Pipeline Route Design

CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY
Module on Pipeline Engineering
Post-graduate Course
COURSE NOTE – 2
PIPELINE ROUTE DESIGN
January 2016
Module on Pipeline Engineering D-2: Pipeline Route Design
D-2: PIPELINE ROUTE DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 PRELIMINARY PIPELINE ROUTING
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Route Considerations
2.3 Preliminary Route Design
3 ROUTE SURVEY
3.1 Survey Equipment
3.2 Survey Activities
3.3 Water Depth Data
3.4 Seabed Soils Data
4 POSITIONAL CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM
5 DETAILED ROUTING
5.1 Kilometre Points (KP)
5.2 Pipeline Bend Radius
5.3 Route Drawings
SOLVED EXAMPLES
EXERCISES
Cranfield University, Cranfield, England, January 2016

Dr. R. K. Jain. Higherdesigns (UK) Ltd.
D-2
PIPELINE ROUTE DESIGN
1 INTRODUCTION
One of the first tasks in any oil and gas development is to decide on the method of product
transportation. Transportation from offshore field is limited to only two methods, namely, by
pipelines or by ships; with the former generally much cheaper than the latter for the
operational life of a project, thus the decision is primarily dictated by commercial and
logistical considerations. Having established that pipelines are to be used for the
transportation of the product, pipeline routes are developed in usually two stages, viz.,
preliminary route to establish the feasibility of a route and then the final route. The following
sections discuss primarily the route design of offshore pipelines but similar approach can be
used for onshore pipeline route design as well.
2 PRELIMINARY PIPELINE ROUTING
2.1 Introduction
0B
To determine a route for a pipeline, it is essential to know the start location and the
destination for a pipeline as well as what lies between these two locations. The route for a
pipeline on land is influenced by several features, such as the rivers, hills/rocks, woods and
marshland, rails/roads, housing and industrial developments, and other similar features. The
route for underwater pipelines (alternative terms used are ‘subsea’ or ‘offshore’ pipelines) is
affected by variable seabed topography (proper term is bathymetry)1, seabed soils,
obstructions such as rock outcrops, wrecks, underwater installations, underwater life habitats,
etc. Therefore, it is essential to have as much information for the seabed area as possible.
Other important consideration for offshore pipelines is the activities of other parties in the
area; such other activities are fishing and shipping, naval operations, hydrocarbon field
belonging to other operators, etc. Thus it is essential to find out all such information.
The first step in the pipeline route design is the determination of a feasible route. In some
cases, several route options may need to be evaluated to determine the most appropriate
route. Preliminary routes for offshore pipelines for feasibility and conceptual design stages
can be based on available published data, such as the Admiralty Charts2 for offshore
pipelines. The Admiralty Charts, example shown in Figure 2.1, provide a good overview of
1Bathymetry is depth below sea level; topography is elevation above sea level; seabed topography means depth.
2Admiralty charts show graphically offshore and adjacent coastal regions and are issued by the United
Kingdom Hydrographic Office. Over 3000 charts, prepared in some cases with input from various overseas
hydrographical departments, cover almost the entire world.

water depths and major seabed features. For land pipelines, topographic profile charts (TPC),
Figure 2.1, and satellite photographs are used to plan pipeline routes. In the UK, Ordinance
Survey maps provide sufficient information required for preliminary onshore pipeline
routing.
After a preliminary route is established, steps are taken to obtain comprehensive information
for the areas through which the pipeline route would be passing so that detailed final route
can be designed. In rare cases, more than one route may need to be investigated. These
activities for route data and design are discussed in the later sections.
Figure 2.1 - Example of Admiralty Chart

Figure 2.2 - Illustration of Topographical Map
2.2 Route Considerations

1B
A straight line is, obviously, the shortest and easiest path between two locations; however,
various considerations lead to generally winding routes. These considerations for offshore
pipelines are:
• Obstructions due to the existing facilities like platforms, subsea installations,
pipelines, cables
• Seabed conditions: seabed topography (uneven seabed), unsuitable soil
conditions at certain sections of the route.
• Obstructions by natural occurring conditions such as rock outcrops, boulders,
etc.
• Obstructions due to wrecks/dumps
• Environmental and ecological issues: underwater life habitats, sea grass, etc.
• Third party activities, such as, the fishing and shipping, naval operations
• Construction aspects: certain parts may not be suitable for pipelay or other
construction activities.
• Third party interests/jurisdiction issues
Most of the above criteria are self-explanatory and need no elaboration. Some aspects that
need some explanation are briefly discussed

Environmental: A pipeline route that affects underwater habitats of protected species or

disturbs seabed vegetation may not be acceptable to the regulatory authorities that have
jurisdiction over the area. This is an important issue with international and national
environmental implications. Sea grass and mangroves’ areas for example are more or less
universally protected.
Construction Hazards: It will be necessary to consider the implications of a route on

construction when planning a route. Some construction vessels/barges and equipment may
have difficulty working in very deep or shallow water or through narrow passages. Soft
seabed could also create problems for station keeping, i.e., could cause anchoring of the
vessel difficult.
Third Parties: Third parties include other operators, landowners, and other countries through
whose territory the pipeline may pass and whose consent must be obtained prior to finalising
a preliminary pipeline route. Political difficulties in some cases could even make
transportation of hydrocarbons by a pipeline impractical.
For land pipelines, similar considerations apply. These will include terrain topography and
geology, obstructions such as rivers, roads and train routes, deserts, populated and industrial
areas, fields, etc.
2.3 Preliminary Route Design

2B
In designing a route, some further considerations are:

• Pipeline centre route alignment
• Distance from existing or planned installations
• Pipeline route at the end sections
• Crossing of the existing pipelines and cables
Initial routes based on the Admiralty charts (for offshore pipelines) or similar maps are
developed to show the pipeline centreline route as a series of straight lines with intersection
points (points where two straight sections cross), see Figures 2.3; note that pipeline in this
example Figure 2.3B is over 160 km long.
It is generally advisable to maintain a minimum distance of 1000 to 2000 metres from any
installation. However, the actual figure may vary depending on the requirements of the
owners of the installation, operational safety and the construction constraints of the pipeline.

Figure 2.3a: Preliminary Route Consisting of Straight Lines
Figure 2.3b: An Example of a Typical Field Layout based on Admiralty Chart

EXISTING
PIPELINES
NEW PIPELINE
EXISTING
CABLE
FUTURE OIL
FIELD
Figure 2.3C: Another Example of a Pipeline Route (Shown on Admiralty Chart)

Since a pipeline cannot turn sharply, the transition between two intersecting straight lines is
made of circular curves which start and end at tangent points located equidistant from the
intersection point, Figure 2.4. Sharp bends would cause kink or buckle in the pipeline and
render it unsafe to contain pressure.
Figure 2.4 – Pipeline Bend
Offshore pipelines are generally laid with floating pipelay vessels by where a long welded
length the pipe hangs like a catenary and the pipe drops onto the seabed as the vessel moves
forward, see Course Note D-16. The change of direction of a pipeline is normally achieved
by cold bending it with very large radius during pipeline installation; this aspect is further
discussed in Course Note D-16. Use of pre-fabricated bends is not practical for underwater
pipelines. The final design of curved sections is carried out during detailed pipeline routing;
however, initial route design needs to be based on realistic bend radii. Based on past
experience, it is advisable to keep bend radii greater than 1000 m in general, and the bend
angles3 less than 90 degrees, i.e., angle of turn4 should be greater than 90o. Course Note D-16
discusses the factors that affect the bend radius for a pipeline and gives an approximate
method for assessing the bend radius.
Where two bends are in close proximity, a

straight line distance of between 2000-5000
metres should be maintained between the
two adjacent bends depending on the pipe
size, its anticipated submerged weight and
seabed soils.
Figure 2.5 - Adjacent Bends
3 Bend angle is the angle between the normal to the tangents at the ends of two straight sections of the pipeline,
see figure.
4 Angle of turn is the angle through which the pipeline turns direction with respect to the preceding segment.

Routing of pipeline end sections needs special consideration; these include a pipeline’s
approache towards a platform, or towards a subsea facility (subsea production or subsea tie-
in) or to a land-based facility (product receiving terminal). For ease of construction, the
angle of approach of pipeline with the facility face should be kept greater than 30 degrees.
It is advisable to maintain an angle greater than 30 degrees while crossing over an existing
pipeline or a cable.
For land pipelines, a similar approach is used but pipeline system could contain many more
bends compared with an offshore pipeline. Furthermore, it is comparatively easy to cold bend
a land pipeline to relatively smaller radii and fabricated bend could also be easily used.
3 ROUTE SURVEY
The preliminary route discussed above is used as a basis to perform a detailed survey to
confirm the feasibility of construction along the selected route and to obtain detailed
information of the seabed.
The route surveys collect information on (i) water depths along the route, (ii) seabed
topography, (iii) seabed soils data along the proposed pipeline route, and (iv) other features
such as obstacles, wrecks, etc. The first two items of data form the geophysical data while
the third item provides the geotechnical information for the seabed.
A corridor width of between 200m and 1000 m should normally be surveyed, depending on
the design and construction requirements, with the preliminary route as the centreline of this
corridor. If historical data/knowledge of the seabed is available due to existing pipelines, a
corridor of 200 m or less could be surveyed depending on the confidence in the existing
information. Note that the final route should be as close to the corridor centreline as feasible.
During the route survey, some additional data is also collected; such data could include
seawater salinity (amount of salt in seawater), seawater temperature, seabed soil electrical
resistance and marine life data required for environmental impact studies.
Offshore route survey is costly and time consuming. It is always advisable to select the route
for the survey with extreme care after a detailed review of the available information to
optimise costs. Repeat surveys should be avoided.
The offshore pipeline route surveys are carried out using purpose-built/adopted survey boats
by specialist contractors who have the appropriate equipment and trained personnel. All geo-
physical survey data is collected by instruments either mounted on the survey boat or towed
by it. For geo-technical information, it becomes necessary to locate and operate some
equipment on the seabed. Divers are rarely used during route survey.

This section does not discuss land pipeline route surveys.
3.1 Survey Equipment

3B
Although specialist contractors qualified and experienced to collect and interpret data
collected perform the route survey, it is helpful for pipeline engineers to have some basic
knowledge of equipment used during offshore surveys. Some of the major equipment
employed for survey use SONAR5 techniques.
The following table summarises some equipment generally utilised for pipeline route surveys.
Figure 2.6 shows a typical survey vessel with commonly used geo-physical survey
equipment:
Summary Information on Survey Equipment
Equipment Function
For Route Geophysical Data
Differential Global Positioning system Used for navigation and positioning; data link provided by satellite, Different
(DGPS) satellite systems cover different area; reference stations are located at various
locations.
On-line Navigation and logging Continuous monitoring of vessel location with respect to the designed route, and
recording data from all instruments.
Gyro Compass A high accuracy compass.
Echo Sounder SONAR based; used for bathymetric (water depth) survey; mounted on the survey
vessel best at a spot where pitch and roll of the ship are least; systems usually have
heave compensation capabilities. Echo sounder measures water depth along the
track taken by the survey vessel.
Swath SONAR based; this equipment is also used to measure the water depth but has the
capability to simultaneously measure water depths across a wide section of seabed.
The range of coverage is generally 10 times the water depth but in deeper water the
width of coverage is limited to 100-300 m depending on the equipment.
Side Scan Sonar SONAR based; uses ultrasonic sound pulses of varying frequency to map the seabed
topography. High frequency sound pulses are transmitted from a towed fish looking
to both sides of the ship track. Returning echoes consist of various acoustics
depending on the seabed profile. The returning signals are received by transducers,
interpreted and recorded graphically to depict a pictorial view of the seafloor. Side
scan sonar range of coverage is generally set at 50-150 m either side of the track.
Magnetometer A magnetometer is used to detect and/or confirm buried metallic objects not viewed
through side scan sonar data.
5 SONAR (Sound navigation and ranging) is a technique that uses sound propagation, usually underwater, to
navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water

Equipment Function
Sub-bottom Profiler SONAR based; sub-bottom profiler is used to obtain sub-seabed surface geological
images and information. A series of acoustic pulses is transmitted on a time–
controlled sequence towards the seabed. Part of the energy of each pulse is reflected
from the seabed and part penetrates the sub-bottom strata. Latter pulses are partially
reflected from different layers of materials. The returning pulses are detected and
interpreted to map out the sub-bottom geological profile. The system can penetrate
various depths depending on the pulse frequency and magnitude of the pulse. For
pipeline design, only a shallow sub-bottom profiler is needed providing data to a
depth of 50-60 m.
Combined Profiler and Sonar System This equipment simultaneously maps seabed profiling and sub-bottom geological
mapping.
For Geotechnical Data
Gravity Drop Corer A gravity corer, is dropped under gravity from a ship onto seabed to collect soil
samples, It, consists of a steel tube of length 3 m to 6 m in length in which is
inserted a plastic liner to retain the core sample. The penetrating end of the tube is
fitted with a cutter and a concave spring-steel core-catcher to retain the sample when
the corer is retracted from the soil and recovered to the ship.
Vibro Corer Vibracoring is a technique used for collecting samples of unconsolidated saturated
sediments. A core tube is attached to a source of mechanical vibration and lowered
into the sediment. The vibrations cause the core tube to penetrate under the static
weight of the vibracoring apparatus and collect soil sample to a depth of 4-5 m. The
tube is made of metal or expendable clear polycarbonate with or without a liner.
Van Veen Grab It is a small ‘grab’ used to collect surface soils.
Mini Trovane Used for in-situ assessment of soil shear strength.
Penetrometer Handheld tool used to test soil sample bearing strength for initial assessment.
Other Data
TSD Probe Used to measure water particle velocity
Water Sampler Used for sampling of the seawater.

Figure 2.6 – Typical Arrangement of Survey Equipment for Offshore Survey
3.2 Survey Activities

4B
As stated earlier, survey data are usually collected for a corridor of width of 200 m – 1000 m
along the proposed pipeline route. The wider corridor enables the engineers to modify, if
required, the pipeline route within the survey corridor without the need of a new costly
survey. In some very exceptional circumstances wider corridors than 1000 m may be
necessary. The survey data is collected by moving the survey boat along the selected
centreline and along a number of lines parallel to the centreline. The path followed by the
survey boat is called ‘line of survey’, Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 - Graphical Representation of Side Scan Sonar Range
For comprehensive geophysical and geotechnical data, survey along each line is performed
using echo sounder, side-scan sonar and sub-bottom profiler. The echo sounder collects
water depth data every few meters, usually every 5 meters along each survey line. The echo

sounder emits a sound signal directly under itself which is reflected back. From the time
taken for the signal to make this return journey, the depth is computed by on-board computer.
The side scan sonar maps seabed profile. Side-scan emits conical or fan-shaped pulses down
toward the seafloor across a wide angle perpendicular to the path of the sensor through the
water. The side scan sonar device may be towed from a surface vessel or submarine, or
mounted on the ship's hull. The pulses are emitted normally in a range of 50-150 meters, i.e.,
a total width of 100-300 is scanned, see Figures 2.8 and 2.9. Usually, the first line of survey
coincides with the centre line of the survey corridor. Depending on the range surveyed along
each line of survey, a number of survey lines may be necessary. Confirmation of the profile
is carried out by overlapping the side scan sonar survey, see Figure 2.8. If, for example, the
selected survey range is 100 m, the figure shows that three lines of survey are required to
cover a 200 m wide corridor with overlap. Note that the total width of side scan survey
(single and overlap) in this example is 400 meters with the central 200 meter wide corridor
having overlap survey.
Figure 2.8 – Side scan Tow Fish
Figure 2.9 - An Example of 3-line Survey

A schematic of sub-bottom profiler for offshore survey is shown in Figure 2.10. The raw
data is interpreted on the survey boat soon after its collection. This allows mitigation of any
problems that might be encountered during survey, e.g., if the quality of data is not
satisfactory, re-survey could be carried out for the affected section.
Figure 2.10 - A Schematic of Sub-bottom Profiler
Shallow sub-bottom profilers give quite good information on sub-bottom (below seabed)
geological formations but the data is subject to interpretation by qualified surveyors. Sub-
bottom profiler data generally requires confirmation by laboratory analysis of soil samples
taken from the seabed. For pipeline design, soils data details for more than 3-5 m under the
seabed are not usually required.
Some illustrations of data from these survey results are shown in Figures 2.11 – 2.13. Figure
2.11 shows a sudden depression in the seabed picked by echo sounder and this is replicated in
the data gathered by side scan-scan (Figure 2.12) and sub-bottom profiler (Figure 2.13).
The other equipment indicated in Section 3.1 is used as necessary. Magnetometer survey is
not always necessary. However, this must be carried out where buried metallic objects such
as a pipeline or a cable or a wreck is anticipated.

Figure 2.11 – Bathymetric Data Recording by Echo sounder

Figure 2.12 – Seabed Profile Recording by Side Scan Sonar

Figure 2.13 – Sub-bottom Geology Recording by Sub-bottom

3.3 Water Depth Data

5B
The echo sounders, swath or similar equipment is used to measure water depths along the
route. The data points spacing along the route is to be agreed with the contractor but it
should be sufficient to provide detailed information of water depths. Generally, data points
are spaced 1-5 m apart. Some of the terms used during this survey and design are discussed in
the following sections.
3.3.1 CHART DATUM:

10B
A convenient reference level with respect to which all observed water levels are measured.
Different chart datum could be used for different sections of pipeline system, say, for onshore
and offshore section. If this happens for a project, the correlation between these datums must
be established for correct interface between different sections of a pipeline system.
Chart datum most frequently used in the offshore oil and gas industry is the Lowest
Astronomical Tide (LAT), defined in the next section. Sea surface levels very rarely fall
below LAT; however, chart datum in some cases could be set below LAT to reduce the
number of instances of observed sea surface levels below the chosen datum. An example of
this is the Chart Datum used by the British Admiralty.
3.3.2 TIDE LEVELS:

1B
Sea and river surface levels vary due to gravitational pull from the moon and the sun, and due
to rotation of the earth. These variations in water level are called tide levels. The tide levels
vary between a maximum and a minimum each day; in some locations may experience two
highs and two lows of water levels.
Since the sun is 390 times further away from the earth compared to the moon, hence moon
has the stronger influence on tide levels. Tide levels vary with the phase of the moon.
Maximum tidal variations occur at full and new moon, and these are known as ‘spring tides’.
Smaller variations occur when the moon is at the last quarter, and the tidal variation is called
‘neap tides’. As the relative position of moon and the earth, and hence gravitational pull,
does not change with time, therefore the tide levels at different phases of moon remain
practically constant with time. The highs and lows in tide levels are almost periodic.
Variations in tide levels over a long period have been observed/measured with respect to
chart datum and based on the analysis of these measurements, the following three data are
generated:

Mean Level: Average of the mean high and the mean low water levels measured with respect
to the chart datum over a period. For offshore, the term Mean Sea Level (MSL) is normally
used.
Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT) Level: Maximum value of the highest tide levels with
respect to the chart datum.
Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) Level: Minimum value of the lowest tide levels with respect
to the chart datum.
Note that reference sea level for design may not always coincide with the mean of the HAT
and LAT. Various levels are graphically shown in Figure 2.14. As stated earlier, the
offshore datum in some cases may be set below LAT. This choice largely depends on the
philosophy adopted by an offshore operator.
Figure 2.14 – Various Sea Surface Levels
Tides are usually the main source of short-term sea-level fluctuations, however, sea level
changes can occur due to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes, resulting in
storm surges, especially in shallow seas and near coasts.
3.4 Seabed Soils Data

6B
Sub-bottom profiler provides non-intrusive method of assessing sub-surface geological

profile, i.e., information on the geological formation and soils below the seabed surface. The
data from acoustic signals is interpreted by the survey contractor’s geologists/seismologists to
determine the sub-bottom geological profile and assess soil type in different layers. The
reliability of results thus depends on individual’s experience of data interpretation. It is
common practice to confirm the finding from sub-bottom profiler by collecting actual soil
samples along the proposed route and performing various laboratory tests and measurements
on these soil samples. The frequency of sample collection depends on the level of uncertainty
of available information of the area. Several techniques are used to collect the samples
depending on the soil type and information required. Some of the techniques have been
briefly discussed in Section 3.1. Typical equipment used for soil sample collection is shown
in Figures 2.15-2.17.
Figure 2.15: A Typical Van Veen Grab
Figure 2.16: Drop Corer being Dropped
Figure 2.17a - A Typical Drop Corer

Figure 2.17b: A Typical Core Tube Assembly
The soil samples collected during offshore survey are stored in special containers and taken
to land for detailed testing and analysis in testing laboratories. Several tests are carried out to
determine the properties of soils in accordance with recognised standards. One such standard
is BS 1377.
The tests to determine following characteristics of the seabed soils are generally performed:
• Moisture content
• Liquid limit
• Plastic limit
• Specific gravity
• Linear shrinkage
• Specific gravity
• Particle size distribution
• Organic matter content
• Sulphate content
• pH value
• Compaction
• Shear strength
4 POSITIONAL CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM
It is important to be able to describe the position of various points along the pipeline route in
a convenient manner. Most convenient system is the rectangular coordinate system, i.e.,
representation of a point in terms of three coordinates x, y and z with respect to a selected
reference point. However, the earth surface is not flat; hence a rectangular coordinate system
cannot be readily used except for short length pipelines. The earth is not a perfect sphere
either; hence it is not possible to use a conventional spherical coordinates system. Since earth

is slightly ellipsoidal, a modified coordinate system that is very close to a spherical

coordinate system is universally used. A system of ‘geographical co-ordinates’ describes the
position of a point on the earth’s surface in terms of two angles, viz., longitude (East or West
of a datum) and latitude (North or South of a datum) with units of degrees, minutes and
seconds of arc. The datum for longitude is the Great Circle through North and South poles
and passing through Greenwich in the UK, while the datum for latitude is the equator, Figure
2.18. Admiralty charts use geographical co-ordinates.
Geographical co-ordinates do not directly provide distances between two locations on the
earth’s surface in terms of length and so are not readily usable for engineering and
installation. To overcome this practical problem, an alternative rectangular system of co-
ordinates, referred to as the Universal Transverse Mercater (UTM) system is widely used.
Figure 2.18 – Geographical Coordinate System for Earth Surface
The UTM co-ordinates of a point on the earth’s surface are given in terms of Northing (N)
and Easting (E). These are also called the grid coordinates. In UTM system, earth is divided
into 60 zones, each of 6o longitude in width, Figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19: Earth Surface Divided into 60 Zones
Zone 1 begins at the International Date Line which is 180o W of Greenwich and end at 174o
W. The central longitude of each zone is called the ‘central meridian’. For example, Zone 25
starts at 144oW and ends at 150oW with central meridian at 147oW; Zone 41 starts at 48o E
and ends at 54oE with central meridian at 51oE. In each zone a rectangular UTM coordinate
system is located with origin at the crossing of the equator and the central meridian, called
the datum. The earth’s surface in the UTM zone is projected onto this rectangular coordinate
plane, Figure 2.20
Figure 2.20: Geographical and UTM Coordinate Systems

The UTM coordinates for locations within a range of (+3o, -3o) around a central meridian are
determined with respect to that central meridian. For example, UTM coordinates for points
having longitudes of 1.5o East and 5o East will be determined with respect to a central
meridian at 3oE.The Easting coordinate is measured with respect to the central meridian for
each zone, the Northing coordinates are with respect to the equator for the northern
hemisphere but for the southern hemisphere, it is 10,000,000 m minus its distance from the
equator.
Note that Northing grid axis and geographical north will be coincidental at the central
meridian but will have a small angle of convergence elsewhere in the zone, see Figure 2.19.
The conversion of geographical to UTM co-ordinates and vice-versa involves a number of

parameters. The details of equations for the conversion of geographical coordinates to UTM
coordinates are not included in these Notes. The subject is covered by a branch of applied
mathematics called geodetics. Over the years, several conversion formulae have been
proposed and UTM system has been universally accepted. Some information on conversion
equations and software is available on internet. The UTM co-ordinates are expressed in
metres with reference to the selected datum. The Northing coordinate value consists of 7
digits while Easting comprises 6 digits.
Generally, the survey contractor provides UTM coordinates for various points along the
pipeline route although the conversion programs can be purchased or developed if required.
Most pipeline design consultants have such a conversion program.
UTM co-ordinate system is universally used but some other alternative coordinate systems
similar to UTM are also in use but are not recommended. Therefore, it will be necessary to
get correct information from the survey contractor and the operator regarding the coordinate
system that is to be used.
Rectangular co-ordinate systems used for onshore are again different from those used
offshore; these are generally local with a local datum. For example, Ordinance Survey
Coordinate System is used in the United Kingdom. It will be necessary to determine
relationship between offshore and onshore co-ordinate systems if the pipeline system extends
onshore.
5 DETAILED ROUTING
Simple geometrical calculations are performed to describe the route in terms of coordinates
of various points along the route. Some simple examples are included at the end of this
Course Note to illustrate this. Note that the route calculations assume seabed to be flat which

in fact is not essentially true for most pipeline routes. However, this does not introduce any
significant error.
5.1 Kilometre Points (KP)

7B
The detailed route survey data is used in detailed design of the pipeline system and for the
final route design. The distance along the pipeline is described in terms of Kilometre (KP)
Points. A pipeline route starts at KP0 and distance is measured in kilometres from this point;
points spaced every kilometre are referred as kilometre points and are denoted by KPxxx
where xxx is distance in kilometres from KP0. Thus, KP0 and KP2.2 indicate the start point
and a point 2.2 km along the pipeline from the start point, respectively. With the UTM
coordinates of the various sections and turn points of a pipeline route known, UTM co-
ordinates for any KP point can be calculated by simple geometrical calculations. The bend
along the pipeline route is described by the co-ordinates of the two tangent points, denoted
generally as TP1 and TP2, and that of the turn point (intersection).
5.2 Pipeline Bend Radius

8B
The bend radii at the seabed are achieved while the pipeline is being installed from a lay
vessel. The pipeline hangs as a stiffened catenary and is subjected to significant tensile load
caused by the pipe weight and applied tension at the top. The bend in the pipeline on the
seabed is formed as the vessel slowly turns to follow the designed route. As the vessel moves
along a curve, it would tend to drag the pipeline on the seabed but pipeline lateral movements
are resisted solely by the frictional force between the pipeline and the seabed. Thus the bend
radius depends on pipe weight, applied tension load and friction between the pipeline and the
seabed. A simplified method of estimating the minimum cold bend radius for a pipeline
during pipelay will be discussed in Course Note D-16 but detailed analysis with suitable
computer software, usually finite element based, is required to determine correct bend radius.
Generally, bend radii of 1000 m to 3000 m are used depending on the pipe diameter, wall
thickness, concrete coating thickness, etc.
For multiple bends, the distance between two adjacent bends should be such as to generate
sufficient frictional resistance between the pipeline and the seabed to allow the pipe end to be
moved laterally to produce a cold bend. Hence, it is necessary that the pipe turns gently and
allows sufficient distance between two bends, thus a straight line distance of 2000-4000
meters was suggested in Section 2.3.

As described earlier, the route is defined in terms of coordinates of end points of straight
sections, the intersection points, bend radii and bend angles. From this data, coordinates of
two tangent points associated with bend can be determined.
5.3 Route Drawings

9B
A number of drawings detailing the route may be required which include overall field layout
drawing, pipeline approaches towards the platform, etc., alignment sheets, etc.
Overall field layout is a line diagram showing overall pipeline route on one drawing with IPs,
etc. Pipeline approach drawings show details of pipeline route close to the platform.
Examples are attached.
The detailed route drawings to a scale of 1:10,000 or 1:5,000 are developed for the entire
route. These route drawings are referred to as the “alignment sheets”; examples are shown in
Figures 2.21.
Figures 2.21 show that the alignment drawings contain considerable more information than
just the route data. Most of the data required for construction is included in the alignment
sheets. Normally, the following data is shown:
• Kilometre points
• Intersection and tangent points
• Water depths
• Seabed profile
• Sub-bottom profile
• Pipeline heading
• Coating details
• Anode and other attachment locations
• Trenching and burial

Figure 2.21a: An Example of an Alignment Sheet

Figure 2.21b: Another Example of an Alignment Sheet

SOLVED EXAMPLES

The solved examples in the following illustrate how simple geometry may be used in the
pipeline routing. Two and three dimensional co-ordinate geometry may also be used.
SIMPLE EXAMPLES OF PIPELINE ROUTING CALCULATIONS
Example 1: Calculations of cooridinates on straight pipeline
A point on the pipeline coordinates has the UTM coordinates (4857000 N, 690000E). Compute the coordinates
of a point 5000 meters away on the pipeline for the routehat runs North-West at an angle of 30 degrees to the
North axis. Also determine the coordinate of two kilometre points from P.
Solution:
Length PQ: 5000 m N
Coordinates of P:
P:N= 4857000N
B
P:E= 690000E Q
Coordinates of Q:
5000 m
Q:N= P:N+PB=P:N+AQ
KP2 30
= 4857000+PQ*COS(30)
= 4861330 N KP1
Q:E= P:E-AP P E
A
= 690000-PQ*sin(30)
= 687500 E
Coordinates of KP1:
KP1:N= 4857000+1000*COS(30)
= 4857866 N
KP1:E= 690000-1000*sin(30)
= 689500 E
Coordinates of KP2:
KP2:N= 4857000+2000*COS(30)
= 4858732 N
KP2:E= 690000-2000*sin(30)
= 689000 E

SIMPLE EXAMPLES ON PIPELINE ROUTE
Example 2: Pipeline Heading with respect to a Grid Axis
Three points on the pipeline route are given as:

A( 4853000.00 N, 682000.00 E)
B( 4873500.00 N, 695000.00 E)
C( 4865970.00 N, 756888.00 E)
Determine pipeline section headings with respect to the North grid axis and the turn angle and bend angle.
Solution:
Heading of AB w.r.t. gridline N:
Angle BAD= ATAN(BD/AD)

BD= B:E-A:E= 13000.00 m
AD= B:N-A:N= 20500.00 m
Angle BAD= 0.56514944 radians
= 32.3806777 deg
Heading of BC w.r.t. gridline N:
Angle CBN'= 90+ATAN(CF/FB)

= 96.9371598 deg
Tyrn Angle= AngleABC
= 115.4435179 deg
Bend Angle= 64.55648206 deg

SOLVED EXAMPLE 3: CALCULATIONS OF A PIPELINE BEND AND LENGTH
A pipeline with a bend passes through two points A and B as shown in the figure.
The intersection point for the two tangents is C. Coordinates as given below:
Point A: Point B:
A:N= 406079 M B:N= 396867 M
A:E= 347681 M B:E= 347343 M
Intersection Pt C:
C:N= 402422 M
C:E= 351090 M
Determine bend angle, the tangent points and pipeline length if the bend radius for the pipeline is 2000 m.
Simple formule used :

If coordinate s of two points are A
(x 1 , y1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ), the length of T1
segment is
TH1
L= (x2 − x1 )2 + ( y 2 − y1 )2
Angle that this line makes with x - axis is 47
O C
given as D E
 y − y1 
θ = tan −1  2 
 x2 − x1  S 56
TH2
Note: The angle calculated as above will be in radians. Alpha
to convert to degrees, multiply by 180/ π
ST1=ST2= Ra dius of curve
T2
Solution:
B
Simple co-ordinate geometry methods are used to determine the route. In the following a very simple approach is used.
Some other equation/formulae that could be used are included in thisCourse Note for information.
Bend Radius= 2000 m

AC= 4999 m BC= 6700.599525 m
Angle between AC and Easting, TH1: 47.01 deg TH1=atan((A:N-C:N)/(A:E-C:E)),

Angle between CB and Easting TH2: 56.00 deg similar expression for TH2
Turn Angle (Included angle), beta: 103 deg angle b eta=Th1+Th2

Bend Angle, Alpha: 77 deg
T1C: 1590.872 m T1C=T2C=Radius/tan(b eta/2)
Northing and easting co-ordinates for tangent point T1 are:

T1:N= 403585.5 m T1:N=C:N+T1D=C:N+T1C*sinTH1
T1:E:= 350005 m T1:E=C:E-CD=C:E-T1C*cosTH1
In the same manner, determine coordinates for T2, etc.
Actual length of pipeline between A and B:
Pipeline length=AT1+curve length+BT2
AT1= #### m BT2= 5109.7 m

Curve length=Radius*alpha(in radians) 2687.807 m
Hence, pipeline length= 11206.2 m
Note that we havfe used graphical layouts this solution. Later one could write a spread sheet where trigonometry and geometry methods
may be used.

Solved Example 4: Route Calculations
A pipeline starts from a platform at A going south-west at an angle of 30 degrees to the UTM Noth. After a distance
of7300 metres it turns 120 degrees towards South east at point I1 to reach a point I2 at a distance of 5800 m from I1.
At I2 it turns south-west again at an angle of 110 degrees to the segment I1-I2 to a point B at a distance of6880 m. The
coordinates of point A are 5999666 N, 589820 E. Determine the coordinates of points I1and B, the bend angle at I1.
Also compute the coordinates of the tangent points for a bend radius of 2000 m.
Solution:
First step will be draw the route using a graph paper; it helps to understand.
Bend Radius, Rb: 2000 m

A:N= 5999666
A:E= 589820
Turn angle at I1= 120 deg
Bend Angle at I1= 60 deg
Given, AI1 7300 m
Compute Coordinates for Intersection Point I1:

Angle 1, Ang1: 30 deg
I1:N=A:N+AI1 x sin(90-Ang1) I1:E=A:E-AI1 x cos(90-Ang1)
Hence, I1:N=A:N+AI1 x sin(90-Ang1) 5993344
similarly, I1:E= 586170
Coordinates of Tangent point T1

T1P=Rb x sin Ang1 1000
T1:N=I1:N+T1P T1:E=I1:E+T1P x tan(Ang1)
T1:N=I1:N+T1P 5994344
Similarly, T1:E= 586747
T2:N:= 5992344
T2:E:= 586747
Given, I1I2 5800
Compute Coordinates for Intersection Point I2:

I2:N= 5988321
I2:E= 589070
Given, I2B 6880
Compute Coordinates for End Point B:

B:N 5983051
B:E 584648
Given, Turn angle at I2, Ang2 : 110 deg

Bend Angle at C2, Ang3: 70 deg
Note Angle between I1I2 & Easting, Ang4: 60 deg
Angle between I2B & Easting, Ang5: 50 deg
T3I2=Rb x tan( Ang3/2) 1400.415
T3Q=T3I2 x sin Ang4 1212.795
T3:N=I2:N+T3Q 5989534
T3:E=I2:E-T3Q tan Ang1 588370
Note I2T4=T3I2 1400.415

T4R=I2T4 x sin Ang5 1072.78
T4:N=I2:N-T4R 5987248
T4:E=I2:E-T4:N x tan (90-Ang5) 588169.8

EXERCISES

1. A pipeline starts from a platform at A going south-west at an angle of 30 degrees to

the UTM North. After a distance of 6500 metres it turns towards South east at point
I1 to reach a point I2. At I2 it turns south-west again at an angle of 110 degrees to the
segment I1-I2 to a point B at a distance of 4500 m. The coordinates of point A are
4999666 N, 589802 E, and of I2 are 4990746 N, 588452 E. Determine the
coordinates of points I1and B, the bend angle at I1. Also compute the coordinates of
the tangent points for a bend radius of 2000 m at the intersection point I1, I2, and
length of the pipeline.
(Answers: Coordinate of I1 – 4994037 N, 586552 E; B – 4987299 N, 585559 E; Angle of turn at I1 –

120 deg, Bend angle I1 – 60deg; Tangent points at I1 T1 – 4995037 N, 587129 E; Tangent points at I1
T2 – 4993037 N, 587129 E; Tangent points at I2 T3 – 4991959N, 587752E; Tangent point at I2 T4 –
4989673N, 587551; Length of pipeline:14228 m)
2. Determine the length of a pipeline with following co-ordinates for points:
Start: 6035000 N, 458750 E; IP1: 6032203 N,458248 E
IP2: 6023464 N, 458621 E; End: 6013851 N, 456069 E
The bend radius is 1200 metres.
(Answer: 21531 metres)
3. A side scan sonar survey is to be performed with a range of 60 meters. How many
survey lines are required to obtain overlap data for a route corridor of at least 300
meters? What is the total width of surveyed corridor?
(Answer: 7 survey lines; 360 meters)


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CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY

Module on Pipeline Engineering

PIPELINE ROUTE DESIGN

D-2: PIPELINE ROUTE DESIGN

Cranfield University, Cranfield, England, January 2016

2 PRELIMINARY PIPELINE ROUTING

Cranfield University, Cranfield, England, January 2016

Figure 2.1 - Example of Admiralty Chart

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Figure 2.2 - Illustration of Topographical Map

2.2 Route Considerations

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Environmental: A pipeline route that affects underwater habitats of protected species or

Construction Hazards: It will be necessary to consider the implications of a route on

2.3 Preliminary Route Design

In designing a route, some further considerations are:

Cranfield University, Cranfield, England, January 2016

Figure 2.3a: Preliminary Route Consisting of Straight Lines

Figure 2.3b: An Example of a Typical Field Layout based on Admiralty Chart

Cranfield University, Cranfield, England, January 2016

Figure 2.3C: Another Example of a Pipeline Route (Shown on Admiralty Chart)

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Figure 2.4 – Pipeline Bend

Where two bends are in close proximity, a

Cranfield University, Cranfield, England, January 2016

Cranfield University, Cranfield, England, January 2016

This section does not discuss land pipeline route surveys.

3.1 Survey Equipment

Summary Information on Survey Equipment

For Route Geophysical Data

Gyro Compass A high accuracy compass.

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For Geotechnical Data

Van Veen Grab It is a small ‘grab’ used to collect surface soils.

Mini Trovane Used for in-situ assessment of soil shear strength.

TSD Probe Used to measure water particle velocity

Water Sampler Used for sampling of the seawater.

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Figure 2.6 – Typical Arrangement of Survey Equipment for Offshore Survey

3.2 Survey Activities

Figure 2.7 - Graphical Representation of Side Scan Sonar Range

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Figure 2.8 – Side scan Tow Fish

Figure 2.9 - An Example of 3-line Survey

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Figure 2.10 - A Schematic of Sub-bottom Profiler

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Figure 2.11 – Bathymetric Data Recording by Echo sounder

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Figure 2.12 – Seabed Profile Recording by Side Scan Sonar

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Figure 2.13 – Sub-bottom Geology Recording by Sub-bottom

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3.3 Water Depth Data

3.3.1 CHART DATUM:

3.3.2 TIDE LEVELS:

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Figure 2.14 – Various Sea Surface Levels

3.4 Seabed Soils Data

Sub-bottom profiler provides non-intrusive method of assessing sub-surface geological

Figure 2.15: A Typical Van Veen Grab

Figure 2.16: Drop Corer being Dropped

Figure 2.17a - A Typical Drop Corer

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