THE ANNALS OF UNIVERSITY “DUNĂREA DE JOS “ OF GALAŢI 61

FASCICLE VIII, 2006 (XII), ISSN 1221-4590

TRIBOLOGY

HYSTERESIS AND MECHANICAL FATIGUE

Gheorghe FRUNZĂ, Emanuel N. DIACONESCU
University ”Stefan cel Mare” of Suceava, Romania
frunza@fim.usv.ro

ABSTRACT
The material dumping, known also as inner friction or, simply hysteresis, is
considered to be related to energy dissipation in the volume of a macro-continuous
medium. This phenomenon takes place when a more or less homogeneous volume of
material is subjected to cyclic stresses of constant amplitude. The dumping
mechanism is usually associated with material microstructure. Hysteresis can be
obtained theoretically within an elastic-plastic model, when fixing dynamic stress
and deriving strain response.
This paper shows theoretical and experimental results obtained in the
investigation and leads to discussions and conclusions of practical applicability.

KEYWORDS: Hysteresis, fatigue, stress-strain, elastic-plastic.

1. INTRODUCTION σ, and shear stress, τ, loads. Practically, these

materials display hysteresis even in elastic range [1].
Perfect elastic materials possess an ideal linear Analysis of hysteresis loop configuration depen-
stress-strain characteristic (fig. 1a). A cyclic stress ding on the number of load cycles for fixed stresses
generates a strain in these materials which is above elasticity limit forms the object of the current
cyclically variable and in phase with the stress, figure paper.
1b. Inelasticity is always present although very fine
measurements are required to detect it. As a result of ρ,δ ρ,δ
inelasticity, a phase shift occurs between strain and ρ ρ
stress. In stress-strain coordinates, the geometrical ρ
locus of operational point becomes a closed loop, δ t δ t δ
∆ϕ
known as hysterezis loop. 2ρ
Since materials absorb elastic energy under 2δ ∆ϕ
cyclic stress, the unloading curve is always situated a b
underneath the loading curve, the hysteresis loop
configuration depending on the inelasticity type. The Fig. 1. Hysteresis history.
area of the surface enclosed within the hysteresis loop
always equals the amount of energy dissipated in the NOMENCLATURE
material upon one loading-unloading cycle. ε (t ) - linear strain;
This loop evolves with the number of stress γ (t ) - angular strain;
cycles and may offer useful information upon the
material state. Theoretical and experimental δ ( t ) - general strain, δ ( t ) = [ε (t ), γ (t ) ] ;
investigation of this dependence is the main task of η - coefficient of viscosity in shear stress;
this paper. λ - coefficient of conventional viscosity in normal
Hysteresis variation is clearly highlighted upon stress, λ = 3η ;
modification of test parameters for various load
cycles. This shows the fact that time variation of ρ (t ) - general stress, ρ (t ) = [σ (t ),τ (t ) ] ;
material load causes increase in fatigue, decrease in σ (t ) - normal stress; τ (t ) - shear stress;
mechanical strength and, implicitly, modification of ω - angular frequency;
hysteresis loop. Consequently, the hysteresis loop H - general coefficient of viscosity, H = [λ ,η ] ;
may yield information on fatigue degree, as well as a
stress-strain characteristic curve. E - Young’s modulus; G - shear modulus;
Theoretically, bearing steels are considered to K - general modulus, where K = [ E , G ] ;
have a linear characteristic both under normal stress, t – time;
tr - relaxation time, tr = H K .
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FASCICLE VIII, 2006 (XII), ISSN 1221-4590
TRIBOLOGY

2. HYSTERESIS AND HYSTERESIS ρ ( t ) = A sin( ωt );

LOOP
Upon stress comprised within perfectly elastic
and linear range, the strain variation curve is perfectly
superimposed over stress variation curve, the two
being connected by perfectly linear dependence, and
strain and stress are cophasal with respect to time [2].
Under cyclic load, linear dependence only holds
for the initial stage. After a number of cycles, after the
first plastic microdeformations, the material behaves
visco-elastically and nonlinearity of stress-strain
curve appears, resulting in phase shift between the
two components and closed hysteresis loop in ρ-δ
coordinates (ρ–stress={σ, τ}; δ–strain={ε, γ}) [3].
Hysteresis can be obtained theoretically within
an elastic-plastic model, when fixing dynamic stress
and deriving strain response,
(1)
δ ( t ) = A sin( ωt + ϕ ),
where ϕ stands for phase shift between stress and
strain.
In order to illustrate hysteresis numerically, a
rheological model will be accepted, and the strain
response is to be determined under imposed cyclic
stress variation. Differential equations and strain
response for the rheological model mentioned above
are presented in table 1.
Hysteresis loop is obtained by representing the
two harmonic functions ρ(t) and δ(t) as defined by
equations (1). Combining the two harmonic functions
yields a numerical result of type f ( ρ ,δ ) = 0 ,
evidenced in table 1.
Hysteresis loops may obviously be determined
using other complex models, which may be closer to
experimental results.

Table 1. Rheological model

Specification Figures and equations
H

F F
Model vasco-elasto- K
plastic

Diferential equation ρ + ρ 0 = K δ + H δ
Cyclic stress variation ρ ( t ) = ρ0 sin( ωt )
ρ0   t 
δ(t ) = 2 2 
sin( ωt ) − tr ω cos( ωt ) + ωtr exp  −   , when ρ < ρ0
Strain response K( 1 + ω tr )   tr  
ρ0 ρ0  ω tr   t  ρ < ρ0
δ(t ) = [ sin( ω t ) − tr ω cos( ω t )] +  
exp  −  , when
H ( 1 + ω 2 t r2 ) K  1 + ω 2 t r2   tr 
t ( i)

8
4 .10

8
Hysteresis numerical 2 .10
elastic
ρ ( i) 0

8
2 .10

8
4 .10
5 5 5 5
8
4 .10

8
2 .10
Hysteresis numerical
elastic-plastic ρ ( i) 0

8
2 .10

8
4 .10
0 0.005 0.01 0.015
δ( i)
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FASCICLE VIII, 2006 (XII), ISSN 1221-4590
TRIBOLOGY

In order to understand damping phenomena it is 8

2 .10
necessary to present the inelastic behaviour types that
are likely to appear in practice. Inelasticity refers to
any kind of deviation from perfect linear elasticity, 8
1.5 .10
irrespective of its nature. Generally, there are four
types of inelastic behaviour, such as those that are
velocity-dependent and velocity-independent, both of τ 1 .10
8
which comprising reversible and irreversible
deformations [4].
7
5 .10
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Hysteresis is obviously dependent on the 0
6 5
loading type, i.e. static or dynamic; consequently we 0 5 .10 1 .10
γ
shall differentiate between static and dynamic
hysteresis.
Fig. 3. Experimental hysteresis under static
Static hysteresis is generated using two main
conditions by shear stresses, τ [Pa].
mechanisms, that is magnetoelasticity and plastic
deformation. This type of hysteresis implies stress-
Dynamic hysteresis depends on speed and
strain correlations that are independent on time, load
refers to the properties of the material, the
speed, deformation speed, or other derivatives. In a
characteristic of which can be described by a
material where static hysteresis is predominant, stress
differential equation comprising stress, strain, and
value is yielded almost instantaneously for each value
their derivatives with respect to time. Hysteresis loop
of stress and load history, irrespective of the load
area resulting from the dynamic character of the load
speed. Hysteresis loop configuration is independent
is frequency-dependent.
of frequency. In viscoelastic materials, static
Internal friction in metals under low stress is
hysteresis is null.
generally independent of stress amplitude or number
In many practical applications, speed
of cycles under fatigue load, but often displays sharp
dependency is observed, with damping-frequency
peaks for certain frequency and temperature critical
characteristic relaxation peaks. As stress increases
states. Each of these peaks, called frequency loss
toward the fatigue limit, both amplitude and
factors, may be associated with a physical mechanism
nonlinearity increase. In this range, nonlinear
acting in the material under cyclic stress, so that it
damping is associated not only with plastic
should yield maximum energy dissipation under
deformation effects but also with load anamnesis.
certain optimal conditions. These mechanisms may
In order to highlight hysteresis under static load
generally be expressed by relaxation peaks and
for bearing steels, by normal, σ, and shear, τ, stresses,
relaxation time.
a series of tests was conducted using machines that
Micromechanisms responsible for a certain type
were designed and built within the Mechanical
of speed-dependent nonlinear damping are identified
Engineering Department at the University of Suceava,
by such terms as plastic glides, localised plastic
[1, 5]. Experimental results obtained under the above-
deformation, crystalline plasticity, cyclic plastic flow,
mentioned conditions are presented in figures 2 and 3.
or dislocation movement.
Many of the mechanisms concerned with plastic
deformation are not yet sufficiently clarified and,
7
8 .10 thus, the processes involved in various inelastic
behaviours are termed, generically, plastic
7 deformation damping. Cyclic plastic deformation is
6 .10
generally large as compared to an elastic deformation,
even when the material is loaded considerably below
σ 4 .10
7 the apparent elasticity limit.
In fact, hysteresis is present in all engineering
7
materials. It is difficult to observe using conventional
2 .10 methods, but it can be evinced by high precision
measurements.
0
In order to explain the mechanical hysteresis
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 phenomenon in dynamic conditions, an experimental
ε set-up has been used, as shown in figure 4, allowing
for measuring the phase shift between strain and
Fig. 2. Experimental hysteresis under static deformation. Further detail of experimental set-up is
conditions by normal stresses, σ [Pa]. given in papers [5, 6].
64 THE ANNALS OF UNIVERSITY “DUNĂREA DE JOS “ OF GALAŢI
FASCICLE VIII, 2006 (XII), ISSN 1221-4590
TRIBOLOGY

The simple construction test pieces, figure 5, are variation of this phase difference with the number of
extracted from bearing steel bars. Chemical stress cycles is to be expected (tables 3 and 4).
composition, heat treatment, and resulting hardness
φ8
are presented in table 2. R4 0,04

Table 2. Information on the employed tests pieces.

Symbol Chemical composition [%] HRC*
C Mn Cr
0.95-1,00 0.33… 1.30… 63.5 R4
E 1 121 15 15
0.38 1.35
*
Hardness after tempering and cooling heat treatment 90

By extension, the load-transfer mechanism in Fig. 5. Specimen for testes.

mechanical fatigue can be achieved by monitoring
hysteresis. As in the case of hysteresis loop, a

F Transducer
Signal generator PA1

SG PA Phasemeter
Specimen
PA2 F Conter cycles

Osciloscop

Computer A /D , D /A
Printer

Fig. 4. Dynamic condition hysteresis monitoring schematic.

Table 3. Hysteresis in tests for varying amplitude and fixed frequency.

169 200 177 200

150 150
y1 y1
i i

100 100

68 50 70 50
50 100 150 200 80 100 120 140 160 180
69 x1 168 91 x1 167
i i
N = 980 cycles N = 2500 cycles
176 200 220 250

200
150
150
y1 y1
i i
100
100
50

74 50 49 0
50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 250
87 x1 181 26 x1 212
i i
N = 5070 cycles N = 10000 cycles
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FASCICLE VIII, 2006 (XII), ISSN 1221-4590
TRIBOLOGY

Table 4. Hysteresis in tests for fixed amplitude and increasing frequency.

165 180 207 250

160 200

y1 y1
i 140 i 150

120 100

101 100 68 50
80 100 120 140 160 50 100 150 200
90 x1 141 51 x1 187
i i
N = 77100 cycles, ν = 1 Hz N = 78500 cycles, ν = 2 Hz
211 250 209 250

200 200

y1 y1
i 150 i 150

100
100

64 50 69 50
0 50 100 150 200
0 50 100 150 200
45 x1 195
i 48 x1 193
ν = 3 Hz
i
N = 79000 cycles, N = 81500 cycles, ν = 5 Hz

4. MECHANICAL HYSTERESIS A more rapid way to obtain the ρ-δ cyclic

CHARACTERISTIC DIAGRAM
Hysteresis loop size and its configuration
usually evolve in time. There are materials for which
cyclic stress results in hardening, there are others that
grow softer, and others - the cyclic stress
characteristics of which do not change [7]. For many
metallic materials hysteresis curves are approximately
symmetrical. For polymeric and composite materials,
these are generally asymmetrical.
Until stable, the hysteresis loop may shift. For
every cycle, the stress coordinate may either increase,
resulting in cyclic hardening, or decrease, resulting in
cyclic softening [2, 4].
Upon testing identical test pieces, in alternately
symmetric cycles, for each test piece δa=constant, but
having different values from one test piece to another.
Hysteresis loops are obtained such as those presented
in figure 6. The locus of hysteresis loop peaks
represents the ρ-δ characteristic diagram.
ρ ρ−δ diagram
δ
ο In the latter case, amplitude was fixed at such a
Fig. 6. ρ-δ characteristic diagram obtained for
mechanical hysteresis.
diagram is loading the same test piece in increasing
strain steps until stabilised hysteresis loops are drawn.
The return point of every loop is noted, finally
resulting in the cyclic diagram. Another process is
loading the test piece so that strain should grow
incrementally from zero to a maximum value, after
which the reverse procedure is applied. Stabilised
hysteresis loops and cyclic diagram are thus obtained.
If ρ-δ cyclic diagram is located underneath the
static diagram, cyclic softening has been produced
and if it is above, cyclic hardening. In other cases
mixed behaviour may be obtained and if the
difference between the two diagrams is small, we
may say there is cyclic stability [2]. In producing the
characteristic curve, bearing steel test pieces were
used, table 2, submitted to tests performed under
dynamic conditions by adding simple loads, such as
torsion. The tests have been performed under the
following conditions:
– constant frequency and varying amplitude;
– constant amplitude and varying frequency.
In the former case, frequency was fixed at 0.5
Hz, the amplitude being increased by one scale unit
every thousand cycles, from the lowest value to the
established maximum value and then decreased down
to the initial value. Some of the results obtained under
these circumstances are presented in figure 7.
value that the test piece should be loaded within the
elastic range and frequency was increased and
decreased in the interval 0.5…12 Hz, in various
loading cycles. Some of the results are presented in
figure 8.
In both cases the data were recorded after a pre-
established number of cycles according to the
experimental procedure presented in paper [1].
66 THE ANNALS OF UNIVERSITY “DUNĂREA DE JOS “ OF GALAŢI
FASCICLE VIII, 2006 (XII), ISSN 1221-4590
TRIBOLOGY
Fig. 7. Hysteresis variation under torsion load for
increasing amplitude and constant frequency.
Fig. 8. Mechanical hysteresis for torsion load,
constant frequency ν = 0.5...12Hz , and
decreasing amplitude.
5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The experimental results presented above show
the influence on the hysteresis curve of varying fre-
quency stress as compared to that of varying ampli-
tude stress. Hysteresis variation is clearly highlighted
under parameter modification in various stress cycles.
Theoretically, it was considered that steels have linear
characteristic within elastic range when subjected to
simple static loads (pull, compression, pure bending,
pure torsion). Practically, these materials manifest
hysteresis even in elastic range, which was studied
and evinced in the present paper.
Experimental above-presented results reflect the
influence of varying amplitude load on the hysteresis
loop, as compared to the influence of varying
frequency. Hysteresis variation is clearly highlighted
upon modification of test parameters for various load
cycles. This shows the fact that time variation of
material load causes increase in fatigue, decrease in
mechanical strength and, implicitly, modification of
hysteresis loop. Consequently, the hysteresis loop
may yield information on fatigue degree, figure 9.
This proves that tribomaterial stress variation with
time results in the increase of fatigue degree, the
decrease of mechanical strength, and, implicitly,
modification of hysteresis loop.
Fig. 9. Connection between hysteresis loop
configuration and fatigue curve.
Tribomaterial solids feature hysteresis
phenomenon even within the elastic range of loading.
This phenomenon is influenced by a series of factors,
such as type of load, non-homogeneity degree, the
load conditions, initial strain, optional factors and
others. The results of the experiment show hysteresis
variation when test parameters are modified over
various load cycles. Actually, the hysteresis loop may
represent an indication of the tribomaterial behaviour
under various conditions.
Consequently, the present paper provides
information that can be used in developing intelligent
tribomaterials.
REFERENCES
1. Frunza Gh., Diaconescu E.N., Cerlinca D., 1996, Hysteresis in
ball bearing steel subjected to torsion or bending, VAREHD-8,
Suceava, Romania, pp. 147-162.
2. Diaconescu E.N., Glovnea M., Frunza Gh., 1996, Can Metals
Subjected to Mechanical Fatigue Exhibit a Smart Feature, The
Seconds Seminar on Smart Materials and Structures, Suceava,
Romania, pp. 105-116.
3. Diaconescu E.N., Frunza G., Glovnea M., 1997, A Smart Way
to Predict the Final Stage of Fatigue in Steels, Smart 3, Kosice,
Slovakia, pp. 68-77.
4. Frunza Gh., 2005, Elemente de Plasticitate şi Mecanica Ruperii,
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