Gauge Transformation,

Lorenz Gauge, Coulomb

Gauge
Hyun Lim

Department of Mathematics & Statistics,

South Dakota State University

Nov. 5. 2014

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Overview
- Gauge Transformation & invariance
- Lorenz Gauge
- Coulomb Gauge

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Invariance of the
electromagnetic field
B~ =∇×A
~ (1)

Since B
~ must be unique, but many A
~ s exist that correspond to any
given B
~ . We want:

B~ =∇×A ~0
~ =∇×A (2)

We choose A~0 = A
~ + ∇Λ. Then,

B ~0 = ∇ × A
~ =∇×A ~ + ∇ × ∇Λ = ∇ × A
~ (3)

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Invariance of the
electromagnetic field
~
~ = −∇Φ − ∂ A
E (4)
∂t

If we transform only A
~ to A
~0 = A
~ + ∇Λ

~0
~ = −∇Φ − ∂ A = −∇Φ − ∂ (A
E ~ + ∇Λ) (5)
∂t ∂t
∂∇Λ ~
∂A
= −∇Φ − 6= −∇Φ − (6)
∂t ∂t
Need something more!
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Invariance of the
electromagnetic field
Consider Φ0 = Φ − ∂Λ
∂t

~0
∂A

∂Λ

∂ ~
~ 0
E = −∇Φ − = −∇ Φ − − (A + ∇Λ) (7)
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂Λ ∂ A ~ ∂Λ
= −∇Φ + ∇ − −∇ (8)
∂t ∂t ∂t
~
∂A
= −∇Φ − (9)
∂t

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Gauge Transformation
~ →A
A ~0 = A
~ + ∇Λ (10)
∂Λ
Φ → Φ0 = Φ − (11)
∂t
The invariance of the elds under gauge transformation is called
gauge invariance.

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Gauge Transformation
Revisit! Consider to the vacuum form of the Maxwell's Equation:

∇·E~ = ρ (12)
0
∂
~ = −∇2 Φ − (∇ · A~) = ρ
∇·E (13)
∂t 0
∂ ~) = − ρ
∇2 Φ + (∇ · A (14)
∂t 0

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Gauge Transformation
~
∇×B ~ = µ0~J + µ0 0 ∂ E (15)
∂t
∂E~ ∂Φ ∂ 2 A ~
= −∇ − 2 (16)
∂t ∂t ∂t
2~
~ ~
∇ × B = ∇ × (∇ × A) = −∇ A + ∇(∇ · A ~) (17)
2A
!
∂Φ ∂ ~
−∇2 A
~ + ∇(∇ · A~ ) = µ0~J + µ0 0 −∇ − 2 (18)
∂t ∂t
2~
~ − 1 ∂ A −∇ ∇·A ~ + 1 ∂Φ = −µ0~J
 
∇2 A 2 2 2 ∂t
(19)
c ∂t c

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Gauge Transformation
∂ ~) = − ρ
∇2 Φ + (∇ · A (20)
∂t 0
2
~ − 1 ∂ A −∇ ∇·A ~ + 1 ∂Φ = −µ0~J
~  
∇2 A 2 2 2 ∂t
(21)
c ∂t c

Maxwell equations which is written in terms of the potentials

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Lorenz Gauge
From the freedom of the transformation, a set of potentials (A
~ , Φ)
satisfy the Lorenz condition:

~ + 1 ∂Φ = 0
∇·A (22)
c
2 ∂t

From Eqns. (20) and (21), it produces inhomogeneous wave

equations:

1 ∂Φ 1 ∂2Φ
 
2 ∂ ρ
∇ Φ+ − 2
= ∇2 Φ − 2
=− (23)
∂t c ∂t c ∂t 2 0
1 ∂2A
~ 1 ∂2A
~
∇2 A
~−
2
− ∇ (0) = ∇2 A
~− = −µ0~J (24)
c ∂t 2 c
2 ∂t 2

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Lorenz Gauge
We can always nd the potentials that satisfy the Lorenz condition
Suppose (A ~ , Φ) satisfy the Maxwell equations, and it does not
satisfy the Lorenz condtion. Then, make the gauge transformed
potential (A
~ 0 , Φ0 ), and we demand that (A
~ 0 , Φ0 ) satisfy the Lorenz
condition:

~ 0 + 1 ∂Φ = 0
0
∇·A 2 ∂t
(25)
c

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Lorenz Gauge
From the gauge transformation:
1 ∂Φ0 1 ∂
 
∂Λ
~ 0
∇·A + 2 ~
= ∇ · (A + ∇Λ) + 2 Φ− (26)
c ∂t c ∂t ∂t
2
=∇·A ~ + ∇2 Λ + 1 ∂Φ − 1 ∂ Λ = 0 (27)
c
2 ∂t 2
c ∂t
2

Thus, the gauge function Λ can be obtained to satisfy:

1 ∂2Λ ~ + 1 ∂Φ
 
2
∇ Λ− 2
=− ∇·A (28)
c ∂t 2 c
2 ∂t

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Lorenz Gauge
We make the transformation which always preserves the Lorenz
condition, called the restricted gauge transformation:
~ →A
A ~ + ∇Λ (29)
∂Λ
Φ→Φ−
∂t
1 ∂ 2Λ
∇2 Λ − 2 2 = 0
c ∂t

the potentials A
~ , Φ, and Λ in this restricted class are said to belong
to the Lorenz gauge

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Coulomb Gauge
The Coulomb, radiation or transverse gauge is:
~ =0
∇·A (30)

From Eqn. (20), we obtain the Poisson equation again:

∂ ρ
∇2 Φ + (0) = ∇2 Φ = − (31)
∂t 0
And, solution is very well-known:
1 ρ(~x 0 , t ) 3 0
Z
Φ(~x , t ) = d x (32)
4π0 |~x − ~x 0 |

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Coulomb Gauge
From Eqn. (21), the vector potential satises the inhomogeneous
wave equation:
1 ∂2A
~ 1 ∂Φ
 
2~
∇ A − 2
−∇ 0+ = −µ0~J (33)
c ∂t 2 c
2 ∂t
1 ∂2A
~ 1 ∂Φ
∇2 A
~−
2
= −µ0~J + ∇ 2 (34)
c ∂t 2 c ∂t
Current density ~J can be decomposed into two pieces: a
longitudinal(irrotational), J~ , and transverse(rotation), J~ :
l t

~J = J~ + J~
l t (35)
with
∇ × J~ = 0 l (36)
∇ · J~ = 0
t (37)
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Coulomb Gauge
The vector identity:

∇ × (∇ × ~J ) = ∇(∇ · ~J ) − ∇2~J (38)

From this identity, the current density splits into two parts:

∇2 (J~ + J~ ) = ∇ × (∇ × ~J ) − ∇(∇ · ~J )
l t (39)
∇2 J~ = ∇ × (∇ × ~J )
t (40)
∇2 J~ = −∇(∇ · ~J )
l (41)

Since, Eqns. (40) and (41) are Poisson equation, and we have the
form ∇2 (1/|~x − ~x 0 |) = −4πδ(~x − ~x 0 )

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Coulomb Gauge

~ = 1 ∇×∇×
Z ~J
3 0
J d x (42)
4π
t
|~x − ~x 0 |

~ =− 1 ∇ ∇0 · ~J
Z
3 0
Jl d x (43)
4π |~x − ~x 0 |

Then:
1 1 1 ∂ ρ(~x 0 , t ) 3 0
Z
∂Φ
2
∇ = 2 ∇ d x (44)
c ∂t c 4π0 ∂ t |~x − ~x 0 |
1 ∂ρ(~x 0 , t ) 1
Z
3 0
= µ0 0 ∇ d x (45)
4π0 ∂t |~x − ~x 0 |

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Coulomb Gauge
Using the continuity equation ∇ · ~J + ∂ρ
∂t = 0:

1 1 −∇0 · ~J 3 0
Z
∂Φ
2
∇ = µ 0 ∇ d x (46)
c ∂t 4π |~x − ~x 0 |
!
1 ∇0 · ~J 3 0
Z
= µ0 − ∇ d x (47)
4π |~x − ~x 0 |
= µ0 J~l (48)

Thus, Eqn. (34) becomes:

1 ∂2A
~
∇2 A
~−
2
= −µ0~J + µ0 J~ = −µ0 J~ (49)
∂t 2
l t
c

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Coulomb Gauge
The Coulomb or transverse gauge is often used when no sources are
present, i.e. Φ = 0
~
~ = − ∂A
E (50)
∂t
~ =∇×A
B ~ (51)

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