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04 - Loadflow Theory PDF
04 - Loadflow Theory PDF
Table of Contents
2 Calculation Methods
The most important calculation methods for the solution of loadflow problems are described in detail in the re-
ferred literature (e.g. /1/ /2/). It is important for the application that the implemented procedure determines the
solution fast and reliably. Since the loadflow problem (in contrast to the short-circuit calculation) represents a
non-linear problem, the solution can only be determined with an iterative process, which may, in some cases, not
lead to a solution.
The main difference between the many methods, which are used for loadflow calculations, lies in the specifica-
tion of the nodal equations. These can be set up using either the energy conservation law or Kirchhoff's law
(current equation).
Depending on the application, both nodal specification methods offer advantages, which explains why Power-
Factory supports both. Although both methods normally converge without any problems, experience has shown
that the applications of the two methods are best used as follows:
• Power equation: Large transmission networks with large angle deviations.
• Current equation: Systems, in which the voltage and/ or reactive power control is problematic, as well
as systems with power electronics.
To solve the system of equations, PowerFactory generally uses methods that are based on a Newton Raphson
iteration, independently of whether the nodal equations are specified as power or current equations.
Further, PowerFactory allows for the calculation of balanced and unbalanced load flows. In the classical load-
flow calculation system, the unbalances between phases are completely neglected. For the analysis of transmis-
sion networks this assumption is generally admissible. For distribution networks this assumption may be inap-
propriate depending on the characteristics of the system1. All balanced system elements can be represented by a
single-phase equivalent circuit, which only represents the positive sequence component of a network (refer to
paper on “Short-circuit calculations”).
1
Distribution networks in America or Africa generally utilise single- or two-phase technologies. For such sys-
tems it is important that the full unbalanced "three-phase loadflow calculation" is used, which correctly models
all phases including (mutual) couplings. On the other hand, in some central european distribution systems the
balanced calculation perfectly applies.
-5-
ondary power control as the balance machine. Since this application is only used in transmission networks, it is
described in more detail in section 4.
xd I ,δ I
U 0 ,δU 0 U ,δU
Qmax
P, cos(ϕ )
P, U
U ,δU
Qmin
At rated voltage and current the output power can be represented by a circle in the PQ diagram. The radius of
this circle is equal to the specific output power of the machine:
S r = 3U r I r
Depending on the rotor induced voltage (L-L) and the load angle the output power of a synchronous generator
can be determined:
Ur
P= U 0 sin (δ U 0 − δ U )
Xd
Ur
Q= (U 0 cos(δ U 0 − δ U ) − U r )
Xd
Since the rotor induced voltage in steady state is proportional to the excitation current, a third condition can be
added to the PQ diagram, which represents the trajectory of maximum rotor induced voltage. This trajectory is
represented by a circle with the following centre co-ordinates:
P=0
U r2
Q=−
Xd
-7-
and radius:
U 0 rU r
r=
Xd
The two circles, maximum stator current and maximum excitation current cut each other at the nominal operat-
ing point of the machine.
Figure 3-2: Typical PQ diagram of a synchronous machine (in relation to rated power output)
For under excited operation it is more difficult to determine the operation limits. On the one hand the border of
static stability specifies the limitation, which depends, however, on both the parameters of the machine, as well
as the surrounding system. On the other hand, and usually more restrictive, the under-excited operation is lim-
ited due to heating of the end region of the armature by eddy-current losses.
Nevertheless, in an over-excited operating condition parasitic effects also exist, which result in the actual PQ
diagram deviating from the analytically derived diagram. Saturation effects also play a role, as the synchronous
reactance is then not constant, but depends on the operating point. For salient pole machines the influence of
magnetic anisotropy, which results in a difference between the d- and q-axis reactances, may not be neglected.
This results in the circle characteristics described above appearing as a spiral.
Owing to these parasitic effects it is customary to specify the operating limits by explicit parameters of maxi-
mum and minimum reactive power, which are determined from measurements and a detailed analysis of the
design.
3.4 Motor
Rs Xs Xr Rr/s
U Xm
2
An exception is the slip controlled asynchronous machine, as used for wind generators or small hydroelectric
power plants. These machines allow reactive power control using a current converter, which is connected to the
rotor circuit.
-9-
Unfortunately the resistance and reactance values of machines are usually unknown. Normally only the rated
power, power factor, voltage, number of pole pairs and maybe the maximum torque are available. PowerFac-
tory allows the user to enter just these operating values and is then able to approximate the equivalent electrical
circuit parameters from this limited information.
R'l X'l
U1 B'l/2 B'l/2 U2
L1
d31
L3
d12
d23
L2
∫ Hds = I
In the case of an infinitely long conductor with circular cross section is this equivalent to:
2πxH = I
The variable x describes the radial distance from the centre of the conductor. From this the magnetic flux den-
sity along a circle around the conductor can be calculated:
µ0
B = µ0 H = I
2πx
Resulting from a current in L1, the surface between two conductors (arranged according to Figure 3-5) is in-
duced by the following flux:
d 12
µ0 d 12
dx µ d12
Φ 12 = ∫ B( x)dx =
r
2π ∫r
x
I 1 = 0 ln
2π r
I1
For the calculation of the total flux, the currents in conductor 2 and 3 must also be considered. In the case of a
completely symmetrical arrangement all partial fluxes of conductor 3 eliminate themselves, which explains why
the current in conductor 3 does not influence the flux between L1 and L2. The total flux therefore is equal to:
µ 0 d12 µ r µ d12
Φ12 = ln I1 + 0 ln I 2 = 0 ln ( I 1 − I 2 )
2π r 2π d12 2π r
The inductance related the field external to the conductors is therefore:
µ 0 d12
Lext = ln
2π r
The influence of the magnetic field inside the conductors can be considered by the internal inductance. The in-
ternal inductance is frequency dependent. In case of a cylindrical conductor, the following low-frequency ap-
proximation is valid:
µ0 µr
Lint =
2π 4
The total inductance of the symmetrical three-phase line is:
µ0 µr d12
L = Lint + Lext = + ln
2π 4 r
Sometimes, the internal inductance is expressed by the equivalent geometric mean radius (GMR):
µr
−
GMR = re 4
For the calculation of the other overhead line parameters (resistance, capacitance) reference is made to the litera-
ture (e.g./2/).
- 11 -
3.6 Transformer
(1+t):1
rH xH xL rL
uH bm gm uL
P1,Q1 R X P2,Q2
U1 U2
S = P + jQ =
3
*
(U 2
U 1 − U 22
*
)
Z
where:
1 1 R + jX
= = 2 = G − jB
R − jX R + X 2
*
Z
Describing the voltages in polar coordinates:
U 1 = U 1e δ 1
U 2 = U 2 eδ 2
In transmission networks the relationship of R/X (and thus also of G/B) for overhead lines and cables lies in a
range of between 0.1 and 0.2. This explains why, for transmission lines, the voltage angles across a line primar-
ily depends on the active power flow, and the voltage drop across a line depends primarily on the reactive power
flow.
particular whereby the primary and secondary frequency control overlap each other. The description serves the
purpose of a better categorization and allows a good approximation of the active power sharing at different
points in time.
Inserting the frequency derivative into the swing equation of each generator, its active power contribution to-
wards the total required power can be determined:
Ji
∆Pi = ∆Ptot
∑ Ji
Usually with properly set power exchanges between areas and enough secondary spinning reserve in all areas,
the frequency deviation after the operation of the secondary control should equal zero. In this case, the output
power of the primary controlled generators should equal the output power just before the disturbance. On the
contrary, when there is a deficit of secondary reserve in an area of the system, the frequency will not return to its
nominal value and the machines under primary frequency control will still deviate from their dispatch power.
The few power stations in each network zone that participate in the secondary control adapt their output power in
such a way that the active power unbalance is compensated. The missing power due to the disturbance is thus
distributed among the secondary controlled generators according to the participation factors, which are individu-
ally set for the secondary controller of each machine.
The function g(n) describes the maximum coincidence, dependant on the number of connections, n. If a Gaus-
sian (normal) distribution is assumed for the coincidence, the coincidence functions reads:
1− g∞
g ( n) = g ∞ +
n
This function depends only on the coincidence of an infinite number of connections.
1,2
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
For the calculation of maximum branch utilization as well as the maximum voltage drop, PowerFactory uses a
probabilistic loadflow calculation, which is able to calculate both maximum and average currents as well as the
- 17 -
average losses. The probabilistic loadflow calculation used by PowerFactory can be applied to any system to-
pology, thus also to meshed low-voltage systems.
Not only can these low-voltage loads be attached to network nodes, but also arbitrarily to line sections, which
thus reduces the clutter of the single line diagram.
7 References
/1/ B. Oswald. Berechnung stationärer und quasistationärer Betriebszustände in Elektroenergieversorgungs-
netzen. VDE-Verlag, 1992
/2/ J. J. Grainger und W. D. Stevenson. Power System Analysis Mc. Graw Hill, 1994
/3/ DIgSILENT GmbH. PowerFactory Manual V13, 2002