Biological molecules 1

LECTURE 2 & 3
BIOMOLECULES
Molecules that make up living things
Structure and properties of water
Anomalous properties of water
• High specific heat (Heat capacity)-water takes
longer to heat up and to cool down
• Large thermal buffer capacity
• High heat of vaporization
• High boiling point
• High surface tension
• High specific heat and heat of vaporization helps
in the dissipation of large amounts of heat
produced
 Types of Biological Molecules
Water Proteins Lipids

Nucleic acids Carbohydrates

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Organic Compounds
• Most Biomolecules are organic
• They are based on Carbon and include hydrogen
• Includes
• carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
• Also includes vitamins
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Macromolecules

• Large biomolecules
• Many of these are polymers.

• Polymers: long molecules built by linking together small, similar

subunits (monomers)
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Building up polymers

• Condensation polymerization (dehydration synthesis)

removes an OH and H during synthesis of a new
molecule.

ATP
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Polymerization
• Water is formed and ATP is required

Water (H2O)

Monomers Polymer

ATP ADP+pi

energy
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Breaking down polymers

• Hydrolysis breaks a covalent bond by adding OH and H
from a water molecule
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Hydrolysis

• Water is required

Water (H2O)

Polymer Monomers
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Types of Biomolecules

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins

Nucleic Acids
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Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrate means “hydrated” carbon

• Composing elements C, H, O

• Hydrogen and Oxygen are in a ratio of 2:1

• Can be simple monomers like glucose

• Can be complex polymers like cellulose

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Groups of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

sugars

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

(monomers) ( Dimers) (polymers)
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Monosaccharides
C6H12O6

• Fructose
• Galactose
• Glucose
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Importance:
• Energy source: used as a reactant in respiration
• Monomer Unit: used to form:
• Dimers (disaccharides) and
• Polymers (polysaccharides)
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Disaccharides

• Lactose: glucose + galactose

• Maltose: glucose + glucose
• Sucrose: glucose + fructose
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Importance:
• Energy storage: sucrose is a store of energy in sugarcane
and sugar beets

• Energy transport: carbohydrate is transported in plants as

sucrose
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Polysaccharides
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• Starch, glycogen and cellulose are all

polymers of glucose.
• They differ in the type of glucose
present and the bonds which link the
glucose monomers together.
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Structural Carbohydrates
Chitin – arthropod exoskeleton and fungal cell wall
• modified form of cellulose
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Central dogma

• Amino acids are JOINED DNA

together by
Transcription
• PEPTIDE BONDS
• Following a sequence mRNA
dictated by the DNA
Translation

Polypeptide/
Protein
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Protein

• C,H,O,N and some have S

• insulin:C254H377N65O76S6
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20 naturally occurring
and encoded by DNA

About half can be made by our body

and about half need to be
consumed(Between 8-10 are
essential)
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20 different
amino acids
encoded by
the DNA
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Making a Polypeptide
R H O

C O H H N C
H2N C C O¯H R
H H O
O C O H
R H N C H N C
C O H
Peptide Bond Peptide Bond Peptide Bond
O
R
R H O R
H
C N C C O H
H2N C C N
O H C
O O
R
Polypeptide
Growth

Polypeptide production = Condensation Reaction

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Folding of polypetides to form

Proteins

 Shape of a proteins are important because

 This determines how they interact with
other molecules
 This determines their particular function
Protein Structure
• Primary Structure 1o
• Linear sequence of AA
• Secondary Structure 2o
• Repeating patterns ( helix,  pleated sheet)
• Tertiary Structure 3o
• Overall conformation of protein
• Quaternary Structure 4o
• Multichained protein structure
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Primary Structure
Peptide bonds

phe glu tyr ser iso met phe glu

Secondary Structure
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Tertiary Structure

Quaternary Structure
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Summary
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CATALYSTS
lipase
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REGULATION (hormones)
• Ex: Insulin
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STRUCTURAL Ex: Keratin

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STRUCTURAL Ex: Histone Protein

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STRUCTURAL Ex: Histone Protein

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TRANSPORT: Ex: haemoglobin

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TRANSPORT: protein channels or carrier

proteins
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IMMUNITY: Ex: Antibodies

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CONTRACTILE: Ex: Actin and Myosin

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Muscle contraction and relaxation

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Surface receptors
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Nucleic Acids
• Composing elements: C, H , O, P, N
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• Encodes information used to assemble proteins.
• Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
• Reads DNA-encoded information to direct protein synthesis.
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DNA nucleotides
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Nucleotide structure

5’
Phosphate
group
Nitrogen base
(A,G,C,T)
Deoxyribose
(sugar)
3’
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Nitrogen bases
• Purines : Double-ringed
• Pyramidines : Single-ringed
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OH
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Nucleotide structure
5’

3’
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Structure of DNA
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purines pyrimidines
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RNA
• Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil
• Types:
• mRNA
• tRNA
• rRNA
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Lipids

• Composing elements C, H, O

• Lipids are loosely defined as groups of organic molecules

that are insoluble in water. Their chemical formula vary
considerably.

• Include:
• fats
• oils
• Waxes
• Phospholipids
• steroids: sex hormones and cholesterol
• some vitamins
• glycolipids (lipids with carbohydrates attached)
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• Many lipids have both glycerol and fatty acids.

• The fatty acids are found esterified with glycerol.
• They can be then monoglycerides, diglycerides and
triglycerides.
• These are also called fats and oils based on melting point.
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Lipid structure
• Most lipids are composed of a of glycerol molecule with
attached fatty acids

GLYCEROL FATTY ACIDS

Fatty acid
Glycerol

Fatty acid
Triglyceride
Fatty acid

Phospholipid GLYCEROL
HYDROPHOBIC END

Fatty acid
Glycerol

Fatty acid

PO4
FATTY ACIDS
HYDROPHYLIC END
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Structure of Fatty Acids

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Lipid structure
• Some lipids have a four ringed structure
• Ex: Cholesterol and other lipids that are derived from
cholesterol
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Steroid Hormones
Progesterone: responsible for changes associated with the
menstrual cycle and with differentiation factor for mammary glands

Aldosterone: raises blood pressure and fluid volume, increases

Na+ uptake

Testosterone: male sex hormone synthesized in the testes,

responsible for secondary male sex characteristics

Estradiol: an estrogen, principal female sex hormone, produced in

the ovary, responsible for secondary female sex characteristics

Cortisol: involved in stress adaptation, elevates blood pressure

and Na+ uptake, numerous effects on the immune system
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Saturated fatty acid

Saturated fats:
Their fatty acids
• have no double bonds
between carbon
atoms(have maximum
number of hydrogen
atoms)
• Straight structure
• fats usually from animal
sources
• Solid at room
temperature(20°C)
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Unsaturated
fats Unsaturated fatty acid

Their Fatty acids have:

• Have some carbon
atoms that are double
bonded(not fully
hydrogenated)
• Kinked in shape
• Healthy
• From plant sources
• Liquid at room temperature
(20°C)
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Importance; Biological Role

• Lipids are often stored in special adipose tissue, within
large fat cells
Fat cell

• Lipids are concentrated sources of energy and can be

broken down (through fatty acid oxidation in the
mitochondria) to provide fuel for aerobic respiration
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Importance; Biological Role

• An important structural component of membranes

Phospholipids are the primary structural component

of all cellular membranes, such as the plasma
membrane
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Importance; Biological Role

• Acts as a shock absorber and good insulator
• Fat absorbs shocks. Organs that are prone to
bumps and shocks (e.g. kidneys) are cushioned
with a relatively thick layer of fat.
• Stored lipids provide insulation in extreme
environments. Increased body fat levels in winter
reduce heat losses to the environment.

•
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Importance; Biological Role

• acts as a shock absorber and good insulator

The white fat tissue (arrows) is

visible in this ox kidney

Fat absorbs shocks.

Organs that are prone to
bumps and shocks (e.g. Stored lipids provide
kidneys) are cushioned insulation in extreme
with a relatively thick layer environments. Increased
of fat. body fat levels in winter
reduce heat losses to the
environment.
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Importance; Biological Role

• Water proofing of some

surfaces

• Transmission of
chemical messages
via hormones
Waxes and oils, when
secreted on to surfaces
provide waterproofing in
plants and animals.
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Forming a triglyceride
• NOT a Polymer