Mech Time-Depend Mater (2012) 16:307–316

DOI 10.1007/s11043-011-9163-8

Analysis of a delayed fracture criterion for lifetime

prediction of viscoelastic polymer materials

Rui Miranda Guedes

Received: 7 June 2011 / Accepted: 26 October 2011 / Published online: 26 November 2011
© Springer Science+Business Media, B. V. 2011

Abstract In this work a multi-axial yield/failure model for viscoelastic/plastic materials is

applied, which was developed by Naghdi and Murch (in J. Appl. Mech. 30:321–328, 1963)
and later extended and refined by Crochet (in J. Appl. Mech. 33:327–334, 1966), to predict
long-term creep rupture of polymers. The criterion defines a function, which depends on
time, the viscoelastic properties and applied stress, to establish an empirical law with creep
yield (fracture). In this work a linear relationship is proposed, defined as a time-dependent
failure criterion, which can be applied for extrapolation purposes. A comparative analysis
using energy-based failure criteria is performed. It is proved, for the polymers considered in
this study, that the proposed time-dependent failure criterion holds for long times. Experi-
mental data are used to illustrate the applicability of this time-dependent failure criterion.

Keywords Creep · Polymer · Creep-rupture · Viscoelastic · Failure criterion

1 Introduction

The use of fiber-reinforced polymers in civil construction applications originated structures

with a high specific stiffness and strength. Although these structures usually present a high
mechanical performance, their strength and stiffness may decay significantly over time. This
is mainly due to the viscoelastic nature of the matrix, damage accumulation and propagation
within the matrix and fiber breaking. One serious consequence, as a result of static fatigue
(creep failure), is a premature failure which is usually catastrophic. However in civil en-
gineering applications, the structural components are supposed to remain in service for 50
years or more in safety conditions.
Usually the strength theories do not include creep to yield or creep to rupture process.
Since the stress-strain analysis is based on Continuum Mechanics, it presents a difficulty
with predicting failure in general and creep failure in particular of polymers and polymer

R.M. Guedes ()

Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica, Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr.
Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: rmguedes@fe.up.pt
308 Mech Time-Depend Mater (2012) 16:307–316

matrix based composites. Fracture Mechanics and Damage Mechanics include the distri-
bution of defects into continuum models, which allow time-dependent failure prediction.
Energy-based failure criteria provide another possible approach. For example, establishing
that the energy accumulated in the springs of the viscoelastic mechanical model, designated
as free energy, has a limit value. This limit can be or not constant. Earlier approaches for
the prediction of time-dependent failures provide explicit elementary equations to predict
lifetime (Guedes 2004).
In this work a time-dependent failure law to predict creep lifetime of polymer materials
will be discussed. The proposed approach is based on a multi-axial yield/failure model de-
veloped for viscoelastic/plastic materials by Naghdi and Murch (1963) and later extended
and refined by Crochet (1966). The criterion defines a function, which depends on time, the
viscoelastic properties and applied stress, to establish a relationship with creep yield (frac-
ture). This function can be used to predict the long-term creep failure by extrapolation. An
exponential law was originally proposed by Crochet (1966) without any further explana-
tion. In this work a linear relationship is proposed, with a brief physical justification. The
postulated relationship can be considered a time-dependent failure criterion. Comparative
analysis using energy-based failure criteria is performed. It is proved that the postulated lin-
ear relationship may be employed to obtain good creep lifetime predictions. Experimental
data are used to illustrate the applicability of the proposed time-dependent failure criterion.

2 The Crochet model (time-dependent yielding model)

A multi-axial yield/failure model for viscoelastic/plastic materials was developed by Naghdi

and Murch (1963) and later extended and refined by Crochet (1966). This approach was
reviewed by Brinson (1999). In this theory, the total strain is assumed to be the sum of the
viscoelastic and plastic strains. Stresses and strains are separated into elastic and viscoelastic
deviatoric and dilatational components. The yield function is given as
   
f σij , εij p , χij , κij = 0 and χij = χij εij V − εij E , (1)
where σij is the stress tensor, εij p is the plastic strain tensor and κij is a strain hardening
tensor. The tensor χij is a time-dependent function which depends on the viscoelastic strains.
Crochet gave a specific form to the function χij in a scalar form:
  
χ = εij V − εij E εij V − εij E , (2)
and defined a time-dependent yield function for uniaxial tension as (empirical equation)
σy (t) = A + Be−Cχ , (3)
where A, B and C are material constants. No additional explanation for this empirical equa-
tion was given by Crochet (1966). Assuming a linear viscoelastic law given by the power
law, the creep strain, under σ (t) = σ0 , can be calculated as
 n
t
ε(t) = D0 σ (t) + D1 σ0 , (4)
τ0
where D0 , D1 , n are material constants; and τ0 represents the time unity (equal to 1 second
or 1 hour or 1 day, etc.). The difference between viscoelastic and elastic strains in creep
loading conditions becomes
  n 2
 V 2 t
ε11 − ε11 E = D1 σ0 , (5)
τ0
Mech Time-Depend Mater (2012) 16:307–316 309

Fig. 1 Standard model

and the lateral strains become, upon assuming a constant Poisson’s ratio υ,
  n  2
 V 2  2 t
ε22 − ε22 E = ε33 V − ε33 E = υ 2 D1 σ0 , (6)
τ0
The function, χ , in Crochet’s time-dependent yield criteria for uniaxial tension now becomes
  n 
t
χ = 1 + 2υ D1 2 σ0 . (7)
τ0
Substituting this result into (3), an expression for the time to yield, tc , for a linear viscoelastic
material can be found:
  1/n
tc 1 1 B
= √ ln , (8)
τ0 Cσf D1 1 + 2υ 2 σf − A
where the symbol σf is used, instead of σy , to indicate that the process may be used as well
for creep rupture.
Since the relationship between yield (or failure) stress and χ is empirical, the suggested
form given by Crochet, (3), can be questioned.

3 A new approach to the Crochet time-dependent failure criterion

The creep failure phenomenon can be viewed as a consequence of strength decay due to
the viscoelastic effect. As creep strain progress, the strength gradually decreases. A global
measure of creep strain can be effectively given by the scalar function χ . The resulting value
is equivalent to a creep strain. It is clear that for the uniaxial case, assuming that Poisson’s
ratio remains
√ constant, χ becomes proportional to the uniaxial transient strain due to creep,
i.e., χ = 1 + 2υ 2 ε v .
For the elastic case, the failure stress is simply given by σf = σR where σR is a stress
limit, i.e. the instantaneous failure stress. However, in case of a viscoelastic material, given
enough time, internal stress is accumulated due to the viscous strain. For illustration pur-
poses, let us consider the standard model given by Fig. 1.
The strain response for this model is given by the following single-integral law:
t  ∂σ (t)
ε(t) = D0 σ (t) + D1 1 − e−λ(t−τ ) dτ. (9)
0 ∂τ
In the case of creep loading, i.e. σ (t) = σ0 , the total strain is given by
 
ε(t) = D0 σ0 + D1 1 − e−λt σ0 . (10)
Hence the internal stress accumulated due to the viscous strain is given by
ε1 (t)
σi v (t) = , i.e.
D1 (11)
 
σi v (t) = 1 − e−λt σ0 .
310 Mech Time-Depend Mater (2012) 16:307–316

If we postulate that when failure takes place the sum of applied stress and the internal stress
accumulated by viscous strain remains constant, the following relationship is obtained:
σ0 + σi v (t) = σR . (12)
For the standard model, given enough time, σi (t) → σ0 . Hence creep failure is avoided if
v

σ0 < σR /2. This appears to be the case of some polymers as documented by Teoh et al.
(1992).
In general cases it can be assumed that the internal stress due to the viscous strain is given
by
σi v (t) = Ei χ , (13)
where Ei represents the internal stiffness associated to the viscous component of material.
Therefore the relationship between the time-dependent uniaxial yield (or failure) function
and χ becomes linear, given by
σf (t) = σR − Ei χ , (14)
where σR and Ei are material constants to be determined experimentally. Substituting this
into (7) the creep lifetime expression becomes
 1
tf 1 σR − σf n
= √ . (15)
τ0 Ei D1 1 + 2υ 2 σf
This expression resembles the lifetime formulations obtained for energy-based time-
dependent failure criteria (Guedes 2004). The main difference is the explicit exclusion of
the elastic modulus (1/D0 ) from the lifetime formula. This is, of course, dictated by the
theoretical approach used by Naghdi and Murch (1963), which implies a different physical
interpretation. However, as will be discussed, Ei is somehow related with elastic modulus.
From now on this approach will be designated as PT (Present Theory).

4 Energy-based time-dependent failure criteria

The energy-based time-dependent failure criteria establish simple relationships between the
material properties and the lifetime for uniaxial creep loading. Thus lifetime under con-
stant load is predict as a function of the applied load σf , the strength under instantaneous
condition σR and the viscoelastic properties. For instance the Reiner–Weissenberg Criterion
(R–W), gives Guedes (2004)
   1/n  1/n  2 
tf 1 D0 σR − σf 2 1/n
= . (16)
τ0 2 − 2n D1 σf 2
For comparison purposes, let us calculate the correspondent time-dependent function at fail-
ure, χ , using Crochet’s definition,
    2  
1 D0 σR − σf 2
χ = 1 + 2υ 2 D1 σf
2 − 2n D1 σf 2
1 σR 2 − σf 2
= 1 + 2υ 2 D0 . (17)
2−2 n σf
This leads to the following expression:
1 ω 1
σf = χ 2 ω2 + 4σR 2 − χ , with ω= √ . (18)
2 2 1 + 2υ 2 ( 2−2
1
n )D0
Mech Time-Depend Mater (2012) 16:307–316 311

The relationship between time-dependent uniaxial yield (or failure) and χ , for the Reiner–
Weissenberg Criterion (R–W), is given by a quadratic equation. The parameters depend on
the elastic properties (σR , D0 , υ).
For other energy-based criteria the same analysis can be preformed. For example for
Modified Reiner–Weissenberg Criterion (MR–W) (Guedes 2004),
   1/n  1/n  
tf 1 D0 σR − σf 1/n
= . (19)
τ0 2 − 2n D1 σf
The correspondent time-dependent factor at failure,χ , using Crochet’s definition, becomes
1 σR − σf
χ = 1 + 2υ 2 D0 . (20)
2 − 2n σf
This leads to the following relationship:
1
σf = σR − ωχ , with ω = √ . (21)
1 + 2υ 2 ( 1
2−2n
)D0
In this case, the relationship between time-dependent uniaxial yield (or failure) and χ , for
the Modified Reiner–Weissenberg Criterion (MR–W), is given by a linear equation. Still the
parameters depend on the elastic properties (σR , D0 , υ).
Although the energy-based failure criteria lead to different relationships between the
time-dependent uniaxial yield (or failure) and χ , these are linear or quadratic relationships
with resemblance to the PT lifetime expression give by (15).
On the other hand it can be concluded that the parameter ω, which is comparable to the
parameter Ei from PT, depends on the elastic properties.

5 Materials

The purpose of this section is to give several practical examples that show the applicabil-
ity of the time-dependent failure criterion, for creep lifetime prediction. These examples
gather three thermoplastic polymers, polyamide (or nylon), polycarbonate, polysulfone and
a thermosetting epoxy used for technical applications.
The experimental results for thermoplastics, taken from Moulding Powders Group
(1974), Challa and Progelhof (1995), Krastev et al. (2009), Zhang and Brinson (1986),
are used to illustrate the present discussion. The materials examined were polyamide 66
(Nylon 66 A100) unfilled, polyamide 66 filled with 30% of glass fiber (Nylon 66 A190)
(Moulding Powders Group 1974), polycarbonate (PC Lexan 141) (Challa and Progelhof
1995), epoxy resin (COM1) (Krastev et al. 2009) and polysulfone (Zhang and Brinson
1986). These materials were chosen for two reasons; firstly they are already characterized in
terms of creep and creep rupture; secondly, as Gotham (1972) demonstrated experimentally,
the Nylon 66 A100 and PC Lexan 141 have a ductile failure and Nylon 66 A190 has a brittle
failure, at room temperature. The polysulfone first yielded but failed almost immediately
(Zhang and Brinson 1986).
Considering that the materials behavior is linear viscoelastic, which is an approximation
for the higher stress levels, the material parameters were determined for the power law model
given by (4) and presented in Table 1.
Yet, the linear viscoelastic behavior assumption did not hold for the last two materials,
epoxy resin and polysulfone. For these cases the viscoelastic parameter D1 becomes stress
dependent,
D1 (σ ) = 0.00000002692σ 2 − 0.000000004161σ (1/MPa)(Epoxy),
(22)
D1 (σ ) = 0.000001278σ 3.394 (1/MPa)(Polysulfone).
312 Mech Time-Depend Mater (2012) 16:307–316

6 Results and discussion

For all cases it was plotted the evolution of creep failure stress versus χ function. In this
manner it becomes possible to conclude about the proposed time-dependent failure crite-
rion. The experimental data were previously obtained for the thermoplastics, polyamide 66
(Nylon 66 A100) unfilled, polyamide 66 filled with 30% of glass fiber (Nylon 66 A190)
(Moulding Powders Group 1974), polycarbonate (PC Lexan 141) (Challa and Progelhof
1995), thermosetting epoxy resin (COM1) (Krastev et al. 2009) and polysulfone (Zhang and
Brinson 1986), all at room temperature. The evolution of creep failure stress with χ function
is plotted in Figs. 2–6. The linear relationship, given by 14, was fitted to the initial 24–48h
experimental data (short-term).
The open squares represent the experimental data used to obtain the failure parame-
ters; the remaining experimental data were represented by solid squares. These results show
that the linear relationship between the creep stress and the function χ at failure is an ad-
equate time-dependent failure criterion. Indeed the evolution appears to be linear for all
cases. Moreover, the extrapolation for the long-term is in a good agreement with experi-
mental data, as depicted in Figs. 2–6. Additionally the parameter Ei is always a fraction of
the elastic modulus, i.e. between 0.2 and 0.9 of 1/D0 , as indicated in Table 1.
In Figs. 7–11 are plotted the energy-based failure criteria lifetime predictions, for com-
parison. It can be concluded that the present time-dependent failure criterion (PT), based on
Crochet’s model, always provides the best prediction.
In Table 2 a comparison is established between experimental data and predictive theo-
ries, using the lowest experimental creep stress. Globally the present approach gives better
predictions.
The reason for this better performance of PT lay in the fact that both failure criterion
parameters (σR and Ei ) are determined using short-term creep rupture data. One parameter

Table 1 Viscoelastic and rupture parameters of the polymers materials

Material Ref. T (°C) Creep compliance (1/MPa) PT parameters (MPa)

D0 D1 n τ0 σr Ei Ei ∗ D0

Nylon 66 A100 [6] 23 3.36E–04 2.31E–05 0.399 1 hour 75 719 0.242

Nylon 66 A190 [6] 23 1.05E–04 6.77E–06 0.294 1 hour 96 8298 0.871
PC Lexan 141 [7] 23 3.12E–04 1.44E–04 0.085 1 hour 84 2267 0.707
Epoxy Resin [8] 23 3.10E–04 1.13E–07 0.400 1 hour 27 635 0.197
Polysulfone [9] 23 3.93E–04 4.69E–06 0.131 1 hour 86 1361 0.535

Table 2 Long-term lifetime predictions compared against experimental averaged data

Polymer Creep Time to failure (h)

stress Experimental Predictions
(MPa)
R–W MR–W PT

Nylon66 (A100) 53 2777 2654 −(4%) 282 −(90%) 2479 −(11%)

Nylon66 (A190) 77 277 2865 (934%) 187 −(33%) 115 −(58%)
PC Lexan 141 50 4340 265739 (6023%) 1036 −(76%) 2299 −(47%)
Epoxy (COM 1) 11 1394 4676 (235%) 261 −(81%) 3280 (135%)
Polysulfone 67 146 870 (498%) 894 (514%) 500 (244%)
Mech Time-Depend Mater (2012) 16:307–316 313

Fig. 2 Experimental data and

fitted curve for the creep failure
stress as function of χ function
for Nylon66 (A100)

Fig. 3 Experimental data and

fitted curve for the creep failure
stress as function of χ function
for Nylon66 (A190)

Fig. 4 Experimental data and

fitted curve for the creep failure
stress as function of χ function
for PC Lexan 141
314 Mech Time-Depend Mater (2012) 16:307–316

Fig. 5 Experimental data and

fitted curve for the creep failure
stress as function of χ function
for epoxy resin COM1

Fig. 6 Experimental data and

fitted curve for the creep failure
stress as function of χ function
for polysulfone

Fig. 7 Experimental data and

predicted creep lifetime for
Nylon 66 (A100)
Mech Time-Depend Mater (2012) 16:307–316 315

Fig. 8 Experimental data and

predicted creep lifetime for
Nylon66 (A190)

Fig. 9 Experimental data and

predicted creep lifetime for PC
Lexan 141

Fig. 10 Experimental data and

predicted creep lifetime for
epoxy resin COM1

Fig. 11 Experimental data and

predicted creep lifetime for
polysulfone
316 Mech Time-Depend Mater (2012) 16:307–316

is the instantaneous failure stress and the other is related with time-dependent failure. On
the contrary, for the energy-based failure criteria, only the instantaneous failure stress is
to be determined from experimental data. For these cases, the time-dependent failure is
determined as a function of elastic and viscoelastic properties. Consequently this implies
that the user must decide, supported on short-term creep rupture data, which energy-based
time-dependent failure criterion is more adequate.

7 Conclusions

A time-dependent failure criterion, based in a viscoelastic/plastic theory, applied to polymers

was reviewed. The criterion defines a function, which depended on the time, the viscoelastic
properties and applied stress, to establish an empirical law with creep yield (fracture). In this
work a linear relationship between the time-dependent functional χ and the creep stress is
proposed and assessed. This relationship may be considered a time-dependent failure crite-
rion. The energy-based failure criteria were used for a comparative analysis. The parameters
of the proposed time-dependent failure criterion must be obtained by curve-fitting over the
short-term experimental creep rupture data. It is proved, for all the materials used in the
present study, that this time-dependent failure criterion holds on a long-term basis. There-
fore its forecast lifetime capability, based on short-time experimental data, proved to be
remarkably good.

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