Guide to Drives

Guide to Drives

Contents Description Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Load Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Centrifugal Load Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Basic Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Tables and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Maintenance of Industrial Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 381

Introduction The illustrations, definitions and equations presented in this section

are for educational purposes only.

This reference material is provided to assist the reader in

understanding certain basic electrical and physical relationships
commonly associated with rotating machinery and adjustable speed
drive technology.

Since each machine or process has unique control parameters, no

individual formula can take into consideration all the requirements to
accurately apply a specific product or predict its performance.

Each drive application must be carefully examined by the user.

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Basics Introduction
A variable speed drive is an electronic device that controls the speed,
torque, horsepower and direction of an AC or DC motor. Allen-
Bradley manufactures variable speed drives to meet wide variety of
applications.

Adjustable frequency AC drives serve processing needs and

numerous general industrial applications such as fans, pumps and
conveyors in a variety of working environments. DC industrial drives
control material handling and processing equipment in the forest
products, mining, metals, printing, and other industries. System
engineered AC/DC drives are custom designed for highly specialized
applications. High performance motion control drives meet the needs
of special purpose, high volume production and assembly machines.

The following information provides the basics required to evaluate

AC or DC drives application needs.

DC Drive Control System

Any DC drive control system generally contains the following:
operating controls, drive controller and DC motor (see Figure 1).

The operator controls allow the operator to start, stop, change

direction and speed of the controller by simply turning potentiometers
or other operator devices. These controls may be an integral part of
the controller or may be remotely mounted. Programmable
controllers are being used more frequently in this area to achieve
greater flexibility in process or machine control.

The drive controller converts a constant potential AC voltage to an

adjustable DC voltage which is then applied to a DC motor armature.
Regulation characteristics of the controller allow the motor to run at
the desired speed set by a reference input. Additional circuits can help
protect the controller, motor and driven machine from line voltage
transients, overloads and various circuit faults.

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Figure 1
DC Drive Control System

The DC motor converts the adjustable voltage DC from the drive

controller to rotating mechanical energy. Motor shaft rotation and
direction are proportional to the magnitude and polarity of adjustable
voltage applied to the motor. Normally, the motor shaft is coupled to a
gear reducer or other transmission device which is then coupled to the
driven machine (see Gear Reducer Selection in the Basic Mechanics
section for more information).

The DC motor in a typical drive control system can be of the shunt

wound or permanent magnet type. In adjustable speed DC drive
applications, the motor armature is connected to an adjustable voltage
supply. The motor field (if not of the permanent magnet type) is
connected to either a fixed or adjustable voltage supply.

The tachometer-generator (feedback device) shown in Figure 1

converts actual speed to an electrical signal that is summed with the
desired reference signal. The output of the summing junction
provides an error signal to the controller and a speed correction is
made.

Constant Torque Applications

The following paragraphs discuss DC drives in regard to major
categories of applications. The term “drive” refers to an electronic
regulator, armature and field supply. These supplies could be in a self-
contained unit or packaged separately.

Armature voltage controlled DC drives are constant-torque drives.

They are capable of providing rated current at any speed between zero
and the base (rated) speed of the motor. These drives use a fixed field
supply and give motor characteristics shown in Figure 2.

As seen in Figure 2, the motor output horsepower is directly

proportional to speed (50% horsepower at 50% speed, etc.) However,
rated torque is available at any speed (constant torque).

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Figure 2
Constant Torque Curve

Constant Horsepower Applications

Armature and Field Controlled DC Drives

Certain applications require constant horsepower over a specified
speed range. As seen in Figure 3, an armature voltage controlled DC
drive has constant torque characteristics. Two items should be noted
here.

A drive required to deliver constant horsepower over a 2:1 speed

range would need special motor and control devices. It should also be
noted that at half speed, an armature controlled DC drive only
develops 50% of its rated torque and horsepower.

Figure 3
Constant Torque and Horsepower Curves

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Variable Torque Applications

Field Controlled DC Drives

(Operation Above Motor Base Speed)
One characteristic of a shunt-wound DC motor is that a reduction in
rated field current, at a given armature voltage, will result in an
increase in speed. However, this also results in a lower torque output
per unit of armature current (see Figure 3).

This concept can also be seen in Figure 4. Armature current is a

function of motor load. As the demand on the motor increases, so
does the motor’s demand for more current. In order to keep the motor
within its rated current range, the motor load must inherently decrease
above base speed with a resultant decrease in motor torque output.

Figure 4
Motor Speed and Load Characteristics

A simple method of reducing rated field current is to insert a resistor

in series with the field current source. This may be useful for
achieving an ideal motor speed for the application.

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A more sophisticated method of reducing rated field current is by use

of a solid state variable current field regulator. This method provides
coordinated automatic armature and field current control for an
extended speed range in constant HP applications. The motor is
armature voltage controlled for constant torque-variable HP operation
up to base speed. Then the motor is transferred to field current control
for constant HP - variable torque operation up to maximum speed
(shown in Figure 3).

AC Adjustable Frequency Drives

Much of the power that is consumed today by AC motors goes into
the operation of fans and pumps. With these type of devices however,
actual demand is often less than the design capacity of the system.
Direct variable speed control of the fan or pump provides an attractive
means of energy savings and cost efficiency.

AC Drive Characteristics
AC adjustable frequency drives convert 3 phase 60 Hz input power to
an adjustable frequency and voltage source for controlling the speed
of AC squirrel cage induction motors.

The frequency of the applied power to an AC motor determines the

motor speed and is based on the following equation:

Equation 1:
120f
N = ------------
P
Where:
N = speed (RPM)
f = frequency (Hz)
P = number of poles

The number of poles is considered a constant since this design

characteristic is already manufactured into the motor.

The AC adjustable frequency drive controls the frequency (f) and

voltage applied to the motor. The speed (N) of the motor is then
proportional to this applied frequency. Control frequency is adjusted
by means of a potentiometer or external signal depending on the
application.

To maintain constant motor torque, the drive controller automatically

maintains the voltage and frequency output at a constant relationship
for any motor speed. This is called the volts per hertz ratio (V/Hz).

AC Drive System
An AC adjustable frequency drive typically consists of three basic
parts: operator controls, drive controller (referred to as an inverter)
and an AC motor. Figure 5 shows an AC adjustable frequency drive
system.

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Figure 5
AC Adjustable Frequency Drive System

3 PH AC Line

Power AC
Operator Control
Controls Unit Conversion Unit Motor

Drive Controller

The operator controls allow the operator to start, stop, change

direction and speed of the controller by simply turning potentiometers
or other operator devices. These controls may be an integral part of
the controller or may be remotely mounted. Programmable
controllers are often used for this function.

The drive controller converts fixed voltage AC to an AC adjustable

frequency and voltage source. It consists of a control unit and a power
conversion unit.

The control unit oversees the operation of the drive and provides
valuable system diagnostic information. The power conversion unit
performs several functions. It rectifies the incoming fixed AC voltage
(changes AC to DC). The resultant DC voltage is then filtered through
an LC low pass filter to obtain a DC voltage bus. The power
conversion (inverter) unit then produces an AC current and voltage
output having the desired frequency.

The AC motor converts the adjustable frequency AC from the drive

controller to rotating mechanical energy.

AC Adjustable Frequency Drive

Types
The most common types of AC adjustable frequency drives used are:
variable voltage input (VVI) and pulse width modulated (PWM). The
following paragraphs offer a brief description of each type.

Variable Voltage Input (VVI)

This type of drive rectifies AC input power and delivers variable
voltage DC to a section of the power conversion unit called the
inverter section. The inverter section then inverts the variable voltage
DC to variable voltage and frequency AC. This inverter section is
built with power transistors or thyristors (SCRs) depending on
horsepower requirements.

Figure 6 shows a block diagram of the power conversion unit in a

variable voltage inverter.

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Figure 6
Power Conversion Unit (VVI)

An SCR bridge rectifier converts the 3 phase input power to variable-

voltage DC which is then the input to the inverter section. The
inverter section generates variable voltage, variable frequency AC
power to control motor speed. Because a large filter capacitor
provides a voltage supply to the inverter, output voltage is not affected
by the nature of the load.

The output voltage from a VVI drive is frequently called a “six step”
waveform and is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7
VVI Output Waveforms

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Pulse Width Modulated (PWM)

Figure 8 shows a block diagram of the power conversion unit in a
PWM drive. In this type of drive, a diode bridge rectifier provides the
intermediate DC circuit voltage. In the intermediate DC circuit, the
DC voltage is filtered in an LC low-pass output frequency and voltage
is controlled electronically by pulse-width-modulating techniques.

Essentially, these techniques require switching the inverter power

devices (transistors or SCRs) on and off many times in order to
generate the AC variable voltage and frequency.

Figure 8
Power Conversion Unit (PWM)

This switching scheme requires a more complex regulator than the

VVI. However, with the use of a microprocessor, these complex
regulator functions are effectively handled. The output voltage from a
PWM drive is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9
PWM Output Waveforms

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Drives
As factory automation increases, many applications require position
control as well as speed and direction control. Parts being processed
in an automated manufacturing line may need machining or sorting.
Precise control of part location (accomplished by a motion control
drive) directly affects the quality of the product.

A positioning drive receives a signal from some type of position

controller: numerical controller (NC), programmable controller (PC)
or computer numerical controller (CNC). This position controller tells
the motion control drive at what direction, speed and time to move a
part from point A to point B.

One category of motion control drives is the servo controller.

Servo Controllers
Servo controllers offer extremely fast response and precise control of
acceleration/deceleration, speed and torque. Originally designed for
aviation control applications, servos can accelerate from standstill to
100 RPM in several milliseconds.

Many servos are built with three major system loops: position loop,
velocity loop and current loop (see Figure 10). A typical servo system
is comprised of a position controller, encoder, or resolver (feedback
device), servo controller (servo amplifier) and a servo motor.

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Figure 10
Servo Controller System

Speed feedback (velocity) is usually supplied by a tachometer-

generator (tach) with an encoder or similar sensor giving the position
feedback. The velocity loop (contained in the servo controller) sums
the velocity feedback and position error signals and generates a
velocity error signal. The current loop (contained in the servo
controller), sums the current feedback and current command signals
and controls current limit.

In some designs, the position feedback (encoder) is connected to the

system controller, and in others, it is fed to the drive controller. Most
conventional DC servos require the position loop to be closed
externally. Therefore, a tachometer-generator (tach) used for speed
feedback is the only feedback device needed by the DC servo
controller.

Most servo controllers have power transistors that produce a pulse

width modulated (PWM) DC output. This design offers faster
response with better utilization and protection of the DC servo motor
compared to SCR servo controller designs. However, these SCR units
are still used for the larger HP applications.

Many new drive controllers include the functions of the system

controller plus several servo drive controller in one unit. These are
usually termed multi-axis units.

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Load Characteristics Introduction

The process of selecting an adjustable speed AC or DC drive is one
where load is of primary consideration. It is important to understand
the speed and torque characteristics as well as horsepower
requirements of the type of load to be considered. AC drive
characteristics are somewhat different than DC drives. The demands
and economics of a particular application should be matched to the
drive capabilities. After this matching process is completed, the
decision regarding the type of adjustable speed drive can be made.

When considering load characteristics, the following should be

evaluated:

• What type of load is associated with the application?

• Does the load have a shock component?
• What is the size of the load?
• Are heavy inertial loads involved?
• What are the motor considerations?
• Over what speed range are heavy loads encountered?
Motor loads are classified into three main groups depending on how
their torque and horsepower varies with operating speed. The
following paragraphs deal with the various DC and AC motor load
type usually found in process, manufacturing or machining
applications.

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Motor Load Types

Constant Torque Load

This type of load is the one most frequently encountered. In this
group, the torque demanded by the load is constant throughout the
speed range. The load requires the same amount of torque at low
speeds as at high speeds. Loads of this type are essentially friction
loads. In other words, the constant torque characteristic is needed to
overcome friction. Figure 11 shows the constant torque and variable
horsepower demanded by the load.

Figure 11
Constant Torque Load

100 100

Torque Horsepower
Demanded Demanded
by the by the
Load Load
(%) (%)

Speed (%) 100 Speed (%) 100

As seen in Figure 11, torque remains constant while horsepower is
directly proportional to speed. A look at the basic horsepower
equation also verifies this fact:

Equation 2
Torque × Speed
HP = ---------------------------------------
5252
Where:
Torque = lb-ft.
Speed = RPM
5252 = a proportionality constant

Examples of this type of load are conveyors, extruders and surface

winders. Constant torque is also used when shock loads, overloads or
high inertia loads are encountered.

Constant Horsepower Load

In this type of load, the horsepower demanded by the load is constant
within the speed range. The load requires high torque at low speeds.
From Equation 2, you can see that with the horsepower held constant,
the torque will decrease as the speed increases. Put another way, the
speed and torque are inversely proportional to each other. Figure 12
shows the constant horsepower and variable torque demanded by the
load.

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Figure 12
Constant Horsepower Load

100 100

Torque Horse-power
Demanded Demanded
by the by the
Load Load
(%) (%)
BASE BASE

100 200
100 200

Examples of this type of load are center-driven winders and machine

tool spindles. A specific example of this application would be a lathe
that requires slow speeds for rough cuts and high speeds for fine cuts
where little material is removed. Usually very high starting torques
are required for quick acceleration.

Variable Torque Load

With this type of load, the torque is directly proportional to some
mathematical power of speed, usually speed squared (Speed2).
Mathematically:

Equation 3
TorqueCons tan t × ( Speed ) 2

Horsepower is typically proportional to speed cubed (Speed3). Figure

13 shows the variable torque and variable horsepower demanded by
the load.

Figure 13
Variable Torque Load

100 100

Torque Horsepower
Demanded Demanded
by the by the
Load Load
(%) (%)

50 100
50 100
Examples of loads that exhibit variable load torque characteristics are
centrifugal fans, pumps and blowers. This type of load requires much
lower torque at low speeds than at high speeds.

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Table 4 summarizes load types, torque and horsepower characteristics.

Table 4: Load Types

HP and Torque Characteristics Application Examples

Constant HP, Torque varies inversely with speed Metal-cutting tools operating over wide speed range. Some extruders, mix-
ers, special machines where operation at low speed may be continuous.
Constant Torque, HP varies as the speed General machinery, hoists, conveyors, printing press, etc. (represents 90%
of applications)
Squared exponential, HP varies as square of the speed. Torque varies with Positive displacement pumps, some mixers, some extruders
speed.
Cubed exponential. HP varies as cube of speed. Torque varies as square of All centrifugal pumps & some fans. (Note: Fan power may vary as the 5th
speed. power of speed)
High Inertia Loads Are typically associated with machines using flywheels to supply most of
operating energy, punch presses, etc.

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Other Functional Considerations

Shock Loads
Drives for crushers, separators, grinders, conveyors, winches, cranes
and vehicular systems often must manage loads which range from a
small fraction of the rated load to several hundred percent.

Under these considerations, a drive has two fundamental tasks: move

the load and protect the prime mover and driven equipment. If the
prime mover is an electric motor, as is the case with a large number of
industrial drives, shock loads can damage components such as
bearings, brushes and commutators, as well as components of the
drive control circuitry, by inducing signal irregularities and electrical
overloads in the power converter.

Size of Load
The size of the load determines the type of drive chosen. Adjustable
speed drives (AC, DC, fluid, traction, etc.) range from fractional to
multithousand horsepower. However, not all types of drives can be
manufactured in full range. Generally, power converter rectifier
technology is the limiting factor in what is practical or economical to
manufacture for any given type of electrical drive.

DC Motor Torque and HP

A DC adjustable speed drive is able to handle a variety of load
characteristics. Examples of load characteristics are: constant torque
loads, variable torque loads, constant horsepower loads or a
combination of both constant torque and constant horsepower.

Speed can be adjusted from 0 to 100% by controlling the armature

voltage from zero to rated nameplate voltage (assuming full rated
motor field). A DC motor can be selected to provide a constant torque
capability through nearly the entire controllable speed range.
Horsepower increases from zero to nameplate horsepower at base
speed (100% speed). Refer to Figure 14.

Figure 14
DC Motor Torque and HP Curves

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By weakening the motor field, speed can be further increased up to 3,

4, or even 5 times base speed. Over this speed range, the DC motor
now has a constant horsepower characteristic where torque decreases
and is inversely proportional to speed (Refer to Figure 14).

Many industrial processes require a combination of constant torque

and constant horsepower depending on specific requirements. These
include rubber and plastics extruders where the torque requirements
at 25% speed may be double the torque requirements at 100%.

As seen in Figure 14, the DC motor allows a combination of constant

torque and horsepower, depending on the speed range used. Because
of this combination characteristic, a smaller HP motor and drive
rating would be required compared to a constant torque only drive. A
constant torque only drive has horsepower determined by the
maximum torque required (at any speed) and the top speed.

It should be noted that operation above base speed (in Field Control
Range) is not a standard feature on most DC Drives. This feature
requires a field supply like the Bulletin 1370-CHP Module or 1370-
RFS Module and a motor-mounted tach generator. With these field
supply modules, as speed increases (above base speed), torque
decreases. The selection of a drive with one of these modules should
be considered for applications requiring wide speed ranges with both
constant torque/constant horsepower load characteristics.

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AC Motor Torque

In an AC induction motor, torque results from the magnetic attraction

between the rotor and stator. In essence, the stator (stationary case)
has a rotating magnetic field at a frequency delivered by the inverter.
The rotor (rotating piece) is attracted to the stator producing a twist-
ing motion called torque. Figure 15 shows an AC induction motor
curve with the various torque ratings marked.
Figure 15
AC Motor Torque Curve

Point A in Figure 15 is the torque produced at locked rotor — when

rotor frequency is highest and inductive reactance is greatest
(breakaway torque). As the motor begins to accelerate, the torque
drops off, reaching a minimum value called pull-up torque. This is
between 25 - 40% of synchronous speed. As acceleration continues,
rotor frequency and inductive reactance decrease. The rotor flux
moves more in-phase with stator flux and consequently, torque
increases. Maximum torque is developed where inductive reactance
becomes equal to the rotor resistance. Beyond the maximum torque
point, the inductive reactance continues to drop off along with the
current through the rotor. The torque capabilities of the motor
therefore also decrease.

Centrifugal Load Applications Introduction

Centrifugal fans and pumps are sized to meet the maximum flow rate
required by the system. However, system operating conditions
frequently require reducing the flow rate. Therefore, throttling
devices — damper and valves — are frequently installed to limit
pump and fan outputs. The throttling devices are effective but are not
energy efficient. Alternative means offer the ability to both vary the
flow and greatly reduce energy losses. The method: adjust the fan and
pump impeller speeds so the units deliver the required flow.

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Pump Energy Savings

Pumps are generally grouped into two categories, positive
displacement pumps and dynamic (centrifugal) pumps. The vast
majority of pumps used today are the dynamic or centrifugal type and
are the only type discussed in this article.

The graph in the box on pump terminology shows two independent

curves. One is the pump curve, which is solely a function of the pump
characteristics. The other is the system curve. This depends on the
size of pipe, the length of pipe, the number and location of elbows,
etc. The intersection of these two curves is called the natural
operating point, because the pump pressure matches the system
losses.

If the system is part of a process that requires adjustable flow rates,

then some method is needed to continuously alter the pump
characteristics or the system parameters. As mentioned, these include
valves for throttling, which change the system curve, or variable
speed control of the pump, which modifies the pump curve.

Figure 16 shows a throttling system with two operating conditions —

one with the valve open and the other with the valve throttled or
partially closed. Closing the valve effectively increases the system
head that, in turn, decreases the flow.

Figure 16
Typical Pump and System Curves for Pump With Throttling Valve for
Flow Control

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By comparison, the variable speed method changes the pump

characteristics when the pump impeller speed is changed, Figure 17.

Of these two, only the adjustable speed method uses considerably less
energy with reduced flow, thus offering significant energy savings.
For example, a particular pump with a 14 in. impeller operates at a
base speed of 1150 rpm in a system with a 63 ft head (no static head),
and delivers 1200 gpm when the system is not throttled, Figure 18.
The process requires flow rates of 1200, 960, 720, and 480 gpm.

Figure 17
Typical Pump and System Curves for Pump Driven by Adjustable Speed Drive
for Flow Control

For a specific flow rate, the difference between points A and B,

Figure 18, gives a visual indication of possible energy savings. In
addition, changes in pump efficiency should be included in the
calculation to determine brake horsepower.

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Figure 18
Pump and System Curves for 14 in. Impeller Operating at 1150 rpm. Points A
Indicate Operating Points for Throttled System and Points B are Operating
Points When Pump is Powered by Adjustable Speed Drive.

Table . lists the comparative brake horsepower values required by

throttling and adjustable speed methods for the four operating points.
Figure 19 graphically shows the power requirements and savings for
the various flow rates.

Table 5:
Comparison of Pump Brake Horsepower Requirements for Throttling
and Adjustable Speed Methods

Throttling Adjustable Speed

Flow Head Pump Head Pump

(gpm) (ft) Efficiency Bhp (ft) Efficiency Bhp

1200 (100%) 63 76.3% 25 63 76.3% 25

960 (80%) 69 73 23 40 75 13
720 (60%) 75 65 21 23 75 5.6
480 (40%) 81 54 18 10 75 1.6

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Figure 19
Pump Power Requirements for Throttling and Adjustable Speed Methods, and
the Resultant Power Savings

This example does not include a static head. The magnitude of the
static head will affect the possible power savings. The less the static
head is in relation to the total head, the greater the power savings will
be achieved by using adjustable speed drives. For example, Figure 20
shows a pump curve with three system curves — one with no static
head, and two with different amounts of static heads. For a given flow
rate, the difference between operating points A and B indicate
possible power savings with adjustable speed. Thus, the difference
between points A and B3 (no static head) is greater — and offers
greater power savings — than between A and B1, which has a 40 ft
static head.

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Figure 20
Pump Curve and Three System Curves With Different Static Heads

How to Determine Curves

Pump curves are readily available from pump manufacturers.
However, system curves are more difficult to establish. One quick
method gives a fairly reliable approximation:

1. Determine the unthrottled (open) system flow rate (gpm) at the

location under consideration.
2. Measure the static head.
3. Plot these two points on a copy of the pump curve.
4. Connect these two points using approximately a square function
(Y = X2 or head = flow2).

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Duty Cycle and Energy Costs

Before the dollar savings can be calculated, it is first necessary to
establish the average duty cycle — percent of time the pump delivers
the various flow rates. The horsepower requirements for each duty
cycle can then be weighted to give the average power requirements.

Flow Reqd. hp for Each Duty Cycle Weighted Power

(gpm) Flow Rate (% of Time) Requirements (hp)

1200 25.0 10 2.5

970 13.0 40 5.2
720 5.6 40 2.2
480 1.6 10 0.2
100% 10.1
In this example, the average power requirement is 10.1 hp. This value
divided by the motor and drive efficiency and multiplied by the cost
of electricity, will give the monthly operating cost.

For example, assume a drive is 85% efficient, the pump operates for
400 hours per month, and electricity costs 7 cents per kWh.

10.1hp 0.746kW 400h $0.07 $258

------------------- × ------------------------ × ---------------- × --------------- = ----------------
0.85 hp month kWh month

The operating costs can be determined for each type of flow

regulation method to establish payback periods. Also, some
companies offer a computer analysis to give my cost and payback
comparisons.

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Fan Energy Savings

The basic operation of centrifugal fans is similar to pump operation,
and energy savings are equally obtainable. However, the common
units are slightly different. Outlet pressure (static inches of water) is
used in place of head (feet of water) and flow is usually expressed in
cubic feet per minute (cfm).

Several different methods are used to throttle or regulate fan outputs.

The most common include outlet dampers and variable inlet vanes.
Outlet damper affect the system curve by increasing the resistance to
air flow, Figure 21, much the same as a valve throttles a pump output.

Figure 21
Typical Fan Curve With Three System Curves for Various Settings of Outlet
Dampers

Figure 22, show that as the flow is decreased, the power requirement
is reduced only slightly. Variable inlet vanes direct the air flow as the
air enters the fan, and, in effect, modify the fan curve, Figure 25. With
these vanes, power requirements are significantly reduced as flow is
decreased, Figure 24.

As with pumps, adjustable speed drives offer the greatest energy

savings for fans. This adjustable flow method changes the fan curve,
Figure 25, and drastically reduces the power requirements, Figure 26,
even more than for inlet vanes.

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Figure 22
Typical Fan Curve With Three System Curves for Various Settings of Outlet
Dampers

Figure 23
Typical System Curve With Fan Curves for Various Settings of Inlet Vanes

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Figure 24
Power Requirements vs. Flow For Various Settings of Inlet Vanes

Figure 25
Typical System Curve and Various Fan Curves for Adjustable Speed Operation

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Figure 26
Adjustable Speed Fan Drive Power Requirements vs Flow

Adjustable Speed Drives

Available in many different types, adjustable speed drives offer the
optimum method for matching pump and fan flow rates to system
requirements. One frequently specified type of drive is the electrical
adjustable speed type that uses an AC motor. Frequently termed an
inverter, this unit receives the fixed voltage and frequency plant power
— typically 230 or 460 V, 60 Hz — and converts this to adjustable
voltage and frequency to power the AC motor. The frequency applied
to AC motor determines the motor speed.

These AC motors are usually readily available standard units that can
be connected across the AC power line. This capability maintains
operation even if the drive controller (inverter) should fail.

Adjustable speed drives also offer an additional benefit — increased

bearing and pump seal life. By maintaining only the pressure needed
in the pump to satisfy system requirements, the pump is not subjected
to any higher pressures than necessary. Therefore, the components
last longer.

The same benefits — but to a lesser extent — also apply to fans

operated by adjustable speed drives.

To obtain optimum efficiencies and reliability, many specifiers obtain

detailed information from the manufacturers on drive efficiency,
required maintenance, diagnostic capabilities within the drive, and
general operational features. Then, they make detailed analyses to
determine which system will give the best return on the investment.

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Technology and Formulas

Fans and Blowers

CFM × PSF
HP = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
33, 000 × Efficiency of Fan

CFM × PIW
HP = ----------------------------------------------------------------
6536 × Efficiency of Fan

CFM × PSI
HP = ------------------------------------------------------------
229 × Efficiency of Fan
Where:
CFM = Cubic feet per minute
PSF = Pounds per square foot
PIW = Inches of water gauge
PSI = Pounds per square inch
Efficiency of fan = %/100

Pump
Head — measurement of pressure, usually in feet of water. A 30 ft
head is the pressure equivalent to the pressure found at the base of a
column of water 30 ft high.

Static head — pressure required to overcome an elevation change,

also expressed in feet of water.

Dynamic head (or friction head) — pressure losses within the pipe
system due to flow. To get water to flow at a particular volume may
require overcoming a 10 ft static head plus a 1 ft dynamic head. The
dynamic head of a system usually increases proportional to the square
of the flow rate.

System head — curve of the head required to satisfy both the static
head and the dynamic head for a range of flows in a given system.

Pump head — pressure the pump produces at its outlet. Centrifugal

pump heads can vary depending on the flow through the pump and is
also determined by the impeller speed and diameter.

Pump curve — characteristic curve of a pump showing the head-flow

relationship.

Operating point — intersection of the pump curve and system curve.

Water horsepower — energy output of the pump derived directly from

the outlet parameters.

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QHS
Water hp = -------------
3960
Where:
Q = Flow rate (gpm)
H = Pressure head (feet of water)
S = Specific gravity (water is 1.0)

Brake horsepower — horsepower required to operate the pump at a

specific point, and equals the water horsepower divided by the pump
efficiency.

Affinity laws — A set of formulas used to evaluate the operation of a

centrifugal pump at any operating point based on the original pump
characteristics:

Q1 N 1 H 1  N 1 2
-------- = ------- ------- =  -------
Q2 N 2 H 2  N 2

P1  N 1 2
------- =  -------
P2  N 2
Where:
N = Pump speed (rpm)
Q = Flow (gpm)
H = Pressure head (feet of water)
P = Power (hp)

Motors Introduction
DC motors are used in a wide variety of industrial applications when
adjustable speed operation is required.

A DC motor provides quick and efficient stopping through dynamic

or regenerative braking. Additionally, the speed of a DC motor can be
smoothly controlled down to zero RPM and then be immediately
accelerated in the opposite direction. The DC motor can also respond
quickly to control signals due to their high torque capability.

DC Motor Types
Following are the four basic types of DC motors and their operating
characteristics. It should be noted that the performance curves used
here to illustrate differences between the various types of motors are
those of motors connected to a pure DC power source (e.g. motor/
generator set). Always refer to the adjustable speed DC drive and
motor manufacturer’s specifications for speed and torque capabilities
under starting, continuous and overload conditions.

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Shunt-Wound
Shunt-wound motors have the armature connected in parallel across
the field winding. With constant armature voltage and field excitation,
the shunt-wound motor offers relatively flat speed-torque
characteristics. The shunt-wound motor offers simplified control for
reversing, especially for regenerative drives.

Compound-Wound
The compound-wound DC motor utilizes a field winding in series
with the armature in addition to the shunt field, to obtain a
compromise in performance between a series and a shunt wound type
motor. The compound-wound motor offers a combination of good
starting torque and speed stability.

Series-Wound
The series-wound motor has the armature connected in series with the
field. Although the series-wound motor offers high starting torque, it
has poor speed regulation. Series-wound motors are generally used on
low speed, very heavy loads.

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Permanent-Magnet
The permanent magnet motor has a conventional wound armature
with commutator and brushes, permanent-magnets replace the field
windings. This type of motor has excellent starting torque, with speed
regulation slightly less than that of the compound motor. Peak starting
torque is commonly limited to 150% of rated torque to avoid
demagnetizing the field poles.

Enclosures
The basic protective enclosures for DC motors are: dripproof (DP),
dripproof fully-guarded (DPFG), splashproof (SP), force ventilated
from either a separate source or integrally mounted blower and motor
(FV), totally enclosed nonventilated (TENV), totally enclosed fan-
cooled (TEFC), and totally enclosed unit-cooled (TEUC). The totally
enclosed motor can be provided in explosionproof construction but is
limited in horsepower ratings available.

Ventilation
The system for ventilating motors depends on the type of motor
enclosure. The dripproof motor is ventilated by means of a shaft-
mounted internal fan which draws air in the commutator bracket
openings, through the motor and out the back end bracket openings.
The same is true with the dripproof fully-guarded and splashproof
motors. When an integrally mounted blower and motor is supplied, it
is mounted to blow air into the commutator end bracket so that the air
flows from front to back. Since the internal fan is omitted from a
blower-ventilated or force-ventilated motor, it is possible to reverse
the air flow. In areas where the ambient temperature is too high or the
surrounding air is too dirty, fresh air can be supplied from an external
source through duct work that attaches directly to the motor end
bracket.
• Forced-Ventilation — provides constant cooling independent of
the motor shaft speed. It is used when motors must operate at full
torque for long periods at very low speeds (when a shaft-mounted
fan does not provide adequate cooling). When using a shaft-
mounted fan the air volume drops off as the speed is reduced. If
full torque (full current) is demanded at low speeds, the motor
may quickly overheat. As a rule of thumb, extra cooling is
required if full torque is demanded below 60% of the (DP)
motor’s rated base speed.

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• Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled — motors are ventilated over the

frame by means of an external shaft-mounted fan with a shroud to
direct the air. The fan is located at the front end of the motor.
Since there is no interchange of inside and outside air, this type is
better suited for dirty environments. The internal shaft-mounted
fan is retained to circulate air within the motor, thus reventing
localized hot spots. TEFC motors are normally available in
horsepower ratings to 75 HP (1750 RPM).
• Totally Enclosed Nonventilated — motors have only an internal
shaft-mounted fan to prevent hot spots within the motor. An
external fan is not supplied, making them suitable for applications
where a fan would become clogged and disabled. Totally
Enclosed motors dissipate heat through the motor frame, which
must be larger than a comparable dripproof motor to provide
adequate cooling. As a result, cooling ability becomes
independent of motor speed, making full torque available at very
low speeds. This type of cooling is suitable for small motors up to
approximately 71/2 HP. Above 71/2 HP, additional cooling is
required.
• Totally Enclosed Unit-Cooled — motors have an internal air path
through the motor, a heat exchanger, fan and suitable duct work.
The external air path is through the heat exchanger, the fan and
then exhausted downward over the motor frame. The fans for the
internal and external air are driven from an integrally mounted
AC motor. This is an efficient method of ventilating a totally
enclosed motor. It allows the use of frames smaller than necessary
for fan-cooled ratings and provides constant cooling independent
of motor shaft speed.
• Totally Enclosed Air-Over — motor is a type of totally enclosed
fan-cooled motor which is also ventilated by air blowing over the
frame from another source. The air may be supplied by a
integrally mounted blower and motor or from a separate source.
An air-over DC motor has constant cooling dependent of shaft
speed. In general, air-over motors still carry the same rating as
fan-cooled motors in the same frame size.

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The following table is a comparison of the maximum continuous

loading and relative cost for different motor enclosures (normal Class
F temperature rise). It should be noted that special motors are
available for broader speed/torque ranges.

% of Base Speed Comparative

Available at Price
Type HP Full Rated Torque (Multiplier)

DPFG 1/ to 400 100% down to 80% 1

8

TENV 1/ to 71/ 100% down to 5% 1.4 to 1.6

8 2

TEFC 11/2 to 75 100% down to 60% 1.4 to 1.6

TEUC 10 to 200 100% down to 60% 1.4 to 1.6

Blower Ventilated 3 to 200 100% down to 40% 1.1 to 1.4
Explosion-Proof 1/
to 200 100% down to 5% 2.2 to 2.4
8

Separately Ventilated 3 to 200 100% down to 5% 1.1

Splash Proof 3 to 200 100% down to 80% 1.1
Waterproof 3 to 200 100% down to 5% 1.5 to 1.7

Insulation
DC motor insulation must have mechanical as well as dielectric
strength. It must be able to withstand the thermal expansion and
contraction of the conducting parts which it is insulating and be
strong enough to withstand the normal handling necessary in the
assembly of the motor. It must also withstand the centrifugal and
electromagnetic forces on the conductors and possible mechanical
vibration. For long life, the insulation must be impervious to
moisture, oil, cleaning solvents, chemical fumes and dust of all kinds.
Great care is exercised in selecting the components of an insulation
system. The major classes of insulation are A, B, F, and H.

Class A is the lowest grade, suitable for some household appliances,

but not normally found in industry.

Class B is general purpose. More demanding duty requires Class F or

Class H, heavy duty insulation capable of withstanding high ambient
and internal motor temperatures. Class F insulation is presently the
industry standard.

Normal life expectancy of an insulation system is 10,000-15,000

hours, depending on temperature. Reducing the motor’s winding
temperature by 10°C will double the insulation life, while increasing
the temperature by 10°C cuts the expected life in half.

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Motor Selection
When selecting a DC motor and associated equipment for an
application, the following points should be considered:

Environment
The surrounding environment that the motor is to be operating in is a
prime concern. Conditions such as; ambient temperature, air supply,
the presence of gas, moisture or dust should all be considered when
choosing a motor.

Speed Range
The minimum and maximum speeds for the application will
determine the motor base speed.

Speed Variation
The allowable amount of speed variation should be considered. Does
it require constant speed at all torque values or will variation less than
2% be tolerated?

Torque Requirements
Determine the torque requirements at the various speeds.
Applications such as conveyors require constant torque, while others
such as centrifugal blowers, require torque to vary as the square of the
speed. Machine tools and winders are constant horsepower, with
torque decreasing as the speed increases. Thus, the speed-torque
relationship determines the most economical motor. Refer to the
section entitled, Load Characteristics for further information.

Reversing (Armature or Field)

Reversing affects the power supply, control and motor. Motors with
series compound and series stabilizing windings should not be used if
full load torque is needed in both directions. The use of series fields in
these applications can cause a loss of approximately 7% torque in the
reverse direction due to opposing reaction of the series field.

Regeneration (Armature or Field)

The use of series compound or stabilizing windings with static
armature or field regenerative drives can cause a loss of
approximately 7% braking torque due to improper series field
interaction.

Duty Rating
Most DC motors carry one of three ratings:
• Continuous Duty — is applied to motors that will continuously
dissipate all the heat generated by internal motor losses without
exceeding rated temperature rise.
• Definite Time, Intermittent Duty — motor carry rated load for a
specified time without exceeding rated temperature rise.
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• Indefinite Time, Intermittent Duty — is usually associated with

some RMS load of a duty-cycle operation.

Peak Torque
The peak torque that a DC motor delivers is limited by that load at
which damaging commutation begins. Brush and commutator
damage depends on sparking severity and duration. Therefore, peak
torque depends on the duration and frequency of occurrence of the
overload. Peak torque is often limited by the maximum current that
the power supply can deliver.

Heating
The temperature of a DC motor is a function of ventilation and losses
in the motor. Losses such as core, shunt-field and brush-friction are
independent of the load and vary with speed and excitation. Losses in
the armature circuit are primarily dependent upon the load and the
current required to produce the desired torque. Operating self-
ventilated motors at reduced speeds may cause above normal
temperature rises. Derating or forced ventilation may be necessary to
achieve the rated torque output at reduced speeds.

AC Motors

Introduction
Allen-Bradley AC adjustable frequency drives operate with various
types of standard 60 Hz motors. In some cases the existing motor or
motor normally sized for a given fixed speed application can be
directly applied to a drive. The user must understand the nature of the
application in terms of the speed range, load characteristics and drive
requirements as they relate to the AC drive system. This allows proper
pairing of the motor and controller. It should be noted that the
performance curves used here to illustrate differences between
various types of motors are those of motors controlled by across the
line full voltage or other type starters. Always refer to the adjustable
frequency drive and motor manufacturer’s specifications for speed
and torque capabilities under starting, continuous and overload
conditions.

AC Motor Types
AC motors can be divided into two main types: induction and
synchronous.

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Induction Motors
The induction motor is the simplest and most rugged of all electric
motor. The three most popular types of AC induction motors are;
polyphase, wound-rotor and single-phase.

Polyphase
The polyphase motor is divided into four classifications according to
NEMA. The four classifications or designs are determined by the
locked rotor torque and current, breakdown torque, pull-up torque and
the percent slip. The speed-torque curve and characteristics of each
design are as follows:

• Design A — motors have a higher breakdown torque than Design

B motors and are normally designed for a specific use. The slip is
usually 5% or less.

• Design B — motors are a general purpose type motor and

account for the largest share of induction motors sold. The slip of
a Design B motor is approximately 3-5% or less.

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• Design C — motors have a high starting torque with a normal

starting current and low slip. The Design C motor is usually used
where breakaway loads are high at starting, but are normally run
at rated full load, and are not subject to high overload demands
after running speed has been reached. The slip of the Design C
motor is 5% or less.

• Design D — motors have high slip, high starting torque, low

starting current and low full load speed. Because of the high
amount of slip, the speed can drop if fluctuation loads are
encountered. The slip of this type motor is approximately 5 to
13%.

Wound-Rotor Motors
The wound-rotor motor allows controllable speed and torque over the
conventional induction motor. Wound-rotor motors are generally
started with a secondary resistance in the rotor. As the resistance is
reduced, the motor will come up to speed. Thus the motor can
develop substantial torque while limiting the locked rotor current. The
secondary resistance can be designed for continuous service to
dissipate heat produced by continuous operation at reduced speed,
frequent acceleration or acceleration with a large inertia load.
External resistance gives the motor a characteristic that results in a
large drop in RPM for a small change in load. Reduced speed is
provided down to approximately 50% rated speed with low efficiency.

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Single-Phase Motors
Single-phase motors are most commonly found in the fractional
horsepower range with some integral sizes available. The most
common single-phase motors are listed below.

• Shaded-Pole — motors have a low starting torque and are

available only in fractional horsepower sizes. The slip of a
shaded-pole motor is 10% or more at rated load.
• Split-Phase — motors have low or moderate starting torque and
are limited in size to about 1/3 horsepower.
• Capacitor-Start — motors produce greater locked rotor and
accelerating torque than the split-phase motor and are available in
sizes ranging from fractional to 10 horsepower.
• Split-Capacitor — motors are similar to the capacitor-start motor
but produce a higher power factor ratio.

Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors operate at synchronism with the line frequency
and are inherently constant-speed motors without sophisticated
electronic control. The two most common types of synchronous
motors are nonexcited and DC-excited. When applied to applications,
the synchronous motor, typically, provides up to 140% of rated
torque. When controlled by an adjustable frequency controller,
provisions for volts per hertz adjustments should be provided for
setting optimum performance.

Nonexcited Motors
These motors use a self-starting circuit and require no external
excitation. Reluctance, hysteresis and permanent-magnet design
motors are the three main types of nonexcited motors available.

• Reluctance — designs have horsepower ratings that range from

subfractional to about 30 HP. The subfractional motors have low
torque, while the integral motors have moderate torque.
• Hysteresis — designs are made in the subfractional horsepower
ratings and are primarily used a timing and servomotors.
Hysteresis motors are more costly than the reluctance type and
are used when precise constant speed is a requirement.
• Permanent-Magnet — motors are becoming increasingly popular
in the fractional and lower integral horsepower ranges of 1/4 to 5
HP. The permanent-magnet motor has relatively high efficiency
and power factor.

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DC-Excited Motors
These motors require direct-current supplied through slip rings for
excitation. Because DC-excited motors have inherent low starting
torque and require a DC power source, a starting system providing
full motor protection is needed. The starting system must apply the
DC field excitation at the proper time, remove field excitation at rotor
pull-out, and protect the windings against thermal damage under out-
of-step conditions.

Enclosure
The totally enclosed nonventilated enclosure (described in the DC
Motor section) is the most common type of enclosure found on AC
motors. Additionally, many of the remaining enclosures normally
used for DC motors can also be used for AC motors. Described below
are the: pipe ventilated, weather-protected, totally enclosed water-air-
cooled, totally enclosed air-to-air-cooled and totally enclosed water-
cooled enclosures. It should be noted that many of the enclosures
mentioned can be found on DC as well as AC motors.

Ventilation
As described for DC motors, the system for ventilation depends on
the motor enclosure. The Pipe-Ventilated motor is available in an
open or totally enclosed type of enclosure and is used in very dirty
environments. Ventilating air (supplied by the customer) enters and
exits the motor through inlet and outlet ducts or pipes. The air is then
circulated by means either integral or external to the motor. The pipe-
ventilated motor is the most economical totally enclosed type of
enclosure.

The Pipe-Ventilated Weather-Protected motor uses and open type

enclosure for ventilation. The motor is constructed to minimize the
entrance of rain, snow and airborne particles to the electrical parts of
the motor. External air is circulated through the motor for cooling.

The Pipe-Ventilated Totally Enclosed Air-to-Air-Cooled and Totally

Enclosed Water Air-Cooled enclosures are normally used on high
horsepower motors that generate large amounts of heat. A heat
exchanger is used for both types to remove the heat generated by the
motor. An AC motor driven blower circulates air through the
windings and heat exchanger tubes. The heat in the heat exchanger is
removed by either an external air system (air-to-air) or water provided
by the user (water-air-cooled).

The Pipe-Ventilated Totally Enclosed Water-Cooled Motor is cooled

by circulating water. The water or water conductors come in direct
contact with the motor parts.

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AC Motor Selection
When selecting an AC motor and associated equipment for an
application, the following points should be considered:

Environment
The environment in which the motor operates is a prime concern.
Conditions such as: ambient temperature, air supply, the presence of
gas, moisture or dust should all be considered when choosing a motor.

Speed Range
The minimum and maximum speeds for the application will
determine the motor base speed.

Speed Variation
The allowable amount of speed variation should be considered. Does
it require constant speed at all torque values or will variations be
tolerated?

Torque Requirements
The starting torque and running torque should both be considered
when selecting a motor. Starting torque requirements can vary from a
small percentage of the full load to a value several times full-load
torque. The starting torque varies because of a change in load
conditions or mechanical nature of the machine. The motor torque
supplied to the driven machine must be more than that required from
start to full speed. The greater the excess torque, the more rapid the
acceleration.

Acceleration
The necessary acceleration time should be considered. Acceleration
time is directly proportional to the total inertia and inversely
proportional to the torque.

Deceleration
The necessary deceleration time should be considered. Dynamic
braking or external mechanical braking may be required to achieve
stopping times.

Duty Cycle
Selecting the proper motor depends on whether the load is steady,
varies, follows a repetitive cycle of variation or has pulsating torques.
The duty cycle which is defined as a fixed repetitive load pattern over
a given period of time is expressed as the ratio of on-time to the cycle
period. When the operating cycle is such that the motor operates at
idle or a reduced load for more than 25% of the time, the duty cycle
becomes a factor in selecting the proper motor.

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Heating
The temperature of an AC motor is a function of ventilation and
losses in the motor. Losses such as operating self-ventilated motors at
reduced speeds may cause above normal temperature rises. Derating
or forced ventilation may be necessary to achieve the rated torque
output at reduced speeds.

Basic Mechanics Introduction

In order to apply AC or DC drives, certain mechanical parameters
must be taken into consideration. The following section explains what
these parameters are and how to calculate or measure them.

Torque
Torque is the action of a force producing or tending to produce
rotation. Unlike work (which only occurs during movement) torque
may exist even though no movement or rotation occurs.

Torque consists of a force (lb) acting upon a length of a lever arm (ft).
The product of these two factors produces the term lb-ft which is the
unit of measurement for torque. Mathematically, it is expressed as:

Equation 4
Torque (lb-ft.) = Force (lbs.) × Distance (ft.)

Figure 27
Calculating Torque

Note: The term ft-lb. is the unit of measurement for work.

Because most power transmission is based upon rotating elements,

torque is important as a measurement of the effort required to produce
work.

352 Allen-Bradley