Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Biology Project
Name:- Swati K
Class:- XII A
Session:- 2019-2020
Introduction
Spring is a time of new growth and fresh beginnings. Days get longer,
the sun gets warmer, and flowers bloom in a magnificent show of color.
And as a result of these lovely blossoms everywhere, many of us find
ourselves in sneezing fits. In order for flowers to propagate every year,
they must be pollinated. And pollination sends millions of tiny pollen
grains through the air, many of which end up in our nose.
But pollen does not exist simply to make us miserable. Pollen grains
represent the male portion of the reproductive process in plants and
trees. These tiny bodies are swirling in the air and on the legs of insects
so that they can join the female part of the plant to create a new seed.
This important process is known as fertilization. As we will discover,
pollen plays a crucial role in the plant world.
Fritzsche coined the terms exine (the outer wall of pollen grains
and spores ) and intine (the inner wall).
Reference
Parts of this project have been referred from foreign sources and
have been included in this project after editing.
Pollen itself is not the male gamete. Each pollen grain contains
vegetative (non-reproductive) cells (only a single cell in most flowering
plants but several in other seed plants) and a generative (reproductive)
cell. In flowering plants the vegetative tube cell produces the pollen
tube, and the generative cell divides to form the two sperm cells.
Formation:-
Pollen is produced in the microsporangia in the male cone of a conifer or
other gymnosperm or in the anthers of an angiosperm flower. Pollen
grains come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and surface markings
characteristic of the species. Pollen grains of pines, firs, and spruces are
winged. The smallest pollen grain, that of the forget-me-not (Myosotis
spp.),[which?] is around 6 µm (0.006 mm) in diameter.[citation needed]
Wind-borne pollen grains can be as large as about 90–100 µm.
In angiosperms, during flower development the anther is composed of a
mass of cells that appear undifferentiated, except for a partially
differentiated dermis. As the flower develops, four groups of
sporogenous cells form within the anther. The fertile sporogenous cells
are surrounded by layers of sterile cells that grow into the wall of the
pollen sac. Some of the cells grow into nutritive cells that supply
nutrition for the microspores that form by meiotic division from the
sporogenous cells.
Structure:-
Pollen grains are microscopic structures that vary in size and shape.
Some are tiny orbs, while others are egg-shaped. Although too small to
see individually, they can be seen by the naked eye in large quantities.
You have probably noticed a bright orange-yellow coating on your car
during springtime that closely resembles cheese powder from the
macaroni and cheese box.
Viewed through a microscope, a pollen grain hardly looks real. An
extremely durable body, it has a tough outer coating. This hardy coat
offers great protection from the harsh outdoor environment. This is
important because inside this tough shell lie two cells: the tube cell,
which will eventually become the pollen tube, and a generative cell,
which contains the male sperm nuclei needed for fertilization.
Except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, the mature pollen
grain has a double wall. The vegetative and generative cells are
surrounded by a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose called the
endospore or intine, and a tough resistant outer cuticularized wall
composed largely of sporopollenin called the exospore or exine. The
exine often bears spines or warts, or is variously sculptured, and the
character of the markings is often of value for identifying genus,
species, or even cultivar or individual.
In addition, often times the exine has folds, creases and spikes rising
from its surface. Like extra armor, these features add to the protective
nature of this layer. They also play an important role in the mobility of
the grains, making it more likely that they will stick to the legs of
insects as well as catch the wind.
The pollen wall protects the sperm while the pollen grain is moving
from the anther to the stigma; it protects the vital genetic material from
drying out and solar radiation. The pollen grain surface is covered with
waxes and proteins, which are held in place by structures called
sculpture elements on the surface of the grain. The outer pollen wall,
which prevents the pollen grain from shrinking and crushing the
genetic material during desiccation, is composed of two layers. These
two layers are the tectum and the foot layer, which is just above the
intine. The tectum and foot layer are separated by a region called the
columella, which is composed of strengthening rods. The outer wall is
constructed with a resistant biopolymer called sporopollenin.
Pollen apertures are regions of the pollen wall that may involve exine
thinning or a significant reduction in exine thickness. They allow
shrinking and swelling of the grain caused by changes in moisture
content. Elongated apertures or furrows in the pollen grain are called
colpi (singular: colpus) or sulci (singular: sulcus). Apertures that are
more circular are called pores. Colpi, sulci and pores are major features
in the identification of classes of pollen. Pollen may be referred to as
inaperturate (apertures absent) or aperturate (apertures present). The
aperture may have a lid (operculum), hence is described as operculate.
However the term inaperturate covers a wide range of morphological
types, such as functionally inaperturate (cryptoaperturate) and
omniaperturate. Inaperaturate pollen grains often have thin walls,
which facilitates pollen tube germination at any position. Terms such as
uniaperturate and triaperturate refer to the number of apertures
present (one and three respectively).
Types of Pollination:-
Pollination by insects:-
Pollination by Bats:-
In the tropics and deserts, bats are often the pollinators of nocturnal
flowers such as agave, guava, and morning glory. The flowers are
usually large and white or pale-colored so that they can be
distinguished from their dark surroundings at night.The flowers have a
strong, fruity, or musky fragrance and produce large amounts of nectar.
They are naturally-large and wide-mouthed to accommodate the head of
the bat. As the bats seek the nectar, their faces and heads become
covered with pollen, which is then transferred to the next flower.
Pollination by Birds:-
Many species of small birds, such as hummingbirds and sun birds, are
pollinators for plants such as orchids and other wildflowers. Flowers
visited by birds are usually sturdy and are oriented in a way to allow
the birds to stay near the flower without getting their wings entangled
in the nearby flowers. The flower typically has a curved, tubular shape,
which allows access for the bird’s beak. Brightly-colored, odorless
flowers that are open during the day are pollinated by birds. As a bird
seeks energy-rich nectar, pollen is deposited on the bird’s head and neck
and is then transferred to the next flower it visits. Botanists determine
the range of extinct plants by collecting and identifying pollen from 200-
year-old bird specimens from the same site.
Pollination by Wind:-
Pollination by Water:-
Some weeds, such as Australian sea grass and pond weeds, are
pollinated by water. The pollen floats on water. When it comes into
contact with the flower, it is deposited inside the flower.
Pollination in Gymnosperms: -
When pollen is deposited on the stigma (in angiosperms) or the ovule (in
gymnosperms ), it germinates, forming a slender pollen tube through a
weakened area of the pollen wall. The pollen tube elongates through
"tip extension," penetrating between cells of the host parent. Within the
pollen tube, two nonmotile sperm cells are ultimately formed and are
conveyed through the tube, keeping pace with tip growth. The pollen
tube uses chemotropic signals to determine the final pathway to the egg
cell, deep within the ovule. In angiosperms, pollen tubes penetrate the
stigma, style, and ovary until they are amid the ovules. In
gymnosperms, pollen germinates directly on the ovule. Pollen tubes
enter ovules through a tiny pore called the micropyle and then elongate
into the female gametophyte (called the embryo sac in angiosperms). In
gymnosperms, the pollen tube directly penetrates the egg cell, but in
angiosperms, there are sterile cells in the embryo sac, called synergids,
that initially receive the sperm.
At this point, one sperm cell is discharged from the pollen tube and
fuses, with the egg cell to form the zygote (the immediate fusion
product) and subsequent embryo, which will become the offspring plant.
In angiosperms, the second sperm fuses with the central cell to form a
nutritive endosperm during double fertilization . The endosperm is
needed for successful embryo development.
During fertilization the male and female gametes : (1) contact one
another, (2) adhere, (3) cells fuse, and finally (4) nuclei fuse. The act of
fertilization triggers embryo development in all plants and endosperm
development in angiosperms.
Fertilization in Plants:-
Fertilization in Gymnosperms:-
The female gametophyte contains several archegonia, where the egg
cells originate and develop. The gametophyte itself is surrounded by
layers of sporangia and integument; all of these elements comprise an
ovule, which is found on the surface of a female cone. Fertilization
occurs when pollen grains (male gametophytes) are carried by the wind
to the open end of an ovule, which contains the eggs, or female
gametophyte. There, the pollen grain develops an outgrowth called a
pollen tube, which eventually penetrates to the egg cell within one of
the archegonia. The sperm cells within the pollen tube then vie to
fertilize the egg. Once fertilization has occurred, the embryo develops
within the female gametophyte, and the ovule becomes the seed,
complete with a food source (the gametophyte tissue) and a seed coat
(the integument). This embryo, which will eventually become a new
sporophyte, consists of two embryonic leaves, the epicotyl and
hypocotyl.
Fertilization in Angiosperms:-
The female reproductive organ of angiosperms is the pistil, located in
the middle of the flower. As in gymnosperms, the male gametophyte is
the pollen grain. In order for fertilization to occur in most flowering
plants, insects or other animals must transport the pollen to the pistil.
A major distinguishing feature of angiosperms is the practice of double
fertilization.
Double Fertilization:-
Double fertilization involves two sperm cells; one fertilizes the egg cell
to form the zygote, while the other fuses with the two polar nuclei that
form the endosperm.
After pollen is deposited on the stigma, it must germinate and grow
through the style to reach the ovule. The microspores, or the pollen,
contain two cells: the pollen tube cell and the generative cell. The pollen
tube cell grows into a pollen tube through which the generative cell
travels. The germination of the pollen tube requires water, oxygen, and
certain chemical signals. As it travels through the style to reach the
embryo sac, the pollen tube’s growth is supported by the tissues of the
style. During this process, if the generative cell has not already split
into two cells, it now divides to form two sperm cells. The pollen tube is
guided by the chemicals secreted by the synergids present in the
embryo sac; it enters the ovule sac through the micropyle. Of the two
sperm cells, one sperm fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote;
the other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell
that develops into the endosperm. Together, these two fertilization
events in angiosperms are known as double fertilization. After
fertilization is complete, no other sperm can enter. The fertilized ovule
forms the seed, whereas the tissues of the ovary become the fruit,
usually enveloping the seed.
Advantages:-
sneezing
stuffy nose
watery eyes
There are hundreds of plant species that release pollen into the
air and trigger allergic reactions.
Here are some of the more common culprits:
Like birch trees, oak trees send pollen into the air during the spring.
While oak pollen is considered to be mildly allergenic compared to the
pollen of other trees, it stays in the air for longer periods of time. This
can cause severe allergic reactions in some people with pollen allergies.
Ragweed plants are the main culprits of allergies among weed pollens.
They’re the most active between the late spring and fall months.