deciding
which criterion he is to choose. Moreover, in most drilling operations the
flow rate for each hole section has already been fixed to provide optimum
annular velocity and hole cleaning. This leaves only one variable to
optimise: the pressure drop across the bit, Pbit. We shall examine the two
criteria in detail and offer a quick method for optimising bit hydraulics.
 MAXIMUM BIT HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER
The pressure loss across the bit is simply the difference between the standpipe pressure and Pc. However, for
optimum hydraulics the bit pressure drop must be a certain fraction of the maximum available surface
pressure. For a given volume flow rate, optimum hydraulics is obtained when the bit hydraulic horsepower
assumes a certain percentage of the available surface horsepower. In the case of limited surface pressure, the
maximum pressure drop across the bit, as a function of available surface pressure, produces maximum
hydraulic horsepower at the bit for an optimum value of flow rate as shown below:

In the literature several values of n have been proposed, all of which fall in the range 1.8 - 1.86. Hence, when
n = 1.86, the previous equation gives Pbit = 0.65 Ps. In other words, for optimum hydraulics, the pressure
drop across the bit should be 65% of the total available surface pressure. The actual value of n can be
determined in the field by running the mud pump at several speeds and reading the resulting pressures. A
graph of Pc(=Ps - Pbit) against Q is then drawn. The slope of this graph is taken as the index n.
 MAXIMUM IMPACT FORCE
In the case of limited surface pressure, it can be shown c that for
maximum impact force, the pressure drop across the bit (Pbit) is given by:

The bit impact force (IF) can be shown to be a function of Q and Pbit
according to the following equation.
 NOZZLE SELECTION
Smaller nozzle sizes are always obtained when the maximum
BHHP method is used, as it gives larger values of Pbit than
those given by the maximum IF method. The following
equations may be used to determine total flow area and nozzle
sizes:
 OPTIMUM FLOW RATE
The Optimum flow rate is obtained using the optimum value of Pc, n and
maximum surface pressure, Ps. For example, using the maximum BHHP
criterion, Pc is determined from:

The value of n is equal to the slope of the Pc - Q graph. The optimum

value of flow rate, Qopt is obtained from the intersection of the Pc value
and the Pc - Q graph.
 MUD CARRYING CAPACITY
For effective drilling, cuttings generated by the drill bit must be removed immediately.
The drilling mud carries the drill cuttings up the hole and to the surface, to be separated
from the mud. The carrying (or lifting) capacity of mud is dependent on several
parameters including fluid density, viscosity, type of flow, annulus size, annular speed,
particle density, particle shape and particle diameter. Other factors such as pipe
Rotation, pipe eccentricity also have some influence on the carrying capacity of mud.

1. Turbulent flow is most desirable for efficient removal of cuttings.

2.Low viscosity, low gel strength of mud are desirable properties for removal of cuttings.

3.High mud density helps to efficiently remove cuttings.

4.Pipe rotation aids the removal of cuttings.

 HOLE CLEANING
Efficient hole cleaning is directly dependent on the ability of mud to suspend and carry
The drill cuttings to the surface. The problems associated with inefficient hole cleaning
include:

1. Decreased bit life and slow penetration rate resulting from regrinding of drill cuttings.

2. Formation of hole fills near the bottom of the borehole during trips when the mud
pump is off.

3. Formation of bridge in the annulus which can lead to pipe sticking.

4. Increase in annular density and, in turn, annular hydrostatic pressure of mud.

The increased hydrostatic pressure of mud may cause the fracture of an exposed weak
Formation resulting in lost circulation. In practice, efficient hole cleaning is obtained by
providing sufficient annular velocity to the drilling mud and by imparting desirable fluid
properties.
 SLIP VELOCITY
A rock particle falling through mud tends to settle out at constant velocity (zero acceleration)
described as slip or terminal velocity and is given by:

For transitional flow:

For turbulent flow, the equation becomes:

 TRANSPORT VELOCITY
Transport or lift velocity is defined as the difference between the annular velocity of mud and the
slip velocity of particle:

It is obvious that for efficient hole cleaning, Va must be greater the Vs. Sample et al 10,11
observed that at annular velocities of less than 100 ft/min, particle slip velocity in both
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids is independent of the fluid annular velocity. Above an
annular velocity of 100 ft/min, there appears to be a dependence of slip velocity on annular
velocity.
 DRILL CUTTINGS CONCENTRATION
To prevent hole problems, it is generally accepted that the volume fraction of cuttings (or
concentration) in the annulus should not exceed 5%. Therefore, the design programme for mud
carrying capacity should also include a figure for the drill cuttings concentration in the annulus.
The cuttings concentration is given by:
 Drilling Engineering
CEMENTING OPERATIONS

Dr. Imre FEDERER

Associate Professor
 Cementing Operations

Functions of Cement
• Provide zonal isolation
– Primary barrier between formations
• Support axial load of casing strings and strings to be run later
• Provide casing support and protection
• Support the borehole primary well control
– Hydrostatic pressure > Formation pressure
 Cement Slurry

Cement additives modify the behaviour of the cement slurry.

• Accelerators
– reduce the thickening time of a slurry and
– increase the rate of early strength development.
• Retarders:
– chemicals which extend the thickening time of a slurry
– to aid cement placement.
• Extenders:
– materials which lower the slurry density and increase the yield.
• Weighting Agents:
– materials which increase slurry density.
 Cement Slurry
Cement additives
• Dispersants:
– chemicals which lower the slurry viscosity and may also
increase free water.
• Fluid-Loss Additives:
– materials which prevent slurry dehydration and reduce fluid
loss to the formation.
• Lost Circulation Control Agents:
– materials which control the loss of cement slurry to weak or
fractured formations.
• Miscellaneous Agents:
– e.g. Anti-foam agents.
 Type of additives Used Chemical composition Benefit

accelerators Reducing WOC time Calcium chloride Accelerated setting,

Sodium chloride high early strength
gypsum
retarders Increasing thickening Organic acids Increased pumping
time for placement, Lignosulfonates time
reducing slurry
viscosity

Weight reducing Reducing weight Bentonite Lighter weight

additives gilsonite economy
Heavy weight Increasing slurry Hematite Higher density
additives weight dispersants
Additives for Bridging agent Walnut hulls Lighter fluid columns
controlling lost Gypsum cement Squeezed fractured
circulation zone

Filtration-control Squeeze cementing, polymers Reduced dehydration

additives setting long liners
• Kútadatok p, T, h,
formáció
tulajdonságai,
Cement Excess
 Slurry Testing

Reporting of Cement Tests

• Well Number
• Well Depth
• Bottom Hole Static Temperature (BHST)
• Bottom Hole Circulating Temperature (BHCT)
• Source of cement samples, water samples and additive samples
• Spacer recommendation and recipe
 Slurry Testing

Lead and Tail Slurry results including:

• Cement type
• Water type, Water requirements
• Additive requirements
• Slurry density, Slurry yield
• Thickening time
• Heating schedule, Pressure schedule
• Rheology readings at BHCT (600-300-200-100-6-3 RPM))
• Compressive strength (8hrs-12hrs-16hrs-24hrs in psi)
• Estimated job time - to include mixing, pumping and displacement
Slurry Mixer Rheometer
Consistometer
Thickening time
Ultrasonic Cement Analyser
Filterpress
 Compressive Strength

• Measurement of the uniaxial compressive strength of two-inch

cubes of cement provides
• Indication of strength development of cement at downhole
conditions.
• Slurry samples are cured for 8, 12, 16 and 24 hours at bottom-hole
temperatures and pressures and the results reported in psi.
Cementing Equipment
Lifting Eye

Plug Container
Cement head Cap

Body

1502 Unions Plug Release

(Fluid Ports) Plunger

Plug Launch
Indicator

Detent Pin
(Locks Quick-Latch
in Open or Closed
Position)

Quick Latch Coupler

60
 Cementing Equipment

Guide Shoe Float Collar

Float Shoe

Will rupture
with pressure

61 Top & Bottom Cementing Plug

 13 3/8” 18 5/8”
7”
9 5/8”
2 7/8”
 63
Mechanical Aids Best
Practices • Pipe Movement
– Rotation
– Reciprocation
• Casing Attachments
– Scratchers scrape “wallcake”
from borehole
– Centralizers provide stand-off
from bore hole
– Specialized Float Equipment

CENTRALISERS
64
Cement Transporter/ Container
Slurry Mixing System
Control Consol
 Displacement Efficiency

• Stand Off (with centralisers)

• Flow Regime (Laminar or Turbulence)
• Spacers (usually fresh water)
• Rotation (only if possible/practical)
• Reciprocation (only if critical)
 Mud Displacement Best Practices

Bad

Good

72
Annular Flow Profile with Eccentric Casing
Common types of Cementations

PRIMARY
• Single Stage Casing
• Inner String (Stinger)
• Multiple Stage (rarely used)
• Liner
• Balanced Plug
SECONDARY
• Remedial Circulation
• Squeeze
• Bailer (usually with coiled tubing)
 Stinger (inner string) Cementation

WHEN :
• Relatively short & large diameter casing (surface)
• Hole size not accurately known or losses to the formation
WHY :
• Allows flexibility in cement quantity
• Keep pumping until good cement seen at surface,
• thereafter only small volume of cement still to be displaced
 Multiple Stage Cementation – When/Why

• To enable cementing of very long intervals w/ weak zones, thus

reducing pressure on formation and equipment
• To enable to conduct selective cementing, e.g. placing cement
above a loss zone
• To minimise channelling (mud/spacer/cement)
• Reduce risk of flash setting (long interval jobs with different
pressures/temperature).
 Cementing Accessories for Special Jobs

• Cementing with losses requires extra

accessories

PURPOSE
• Enable to place cement above loss zones
• Isolate hydrocarbon zones at various
depths in the well
Ten Steps to Optimise Cement Job

• Condition the drilling fluid

• Optimise casing accessories
• Maximise displacement rate
• Ensure pipe movement [if practical]
• Spacers and flushes
• Temperature effects
• Selection/test of cement composition
• Additional pre-job considerations
• Job execution
• Evaluation [logging to assess „bond‟]
 Condition the Drilling Fluid
• Viscosity of the mud should be reduced to the lowest practical
level before the drillpipe is removed from the hole.
• Not to reduce the mud rheology below the minimum level required
to suspend the weighting agent.
• Once the casing has been run, the mud should be further
conditioned to remove gelled mud in areas of poor centralisation.
• Min. two to three hole volumes are considered sufficient conditioning
• After conditioning the hole, cementing should start without any break
in circulation.
 Optimise Casing Accessories
• Best casing centralisation should be obtained by software.
• A good rule-of-thumb is minimum 70% stand-off.
• Good centralisation can reduce casing running difficulties by helping
to prevent differential sticking.
18
RH
16
FLOW RATE RATIO

14
RC
12
10
W
8
6 w
% Stand-off = - R X 100
RH C
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
API % STAND-OFF
 Casing Movement

• Whenever possible the casing should be reciprocated or rotated.

• Pipe movement increases displacement efficiency by helping to
break-up gelled.
• Movement should be attempted - from hole conditioning to
displacement.
• Rotation requires special equipment.
• For liners, rotation is recommended - due to concerns over setting
the liner.
• Rules-of-thumb are suggested:
– reciprocate 20-40 ft over a period of 2-5 minutes
– rotation rates of 10-40 rpm.
 82

Spacers & Flushes Best Practices

• Used to:
– Separate Incompatible Fluids
– Aid in Mud Displacement
– Leave All Downhole Surfaces Water-Wet

• Volume Calculated By:

– 1000 ft Annular Fill
or
– 10 min Contact Time
“WHICH ONE IS GREATER”
 Displacement Rate

• Displacement rates should be maximised to obtain the most

effective cement placement.
• Cement slurry washer and spacer fluid will achieve turbulence
around the casing if it is possible
• Useful guideline is to ensure that the annular velocity (assuming
concentric casing) is above 260 ft/min.
 84

Fluid Velocity Best Practices

• Pump As Fast As Possible

Direction of flow

LOCAL FLUID
VELOCITY

Plug Flow Laminar flow Turbulent flow

Laminar Sub-Layer Central Un-Sheared Core Laminar Sub-Layer

Pressures while Cementing

Balance the formation pressure

Prevent the formation fracturing

 Fracturing Gradient

Increased formation strength

 Cement Bond Evaluation

Within 24 hours of the cement job

• Temperature log indicate the presence of cement and TOC.
More than 5 days after the cement job.
• Cement Bond Log (CBL)
• Variable Density Log (VDL)
• Cement Evaluation Tool (CET)
• Ultrasonic Borehole Imaging (USI)
• Segmented Bond Tool (SBT)
 Cement Bond Evaluation

• Two major types of tools:

– Sonic tools (CBL/VDL) No
Cement
• The attenuation rate depends on
the cement compressive
strength, the casing diameter,
and the percentage of bonded
circumference.
• Variable density log
– Allows easy differentiation
between casing and
formation arrivals Good
Bond
 Cement Bond Evaluation

Casing Bond Log [CBL] Casing Bond Log [CBL]

• Bad Cementation • Good Cementation
• High Attenuation/Ampl. • Low Attenuation/Ampl
 Cement Proplems
Insufficient Hydrostatic
Pressure Cement Integrity Fluid Loss

Poor Mudcake
Micro annular
Removal

Mud Channel

Mud Cake
 Liner Cementing

Liner Cementing Guidelines

• Prior to the cementation the following calculations will be
conducted:
– Circulation volume
– Cement volume including excess
– Volume of pre-flush
– Reduction in hydrostatic head due to pre-flush.
– For the pre-flush in open hole, assume gauge hole to calculate
the height of the pre-flush.
– There should be sufficient overbalance at all times during
the cement job.
 Liner Hanger Selection

Hanger Loading Forces

• Following cumulative forces
should be taken into account.
• (a) Liner hanging weight
• (b)The internal pressure
required to initially set the
hanger and shear the ball seat
• (c) Designated pressure to
bump the plug
• (d) Running string set down
weight prior to cementing.
 Liner Hanger Selection

Integral Packers
• To avoid sole reliance on the liner lap
cement job.
Tie-back Packers
• If the integral packer is found to be
leaking.
• In highly deviated wells rotating hangers
are preferred.
• In deep or highly deviated wells,
hydraulic set hangers are preferred.
• If mechanically set liner hangers are
used they should be resetable.
 Liner Cementing

Liner Lap Length

• The optimum length of the liner lap will depend on the likelihood of
obtaining a good cement bond over the liner lap.
• In vertical wells where the liner can be well centralised.
– In this case a 250 - 500 ft liner lap should be used.
• If use integral liner packers,
– the liner lap need only be of the order of 100 ft in length.
 Cementing in Horizontal Section

Slurry used on horizontal sections:

• A settlement of more than 5 mm is unacceptable
• A gradient of more than 1.0 lb/gal is unacceptable.
Displacement
• Circulate at least three times the hole volume
• Circulate until the properties of the mud returning are the same
as those being pumped in.
Centralization
• Use rigid centralisers (or turbulators).
• Use bowspring centralisers where.
 QUESTIONS?
97
Downhole Problems
Lost Circulation

Dr. Imre Federer

Associate Professor

98
Lost Circulation

99
 LOST CIRCULATION MECHANISMS

• Measurable loss of whole mud (liquid phase and solid

phase) to the formation.
• Lost circulation can occur at any depth during any
operation.
PRESSURE INDUCED FRACTURE
• Wellbore pressure exceeds fracture pressure of the
formation causing the rock to crack open (fracture)
NATURALLY FRACTURES/ HIGH PERMEABILITY
• Overbalanced wellbore pressure is exposed a
formation with unsealed fractures or high permeability

100
ADVERSE EFFECTS ON DRILLING
OPERATIONS

IN ANY HOLE SECTIONS:

• Hole cleaning problems
• Hole bridge/ collapse
• Stuck pipe
• Well control event
SURFACE HOLE
• Loss of drive/ conductor shoe
• Loss of well

101
ADVERSE EFFECTS ON DRILLING
OPERATIONS

INTERMEDIATE and PRODUCTION

HOLE SECTIONS
• Loss of fluid level monitoring
• Loss of formation evaluation
• Extended wellbore exposure time
• Underground blowout
• Additional casing string
• Production zone damage

102
CAUSES OF LOST CIRCULATION

PRESSURE INDUCED FRACTURES

• Excessive mud weight
• Annulus friction pressure
• Wellbore pressure surges
• Imposed/ trapped pressure
• Shut-in pressure
• Low formation pressure

103
Pressure Induced Fractures
Cause:
- Wellbore pressure greater than fracturing pressure
- Formation fractures allowes mud loss
Warning Sign: - Pronosed losses
- Excessive mud weight
- Low fracture strength
- Poor hole cleaning
- Wellbore pressure surge
Indications: - May begin with seepage loss
- Possible total loss
- Pit volume loss
- Excessive hole fill-up
- In shut-in sudden loss of pressure
Firs Action: - Reduce pump speed to 1/2
(Total Loss) - Pull off bottom, stop pump
- Reset to zero stroke counter
- Fill annulus with water or light mud
- Record strokes when annulus fill-up
- Monitor well for flow
Preventiv Action: - Minimize mud weight
- Maximize solid removal
- Control penetration rate
- Avoid imposed/ trapped pressure 104
CAUSES OF LOST CIRCULATION

NATURAL FRACTURES/ PERMEABILITY

• Unconsolidated formation
• Fissures/ fractures
• Unsealed fault boundary
• Vugular/ cavernous formation

105
 Cause:
- Wellbore pressure is overbalanced to formation pressure
- Mud is lost to natural fractures and/or high permeability
Warning: - Prodnosed loss zone
- Lost circulation can occure at any time during
any openhole operation
Indications: - May begin with seepage loss
- Total loss possible
- Static losses during connections/survey
- Pit volume loss
Firs Action: - Reduce pump speed to 1/2
(Total Loss) - Pull off bottom, stop pump
- Reset to zero stroke counter
- Fill annulus with water or light mud
- Record strokes when annulus fill-up
- Monitor well for flow
Preventiv Action: - Minimize mud weight
- Control penetration rate
- Minimize wellbore pressure surges
- Pre-treat with LCM

Natural Fractures/High Permeability 106

 LOSS SEVERITY CLASSIFICATIONS
SEEPAGE LOSS PARTIAL LOSS TOTAL LOSS
( 20 BBLS/HR) ( 20 BBLS/HR) (NO RETURNS)
 GRADUAL  IMMEDIATE DROP IN  RETURN FLOW
LOSSES FLUID LEVEL WHEN STOPS IMMEDIATELY
PUMPING IS STOPPED
 OPERATION NOT  PUMP PRESSURE
INTERRUPTED  SLOW TO REGAIN DECREASE
RETURNS AFTER
 POSSIBLE  STRING WEIGHT
STARTING CIRCUL.
WARNING OF INCREASE
INCREASED  OPERATIONS USUALLY
 OPERATION
LOSS SEVERITY INTERRUPTED
SUSPENDED
 REMEDIAL ACTION
 REMEDIAL ACTION
REQUIRED
REQUIRED

107
 METHODS FOR LOCATING LOSS DEPTH
Successful treatment of lost circulation depends greatly on locating
the depth of the loss zone

SURVEY METHODS PRACTICAL METHODS

 TEMPERATURE SURVEY  OFFSET WELL DATA

 ACOUSTIC LOG  GEOLOGIST LOGGER

IDENTIFIES
 RADIOACTIVE TRACER
POTENTIAL LOSS ZONE
 SPINNER SURVEY
 MONITORING FLUID LEVEL
 PRESSURE TRANSDUCER TRENDS
 HOT WIRE SURVEY WHILE DRILLING

108
 GUIDELINES FOR LOST CIRCULATION SOLUTIONS
ACTION RESULTS CONSIDERATIONS

 Reduced wellbore  More successful with pressure

MINIMIZE pressure(driving force induced fractures
MUD WT pushing mud into loss  Possible well control event or
zone hole instability problems
 Reactive clays of loss  More successful with fresh
zone swell with water water mud lost to shale
FORMATION
producing plugging effect formations
“HEALING
 Soft shale deform with  Better results with LCM
TIME” formation stress helping  Normal 6-8 hours wait time with
to “heal” the fracture string in casing
 Less effective with large
LOSS CIRC.  Effectively bridges, mats fractures, faults
and seals small to
MATERIAL  Ineffective cavernous zones
medium fractures/
(LCM) permeability  Increase LCM lbs/bbl with loss
severity

109
 GUIDELINES FOR LOST CIRCULATION SOLUTIONS (Cont′d)
ACTION RESULTS CONSIDERATIONS
 A plug base is pumped  Can be used in production
into the loss zone zones
SPECIALTY followed by a chemical
activator  Increased risk of plugging
TECHNIQUES equipment
 The two materials form a
soft plug  Plug breaks down with time

 Cement slurry is
 Provides a “fit-to-form” solid
squeezed into the loss
CEMENT plug at or near the stress of
zone under injection
the surrounding formation
pressure

 Not a consideration where well

DRILLING  In some cases, the only control potential exist
practical solution is to drill
BLIND without returns  Set casing in the first
competent formation

110
 GUIDELINES FOR SUCCESSFUL LCM RESULTS
 Locating the loss zone and accurate pill placement is vital.
 Position the string +/- 100 feet above loss zone, do not stop
pumping until the pill clears the bit.
 Insure the base mud viscosity will suspend the LCM volume
added.
 Add fresh gel to a premixed LCM pill immediately before
pumping, fresh gel continues to yield after spotting
 An effective LCM pill bridges, matts and then seals the loss
zone, particle size distribution and pill formulation must
satisfy these requirements.
 Consult the LCM product guide prior to applying the pill
 Use large nozzle sizes if the loss potential is high.
 Keep the string moving during pill spotting operation to avoid
stuck pipe
111
 LOSS CIRCULATION MATERIAL (LCM)
MATERIAL DEFINITION
FINE (F) A portion of material pass through the shaker.
MEDIUM (M) Majority of material will screen-out at shakers.
GRADES
COARSE (C) All material will screen-out at shaker. Will plug
nozzles. Recommended open-ended pipe.

FIBROUS  Non-rigid materials that form a mat on the hole wall to provide a
FLAKED foundation for normal filter cake development.

GRANULAR Rigid materials that plug the permeability of the loss zone

LCM BLEND Combination of fibrous, flaked and granular materials in sack

CELLULOSTIC Sized wood derived materials used to prevent seepage/partial loss

CALCIUM Sized limestone or marble (acid soluble) used for seepage/partial

CARBONATE loss in production zone
Granulated salt (water soluble) developed for seepage/ partial loss
SIZED SALT
in production zone in salt-saturated systems
112
 SEEPAGE LOSS SOLUTIONS (20 BBLS/HR)
FIRST ACTION RECOVERY
 Reduce ROP to Add LCM pill in 5-10 PPB increments. Evaluate results
limit cuttings load over 2 circulations before increasing to next level of LCM
 Minimize mud concentration. Mix in 30 to 50 bbl batches dictated by
rheology hole size. Consider spotting LCM pill before POOH
 Minimize GPM NON-PRODUCTIVE INTERVALS

 Minimize wellbore WBM:

pressure surges LCM Blend (F) 5-15 PPB OBM/SBM:
LCM Blend (M) 5-15 PPB Cellulosic (F/M) 2-25 PPB
 Minimize mud wt Flaked (F/M) 10-20 PPB

PRODUCTION ZONE EXPOSED

OBM/SBM:
 Consider pulling
WBM: Cellulosic (F/M) 2-25 PPB
into casing and
Limestone (F/M) 5-30 PPB Limestone (F/M) 5-15 PPB
waiting 6 to 8 hours

113
 PARTIAL LOSS SOLUTIONS (20 BBLS/HR)
FIRST ACTION RECOVERY
 Reduce ROP to Add LCM pill in 5-10 PPB increments. Evaluate results
limit cuttings load over 2 circulations before increasing to next level of LCM
 Minimize mud concentration. Mix in 30 to 50 bbl batches dictated by
rheology hole size. Consider spotting LCM pill before POOH
 Minimize GPM NON-PRODUCTIVE INTERVALS

 Minimize wellbore WBM: OBM/SBM:

pressure surges LCM Blend (M) 15-25 PPB Cellulosic (F/M) 10-25 PPB
LCM Blend (C) 15-25 PPB Cellulosic (C) 10-25 PPB
 Minimize mud wt Walnut (M/C) 10-20 PPB Walnut (M) 5-15 PPB

PRODUCTION ZONE EXPOSED

WBM:
OBM/SBM:
 Consider pulling LCM Blend (F) 5-15 PPB
Cellulosic (F/M) 2-25 PPB
into casing and LCM Blend (M) 5-15 PPB
Limestone (F) 5-15 PPB
waiting 6 to 8 hours Cellulosic (M) 5-15 PPB

114
 TOTAL LOSS SOLUTIONS

FIRST ACTION RECOVERY

 Pull off bottom,

keep string moving Formulations for the specially pill and cement are
 Fill annulus with dictated by conditions of each event
water or light mud
 Minimize GPM NON-PRODUCTIVE INTERVALS
 Record strokes if WBM: OBM/SBM:
annulus fills up 40 PPB LCM Pill 30-40 PPB LCM Pill
 Minimize wellbore Specialty Pill Specialty Pill
pressure surges Cement Squeeze Cement Squeeze

PRODUCTION ZONE EXPOSED

WBM: OBM/SBM:
40 PPB LCM Pill 30-40 PPB LCM Pill
 Consider pulling
Specialty Pill Specialty Pill
into the casing
Cement Squeeze Cement Squeeze
RESERVOIR NEEDS RESERVOIR NEEDS
115
 SEALING MATERIALS USED FOR LOST CIRCULATION

LARGEST
CONCENTR.
MATERIAL TYPE DESCRIPTION FRACTURE
LBS/BBL
SEALED (INCHES)
0 4 8 12 16 20
50%-3/16+ 10 mesh
Nutshell Granular 20 ______________
50%-10+ 100 mesh
50%-3/16+ 10 mesh
Plastic Granular 20 ______________
50%-10+ 100 mesh
50%-3/16+10 mesh
Limestone Granular 40 ________
50%-10+ 100 mesh
50%-3/16+ 10 mesh
Sulphur Granular 120 ________
50%-10+ 100 mesh
50%-10+ 16 mesh
Nutshell Granular 20 __________
50%-30+ 100 mesh
Expanded 50%-3/16+10 mesh
Granular 60 ________
Percite 50%-10+ 100 mesh
116
 SEALING MATERIALS USED FOR LOST CIRCULATION

LARGEST
CONCENTR.
MATERIAL TYPE DESCRIPTION FRACTURE
LBS/BBL
SEALED (INCHES)
0 4 8 12 16 20
Cellophane Laminated ¾” flakes 8 ________

Sawdust Fibrous ¼” particles 10 ________

Prairie Hay Fibrous ½” particles 10 ________

Bark Fibrous 3/8” particles 10 _____

Cottonseed Granular Fine 10 _____

Hulls
Prairie Hay Fibrous 3/8” particles 12 ____

117
SPOTTING PROCEDURES FOR LOST CIRCULATION MATERIAL
(LCM)
 Locate the loss zone.
 Mix 50 – 100 barrels of mud with 25 – 30 ppb bentonite and 30 –
40 ppb LCM
 Position the drill string+/-100 feet above the loss zone
 If open-ended, pump ½ of the pill into the loss zone. Stop the
pump, wait 15 minutes and pump the remainder of the pill
 If pumping through the bit, pump the entire pill and follow with 25
barrels of mud
 If returns are not regained, repeat procedure. If returns are not
regained, wait 2 hours and repeat procedure.
 If returns are not regained after pumping 3 pills, consider other
options to regain circulation

118
 SPOTTING PROCEDURE FOR CEMENT
 The cement slurry formulation should be tested by the cement
company to determine the thickening time.
 If possible, drill through the entire loss circulation interval
 Pull out of the hole and return with open-ended drill pipe
 Position the open-ended drill pipe approximately 100 feet above the
loss zone
 Mix and pump 50 to 100 bbls of cement slurry
 Follow the slurry with a sufficient volume of mud or water to balance
the U-Tube
 Wait 6 to 8 hours and attempt to fill the annulus
 Repeat the procedure if returns are not regained
 It may be necessary to drill out the cement before repeating the
procedure
119
 LOST CIRCULATION PREVENTION GUIDELINES (1)
 Prevention of lost circulation must be considered in the well
planning, drilling and post analysis phases.
 Design the casing program to case-off low pressure or suspected
lot circulation zones.
 Maintain mud weight to the minimum required to control known
formation pressures.
 Pre-treat the mud system with LCM when drilling through known
lost circulation intervals.
 Maintain low mud rheology values that are still sufficient to clean
the hole.
 Rotating the drill string when starting circulation helps to break the
gels and minimize pump pressure surges.
 Start circulation slowly after connections and periods of non-
circulation.
120
 LOST CIRCULATION PREVENTION GUIDELINES (2)
 Prevention of lost circulation must be considered in the well
planning, drilling and post analysis phases.
 Use minimum GPM flow rate to clean the hole when drilling known
lost circulation zone.
 Control drill known lost circulation zone to avoid loading the annulus
with cuttings.
 Reduce pipe tripping speeds to minimize swab/surge pressure.
 Plan to break circulation at 2 to 3 depths while tripping in the hole.
Minimize annular restrictions.
 Consider using jet sizes that will allow the use of LCM pills (12/32”
jets+).
 Be prepared for plugging pump suctions, pump discharge screen,
drill string screens, etc.
 Be prepared for mud losses due to shaker screen plugging.
121
 PRECAUTIONS WHILE DRILLING WITHOUT RETURNS (1)
 Circumstances may dictate drilling blind until 50 feet of the next
competent formation is drilled.
 Casing is set to solve the lost circulation problem. A blind drilling
operation must have Drilling Manager approval.
 Insure an adequate water supply is available.
 Use one pump to drill and the other pump to continuously add water to the
annulus. Assign a person to monitor the flow line at all times.
 Monitor torque and drag to determine when to pump viscous sweeps.
 Closely monitor pump pressure while drilling for indications of pack-off.
 Control drill (if possible) at one joint per hour.
 Pick up off bottom every 15 feet (3m) to ensure the hole is not packing off.
 Keep the pipe moving at all times.
 Maintain a 400-500 bbl reserve of viscous mud ready to pump.
 Consider spotting viscous mud on bottom prior to tripping or logging.
122
 PRECAUTIONS WHILE DRILLING WITHOUT RETURNS (1)
 Stop drilling and consider pulling to the shoe if pump repairs are required.
 Start and stop pipe slowly and minimize pipe speed.
 Consider spotting a viscous pill above the BHA prior to each connection.
 Prior to each connection, circulate and wipe the hole thoroughly.
 Do not run surveys when drilling blind.
 If circulation returns, stop drilling.
 Raise the drill string to the shut-in position.
 Stop the pumps and check the well for flow.
 If flow is observed, close the BOP and observe shut-in pressures.
 No pressure – Slowly circulate bottoms up through 2 open chokes.
 Pressure Observed –Slowly circulate the kick with present mud weight.
 At all times to pump cement to the well

123
Downhole Problems
Stuck Pipe

Dr. Imre Federer

Associate Professor
Planning of Common
Activities

125
 WELL PLANNING

• PLANNING is probably the single most important

aspect of Stuck Pipe Prevention

• ACTIVITIES which require daily attention are:-

– Selection and Change of BHA
– Drilling and Reaming close to Bottom
– Tripping in/out of the Hole
– Prepare for and running of Casing

126
 WELL PLANNING Selection of BHA
• Design Simplicity
- Keep BHA as short as practically possible
- Eliminate and/or lay down tools which are not used or
have a low probability of being used
• Jar Optimisation
- Type of Jar, Placement of Jar, use of 1 or 2 Jar
• Dimensions
- Accurately gauge Bit/Stabilisers (OD), Tools (OD, ID)
- Free access of wireline tools (e.g. Free Point Indicator)

127
 WELL PLANNING Selection of BHA

Make-up Size Drill Collars/HWDP Assy

• Compromise between:
– WOB (rigidity and annular clearance)
– Annular velocity across the BHA
– Wall contact area
Contact Area – Sticking Tendency
- Casing, Liners, DC, OH, Completions sizes
Certification/Inspection/Operating Hours
• Lay down or change out tools which are uncertified or
have reached max. operating hours

128
 WELL PLANNING
DRILLING
Hole Cleaning
• Mud rheology optimisation
• Effective Hole Cleaning/Cutting Transport
Trends
• Use of information on past and current wells
• Plotting and comparing drag and torque trends
Rathole for Casing String
• Keep as short as practically possible with the aim to
improve cement bond

129
 WELL PLANNING
DRILLING

Borehole Geometry
• Control the Dogleg Severity
• Build-up sections, horizontal departures and doglegs.
• Use software to assess expected (up/down) drag and
buckling
• Awareness about changes in BHA (PDC Bit Gauge
Length, Stabilisers, Rigidity, Clearance)

130
 Mechanisms

DRAG – OVERPULL - SETDOWN -

INCREMENTAL TORQUE

131
 Surface Forces when MOVING STRING

MEASURED WEIGHT

MAX
ROTATING WEIGHT
ROTATE

UP WEIGHT

UP UP DRAG

OVERPULL
TRAVELING
EQPT WT
132
 Surface Forces when MOVING STRING

MIN
MEASURED WEIGHT

SETDOWN
DOWN
DRAG

DOWN
DOWN WEIGHT

ROTATING WEIGHT
ROTATE

UP WEIGHT

TRAVELING
EQPT WT
133
 Surface Forces when MOVING STRING

MIN
MEASURED WEIGHT

SETDOWN
DOWN
DRAG

DOWN
DOWN WEIGHT
MAX
ROTATING WEIGHT
ROTATE

UP WEIGHT

UP UP DRAG

OVERPULL
TRAVELING
EQPT WT
134
 Surface Forces when MOVING STRING

Definitions
• Down Weight and Up Weight is the Measured
Weight under Normal Conditions, when moving String
down or up, without Rotation and with Pumps shut
off
• Rotating Weight is measured off bottom and
keeping string stationary (with or without pumping)
• Restrictions, Up or Down, will result in Overpull and
Setdown respectively

135
 Surface Torque

MEASURED TORQUE

OFF OFF BOTTOM TORQUE

BOTTOM

DRILLING TORQUE
DRILLING
INCREMENTAL

TORQUE
MAX

136
 Drag Charts

SURFACE MEASURED WEIGHT

MAX

MARGIN OF
OVERPULL

DOWN
WEIGHT LINE

ROTATING
WEIGHT LINE

UP WEIGHT
LINE

MIN
DEPTH
OF WELL
137
 Drag Charts

SURFACE MEASURED WEIGHT

MAX

MARGIN OF
UP WEIGHT OVERPULL
LINE

DOWN
WEIGHT LINE

ROTATING
WEIGHT LINE

CUTTINGS BED
DEVELOPS

CIRCULATION,
MIN ROTATION &
DEPTH SWEEPS EFFECT
OF WELL
138
 Drag Charts for RUNNING CASING

SURFACE MEASURED WEIGHT

MARGIN OF MAX
OVERPULL

CASING CANNOT BE
PREVIOUS PULLED BACK FROM
CSG SHOE THIS POINT ONWARDS

MIN

DEPTH
OF WELL WEIGHT in MUD
139
Friction Forces … DRAG

Friction Force = Normal Force x Friction Factor

• Normal Force >> results from dogleg & tension
TENSION
UP • Friction Factor >> results from mud type&formation

NORMAL
FORCE

WEIGHT
TENSION
DOWN

140
 Friction Factor / Coefficient

FRICTION FACTORS
(PSEUDO) OIL WATER BASED
BASED MUD MUD

LOW MEDIUM
CASING

SHALE

LIMESTONE

SOFT
SANDSTONE

HARD
MEDIUM HIGH
SANDSTONE

Its dependence on lithology and casing/open hole

141
Stuck Pipe MECHANISMS # 1

WELLBORE STABILITY

142
 Wellbore Stability

Hydro-Pressured Shale accounts for majority of

Stuck Pipe Incidents
• Influencing factors are:-
– MUD Mud type, Mud Density
– DRILL STRING BHA Make-up, Dynamics
– FORMATION Rock Stress, Sensitivity
– TIME Deterioration Bore Hole Wall
– ”COMPLEX” if all above factors combined

143
Mechanical WellBore Instability
in different formations

144
 Shale Borehole Instability

PRIMARY CAUSES:
• Mud WT is either too HIGH or too LOW
• Relatively HIGH Shale Pore Pressure close
to the well bore
• Hydration Stress (swelling shales)
OTHER (supplementary) CAUSES:
• Natural fractures
• Drill string vibration resulting in hole enlargement

145
Rock Mechanical
Factors

146
 Mud Weight OUTSIDE acceptable RANGE

Rock Mechanical Influencing factors:

• When MUDWEIGHT TOO LOW
– We will exceed COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, resulting
in COLLAPSE
• When MUDWEIGHT TOO HIGH
– We will exceed TEN-SILE STRENGTH, resulting in
FRACTURES and possibly LOSSES
Tools to calculate min/max mud weight:
• BOREOLE STABILITY CHARTS using area specific data

147
 Mudweight INSIDE acceptable RANGE
WHEN DRILLING SHALE

3,000

5º Estimated Pore Estimated Borehole

4,500
Pressure Gradient Collapse Gradient
25º

Estimated
6,000 45º Fracture Gradient
Depth TV [ft]

7,500 65º

85º

9,000

10,500

0.425 0.465 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 0.685 0.730 0.775 0.815
148
Mud Gradient [psi/ft]
Rock Mechanical Borehole Sh = Rock (Hoop) Stress
Failure (created by drilling the hole)
This shearing force is trying
to collapse the hole
Sh Pw = WellBore Pressure
(created by drilling fluid)
This force is supporting the
hole
WELLBORE
Drilling Fluid Po = Pore Pressure
(this force opposes the
Pw force exerted by the mud
column)
The resultant Radial Stress
Po Sr should be sufficient to
prevent collapse of the hole
by compression and shearing
Sr = Radial Stress = Pw - Po 149
 Rock Mechanical Borehole Failure

• When Radial Stress is small, the shear strength of the

formation (such as SHALE) will be exceeded

RESULT » » CAVINGS

Increase mud weight

150
High Pore Pressure
Effect

151
High Pore Pressure in vicinity of Well Bore - SANDSTONE

OVERBALANCE (Wellbore - Pore Press) = 5300 kPa

Mud  Pressure Differential creates Filter Cake
Pressure  Filter Cake prevents further penetration of fluid
4500  Pore Pressure is constant even after many days,
Overbalance Pressure [kPa]

except for a few inches close to Well Bore

3000

1500

Sandstone
Pore
Pressure 19 21
15 17
Distance from borehole wall [r/R]
r = Distance from Hole Centre and R = Borehole radius 152
 High Pore Pressure in vicinity of Well Bore - SHALE

OVERBALANCE (Wellbore - Pore Press) = 5300 kPa

 (Continuous) flow due to pressure differential over Shale
 Pore Pressure will quickly increase with time when
Mud overbalance is high. Compare the inflated Pore Pressures
Pressure between 1 day and 45 days exposure
4500  Fluid penetration depends on medium (water/oil) and
Overbalance Pressure [kPa]

permeability of shale

3000 Shale

45 Days

7 Days
1500
1 Day

Sandstone
Pore
Pressure 15 17 19 21
Distance from borehole wall [r/R]
r = Distance from Hole Centre and R = Borehole radius 153
 High Pore Pressure in vicinity of Well Bore - SHALE

OVERBALANCE (Wellbore - Pore Press) = 2650 kPa

 Pore Pressure will increase less rapidly with time
Mud
when overbalance is reduced to 1/2 the original value
Pressure
 Fluid penetration still depends on medium water/oil)
4500
Overbalance Pressure [kPa]

and permeability of shale

Shale
3000
45 Days

7 Days

1 Day If we would use 1/2 the

1500
overbalance
Sandstone
Pore
Pressure 15 17 19 21
Distance from borehole wall [r/R]
r = Distance from Hole Centre and R = Borehole radius 154
 High Pore Pressure in vicinity of Well Bore

• When Drilling Shale, Filter Cake almost non-existent:

– Results in FLUID INVASION and DEEP PENETRATION
– Results in PORE PRESSURE INCREASE with TIME
• Preventive and Reducing Measures:
– Minimise Overbalance, increase density in small steps if
rock stress increase as a result of inclination
– Select appropriate Drilling Fluid to reduce invasion
– Avoid high swab and surge pressures
– Avoid well bore disturbances, i.e. (back-) reaming.

155
 Borehole
Collapse in time

156
Shale Instability vs. Time

Hardening Zone
Softening Zone
 Borehole
collapse vs.
mud weight
 ‘Washed out’ and
‘in gauge’ HOLE

Shale ‘washed out’ hole

Sand ‘in gauge’ hole

159
Mud Selection

160
 High Pore Pressure in vicinity of Well Bore

Mud Selection:
• Any mud which is effective in creating a threshold
pressure within the shale capillaries:
– FIRST CHOICE non-water based (oil based)
even silicate or formate brines
– SECOND CHOICE water-based
with KCl, Polymers, etc.
– Alternative and/or viscous mud filter cake (bad choice)
• A minimum overbalance is still essential

161
Dynamic Bottomhole Pressure

162
 Drilling Fluids for Shale

• Non-Water Based Fluids:

– Oil Based (aromatics)
– Pseudo Oil Based (ester/ether)
• Water Based Fluids:
– Polyglycols
– KCl Polymers
– FerroChrome Lignosulphonate
– Saturated CaCl2 & High Density Formates
– Silicates (w/ gel forming - plugging pores)

163
Difference Water Based & Oil Based MUD

OBM WBM
WELLBORE WELLBORE

REPULSION
SHALE
FREE FLOW
IN (SLOW)

SHALE
SURFACE
TENSION

CAPILLARY ACTION

164
 Difference Water Based & Oil Based MUD

• Permeability of Shale:
– A filtercake cannot exist
– Oil Base reduces penetration of fluids (water phase)
by capillary action
• Instability:
– Can still occur with OBM if lack of mud weight
– Onset of fractures makes it easier for the situation to
get worse or more difficult to restore.

165
 Effects of MUD on Bore Hole Stability

Oil Base Mud KCl WB Mud WB Mud

balanced activity unbalanced activity

Bore Hole Wall Bore Hole Wall Bore Hole Wall

smooth relatively smooth rough
no interaction reduced interaction hydration
166
 Operational - When Drilling Shales

• Minimise Open Hole Time (golden rule)

• Adhere to planned/optimal Mud Properties
• Keep the Hole Clean (measure/check/confirm)
• Increase Mud Weight in small steps
• Avoid decrease of Mud Weight if at all possible
• Minimise backreaming if at all possible

167
 Mechanism # 2

DIFFERENTIAL STICKING

168
 DIFFERENTIAL STICKING

Influencing factors are:-

• PERMEABILITY Formation Type and Zones
• WALL CONTACT BHA, DC Type, Size, Stabs,
Deviation
• OVERBALANCE Pore Pressure Depleted Zones
• MUD PROPERTIES Density, Filter Loss/Cake,
Low Gravity Solids
• TIME Pipe Movement
What can ‘stick’ ?: BHA DC‟s, Casing, HWDP, DP

169
 DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
build-up of
Low Gravity Solids Filtercake

Excess
mud
pressure

String
Permeable
Gelled,
Formation
stagnant
mud

170
 DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
build-up of Contact Area will
Low Gravity Solids Filtercake increase with time

Excess
mud
pressure

String String
Permeable
Gelled,
Formation
stagnant String will sag and
mud fully penetrate FC

171
 DIFFERENTIAL STICKING

If NO Pipe Movement :
• With time, pipe/wire will „penetrate’ into filtercake
• Contact area will increase, overbalance (mud
density vs pore pressure) directly across pipe/wire
• Sticking force will increase exponentially

172
 DIFFERENTIAL STICKING

Why does it happen so OFTEN :

• Long duration Surveys, Connections, Minor Repairs
• Pore Pressure information not known/measured
• Inadequate optimisation of BHA or W/L Tool String
• Inadequate optimisation of Mud Properties
• Response of Rig Team to first signs; Immediate
response to permanently stuck situation.

173
 STICKANCE TESTER

Torque
Pressure
Drilling
Fluid - Filter Cake builds up
- Torque required to „rotate ball and to
break bond with cake‟ increases if left
stationary for longer period

Torque will increase exponentially

with time
Filter
Cake

Filtrate
174
 Differencial Sticking - Warning Signs
1. Overpull on connections will be:
a. erratic c. increasing
b. unaffected d. smooth
2. Torque trend is likely to be:
a. smooth c. erratic
b. unaffected d. increasing (connections)
3. Circulating Pressure will be:
a. fluctuating c. restricted
b. unaffected d. impossible
4. The problem is ___unlikely______ to stabilise with time !
a. most likely c. likely
b. unlikely d. expected
5. The warning signs begin to appear during:
a. drilling c. reaming
b. tripping d. connections
 FREEING DIFFERENTIALLY STUCK PIPE

Immediate action upon 1st indication:

• Apply maximum allowable slack down/pull and
torque into string
• Jar down with „substantial‟ weight slacked off
• If this is unsuccessful the following actions are
necessary:
– Reduce the pressure differential to reduce
density of the drilling fluid.
– Remove the wall cake by "dissolving" it through
spotting pipe-lax pills dissolved in diesel oil. This
can often take more than a day.

176
 Mechanism # 3

HOLE CLEANING

177
 HOLE CLEANING

Influencing factors are:

• MUD Rheology, Suspension when circulation
low/stopped, Shear Thinning when
circulation resumed
• CIRCULATION Rate to be as fast as Hole and
Surface Equipment allows
• ROTATION As fast as BHA and Trajectory
allows. Caution during backreaming
• DEVIATION Problematic between 50 – 65 deg
• MEASURING Shale Shakers, Lag Time, Pressure
while Drilling Tool (ECD)
178
 Hole Cleaning

In combination with hole instability, the main

cause of Stuck Pipe.

179
Hole Cleaning

• Problematic between 50 and 65

degrees
• Potential cuttings beds between
40 and 75 deg
• Relatively less problematic in
horizontal section of holes
180
How do we know the Hole is CLEAN?

SIGNS are:

n Cuttings or Cavings
- Volume
- Size
- Shape
n Overpull & Resistance
n High fluctuating Torque
n Swabbing
n Pump Pressure increase
n Past well experience

181
LAMINAR versus TURBULENT

182
FLOW REGIME in Annulus

LAMINAR
FLOW VELOCITY
PROFILE

183
LAMINAR Flow Velocities

Minimum Flow Velocity

considered to be:
50 m/min
(150 ft/min)

184
FLOW REGIME in Annulus

FLOW VELOCITY
HIGHEST VALUES

VELOCITY WITH
POOR MUD
RHEOLOGY

DRILL STRING

185
FLOW REGIME in Annulus

FLOW VELOCITY
HIGHEST VALUES

VELOCITY WITH POOR

MUD RHEOLOGY

WHEN OPTIMISING
MUD RHEOLOGY

DRILL STRING TRYING TO REACH

IMMOBILE MUD AND
CUTTINGS BED

(FAST) ROTATION OF DRILL

STRING TO MOVE
CUTTINGS
186
 Hole Cleaning Efficiency

Definition
• To optimise Hole Cleaning Efficiency in highly-
deviated wellbores (40-80 º from vertical), a balance
must be struck between
– minimising particle settling velocity and
– promotion of fluid velocity under eccentric drill pipe
Adjustments in fluid properties made with only
settling velocity or velocity under the drill pipe in mind
will not promote efficient hole cleaning

187
Shale Shakers – where
where we
we SHOULD
SHOULDobserve !
observe !!
where we SHOULD measure !

188
How do we know what Samples
we are LOOKING for ?

LOOK FOR

CUTTINGS

Shale Shaker CAVINGS

• Volume
• Size
• Type
189
 What could be your contribution to HOLE
CLEANING ?

at the Shale Shaker

n Observe Volume Cuttings

n Observe Volume Cavings
n Observe Type of Cavings
n Measure all of the above
n Report Observations
n Discuss Observations
and operationally...
n Pump Faster if possible Shakers
n Rotate Faster if possible
n Optimise Mud Rheology 190
 Hole Cleaning Guidelines - Drilling
(critical for hole angles 40 - 65 deg)

Drilling Practice:
• Drill with controlled ROP, if „indications‟ of loading
the annulus with cuttings
• Circulate at max. allowable pump rate, provided we
have no losses or create washouts
• Do not assume that the hole is clean:-
– Use drag/torque trends of previous wells; monitor
and communicate trends current well
– Measure/record trends at the shale shaker

191
 Hole Cleaning Guidelines - Drilling
(critical for hole angles 40 - 65 deg)
Mud:
• Aim for mud properties with a shear thinning effect,
which will ensure that we get:
– high annular velocities at low side of hole and over
washouts when circulating at high rate
– Max suspension, when NOT circulating or tripping
• Use lo/hi vis tandem sweeps as required. The use of
sweeps usually indicates mud rheology is not optimal
Reaming / Wiping Practice:
• Ream/wipe after drilling a long section in sliding mode.
If high RPM can be used, hole cleaning is more efficient
192
 Hole Cleaning Guidelines - Connection
(critical for hole angles 40 - 65 deg)
Preparation and Practice:
• Ream/backream each single or stand; if cuttings bed
has developed
• Ensure to use full rate circulation when reaming/wiping
before connection and/or survey
• After connection, rotate string first, before bringing
pumps up to full rate
• Monitor, record, plot and communicate:
• Up/down/rot string weight
• Off and on bottom torque
• Circulation pressure trends
193
 Hole Cleaning Guidelines - TRIPPING
(critical for hole angles 40 - 65 deg)

Immediate action: Overpull when Tripping:

• Determine overpull and setdown limits before the trip;
discuss and agree with all staff
• If overpull/setdown limit is reached, run back at least 1
stand; if the problem is thought to be solids, then clean
hole with lo-hi vis sweeps
• If cuttings/cavings bed is difficult to dislodge, backream
with extreme caution, this might take time…..!
Most stuck pipe incidents when tripping occur as a
result of impatience and shortcuts !

194
CUTTINGS FLOW METER (CFM)
• Collection Tray & Discharge System MEASURING Hole Cleaning
EFFECTIVENESS
• Tray will dump after pre-set period
• Correlation in real time includes lag
time, flow rate, hole volume etc.

INFORMATION COLLECTED:-
• Cumulative Cuttings Weight & Volume
• Cuttings Flow Rate in volume against
time and against lagged depth interval
• Ratio between measured cuttings flow
rate and increase in hole volume
• Comparison of theoretical weight of
rock drilled and cuttings weight
showing cuttings left in hole

195
 Settling of Solids - Warning Signs
1. Up and down Drag Trends will be:
a. smooth and high c. low
b. erratic and high d. unaffected
2. Torque trend will be:
a. smooth & high c. high & erratic
b. unaffected d. impossible
3. Drag Trend will improve when:
a. drilling c. calling the office
b. circulating d. tripping
4. _a, b and/or c _ will increase if corrective action is NOT taken !
a. hole fill c. pump pressure
b. mud weight d. ROP
5. The warning signs are most likely to appear:
a. after connections c. tripping out
b. reaming down d. tripping in
Mechanism # 4

WELLBORE STABILITY

197
 WELLBORE STABILITY

Other common causes for ‘INSTABILITY’

(not Hydro-Pressured Shale related)
• Unconsolidated Formations
• Mobile Formations
• Fractured or Faulted Formations
• Geo-pressured Formations
• Reactive Formations
• Tectonically Stressed Formations

198
Unconsolidated Formations

199
UNCONSOLIDATED Formations

Indications:
• Drilling shallow unconsolidated formation, sand,
gravel in Top Hole
• Abundance of loose sand/ gravel over shale shaker,
desander/-silter
• Shakers blinding
• Erratic Drag
• Seepage or partial losses
• Pack-off possible. Regaining circulation difficult.

200
UNCONSOLIDATED Formations

Preventive Action:

• Ensure to have some fluid loss control

• Ensure adequate hole cleaning. Accept controlled ROP
to reduce annular density. Regularly sweep hole with hi-
vis pill
• Be alert when making connections. Formation can
slough in unexpectedly. Break circulation gently, avoids
surges
• Include Jar in BHA
• Spot hi-vis pill or gel mud before roundtrips and prior
running casing

201
Mobile Formations

202
MOBILE Formations

Indications:
• When drilling Salts or Plastic Shales
• Salts known to deform plastically and/or creep
into the wellbore over time
• High overpull/setdown during wipertrips or
roundtrips
• Repeated reaming required to continue making
hole
• Restriction in circulation possible

203
MOBILE Formations

Preventive Action:

• Use of eccentric PDC Bits and/or use of roller

reamer
• Use low WOB and high RPM. Accept controlled
ROP and (re)-reaming intervals
• Extensive precautionary reaming during wipertrips
or roundtrips
• Increase mud density, before entering mobile
zone, if proven successful

204
MOBILE Formations

Freeing

• Spot a fresh water pill if in a salt formation. (Consider

the effect on well control and on other open hole
formations ).
• If moving up, apply torque and jar down with maximum
trip load.
• If moving down, jar up with maximum trip load.
• Torque should not be applied while jarring up.

205
Fractured or Faulted
Formations

206
FRACTURED/FAULTED Formations

Indications:
• Drilling limestone, chalk or shale sequence
with known history of fractures/faults,
• Formations to be brittle (e.g. coal)
• Large cuttings over shale shaker
• Torque during drilling/reaming fluctuating.
Vibration possible.
• Partial or total losses
• Reaming required to pass interval during or after
wipertrip/roundtrip

207
FRACTURED/FAULTED Formations

Preventive Action:
• Constantly check hole condition. Ream intervals
precautionary
• Avoid losses. Keep hole clean. Limit annular density
(ECD). Restrict tripping speeds
• If losses, pull out immediately above
fractured/faulted zone
• Ensure to have inhibited HCl acid at rig
• Stability will return, provided rig team caution and
known techniques

208
FRACTURED/FAULTED Formations

Freeing:
• If packed off while off bottom then follow First
Actions.
• Otherwise JAR UP in an effort to break up
formation debris.
• Use every effort to maintain circulation.
• Circulate high density viscous sweeps to clean
debris.
• Spot acid if stuck in limestone.

209
Geo-pressured
Formations

210
 GEO-PRESSURED Formations

SPALLING
OF
Indications:
SPLINTERY
CAVINGS
• Exploration/appraisal wells. Usually shale high
pressure transition zone
• Fast ROP. Possibly some drag when moving string
and making connections
• Distinctive splintery cavings.
• Usually accompanied by high levels of background
PORE
PRESSURE gas and/or tripgas
HIGHER
THAN HYDR. • Pack-off tendency during roundtrips when cavings
HEAD have not been observed or when quantity has
increased

211
GEO-PRESSURED Formations

Preventive Action:
• Monitor and plot pore pressure
• Cross check origin of cavings.
• Increase density in small increments
• Take time to circulate hole clean when fast ROPs
are experienced. Be cautious when formation gas
to surface
• Avoid excessive swabs and surges during
roundtrips and connections
• Exercise all practices related to hole cleaning and
instability problems

212
GEO-PRESSURED Formations

Immediate action:
• Apply maximum allowable pull and torque into
string
• Jar up/ jar down with „substantial‟ weight slacked
off
• Use every effort to maintain circulation.

213
Reactive Formations

214
REACTIVE Formations

Indications:
• Drilling shallow young shales
• Absorption of drilled shales into mud
• Increase of plastic viscosity and yield
• Clayballs at surface, bit and stabiliser balling in the
hole
• Mushy, soft cuttings
• Overpull on wipertrips/roundtrips
• Increase of pump pressure and torque depending
on annular clearance

215
REACTIV Formations

Preventive Action:
• Ensure adequate mud inhibition, e.g KCL, to
minimise hydration process
• Dilute mud if increase of bentonite content in mud
cannot be controlled
• Wipe the hole as required. Wash/ream if
overpull/setdown becomes excessive
• Avoid BHA with „tight‟ clearances
• Circulate clean at possible high rate, but caution
when breaking circulation
• Drill quickly, minimise open hole time

216
 Effects of MUD on Bore Hole Stability

Oil Base Mud KCl WB Mud WB Mud

balanced activity unbalanced activity

Bore Hole Wall Bore Hole Wall Bore Hole Wall

smooth relatively smooth rough
no interaction reduced interaction hydration
217
REACTIV Formations

Immediate action:
• Apply maximum allowable pull and torque into
string
• Jar down with „substantial‟ weight slacked off
• Use every effort to maintain circulation.

218
Tectonically Stressed
Formations

219
Tectonically Stressed Formations

Indications:
• Wide variation in rock stress
orientation
• Multiple faulting, e.g. in mountainous
or active areas
• Extensive (back-) reaming during
roundtrips. High fluctuating torque
during „hard‟ reaming to bottom.
• Excessive quantities of cavings to
surface
• Difficult to stop/limit instability with
any mud or mud weight 220
Tectonically Stressed Formations

Mountainous Area
Multiple Faulting
Stress Orientation

221
 Tectonically Stressed Formations

Preventive Action:
• Make use of local experience, stability studies
• Careful selection of optimum (low) inclination and
direction through tectonically stressed formation(s)
• Drill tangent section through interval, if at all possible,
to minimise open hole exposure time
• If instability is known to be difficult to stop, consider
use of:
• oil based mud
• maximum allowable density
• extra casing contingency in programme
222
Tectonically Stressed Formations

Freeing:
• If packed off while off bottom then
follow
First Actions.
• JAR UP/DOWN in an effort to break
up formation debris.
• Use every effort to maintain
circulation.
• Circulate high density viscous
sweeps to clean debris.

223
Borehole Geometry

224
Key Seating – Borehole Geometry
Indications:
• At abrupt changes in angle or direction in
medium-soft.
• Where high side wall forces and string
rotation exist.
• Occurs only while POOH.
• Sudden overpull as BHA reaches dogleg
depth.
• Unrestricted circulation.
• Free string movement below key seat
depth possible.
• Cyclic overpull at tool joint intervals on
trips.

225
Key Seating – Borehole Geometry

Preventive Action:
• Minimise dogleg severity.
• Perform reaming and/or wiper trips if a
dogleg is present.
• Consider running string reamers or a key
seat wiper if a key seat is likely to be a
problem.

226
Key Seating – Borehole Geometry

Freeing
• If possible, apply torque and jar down with
maximum trip load.
• Back ream out of the hole.
• If present use key seat wiper.

227
 Borehole Geometry - Warning Signs
1. Up and down Drag Trends will begin to:
a. stabilise c. increase
b. decrease d. become erratic
2. Torque trend will be:
a. smooth & high c. high & erratic
b. constant d. low
3. If borehole is smaller than Bit/BHA Circ. Pressure may:
a. fluctuate c. washout the formation
b. increase d. stay about the same
4. If water base mud is not salt saturated, you can expect:
a. hole collapse c. anything, depends on form
b. hole washout d. excess filtercake
5. The warning signs are most likely to develop during:
a. drilling (occasionally) c. reaming down
b. circulating d. tripping
Cement Related

229
Cement Related - Stuck Pipe Causes

Indications:
• Poor Cementations
• Long ratholes
Preventive Action:
• Minimise the length of rathole.
• Perform reaming and/or wiper trips.
Freeing
• If possible, apply torque and jar down with
maximum trip load.

230
Undergauge Hole

231
 Undergauge Hole
Indications:
• Dull bit evaulation
• Coring
Preventive Action:
• Bit gauge protection.
• Perform reaming after coring.
Freeing
• JAR UP with maximum trip load.

Undergauged
Hole
232
 Junk in Hole

Indications:
• Something is missing at rigfloor
• Hand tools, parts of tongs, slips..
Preventive Action:
• Keep order at rigfloor.
• Good maintenance of tools
• Careful work
Freeing
• JAR DOWN with maximum trip load.

233
Drill String Vibration

• Not a direct ‘cause‟, but… STABLE formations

become to UNSTABLE
Indications:
• High drill string vibration
Preventive Action:
• Appropriate BHA and weight on bit
• Appropriate transition zone between DC and DP

234
 DRILLING FLUID

When we select mud, you have to consider

Type of Mud
Formation Stability
Hole Cleaning
Differential Sticking
Drag and Torque

„MUD plays the biggest role in avoiding of

STUCK PIPE!”

235