Tanks and Drums Protections

Tanks and Drums
Seán Moran, in Process Plant Layout (Second Edition), 2017

20.3.1.1 Fixed Roof Tank
Fixed roof tanks are simple cylindrical storage tanks that may have flat or (more commonly)
shallow conical roofs welded to the shell. They are commonly used to store large quantities of
petroleum distillates, petrochemicals, and other liquid chemicals at atmospheric pressure.
As the level of fluid in the tank rises and falls, air and/or vapor is pushed out and pulled into the
tank headspace. This means that vapor is lost to atmosphere during filling and, during emptying,
the tank may be crushed by internal vacuum if air cannot enter quickly enough. Vent design
should ensure that maximum fill and emptying rates can be catered for to prevent over or under
pressure in the tank which could result in damage to the tank. The cost of loss or damage to tanks
can be significant; therefore mitigations aimed at managing loss of product vapor for this style of
tank may be warranted.
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Storage Tanks
Trevor Kletz, in What Went Wrong? (Fifth Edition), 2009
Incorrect Operation
An explosion and fire occurred on a fixed-roof tank that was supposed to be blanketed with
nitrogen. After the explosion, it was found that the nitrogen supply had been isolated. Six months
before the explosion, the manager had personally checked that the nitrogen blanketing was in
operation. But no later check had been carried out [8].
All safety equipment and systems should be scheduled for regular inspection and test. Nitrogen
blanketing systems should be inspected at least weekly. It is not sufficient to check that the
nitrogen is open to the tank. The atmosphere in the tank should be tested with a portable oxygen
analyzer to make sure that the oxygen concentration is below 5%.
Large tanks (say, over 1,000 m3) blanketed with nitrogen should be fitted with low-pressure
alarms to give immediate warning of the loss of nitrogen blanketing.
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Inspection Practices and Frequency
In A Quick Guide to API 653 Certified Storage Tank Inspector Syllabus, 2011
5.4.10 Fixed roof inspection
Figure 5.13 shows some areas of inspection on a fixed roof tank. Most are to do with thickness
checking, normally just by a simple pulse-echo UT meter, pit gauge or calipers. The following
points regularly appear as exam questions:
•
Structural members, rafters and columns can corrode from both sides, resulting in a high
(double) corrosion rate
•
Corrosion is normally more serious in dents or depressions where rainwater has been
standing.
•
Evaluation of roof corrosion is not covered in API RP 575. It is covered by API 653 –
section 6 so we will look at it later in chapter 6 of this book.
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Safety and firefighting equipment, part 1
Alireza Bahadori PhD, in Personnel Protection and Safety Equipment for the Oil and Gas
Industries, 2015
9.18 Fixed-roof tanks containing high-flash liquids
When the stored product has a closed-cup flash point of 65°C (150°F) or higher, a fixed-roof
tank can be considered relatively safe. Then water for foam extinguishment is not required,
provided the following conditions are met:
If the product is heated, there must be no possibility of the storage temperature exceeding
either the flash point or 93°C (200°F).
There must be no possibility of hot oil streams entering the tank at temperatures above
93°C (200°F) or their flash point.
Cutter stock having a flash point below the storage temperature must never be pumped
into the tank for blending purposes.
Sufficient fire water should be available to cool exposed adjacent tankage in the event
of ignition. Then the tank should be pumped out or allowed to burn out.
The product should not be crude oil with boilover characteristics. If the product were
crude, the fire would have to be extinguished before the heat wave reached water at the
tank bottom.
Storage temperatures between 93°C (200°F) and 121°C (250°F) should be avoided, as
water lenses or water at the tank bottom may reach boiling temperature at any time,
resulting in a serious frothover.
If the product is heated above 121°C (250°F) foam extinguishment cannot be accomplished and
slopover will occur if foam is applied.
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Fire-fighting pump and water systems
Alireza Bahadori PhD, in Essentials of Oil and Gas Utilities, 2016
9.42 Fixed roof tanks containing high-flash liquids
When the stored product has a closed-cup flash point of 65°C (150°F) or higher, a fixed roof tank
can be considered relatively safe. Then water for foam extinguishment is not required, provided
the following conditions are met:
•
If the product is heated, there must be no possibility of the storage temperature exceeding
either the flash point or 93°C (200°F).
•
There must be no possibility of hot oil streams entering the tank at temperatures above
93°C (200°F) or their flash point.
•
Cutter stock having a flash point below the storage temperature must never be pumped
into the tank for blending purposes.
•
Sufficient firewater should be available to cool exposed adjacent tankage in the event
of ignition. Then the tank should be pumped out or allowed to burn out.
•
The product should not be crude oil with boil over characteristics. If the product were
crude, the fire would have to be extinguished before the heat wave reached water at the
tank bottom.
•
Storage temperatures between 93°C (200°F) and 121°C (250°F) should be avoided, as
water lenses or water at the tank bottom may reach boiling temperature at any time,
resulting in a serious frothover.
If the product is heated above 121°C (250°F) foam extinguishment cannot be accomplished and
slopover will occur if foam is applied.
9.42.1 Floating roof tanks
Floating roof tanks are considered virtually ignition proof, except for rim fires. Thus, there
should be sufficient firewater to cool the shell and extinguish a rim fire.
9.42.1.1 Pressure storage
The water requirement for cooling pressure storage spheres or drums may exceed the maximum
cone roof tank fire-water requirement when spheres are of large diameter, or when a number of
spheres or drums are closely spaced. However, when adjacent spheres are not over 15 m (50 ft.)
in diameter and are at least 30 m (100 ft.) apart, shell-to-shell, cooling of these spheres may be
disregarded.
9.42.1.2 Low-pressure refrigerated storage
Water for monitor cooling streams should be available to cool the tank shell if it is exposed to
fire. Water must not be applied directly to refrigerated LP-gas or cryogenic flammable liquid
spills or spill fires, since much more rapid vapor evolution or increased fire intensity will result.
9.42.1.3 Cooling water for exposed tankage
During a tank or sphere fire, cooling streams may be needed for adjacent tankage. However, this
does not apply to process units where flammable liquids are not contained in sufficient volume to
generate enough heat to require cooling adjacent tankage. Allow at least two 57 m3/h [250
US gallons per minute (gpm)] cooling streams, or a total of 114 m3/h (500 US gpm), for each
adjacent, unshielded fixed or floating roof tank within the following limits:
Within 15 m (50 ft.) of a burning tank or sphere of any size, regardless of wind direction.
Within one tank diameter and within a quadrant that will require the maximum amount
of cooling water for tanks that fall within the quadrant.
Within 45 m (150 ft.) of a sphere and within the most congested quadrant.
9.42.1.4 FireWater capacity versus crude throughput
Fig. 9.11 shows firewater capacity, in cubic meters per hour (thousands of US gpm), plotted
against crude throughput, in cubic meters per day (thousands of barrels per calendar day). The
curve represents an average of data collected from plants all over the world. This curve can be
used as a guide to the required quantity when calculating refinery firewater capacity by the
method prescribed in this section.
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Figure 9.11. Firewater Versus Crude Throughput
Firewater should be obtained from an unlimited source, such as a natural body of water. When
this is not possible, the supply should always be available in a storage tank or reservoir.
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Storage tanks
Geoff Barker IEng.,MEI., in The Engineer's Guide to Plant Layout and Piping Design for the Oil
and Gas Industries, 2018
15.2 Types of Tanks
Atmospheric storage tank—this type of tank operates from atmospheric pressure to
0.5 psi/0.034 bar.
Cone Roof Tank—this type of tank is a low-pressure storage tank with a fixed, cone-shaped roof

Closed floating roof tank—this has an internal floating roof but eliminates natural ventilation of
the tank vapor space. Instead, the CFRT is equipped with a pressure-vacuum (PV) vent and may
even include a gas blanketing system such as that used with fixed roof tanks, these tanks are
designed as in Appendix C of the API Standard 650

Fixed roof—this is a low-pressure tank with a roof welded to the shell, regardless of roof design
or support methods.

Double wall storage tank—is a tank with an inner wall to contain a liquid (as used in LNG
storage tanks), it has an annulus space filled with insulation and an outer wall.

Double wall storage tank
Bullet—this type of tank is a long cylindrical high-pressure storage vessel that is shaped like a
bullet.
Photo of bullets
Horton sphere—this is a spherical vessel used to store liquids and gases at high pressure.

Photo of a sphere
Intermediate storage (holding) tank—used for temporary storage of liquid until it reaches a
specified state, after which it is pumped downstream for process.

Photo of intermediate storage tanks
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The Quality of Air
G.S. Cholakov, in Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry, 2016
4.1 Storage and Handling Emissions
Larger quantities of volatile organic liquids are stored in above ground tanks, while underground
tanks are typical for gasoline stations. Military bases may also employ underground storage.
There are four types of tanks, used for above ground storage of liquids: fixed roof, with internal
floating roof, with external floating roof and with domed external floating roof [26]. In the EU
before 1994, liquids, consisting entirely of VOCs (eg, gasoline) could be stored in fixed-roof
tanks, which have significantly higher emissions. Their control has been achieved by selecting
and maintaining the tank colour, valves, regulating gas space, etc. After 1994 (EU Directive
94/63/EC) fixed-roof tanks for gasoline must either be equipped with an internal floating roof, be
vapour balanced or be connected to a vapour recovery unit. These technologies are applicable to
handling and storage of similar liquids and usually applied together in modern storage depots.
Internal floating roofs follow the liquid level. Their seals decrease the amount of liquid above the
roof, the vapours of which are sent to recovery units, for instance, buffer tanks, which collect and
release vapours, depending on the pressure above the float. Vapour balance, combined with
submerged filling pipes, returns the vapours into the vessel from which the tank is filled in. It is
used also at gasoline stations. For filling of automobiles the pump of the station sends the
vapours from the car reservoir into the underground storage tank. The described technologies can
be applied to all relevant sources within the petroleum industry
Options for creating action plans for managing of storage and handling emissions from a fixed-
roof tank when the EU Directive had been implemented could be estimated by the program
‘TANKS’, developed by the US EPA [31]. Around that time we have used TANKs to simulate
the effect of pollution control, as applied to an existing gasoline tank with 0.67% yearly
emissions. As a first step, the main input variables (fluid properties, tank parameters and
condition, meteorological factors, etc.) of the program had been changed until the predicted
emissions coincided, within acceptable limits of uncertainties, with the measured ones. Then
calculations have been performed, applying consecutively different control options – changing
paint, adjusting valves and liquid level, introducing a vapour recovery system, introducing an
internal floating roof with different seals, etc. A combination of these, which predicted that the
desired new yearly limit of emissions (<0.01%) could be achieved, had been selected. Predicted
results could be validated by physically applying the selected combination of control
technologies to the selected tank. The obtained information could be used to develop action plans
in terms of required costs, time, etc. for implementation of the selected technologies to all
suitable tanks at the storage site.
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Elimination of Process Releases
Dennis P. Nolan, in Handbook of Fire and Explosion Protection Engineering Principles (Third
Edition), 2014
15.5 Storage Facilities

With proper safety precautions and operating procedures explosions in the vapor space of fixed
roof storage tanks is rare. A frequency estimate of an explosion every 1000 years has been
reported. Explosive mixtures may exist in the vapor space of a tank unless precautions are taken.
Any vapor will seek an ignition source, so prevention of an ignition source cannot be guaranteed.
This is especially true with liquids that have low conductivity, which will allow charges to build
up on liquid. Precautions to safeguard against internal tank explosions include insuring air does
not enter the vapor space for tanks containing combustible liquids above their flash points. This
is commonly achieved with production gas or with an inert gas such as nitrogen. A safer
approach in the long term is to store such liquids in a floating roof tank that does not have such
vapor enclosures.
Floating roof storage tanks are inherently safer than fixed roof tanks as they essentially eliminate
the creation of a vapor space in the tank above the combustible liquid. Floating roof storage
tanks have their roofs actually resting on the stored liquid and rise and fall as the inventory
level changes. They limit the area of vapor release to the circumferential seal at the edge of the
floating roof. Low flash point liquids should always be stored in tanks that will not allow the
creation of vapors in sizable quantities. Floating roof tanks are generally about twice as
expensive to construct as fixed roof tanks so there is a trade-off of risk against cost. However, by
reducing emissions, the increased costs can be offset or justified on the basis of reduced product
loss though evaporation (a product savings) and less impact to the environment.
Floating roof tanks, both internal and open top, are constructed with a circumferential seal to
allow the roof to rise and fall. A single seal will allow some vapors to escape. However, typical
practice is to provide a secondary seal over the first seal. This provides additional mitigation
against the release of most vapors or gases, increasing safety and protecting the environment.
Most fires on floating roof tanks are small rim seal fires caused by vapors leaking through the
circumferential seal. The source of ignition is normally lighting strikes that ignite the leaking
vapors. With proper seal maintenance and inspection, coupled with adequate bonding or
grounding of shunt straps across the seal at every meter or so, the probability of a tank fire is
reduced.
Atmospheric fixed roof tanks that are built in accordance with American Petroleum Institute
requirements will have a weak seam at the junction of the roof with the tank side. If there is
an internal overpressure, such as an explosion, the seam will separate and the roof will blow off,
leaving the shell in place to retain the contents and minimize the impact of the incident. The
resulting fire will therefore only initially involve the exposed surface of the liquids still in the
tank.
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Dennis P. Nolan, in Handbook of Fire and Explosion Protection Engineering Principles for Oil,
Gas, Chemical, and Related Facilities (Fourth Edition), 2019
With proper safety precautions and operating procedures, explosions in the vapor space of fixed
roof storage tanks are rare. A frequency estimate of an explosion every 1000 years has been
reported. Explosive mixtures may exist in the vapor space of a tank unless precautions are taken.
Any vapor will seek an ignition source, so prevention of an ignition source cannot be guaranteed.
This is especially true with liquids that have low conductivity, which will allow charges to build
up on liquid. Precautions to safeguard against internal tank explosions include insuring air does
not enter the vapor space for tanks containing combustible liquids above their flash points. This
is commonly achieved with production gas or with an inert gas such as nitrogen. A safer
approach in the long term is to store such liquids in a floating roof tank that does not have such
vapor enclosures.

expensive to construct as fixed roof tanks so there is a trade-off of risk against cost. However, by
reducing emissions, the increased costs can be offset or justified on the basis of reduced product
loss though evaporation (a product savings) and less impact to the environment.
against the release of most vapors or gases, increasing safety and protecting the environment.
circumferential seal. The source of ignition is normally lighting strikes that ignite the leaking
grounding of shunt straps across the seal every meter or so, the probability of a tank fire is
reduced.
an internal overpressure, such as an explosion, the seam will separate and the roof will blow off,
leaving the shell in place to retain the contents and minimize the impact of the incident. The
resulting fire will therefore only initially involve the exposed surface of the liquids still in the
tank.
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Dennis P. Nolan, in Handbook of Fire and Explosion Protection Engineering Principles, 2011
With proper safety precautions and operating procedures the consequence of explosions in the
vapor space of fixed roof storage tanks are a very rare event. A frequency estimate of one
explosion in every 1000 years, has been stated by other sources. Explosive mixtures may exist in
the vapor space of a tank unless precautions are taken. Any vapor will seek an ignition source, so
prevention of an ignition source cannot be guaranteed. This is especially true with liquids that
have low conductivity, that will allow charges to build up on liquid. Precautions to safeguard
against internal tank explosions include ensuring air does not enter the vapor space for tanks
containing combustible liquids above their flash points. This is commonly achieved with
production gas or with an inert gas such as nitrogen. A safer approach in the long term is to store
such liquids in a floating roof tank that does not have such vapor enclosures.
expensive to construct as fixed roof tanks so there is a trade-off of risk against cost. However by
reducing emissions, the increased costs can be offset or justified on the basis of a reduced
product loss though evaporation (a product saving) and less impact to the environment.
against the release of most vapors or gases increasing safety and protecting the environment.
circumferential seal. The source of ignition is normally lightning strikes that ignite the leaking
grounding shunt straps across the seal at every meter or so, the probability of a tank fire will be
reduced.
an internal overpressure, such as an explosion, the seam part of the roof blows off, leaving the
shell in place to retain the contents and minimize the impact of the incident. The resulting fire
with therefore only initially involve the exposed surface of the liquids still in the tank.

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Tanks and Drums

Seán Moran, in Process Plant Layout (Second Edition), 2017

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