CONTENTS

PAGE
NO.

LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………. i

LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………….. iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATION…………………………………………. v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………… 1

1.1 Background…………………………………………... 1
1.2 Problem statement………………………………….. 4
1.3 Objectives……………………………………………. 6
1.3.1 General objective……………………………. 6
1.3.2 Specific objective……………………………. 6
1.4 Hypothesis…………………………………………… 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………… 7

2.1 Introduction to water………………………………… 7

2.2 Water quality parameter……………………………. 8

2.2.1 Physical parameter…………………………. 9

2.2.1.1 Temperature…………………………. 9

2.2.1.2 pH……………………………………... 9

2.2.1.3 Total dissolved solid (TDS …………. 10

2.2.1.4 Dissolved oxygen (DO) …………….. 10

2.2.2 Chemical parameter…………………………. 11

2.2.2.1 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)…. 11

2.2.2.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)…. 11

i
 2.2.2.3 Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) ……… 12

2.2.2.4 Total Suspended Solid (TSS)………… 12

2.3 River uses in Malaysia………………………………… 13

2.4 Water Pollution………………………………………… 13

2.5 Local legislation………………………………………... 14

2.6 International Water Quality Standard......................... 14

2.7 Interim National Water Quality Standard (INWQS)…. 15

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY………………………………………. 19

3.1 Study Design…………………………………………… 19

3.2 Study Location…………………………………………. 19

3.3 Instrumentation………………………………………… 21

3.3.1 Multiparameter Probe YSI 556 MPS… 21

3.3.2 Spectrophotometer DR 2800………… 21

3.3.3 Multiparameter Probe Colorimeter….. 21

3.4 Procedure……………………………………………… 22

3.4.1 Water Sampling and Storing………… 22

3.4.2 Analysis and Laboratory Test……….. 22

3.4.2.1 In situ water quality monitoring……… 22

3.4.2.2 Laboratory Analysis…………………… 22

i. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)….. 22

ii. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)…… 23

iii. Total Suspended Solid (TSS)…………. 23

iv. Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N)………… 23

ii
 3.5 Data analysis……………………………………………. 24

3.6 Project flowchart………………………………………… 25

3.7 Gantt chart……………………………………………….. 26

REFERENCES………………………………………………………….. 27

iii
LIST OF FIGURES

Page No
Figure 1 Steps on proposing Water Quality Standards… 25
Figure 2 Satellite image of sampling point locations……. 31
Figure 3 Project flowchart for final year project…………. 36
Figure 4 Gantt chart of final year project…………………. 37

LIST OF TABLES

Page No
Table 1 Interim National Water Quality Standard……. 26
Table 2 DOE Water Index Qualify Classification…….. 27
Table 3 Water Classification and its Uses……………. 27
Table 4 Sampling Point Coordinate…………………… 31

iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS

INWQS Interim National Water Quality Standard

WQI Water Quality Index
DOE Department of Environment
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
NH3-N Ammoniacal Nitrogen
et al. (Et Alia): And Others
DO Dissolved Oxygen
TSS Total Suspended Solid
TDS Total Dissolved Solid
EQA Environmental Quality Act
L Litre
m Meter
mg Milligram
mL Millilitre
mg/mL Milligram Per Millilitre
TP Total Phosphate
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
TCU True Colour Unit
ANOVA Analysis of Variance

v
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

The river is a big, stream of flowing water that runs off from high hills,
mountains and cliffs. The water is a natural flowing watercourse, generally
freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. Sometimes a
river flow ends its course into the ground and dry without connecting to another
body of water (Mohamed & Saphira, 2006). In addition, some rivers flow
continuously all year, while others flow in accordant to their seasons. (Miguez-
Macho & Fan, 2012) did a study on the role of groundwater in the seasonal
cycle of the Amazon river, which is the largest river system on the planet.
Moreover, the river holds the functionality for human survival. Majority of the
area of Sarawak is surrounded by river systems that play a vital role in its
socio-economic development. It caters Sarawak with a stable water supply,
rich soil, irrigation and hydroelectric power supply (Ling et al., 2017).

The condition of fresh, clean water can be disrupted by the introduction

of contaminants into the natural environment, which then causes the quality of
water to degrade, ultimately leading to water pollution. The Selangor river will
continue to suffer from water quality degradation for many years to come if the
pollution loads that are coming from poultry farms, municipal wastewaters and
industrial wastewater are not handled successfully (Fulazzaky, Seong, &
Masirin, 2010). Rivers, oceans and lakes suffer from water pollution and
eutrophication due to an increase in the influx of wastewater. This is due to
rapid industrial, economic and agricultural development without the
construction of a proper infrastructure of treatment facilities (Kozaki et al.,
2016). Pollution leads to public health problems and the aquatic lives living
within the water itself. Contaminants may comprise organic and inorganic
substances. The impacts of polluted raw water comprise the risk of waterborne
disease outbreaks. Additionally, microbial and heavy metal pollution in water

1
can disrupt the food chain and cause serious health effects (Abdullah & Zaki,
2018). There are two main sources of pollution, either point sources and non-
point sources. The study at Sungai Selangor basin found that there was high
amount of ammoniacal nitrogen, BOD and COD. The extreme reading of the
parameters may be influenced by point sources and non-point sources of
pollution (Uddin Chowdhury, Adham, Che Mood, Wan Jaafar, & Othman,
2018). Storm drain, wastewater treatment plant or stream are some of the
examples of point source, while agricultural runoff is one of the non-point
source.

In Malaysia, water pollution issue is a long-term concern that has

plagued the country for many years. Approximately 2,292 industries were
identified as the main water pollutant sources in Peninsular Malaysia by the
Department of Environment (DOE). 3 industries were the major contributor of
the pollution which were 928 (40%) food and beverage factories, 324 (14.1%)
from premises that produce rubber and finally 270 (11.4%) from chemical
producers. Based on the water pollution sources distribution by state in
Peninsular Malaysia, the large or main contributor was Selangor (414), Johor
(384), Pulau Penang (328) and Perak (253). On top of that, these states are
also the region where it is most industrialized in Peninsular Malaysia (Muyibi,
Ambali, & Eissa, 2008).

The assessment of river water quality can be assessed with several

important water quality parameters or individual parameters (Uddin
Chowdhury et al., 2018). Water quality testing is a vital part of environmental
monitoring. The parameters that affect the quality of water exist in different
properties. These properties can either be physical, chemical or biological
factors. Some examples of physical parameters are temperature and turbidity
while chemical parameters include Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD),
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N), pH and
dissolved oxygen (DO). Biological indicators of water quality consist of algae
and phytoplankton.

The pollution of freshwater sources such as the river and lakes can
cause many adverse effects to the environment and the ecosystem.
Furthermore, it will also affect the convenience level for humans and animals
2
who need water in their daily lives. Pollution to recreational water such as the
river, beach and waterfalls can disrupt the comfort for leisure activities. A good
water quality gives more enjoyment to recreational water users from their
chosen activity (Wade et al., 2010). Also, poor quality of freshwater sources
can render it useless for the purpose of clean water and drinking water
supplies. River play a major role in carrying off wastewater and run off from
municipal, industrial and agricultural land. Inflows from river are the contributor
of main pollutants to most lakes in a watershed, therefore it tends to cause
serious ecological and sanitary problems (XiaoLong, YongLong, JingYi,
GuiZhen, & TieYu, 2007).

In Malaysia, the trend of river pollution according to statistics does not

bode well in recent years. In the year 2014, the quality of river of Malaysia had
worsen significantly than the year before. In the report, a total of 477 rivers
were assessed. 51% of these rivers were categorized as clean, which is a drop
from 58% in the year 2013 (Ling et al., 2017). While, the number of polluted
rivers increased from 6% in 2013 to 10% in 2014. The trend that follows four
years afterwards also does not make up a good reading. The quality of river in
Malaysia dropped again and showed no signs of improvement, clean river rate
fell to 47%(2016) and 46%(2017) while polluted river rate soared to 10%(2016)
and later 11%(2017) (Sekitar, 2017).Therefore, the trend of river pollution in
Malaysia continues to degrade since the last four years and it is a sign of
concern if no appropriate measures are being taken.

The Semenyih river originates from Hulu Semenyih hill located around
450 metre from sea level. The hill is where the river basin lies which specifically
is the Semenyih dam. The river flows from the Semenyih dam down the hills
and streams of Kajang, Semenyih and all the way to Bangi and Sepang, before
joining the stream of Langat river at Bangi. There are many settlements and
residents that live near the river bank. Semenyih river has been made use and
contributed to a variety of anthropogenic human activities such as agriculture,
industry, oil palm plantations. The river water is also widely used for forests,
water bodies and settlements. Furthermore, the Semenyih river tributary
mainly Sungai Tekala is a famous site for visitors and tourists to spend leisure

3
time and do recreational activities (Fawaz Al-Badaii, Mohammad Shuhaimi-
Othman, 2013).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The issue of river pollution has long been a discussion subject in almost
certainly every country in the world. The effect of these pollution can cause
detrimental impacts to plants, aquatic and animal lives in the surrounding area
and even on human life because many types of diseases can be transmitted
through direct contact with the polluted water (Alina, Cîrciu, Ersilia, &
Antoanela, 2014). Moreover, pollution can also cause other inconvenience to
humans such as rancid environmental smell and inability to use the river for
fishing and transportation. An increase in anthropogenic activities along with
existing land use practises can increase load of pollutants such as nutrients
and microbes into water bodies that can harm public health (XiaoLong et al.,
2007)

In addition, the water quality status of rivers in Malaysia has been a

worry for many local authorities, government agencies and the public. Rivers
in Malaysia are generally regarded as polluted with prime examples such as
Juru river in Penang, Klang river in Selangor and Segget river in Johor
(Zainudin, 2010). These statistics show an alarming reflection of the overall
river quality of Malaysia. The world of development is evolving and will be
sustained that way for a long time to come. Also, Malaysia has a poor solid
waste management and sewage system, causing accidental flow and mixing
into the soil which subsequently mixes with the river. An estimated 20% of
Malaysia waste is burned, dumped into river or at illegal sites where only 5%
is properly recycled (Periathamby, Hamid, & Khidzir, 2009). Other than that,
there are no stringent restriction to industrial sites that dispose industrial waste
into the rivers. Therefore, it has been a main concern that the surface water
and more specifically, our river level of quality does not have a certainty of
getting any better in the future.

Moreover, in the end October of the year 2016, the Semenyih river was
critically polluted by a chemical substance that came from industrial illegal
dumping. The pollution posed a serious health threat as it was contaminated

4
by a highly poisonous substance called 4-bromodiphenyl ether. The source of
contamination originated from the Nilai drainage system that consequently
flows into Semenyih river (The Star Online, 2016). Furthermore, the river
continued to suffer from pollution by the end of November. Environmentalist
saw an extraction of water from Semenyih river to be used by factories that are
located just several feet away from the river. Discharge of effluent that might
not be treated before discharging was also witnessed.

Additionally, previous studies on water quality assessment conducted

by Fawaz Al-Badaii and Mohammad Shuhaimi-Othman (2013) at Semenyih
river found that the river was slightly polluted based on several parameters
which are ammoniacal nitrogen, total suspended solid, chemical oxygen
demand and nitrate whereas it was extremely contaminated with phosphorus
and faecal coliform. Also, Al-Badaii, Abdul Halim and Shuhaimi-Othman (2016)
did another study at Semenyih river, this time on the evaluation of dissolved
heavy metals. They stated that mining, agricultural, industrial activities and
deforestation influence the presence of heavy metals in the river. Therefore, it
is intriguing to see if the Semenyih river has recovered from this pollution or
remains contaminated as what had been found by previous studies.

This study aims to assess and determine the overall water quality of
the Semenyih river in terms of physical and chemical parameters by using
the standard categorized by the Interim National Water Quality Standard
(INWQS). Additionally, the study also aims to identify the potential sources of
pollution that pollutes the river and compare the results with previous studies
that are also conducted at Semenyih river.

5
1.3 OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 General Objective

1.3.1.1 To evaluate the water quality of Semenyih river with compliance to the
standards set by Interim National Water Quality Standard if Malaysia (INWQS).

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

1.3.2.1 To determine the physical and chemical parameters of Semenyih

river

1.3.2.2 To compare the reading of parameters with the INWQS

1.3.2.3 To compare the readings between different sampling points from

upstream until downstream.

1.3.2.4 To identify the sources of pollution at Semenyih river

1.3.2.4 To compare the data of the study with the data of previous
studies at Semenyih river

1.4 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

1.4.1 The Semenyih river water quality complies with the standard set by
INWQS.

1.4.2 The physical and chemical parameters of Semenyih river complies with
INWQS.

1.4.3 The readings between different sampling points are slightly polluted at
upstream than downstream.

1.4.4 The Semenyih river is polluted by several sources from anthropogenic

and industrial activities.

1.4.5 The data of the study is almost on identical trend with previous studies
at Semenyih river

6
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 WATER

Water is the one of the basic essences of life. The earth is made up of 2/3
water. Also, it makes up more than 70% of our body, it is impossible for life to
survive without water. Good water quality is a necessity for all living being. The
dependent on water is so crucial that even modern technologies could not be
a substitute to it (Abdullah & Zaki, 2018). Water also serves as a variety of
uses for us humans in our daily lives. Water provides cleaning and sanitation
for our body and also the things around us, water is a natural resource which
can have many different purposes, namely for drinking, domestic, irrigation
and industrial use mainly depending on its intrinsic quality (Rowshon et al.,
2014). It is important to make sure clean environment and surrounding for the
well-being of our health. A river is a run of water that starts in the mountains
and flows downward up until it connects to the ocean. The river water travels
through land, hills and plains. The water at the initial stage is torrential as it is
caused by rainfall and melting of ice. Every so often the land levels suddenly
change and shifts, which cause the formation of waterfalls, this is where water
flows gain momentum and speed. Afterwards, as it reaches the flat grounds, it
will flow slowly and steadily facing obstacles along the way which helps form
the curve or turns of rivers which are called ‘meanders’.

The condition of fresh, clean water can be disrupted by the introduction

of contaminants into the natural environment, which then causes the quality of
water to degrade, ultimately leading to water pollution. Moreover, surface
waters are very susceptible to pollution due to the ease of access for disposal
of wastewater. Both the natural and anthropogenic influences determine the
quality of water in a region (Mohd et al., 2011). Pollution leads to public health
problems and the aquatic lives living within the water itself. Contaminants may
comprise organic and inorganic substances. It can also act as the mean of

7
spreading water-borne diseases among the public. Pollution of river comes
from point and non-point sources. Domestic and industrial wastewater are the
main point sources accountable for degraded river water (Abdullah & Zaki,
2018). Storm drain, wastewater treatment plant or stream are some of the
examples of point source. Furthermore, human activities such as urbanization,
increased industrial activities, extravagant use of fertilizers for agricultural
production and the discharge of untreated wastewater are a major cause of
surface water pollution (Uddin Chowdhury et al., 2018).

2.2 WATER QUALITY PARAMETER

The rate of how high the degree of contamination of the water can be assessed
and measured by the evaluation of several parameters, which are given
qualification by the standards set by the national agencies. A study that was
conducted by Kozaki et al., (2016) on water quality used several parameters
such as DO, COD, Ph and total phosphate (TP). Water quality testing is a vital
part of environmental monitoring. The parameters that affect the quality of
water exist in different properties. A good water quality is essential for a healthy
river and ecosystem. Aquatic life requires a water that is in good condition in
order to thrive. They become stressed when the conditions are not met.
Furthermore, they could die if the condition remains poor and unsuitable.
Therefore, water quality parameters of different types must be measured in
order to determine how healthy and safe a river is to be used for any purpose.
Before trying to develop a water quality or river index, there are a few
parameters that need to be in consideration. These parameters can be
classified into four groups which are chemical, physical, biological and
radioactive (DIVISION, 2009). Temperature and turbidity are some of the
physical properties, Chemical parameters include pH and dissolved oxygen
while biological indicators of water quality consist of algae and phytoplankton.
In a study about sustainable river quality management in Malaysia, six
parameters which are DO, BOD, COD, TSS, pH and NH are used for the
assessment of the overall status of the river water (Abdullah & Zaki, 2018).
These parameters can be applied not only to surface water studies of the
ocean, lakes and rivers, but also to groundwater and industrial processes.
Researchers can benefit from water quality monitoring by predicting and

8
learning from natural processes of the environment and assess impacts of
human activities on an ecosystem.

2.2.1 Physical Parameter

2.2.1.1 Temperature

Temperature is regarded as the degree of hotness or coldness which can be

measured in degree Celsius. The temperature of water needs to be regularly
monitored as disease and stress will be more prevalent if it is outside the
tolerable range (S Vijay, 2016). Temperature plays an important role in
determining water quality. Temperature can influence other physical and
chemical parameters of water. Some of the properties that temperature can
affect are dissolved oxygen concentration, conductivity, pH and water density.
Temperature is an important factor in the aquatic environment that controls a
wide array of physical and chemical activities (Sandeep and Kumar, 2013).
Some organisms such as aquatic plants prefer warmer temperatures while
some fishes favour colder water. Furthermore, a slight change in water
temperature can increase physiological function of some organisms and the
activity of enzymes in biological and chemical reactions. Other than that,
certain compounds’ rate of toxicity and solubility such as zinc, lead and
cadmium can greatly increase as water temperature increase. Also, the
mortality rate that the heavy metals can cause is significantly higher at hotter
temperature because permeability, oxygen consumption and metabolic rate
are increased with increased water temperature.

2.2.1.2 pH

pH is the measurement of concentration of hydrogen ion in water. Moreover,

pH is a value based on a defined scale, water status condition is indicated by
whether it is acidic or alkaline, a solution rate of acidity and basicity are
quantified by pH (Purushottam and Parag, 2015). The pH of 7 is regarded as
neutral. Furthermore, the water is more acidic as the pH number is lower than
7 while it is more basic the higher from 7 the pH number is. The effects of acids
and alkalis rely on the concentration of acid and alkali. Strong acids or alkalis
are corrosive while dilute acids and alkalis are safe from corrosive properties.

9
2.2.1.3 Total dissolved solid

Total dissolved solid is the combined total concentration of dissolved

substances in water, it is also a good general indicator of water quality. TDS
designates the general nature of salinity of water. Water that contain high TDS
has salty taste and that can damage the surface of cooking vessels and boilers
(Gupta et al., 2009). In addition, Total dissolved solid is made up of minerals,
organic matter and salts. The minerals can come from several sources mainly
the result of human activities and natural occurrence. Total dissolved solid is
an important property of water in the consideration of its use for irrigation
(Purushottam and Parag, 2015). Excess minerals coming from industrial
wastewater discharge, agriculture and urban run-off is mixed with water and
causes an increase in total dissolved solid.

2.2.1.4 Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen is the level of free oxygen present in a body of liquid or

water. Dissolved oxygen is a barometer for the health of river and an important
factor for aquatic life and plants (Kannel, Lee, Lee, Kanel, & Khan, 2007).
Oxygen dissolves in water by two main ways which are through the air or from
a plant photosynthesis process. Aeration is a process where wind, waterfalls
or any forms of running water cause the oxygen from the atmosphere to be
mixed with water below it. In addition, photosynthesis that happens underwater
contribute to the dissolved oxygen of the water. Dissolved oxygen is an
essential indicator of water quality, productivity, ecological status and health of
a water bodies (Sarda & Sadgir, 2015). Fish and crustaceans need oxygen for
respiration, while phytoplankton need it whenever there is absence of light for
photosynthesis. Decomposition also requires dissolved oxygen for the process
to happen, microbes such as bacteria decompose organic material at the lower
part of a body of water. Moreover, creatures from different depth of the water
body require different amount of dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen is
commonly contained from fast moving water at mountain stream or large river,
whereas there is less in stagnant and still water (Kale, 2008). Therefore, the
level of dissolved oxygen is unique to the specific type of water body that is
assessed.

10
2.2.2 Chemical Parameter

2.2.2.1 Biological oxygen demand (BOD)

Biological oxygen demand is a measurement of the amount of oxygen used by

microorganisms in the oxidation of organic matter. Biological oxygen demand
(BOD) is a basic parameter that is widely used in the assessment of the
presence of organic contaminants in water and wastewater. The United
Kingdom first used the parameter in early 1900s as an indicator of organic
contamination from sewage sources (Zainudin, Mohamed, & Ramli, 2010). In
water quality assessment, the test for BOD is defined as the required amount
of oxygen for the decomposition of organic matter under standard condition,
time and temperature (Ghosh et al., 2018). Furthermore, the measurement of
BOD is most commonly expressed in mg/L of sample in 5 days incubation at
20 degree Celsius. BOD water is increased when the microbes present in
water need higher oxygen usage for the degradation of organic content
(Gupta, Vishwakarma, & Rawtani, 2009). Moreover, high level of organic
matter which can come from sewage and discharges causes a higher use of
oxygen by microorganism in the process of decomposition. A greater BOD
reading means the depletion of oxygen in the stream is much faster, which
shows that less oxygen is available for the use of aquatic life. As a result,
aquatic organisms would become suffocated, stressed and eventually die.
River water quality is deteriorated with extreme level of BOD because of rapid
decomposition of organic matter and the reduction of dissolved oxygen (Hur &
Cho, 2012).

2.2.2.2 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

Chemical Oxygen Demand is defined as the amount of dissolved oxygen

required to stabilize and oxidize a sample when inorganic or organic matter
react in a sample solution react strongly to a strong chemical oxidant (Alam,
2015). The measurement of COD is a parameter often used for treatment of
wastewater, which is to assess the amount of organic pollutants contained in
it (Yao, Wang, & Zhou, 2014). The test is conducted in a laboratory
environment of which closed water sample is incubated with a chemical
oxidant under a set of conditions of temperature for a specific period.

11
Furthermore, common COD reagent used for the test is potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7) which is used together with sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Additionally, the
unit that is used for the measurement of COD is mg/L. High COD level can be
caused by many different types of sources. Human activities on the watershed
produce agricultural and sewage run-offs into reservoir and had negative effect
on the quality of water and the subsequent high rate of decomposition (Sarda
& Sadgir, 2015).

2.2.2.3 Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N)

Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) is a toxic pollutant, which is defined as the

measure of amount of ammonia that can be found in landfill leachate, waste
products and other organic waste products (Abdul Aziz, Adlan, Zahari, & Alias,
2004; Manios, Stentiford, & Millner, 2002). Moreover, nitrogen is an important
plant nutrient that is mostly contained in fertilizers, human and animal wastes,
and the atmosphere air. Approximately 80% of gas in the atmosphere is
nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas diffuses into water, where blue-green algae
converts them to ammonia for algal use. Additionally, nitrogen can enter
streams and lakes as ammonia and inorganic nitrogen (Gorde & Jadhav,
2013). Ammoniacal nitrogen is a parameter which is adopted as an indicator
for sewage pollution determination and water quality assessment. Other than
that, extreme amount of ammonia nitrogen can cause adverse effect.
Excessive amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in water can cause odour and taste
problem, it could also introduce a psychological issue to consumers who will
think that the water source is polluted with sewage. Wastewater that is high in
the amount of ammonia nitrogen would hinder the natural nitrification and
cause deficiency of oxygen in water, which then cause fish poisoning.
Furthermore, it reduces the water purification capacity and do great harm to
water environment (Garrido, Guerrero, Méndez, & Lema, 1998). The unit that
is used for the measurement for ammoniacal nitrogen is mg/L.

2.2.2.4 Total suspended solid (TSS)

Total suspended solids are particles that are bigger than 2 microns that can
be found in a water body. TSS are made up of inorganic materials, bacteria
and algae. TSS is the whole amount of organic and inorganic particles that are

12
dispersed in water. Moreover, TSS can be measured in a few ways, most of
which involve the measuring of dry weight sediment from a volume of a sample
from a water source (USEPA, 2006). The sources of TSS of wastewater in a
treatment plant include phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter. The strength
of waste can be often described by the amount solids contained (Alam, 2015).
Other sources of TSS can come from natural sources such as soil erosion, run
off and stirred bottom sediments.

2.3 RIVER USES IN MALAYSIA

In Malaysia, the rivers are commonly used for the same purposes as the other
regions of the world. As in the many parts of the world, water from rivers and
streams in Malaysia are mostly used for domestic needs, agriculture, industry,
aquaculture, recreational use as well as the generation of hydroelectric power.
Rivers are important as they contribute largely to the nation’s economic
development, social and cultural needs as well as the natural environment
(Halim, 2009). Locally, the Semenyih river is one of the main rivers in the state
of Selangor, Malaysia. It is considered as a source of domestic water supply
and cultivation (Fawaz Al-Badaii, Mohammad Shuhaimi-Othman, 2013).
Furthermore, the Kinta river at Ipoh, Perak is the most important water
resource in the city. The people of Ipoh get access to their drinking water
supply and irrigation from the river (Gazzaz, Yusoff, Aris, Juahir, & Ramli,
2012)

2.4 WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is a condition when a water body is contaminated with

substances that can harm the quality of the water. There are many sources for
water pollution. In the last few decades, intense industrial development has
added enormous loads of pollutants to our water resources such as rivers,
lakes and streams (Al-Badaii et al., 2016). One of the main causes of surface
water and groundwater pollution from a study at Banat river, Romania are the
discharging of untreated wastewater from households, industry and agriculture
(Alina et al., 2014; Ienciu, Oncia, Smuleac, Fazakas, & Nicolici, 2013).
Furthermore, the Batang Rajang river was contaminated from organic pollution
and suspended solids, leading to high ammoniacal nitrogen, TSS and COD

13
(Ling et al., 2017). A study that was conducted at Tunggak River, Pahang
concluded that the river water is not suitable for public consumption even with
extensive treatment, in fact it can only be used for irrigation according to
INWQS standards (Nasly, Hossain, & Islam, 2013). In addition, a study that
was done at Paka river, Terengganu found that 2 out of 8 water assessment
stations are polluted due to untreated palm oil factory sewage discharge
(Suratman, Awang, Ling, & Mohd Tahir Abstrak, 2009).

2.5 LOCAL LEGISLATION

The legislative framework for the protecting and conserving water and land
resources in Malaysia is developed by the enaction of the Water Act 1920
(amendment in 1989) and the Land Conservation Act 1960. The conservation
framework is further integrated in the legislation of the Environmental Quality
Act (EQA) 1974. However, the achievements in the protection and
conservation between the acts are fragmented by sectoral delegations of
authority with regards to the Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) principles (Weng, 2009). Moreover, legislations can be retained from
the Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974, which largely deals with point
source pollution from industrial and domestic sources (Malaysia, 2006). Other
than that, the protection of rivers are under other regulatory acts made
available specifically at State and Federal levels (Abdullah & Zaki, 2018)

2.6 INTERNATIONAL WATER QUALITY STANDARD

There is no set of water quality standards that is adopted for the use of all the
countries in the world. Each state, territory and authorized tribe need to have
its own legal and administrative procedures of adoption for water quality
standards. In general, standards are initiated, developed and proposed by a
work group process or an informal public meeting. The states, territories or
authorized tribes must follow the required water quality criteria standards that
are approved by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In
addition, the states or territories need to provide the procedures and analysis
that were used to develop the standards (Epa, 2017). The steps that are taken
in proposing a water quality standard in a state or territory are as the figure
below:

14
Figure 1: Process used by states or territories in the proposal of water quality
standards.

2.7 INTERIM NATIONAL WATER QUALITY STANDARD (INWQS)

Interim National Water Quality Standard (INWQS) is a standard which are

assigned by the Department of Environment Malaysia that shows the
parameter that represent the class of river and their categorization of uses that
are appropriate with that specific class. The INWQS consists of 17 parameters
is used for the water quality standard for Malaysia. The INWQS has a set of
standards that classify the surface water in Malaysia into six classes. These
classes are ranked from the best condition to the most polluted. The classes
are class I, IIA, IIB, III, IV, and V. Class I classify the water as acceptable to be
used for conservation of natural environment. For water supply it requires no
treatment while for fishery it is only suitable for very sensitive aquatic species.
Next is class IIA. A conventional treatment is required for water supply while it
is only suitable for sensitive aquatic species to live in. After that, water
classified at class IIB is for recreational use with body contact. Additionally, for
usage as water supply for water at class III, extensive treatment is required
while for fishery purpose, only common, tolerant species are suitable.
Moreover, water that falls into class IV is only suitable for use in irrigation while
there is no stated use for water at class V (Fulazzaky et al., 2010). The
research at Sungai Selangor Basin that was done by (Uddin Chowdhury et al.,
2018) uses the INWQS for the classification of water quality in his study. The

15
table below shows the classification of parameters according to their value and
also the descriptive uses of each classification.

Table 1: National Water Quality Standard Malaysia

UNI CLASS
PARAMETER
T I IIA IIB III IV V
Ammoniacal
mg/l 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.9 2.7 >2.7
Nitrogen
Biochemical
mg/l 1 3 3 6 12 >12
Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen
mg/l 10 25 25 50 100 >100
Demand
Dissolved Oxygen mg/l 7 5-7 5-7 3-5 <3 <1
6.5-
Ph - 6-9 6-9 5-9 5-9 -
8.5
Colour TCU 15 150 150 - - -
Electrical µS/c 100
1000 - - 6000 -
Conductivity* m 0
Floatables - N N N - - -
Odour - N N N - - -
Salinity ppt 0.5 1 - - 2 -
Taste - N N N - - -
Total Dissolved
mg/l 500 1000 - - 4000 -
Solid
Total Suspended
mg/l 25 50 50 150 300 300
Solid
Norm
o Normal
Temperature C - al + 2 - - -
o + 2 oC
C
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -
Cou
5000 5000
nt/1
Faecal Coliform** 10 100 400 (20000 (20000 -
00m
)* )*
l
Cou
nt/1 500 >5000
Total Coliform 100 5000 50000 50000
00m 0 0
l

Source: Table from Benchmarking River Quality Malaysia (Zainudin, 2010)

Notes:

N: No visible floatable materials or debris, no objectional odour or no

objectional taste

16
*: Related parameters, only one recommended for use

**: Geometric mean

a: Maximum not to be exceeded

Table 2: DOE Water Index Quality Classification

CLASS
PARAMETER UNIT
I IIA III IV V

Ammoniacal
mg/l <0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.9 0.9-2.7 >2.7
Nitrogen

Biochemical
mg/l >1 1-3 3-6 6-12 >12
Oxygen Demand

Chemical
mg/l <10 10-25 25-50 50-100 >100
Oxygen Demand
Dissolved
mg/l 7 5-7 3-5 1-3 <1
Oxygen
Ph mg/l >7 6-7 5-6 <5 >5
Total
150-
Suspended mg/l <25 25-50 50-150 >300
300
Solids (TSS)
Water Quality 76.5- 51.9- 31.0-
mg/l >92.7 <31.0
Index (WQI) 92.7 76.5 51.9

Source: Table from Benchmarking River Quality Malaysia (Zainudin, 2010)

Table 3: Classification of water and its uses

Class Uses
Conservation of natural environment
Class I Water supply I – Practically no treatment necessary
Fishery I – very sensitive aquatic species

Water supply II – conventional treatment

Class IIA
Fishery II – sensitive aquatic species

17
 Recreational use body contact
Class IIB
Water supply III – extensive treatment required

Fishery III – common, of economic value and tolerant species;

Class III
livestock drinking

Class IV Irrigation

Class V None of the above

Source: Table from Benchmarking River Quality Malaysia (Zainudin, 2010)

18
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 STUDY DESIGN

The study design for the research is by cross sectional study. The study is
done by collecting, analysing and assessing data collected from the water of
the river at two points of time. The parameters that are used for the sampling
are temperature, pH, total dissolved solid, total suspended solid, biological
demand, chemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen and ammoniacal
nitrogen

3.2 STUDY LOCATION

The location for the study is located at Sungai Semenyih, in Kajang. The river
begins at Bukit Ulu Semenyih and it the length of the river span along several
cities until it reaches the mouth of the river where it joins the stream of the main
stem, the Langat river. The source of the river is situated around less than
10km from the east of city of Kajang. There are several tributaries of the
Semenyih river which include Sungai Tekala, Sungai Batangsi, Sungai Lalang,
Sungai Macang, Sungai Rinching, Sungai Saringgit, Sungai Purun and others.
Semenyih river is easily accessible by walking from the main roads or
residentials that are nearby along the river. Six sampling stations were
selected in this study along the river. Six sampling stations were selected in
this study along the river (Figure 2). Station 1 were in the upstream area near
the Semenyih dam. Station 2 has deforestation and mining activities. Station
3 was positioned in area where human activities are plenty, especially from
residential area. Station 4 is one of the tributaries of Semenyih river which is
Rinching river, this river has residential area and was once impacted with
pollution coming from pig farming and garbage disposal site. Additionally,

19
station 5 is also a tributary, which is the Kembong Hilir river. This river goes
through residential area of Bangi residents. Furthermore, station 6, 7 and 8 are
in Jenderam Jilir around Bangi and affected by accumulated pollutants from
previous stations, water treatment plant and erosion.

Table 4: Sampling Point Coordinate

Sampling Point Coordinate

1 3.06516, 101.87639
2 2.97541, 101.86320
3 2.94664, 101.84771
4 2.92318, 101.82934
5 2.90556, 101.81344
6 2.88638, 101.80290
7 2.89176, 101.75993
8 2.89011, 101.73945

S1

S2

S3

S4
S7 S6
S8
S5
Figure 2: Satellite image of sampling point

20
3.3 INSTRUMENTATION

3.3.1 Multiparameter Probe YSI 556 MPS

The instrument is used to record on site parameters such as the temperature,

pH, total dissolved solid and dissolved oxygen. The probe is used simply by
submerging the probe sensor into the water surface about 1 meter deep. It will
take a few moments for the probe to record the exact reading, the value of the
reading fluctuates until it reaches a static value.

3.3.2 Spectrophotometer DR 2800

The spectrophotometer is an instrument used to measure the quantitative

measurement of the reflection or transmission properties of materials. This
particular instrument is used to measure the level of total suspended solid,
ammoniacal nitrogen and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Samples are put
into sample cells and reagent will be inserted into the machine to read the level
of certain parameter. Additionally, there are several reagents that are used
with this instrument for the measurement of parameter. For COD, the reagent
used is the COD reagent, which is a mixture of sulfuric acid and potassium
dichromate. Next, the reagents that are used for ammoniacal nitrogen are the
ammonia cyanurate reagent powder pillow and the ammonia salicylate reagent
powder pillow.

3.3.3 DR 900 Multiparameter Portable Colorimeter

This instrument is used to determine the level of ammoniacal nitrogen, total

suspended solid and chemical oxygen demand. Samples are put into vials
where it is then mixed with reagents to produce a reaction. The vials are then
inserted into the cell holder of the instrument for the measurement of
parameters level.

21
3.4 PROCEDURE

3.4.1 Water Sampling and Storing

1 litre of bottle of water sample is collected from each sampling points while
another bottle that has a fixed volume of 300ml is also used to collect the
samples, this bottle is specifically used for the measurement of biological
oxygen demand. The sampling is done twice for each sampling point in a
space of two weeks. All the samples collected are stored in a chilled box where
it is brought to the laboratory for parameter analysis. The duration of storing is
limited to 18 hours.

3.4.2 On site analysis and Laboratory test

3.4.2.1 In situ water quality monitoring using multiparameter probe

The Multiparameter YSI 556 is used to monitor the physical parameters of the
river. The reading of temperature, pH, total dissolved solid and dissolved
oxygen is taken from this instrument. The probe sensor of the instrument is
submerged approximately 1 meter into the water body, the reading will
fluctuate until it reaches a steady and fixed value. The reading is repeated 3
times for average reading. The data is recorded.

3.4.2.2 Laboratory analysis

Water samples from all 8 sampling points are taken and brought to the
laboratory for analysis. 2 types of bottles are used for the storage of water
samples which are the 300ml bottle for Biological Oxygen Demand analysis
and the 1 litre bottle for the analysis of chemical oxygen demand, total
suspended solid and ammoniacal nitrogen. The bottles are kept inside a chilled
box before they are transported to the laboratory. Analysis are executed within
18 hours after the samples are taken from the river to avoid spoilage of water
parameter properties. The Spectrophotometer HACH D2800 is used to run
analytical test.

i. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The method used for the calculation of BOD is the dilution method. However,
no dilution of samples is done since the expected BOD level of the river is

22
considered low. Therefore, 300ml volume of samples are used for the test. The
initial reading of dissolved oxygen from each bottle from 8 sampling stations
are taken and recorded. The bottles are then kept in a chilled box and stored
in a refrigerator. The temperature of the refrigerator is set to 20 degree Celsius.
All bottles are stored and left in the refrigerator for 5 days. Subsequently, the
bottles are taken out and the final reading of dissolved oxygen is taken from
all 8 bottles. The reading of BOD from each bottle is obtained by using the
formula to calculate BOD level in mg/L.

ii. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

The sample is blended until it is homogenized. The homogenized samples are

then poured into a beaker and stirred with a magnetic stir plate to increase test
accuracy. 2ml of samples are pipetted into the COD reagents vials and is
mixed thoroughly. A blank vial is also prepared by pipetting 2ml of distilled
water into a vial. The vials are placed into the DR2800 reactor for 2 hours. After
that, the reactor is turned off and the vials are left inside for approximately 20
minutes or until the temperature of the vials reach 120 degree Celsius and
below. Then, the vials are taken out and is flipped multiple times. The vials are
placed on a rack and left to be cooled to room temperature. Subsequently, the
vials are placed in the DR900 for the reading of COD level of the samples.
Reading is taken as mg/L

iii. Total suspended solids (TSS)

The total suspended solids are analysed by using the photometric method.
Firstly, the program 630 Suspended Solids are selected from the DR 900.
500ml of samples are blended at high speed for exactly 2 minutes before 10ml
of the blended sample is poured into a sample cell. A blank is also prepared
and poured into the sample cell. The blank cell is inserted into the cell holder
of the instrument to calibrate the reading to zero. Then, the sample cell is
inserted into the cell holder and the value of TSS in mg/L is read and recorded.

iv. Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N)

The Salicylate method is used for the analysis of ammoniacal nitrogen. The
program NH3-N is selected from the DR 900. 10ml of distilled water and

23
sample are respectively filled into sample cells. Then, Ammonia Salicylate
Reagent Powder Pillow is added to each sample cell before they are shaken
to dissolve. After 3 minutes, Ammonia Cyanurate Reagent Powder Pillow is
then added to each sample cell which also later shaken to dissolve the reagent.
After 15 minutes, the blank is placed into the cell holder and is covered with
the instrument cap. The instrument will read zero from the blank. Next, the
sample cell containing the sample is placed into the cell holder and covered.
The read button is pressed to display the reading of ammonia nitrogen in mg/L.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS

The IBM SPSS v18.0 is used for the purpose of analysing the results obtained
from the water monitoring process. The ANOVA one-way test is used to
compare the mean value of parameters and to determine the significance
between sampling points. A descriptive analysis of each parameters is done
to interpret and analyse the results obtained. Mean and standard deviation are
calculated and used for assessment of river quality parameters which are pH,
temperature, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solid, total suspended solid and
ammoniacal nitrogen. Additionally, one-time result obtained from the test
carried out for 2 parameters which are biological oxygen demand and chemical
oxygen demand is directly used for the assessment of river quality. All mean
and one-time results are compared with INWQS for the assessment and
categorizing of the river water quality. Furthermore, identification of activities
carried out along the river is carried out by consulting and observing the
Semenyih river areas on Google Maps. Poor level of water quality parameters
and the identification of activities occurring at the specified sampling point are
thoroughly gone through to determine the sources of pollution of the river.

24
3.6 PROJECT FLOWCHART

Figure 3: Project flowchart of water quality assessment at Semenyih river,

Kajang

25
3.7 GANTT CHART

First Phase (FYP 1)

Research Activity/ Month 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1

FYP Workshop and field
selection
Discussion with supervisor
• FYP title,
methods/analys
• Registration form
• Lab and instruments
prep
First draft submission and
submission of project
synopsis
Proposal presentation

Second Phase (FYP 2)

Research Activity 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1

Project preparation

FYP Project execution

Result analysis

Report writing

Report first draft submission

Thesis writing

FYP Project ends

Final report submission

FYP presentation

Submission of hard copy

report

Figure 4: Gantt chart for final year project

26
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