Talk and Action

In speaking to another, people make use of sentences or to be more

precise, tterances. We can attempt to classify these utterances in any one of a
variety of ways:

1. By length, e.g, by counting the number of words in utterances

2. By grammatical structure along a number of dimension, e.g, by their
clausal type and complexity: active-passive, statement-question-
request-exclamatory, various combination and so on
3. By semantic or logical structure for each utterances.

A. Speech Acts
One thing that many utterances do is make propositions; they do this
mainly in the form of either statements or questions but other
grammatical forms are also possible. These are the example:
a) Your breakfast’s ready?
b) Have you called your mother?
c) I’m busy today
The examples above are connected in some way with even or
heppening in a possible word. There are different kinds of
proposition.
1) Constative utterances
2) Ethical proposition: maybe true or false, although not in the
same sense, example:
Big boys don’t cry
God is love
You must tell the truth
3) Phatic: the utterance just for affective value as indicators that
one person is willing to talk to another and that a chanel of
communication is either being opened or being kept open.
Example: nice day!
 How do you do
You are looking smart today!
4) Performative utterances: is not just saying something but is
actually doing something if certain real-world conditions are
made (auistin 1975)
Example: ‘i sentence you to five years in jail’, in this example
judge gives the punishment to the criminalist by sending him to
the jail to five years.
‘i name this ship “titanic”’, in certain circumstances
is to name a ship.
‘i do’, in other circumstances is to find oneself a
husband or a wife-or a bigamist.

Austin divides performatives into five categories:

1. Verdictives: typified by the giving of a verdict, estimate,
grade of or appraisal. Example ; we find the accused guilty
2. Exercitives: the exercising of power, rights, or influences as
in appointing, ordering, warning, or advising. Example; I
pronounce you husband and wife
3. Commissives: typified by promising or undertaking, and
committing one to do something. Example; I hereby
bequeath
4. Behabitatives; having to do with such matters as
apoligizing, congratulating, blessing, cursing or
challenging. Example: I apologize
5. Expositives: refer to how ones make utterances fit into an
argument or exposition. Example: I argue, I reply, I
assumpt.

Searle has indicated 6 ways in which we can make requests or give orders even in
directly:
1. Focus on the hearer’s ability to do something, example : can you pass the
salt? , have you got change for a dollar?
2. Focus on the speaker’s wish or desire that the hearer will do something,
example : I would like you to go now
3. Focus on the hearer’s actually doing something, example : Aren’t you
going to eat your cereal?
4. Focus on the hearer’s willingness or desire to do something, example :
would you mind not making so much noise?
5. Focus on the reason for doing something, example: you are standing on
my foot; it might help if you shut up.
6. Those that embed one of the above types inside another, example: I would
appreciate it if you could make less noise; might I ask you to take of your
hat

B. Cooperation

Grice (1975) maintains that the overriding principle in

conversation is the cooperative principle: make your conversational
contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by
accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are
engaged.

There are 4 maxims that follow from cooperative principle:

1. Quantitiy requires you to make your contribution as

informative as is required
2. Quality requires you not to say what you believe to be false or
that for which you lack adequate effidence
3. Relation is the simple in junction: be relevant
4. Manner requires you to avoid obscurity of expression and
ambiguity and orderly
C. Conversation
When we look at how actual speech or conversation is organized,
we begins to appreciate how complex it is as soon as we try to devise any
kind of system for talking about the various bits and pieces that occur and
recur. One particularly important principle used in the conversation is the
adjacency pair. Utterance types of certain kinds are found to co-occur: a
greeting leads to a return of greeting; a summons leads to a response; a
question leads to an answer; a request or offer leads to an acceptance or
refusal, a complaint leads to an apology or some kind of rejection; a
statement leads to some kind of confirmation or recognition; a
complement leads to acceptance or rejection; a farewell leads to farewell;
and so on. This basic pairing relationship provides the possibilities of both
continuity and exchange in that it enables both parties to say something
and for these somethings to be related. It also allows for options in the
second member of each pair and for a kind of chaining effect. A question
can lead to an answer, which can lead to a comment, which can lead to an
acknowledgement, and so on.
Conversation is a cooperative activity also in the sense that it
involves two or more parties, each of whom must be allowed the
oportunity to participate. Once a conversation has been initiated and the
opening forms have been exchanged, it will be necessary to establish a
topic or topics on which to talk.
One party may have something he or she whishes to convey to, or
discuss with the other. Speaking arround and about a topic requires what
has been called floor management, i.e. , ensuring that everyone gets to
make the contribution he or she whishes to make. Speakers may overlap
one another so that simultaneous talk will occur , there will be bad-channel
cues given and taken (often verbal encouragements ) and almost certainly
some synchronicity of movements an gestures.
The use of language in the classroom by teachers and students
provide a good example. Most teaching involves a lot of talk, but
classroom talk is dominated by the teacher, who selects topics, sees that
participants stick to the chosen topics, and dicides how these will be
discussed and who will be a lowed , event nominated, to discuss them. The
teacher has special rights and also has the power to control much of what
happens in the classroom. Classroom conversation is different from
ordinary conversation in the sense that the teacher may be said to ‘own’
the conversation, whereas in ordinary conversations such ownership may
be said to be shared. You own a conversation when you control such
matters as topic selection, turn taking, and even beginnings and endings.
Classroomm conversations have officially appointed managers just like
coronations, parliamentary debates, religious services, court hearings, and
so on.